EXAM GUIDE

2022 Edition
Political Process in India
BA Hons 2nd Semester

• Chapter wise Key points and

Model Answers to Past Year’s
Questions

• 3 sets of Sample Papers for

Semester Exam

• Tips for Writing Essay Type

Answers in University Exam

By the Author of
POL SC HELP
 FEW WORDS ABOUT THE GUIDE

Dear students…WELCOME BACK!

This guide is intended to be the best resource for your semester exams.
What it contains?
• Key points on each of topics/theme of the revised CBCS Syllabus.
• Theme/topic wise Answer templates to past year’s questions (taken from DU) and other
important questions.
• 3 sets of sample question papers with Answer Hints.
• Answer writing tips and tricks.
What is Answer Template?
• Answer written in a particular way (Intro, Body, Conclusion) as expected against essay
type questions in university exam.
• I have given you a template(format/structure). You may add or delete contents to make
the answer as your own.
How to use the Guide for the best results?
• First, watch the videos on the theme/topic from POL SC HELP- at least 4-5 times, first
in normal speed, later on with faster speed and selectively. Final watching shouldn’t
take more than 5 min.
• Second, read the key points on the theme/topic very carefully. In fact, even if you only
remember the key points you can write answers in the exam.
• Also note that key points will help to crack the MCQs in Entrance Tests. They contain
all relevant information asked in the Entrance Tests. Read them very carefully.
• Third, read the answers of past year questions, given in the guide, at least 5 times.
Again, the final reading may not take more than 5-10 minutes.
o I have chosen the questions to cover the entire syllabus.
o Note the key phrases repeated and underlined, bold, and highlighted. You should
remember and reproduce them in your answers.
o Also, note the standard words I have used in the answer. Their easier
meaning/synonyms are given in bracket.
• Fourth, read carefully the sample question papers (3 sets). I have given hints to those
questions, too. Read them carefully.
• Finally, read the answer writing tips; use them in the exam

GOOD WISHES!

2
 SECTION 1

Chapter Wise
Key Points
and

ANSWERS
Past Year’s
Questions

3
THEME 1: POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE PARTY SYSTEM

1. A CBCS Syllabus:
a) National Parties and State Parties;
b) Trends in the Party System: From the Congress System to Multi-Party Coalition

1. B: Key Points:
Key Definitions
• Political Party:
o Political Party is an organized group, often with common ideologies, political
aims and opinions, which aims to acquire and exercise political power to
influence public policy.
o As per Leon D. Epstein, Political Party is a group that “seeks to elect
governmental office holders under a given label”.
o As per Maurice Duverger, Political Party is a class, a doctrine (set of ideologies).
• Party system:
o typical structure of parties and competition among them within a political
system
o Party System denotes number, nature, ideological make up, interactions, and
inter-relationships among political parties in a political system at a given time.
o As per Heywood, party system is a relatively stable network of relationships
between parties that is structured by their number, size and ideological
orientation.
o As per Duverger, Party systems are described by the number of parties within a
political system during a given time, along with their internal structures, their
ideologies, their respective sizes, alliances, and types of opposition,
competitions, etc.
o As per Sartori, party system is a system of interaction between political parties
in a political system.
• Factions:
o group of individuals within a larger entity, such as a political party, a trade union
united by a particular common political purpose that differs in some respect to
the rest of the entity
o group of like-minded individuals cantered around one or more political ideas or
public policies
National Parties and State Parties:
• Election Commission of India recognises 3 types of political parties in India; these are:

4
 • National, State, and Registered Party
• National Party:
• criteria for being recognised as national party by ECI
o the party polls 6% of votes in any four or more states and in addition it wins
four Lok Sabha seats
o The party win 2% of seats in the Lok Sabha from at least three different states
o The party gets recognition as a state party in four states
• 8 National Parties: Congress, BJP, BSP, CPI, CPI(M), NCP, TMC, NPP
• State Party
• Criteria for being recognised as State party by ECI
o A party should secure at least 6% of valid votes polled in an election to the state
legislative assembly and win at least 2 seats in that state assembly.
o A party should secure at least 6% of valid votes polled in an election to Lok
Sabha and win at least 1 seat in Lok Sabha.
o A party should win at least 3% of the total number of seats or a minimum of
three seats in the Legislative Assembly, which ever is higher
o A party should win at least one seat in the Lok Sabha for every 25 seats or any
fraction thereof allotted to that State.
o A Party secures 8% or more of the total valid votes polled in the state.
• Prominent State Parties:
o AAP- 3 States- Delhi, Punjab, Goa
o JD(S): 3 States : Karnataka, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh
o JD(U) : 3 States : Bihar, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh
o AIADMK: 2 States: Tamil Nadu and Puducherry
o DMK: 2 States: Tamil Nadu and Puducherry
o Naga People's Front : Manipur, Nagaland
o RJD: Bihar, Jharkhand
o Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP): Kerala, West Bengal
o TRS : Telengana
o BJD : Odisha
o SP: Uttar Pradesh
o Shiv Sena: Maharashtra
o Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD): Punjab
o INLD: Haryana
The Congress System:
• Party system in India during first 15 years of independence (1952-67)

5
 • Despite having a multi-party system, Congress was the dominant party and party in
power in the centre and most of the states
• The term ‘Congress System’ was coined by formulated by Rajni Kothari in his two
essays: 1964: The Congress 'System' in India in Asian Age’ and 1974: ‘The Congress
System Revisited: A Decennial Review in Asian Age ‘
• Morris Johns termed it as single party dominant system

Changing Nature of Indian Party System

• From single party dominance to fragmentation of the party system and multi-party
coalition
• Arena of party politics shifting from center to region/state
• From dominance of national parties to rising Importance of regional/state
parties
• Pragmatism rather than ideologies as guiding factor
• Reducing ideological separation between parties
• Consensus on key issues – less effective choices to voters
• All major parties behaving as ‘Catch all party’
• Since 2014, rise of BJP as dominant party in multi-party system
• But continuance of the coalition govt at center
• Direct competition between two coalitions- Congress led UPA and BJP led NDA

6
 1. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Analyse changing nature of party system in India from single party
dominance to fragmentation and coalition Era.

Similar Questions:
1. Discuss the changing nature of party system in India.
2. Discuss the changing character of party system in India.

Ans. Template:
Introduction:
Party system in India originated and evolved during the colonial period. It started with
foundation of the Congress party in 1885. In early 20th century, Muslim League was
formed. Subsequently, communist party of India was formed in 1925. Few years before
Swaraj party, a breakaway faction from the Congress, was formed. Starting 1940s many
variants of socialist parties were formed. Swatantra party, supporting free market
capitalist economy, was formed in 1959. In south India, Justice party emerged in its
avatar as DK, which in 1949 became DMK. In 1972, AIADMK was formed by splitting
the DMK.
Thus, when India became independent and held its first general election in 1952, there
were more than 50 political parties contesting Lok Sabha Elections. But the Congress
party, because of its early mover advantage, charismatic leadership of Gandhi & Nehru,
and party of national movement, became the dominant party. It formed Government in
centre and in all the states after the 1st general elections.
This dominance of Congress continued for next 15 years. Congress, during this period,
behaved both as the ruling and opposition party. Different factions in the Congress party
represented interests of different segments of Indian Population. On many issues
factions within Congress took different stand. All other parties were at margin trying to
put pressure on the Congress. Rajni Kothari termed this phase of party system in India
as the ‘Congress System’. Morris Johns termed it as single party dominant system.
However, dominance of Congress was neither undemocratic nor by dictate, as in the
communist countries or authoritarian rule in many Asian and African nations. All other
parties had full freedom to challenge the Congress through electoral politics.
Soon, other parties started challenging the dominance of the Congress party. It
happened first in states and much later at the centre. In 1957, Communist party defeated
Congress and formed a coalition Government in Kerala. In 1967, DMK formed a
majority Government in Tamil Nadu. That year many north Indian states witnessed
coalition Government formed by parties opposed to Congress.

7
 Death of Nehru and Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1964 and 1966 respectively, and split of
Congress in 1969 further weakened the Congress dominance. Indira Gandhi won the
1971 general election with huge majority but her Congress was different than the
dominant Congress of 1950s and 60s. The new Congress was over dependent on
popularity and charisma of Indira Gandhi. It lacked organisational strength.
Imposition of emergency and subsequent general election in 1977 resulted into
complete demise of the Congress dominance. Janta party, formed by parties of many
ideologies and led by socialist leader Jay Prakash Narayan, formed the majority
Government at centre. The Janta party Government set up the Mandal commission
which recommended reservation for other backward class (OBC). This gave rise to
backward class politics further diminishing the dominance of Congress.
1980 witnessed rise of many regional parties, such as, TDP, BSP, breakaway Janta
Parties, etc. BJP came into existence in 1980 as the new avatar of Bhartiya Jana Sangh.
1990s saw further rise of regional parties, such as SP, RJD, BJD, TMC, NCP, JD(S),
JD(U), etc. 1980s and 90s also saw new kind of politics based on aspirations of
backward castes and politics based on identity (linguistic, religious, caste, etc.).
Populism also rose as chief means to acquire political power.
All these developments completely changed the party system in India. From the single
party dominance, it became more and more fragmented. Regional parties started ruling
many states and supporting national parties in formation of coalition Government at the
centre. This coalition phase started in 1989 and continued till 2014. However,
spectacular rise of BJP as dominant party since 2014 is further changing the party
system in India. Currently, BJP is the dominant party and party in power in the centre
as well as majority of the states. But regional parties are very strong in their
states/region and challenging the dominance of BJP. Also, despite BJP having majority
in Lok Sabha, it formed a coalition government at centre.
Having outlined the changes in the party system, in the next section of the answer, I will try to
list out distinct phases of Party System in India and major trends witnessed in the party system.

Following are the Distinct Phases of Party System in India:

• 1952-67 : Single party dominance

• Moderate Pluralism in terms of votes and Single party dominance in terms of
seats
• 1967-71: Challenges to congress dominance
• 1967: Defeat of congress in many states by coalition of opposition parties- SVD
in 7 states
• 1969: Split in Congress
• 1971: Re-establishment of Congress Dominance; but nature of Congress party
changed
• 1977-80: The Janata experiment

8
 • First non-Congress Government at the center
• But the Janta Government did not last full 5 years term and fell due to internal
contradictions of its component factions/political groups
• 1980-89 : Rise of regional parties, backward caste politics, and multi party system
in states
• Regional aspiration and secessionist movements
• Emergence and rising popularity of regional parties-TDP, AGP, Akali Dal, JD,
BSP
• New politics based on identity and social cleavages- linguistic, religious, caste
etc.
• Rise of Backward caste politics and Dalit politics

• 1989-2014 : The Coalition Era

• Fragmentation of party system at national level
• Bipolar or two plus party system at state level
• Emergence of bi-polar coalition system at center- BJP led NDA vs Congress led
UPA

• 2014- till date: BJP as the dominant party

• BJP replacing Congress as the dominant party
• BJP forming majority Government at centre in two consecutive general election
• Regional parties giving challenge to BJP in states

Following are the main trends in the party system of India since independence:
• From single party dominance to Fragmentation and once gain dominance of one party
• Arena shifting from center to region/state
• From dominance of national parties to rising Importance of regional/state
parties
• Regional parties forming Government in many states
• Pragmatism rather than ideologies as guiding factor for coalition
• Reducing ideological separation between parties
• Both the national parties- BJP and Congress- showing features of ‘Catch all
Party’, that is, they try to get vote of all segments, all ideologies, all
groups/communities.
• Consensus on key issues – less effective choices to voters
• On economic fronts, populism, welfarism, foreign policy all parties have almost
similar views and outlook.

9
 • All parties approaching to centre (ideological), further diluting the ideological
separation between parties.
• Majority of states stabilising for two party system
• This is as per the Duverger law which states that FPTP electoral system results
into two party system
• From Congress system to Coalition era (till 2014)
• Rise of BJP as dominant party
• Since 2014, BJP is becoming the dominant party
• At center, BJP is hardly getting any challenge
• But in states, regional parties are giving a good challenge to BJP
• Continuance of Coalition era despite BJP gaining absolute majority:
• But despite BJP having absolute majority of its own in the Lok Sabha it
preferred to form a coalition Government at Centre, called the NDA. Hence,
coalition politics has not ended in Indian Politics. Still the primary rival at
national level are Congress led UPA and BJP led NDA coalitions. Hence,
coalition era has not ended in the Indian Polity.

Conclusion:
From the above discussion it is obvious that party system in India witnessed a huge
change in last 75 years since independence. From 1952, when the first general election
was held, till 1967, the Congress was undisputedly the dominant Party both at centre
and in states. But Beginning 1967 dominance of Congress party got eroded first in the
states and then in the centre when in 1977 Janta party displaced it and formed
Government at the centre.
1980s and 1990s witnessed rise of backward caste, Dalit, and identity politics. During
the same time regional parties emerged in many states. They successfully challenged
the national parties in their states. This led to fragmentation of party system. Coalition
Government at centre, supported by regional parties denoted this fragmentation.
The coalition era, which started in 1989 ended with BJP forming a majority
Government at centre. Though it formed a coalition Government but it had itself
majority of seats in the Lok Sabha. BJP improved its electoral performance in 2019
general election further increasing its seats in Lok Sabha. Currently it is the party in
Government in majority of states. Rise of BJP as dominant national party is latest
change in the party system in India.
Indian Polity is only 75 years old. The Example of older democracy, such as UK and
USA, have shown that it takes hundreds years for party system to mature. India is a
large and much more diverse country than western nations and therefore its party
system will take much longer time to settle down and mature. Hence, Indian polity will
definitely see further changes in its party system in times to come.

10
Q.2: what do you understand by “Congress system in India”? What were the
reasons for its decline? Discuss.

Introduction:
When India got independence in 1947 and formed its own constitution under which
first general election took place in 1952, there were more than 50 political parties
fighting election. The Congress party, which was formed in 1885 as pressure group,
took the pole position in electoral politics. It was way ahead of any other political party
in terms of its spread, organizational strength, and popularity. This was natural because
it was the party of the national movement which got India independence. It was led by
charismatic leaders such as Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad, and Bose. Hence it was natural
that Indian people as voters selected Congress for forming government not only at
centre but also in all the states. The Communist Party of India was the distant second
in the first general election in 1952.
This absolute dominance of Congress party in the electoral politics of India continued
in the second general election held in 1957. Only in the state of Kerala a non-Congress
government under the leadership of Communist Party of India was formed in 1957.
This dominance continued in the 3rd general election held in 1962. But all this changed
in 1967. Before we look into the demise of the Congress system which started in 1967
let us see what kind of dominance Congress party had in Indian electoral politics.
The dominance of a single party that is Congress in Indian electoral politics in the first
15 years of democratic polity in India was very different from the single party rule or
dominance in many other countries at that time. This dominance was neither by statute
or constitution as in many communist nations nor it was by any force as
authoritarianism on part of the ruling party as in Mexico and many other Afro-Asian
countries. This dominance was democratic which allowed all other parties to compete
on equal footing in the elections. Congress party dominated other party because of its
early move advantage, its image of party of national movement, and its leadership
which was charismatic and very popular. It had organization in every nook and corner
of the country. Hence, this dominance was different from single party dominance in
many other countries at that time.
The dominance of Congress in the first 15 years of independence was called the
Congress system by noted political thinker Rajni Kothari. Morris Jones, another noted
political thinker, called this single party dominance.
By whatever name we call this dominance it was a unique phase in the party system of
Indian polity. The Congress system was unique in the sense that it not only behaved as
ruling party but also as opposition party. This was because the Congress party consisted
of many factions representing different interest groups and communities of Indian
nation. So when any policy was deliberated different factions of Congress had different
opinions and a consensus decision used to be taken after lots of deliberation,

11
 accommodation, and compromise. In this sense the Congress party was like a coalition
of different groups, communities, interests and political ideologies. Hence, absolute
dominance of Congress in first 15 years of Indian polity did not harm the interests of
Indian nation rather it helped stabilise the Indian polity in the initial turbulent times.
I will explain the features of the Congress system in the body of the question here I’m
outlining its decline and demise. 1967 was like an earthquake for the Congress system.
It lost government in many states in north India where non Congress coalition
government called SVD governments were formed. Ram Manohar Lohia was at the
forefront of non-Congressism in these states. Not only Congress lost majority in many
states but it also returned in power in 1967 Lok Sabha election with less majority.
This was the period when Congress was facing a leadership crisis. Nehru Ji was dead;
Shastriji who took the charge of Prime Minister after Nehru was also dead in Tashkent.
Prime ministership, after an internal conflict, passed onto Indira Gandhi, the daughter
of Nehru. The Congress party at that time was dominated by powerful group of leaders
called the syndicate. There was a long battle for supremacy of the Congress party
between Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and the syndicate. This resulted into the split in
the Congress party in 1969. All this diluted dominance of Congress in Indian electoral
politics.
Indira Gandhi won 1971 election with thumping majority but the nature of the Congress
party and its dominance changed forever. After 1971 Congress was hugely dependent
on the popularity and charisma of one leader, that is Indira Gandhi. It lost its
organisational strength. Due to high command culture and excess centralisation it had
no stalwart regional leaders in its fold in states. All this contributed towards dilution of
the dominance of the Congress in subsequent years.
Beginning 1980s Indian electoral politics changed its nature. It started witnessing rise
of backward caste and Dalit politics, and identity politics. These developments further
weekend the vote base of Congress. Its backward cast vote was taken away by many
caste-based parties in north India. Rise of identity politics further took away many of
the voters of Congress. Thus, electorally Congress was loser after the advent of caste
and identity based politics. By 1989, the Congress system was dead. This phase
witnessed fragmentation of party system as more and more regional parties started
ruling states. Even at the centre, coalition Government with the support of regional
parties were formed for next many years.
In the next section of the answer, I will list out the important features of the Congress system.
Before the conclusion, I will also explain the factors supporting the Congress system and
factors behind its demise.

Features of the Congress System:

• Dominance of single party in competitive party system
• This dominance was democratic; there were many parties and they were
allowed to participate in electoral politics on equal footing.
• Party of consensus vs. Parties of Pressure

12
 • Congress represented overlapping consensus of Indian nation on
foundational issues
• Opposition parties were operating at margin and acted more like
pressure group representing different interests and communities
• Concept of margin of pressure: opposition parties operating at margins
• Congress occupied the center of Indian Polity. opposition parties
operated at the margins.
• Inside margin, there were multiple factions (competing elites) within the
Congress; they represented different interests and communities
• For example the Congress Socialist party represented the left and
socialist ideologies favouring labour class.
• Outside margin there were several opposition groups and parties,
dissident groups, interest groups, social movements, etc.
• Open system :
• Absorption and accommodation of new social groups and movements
into political mainstream as factions of Congress party
• The system implied legitimate democratic authority open to continuous pressure
from both within(different factions) and from outside( opposition parties)
• System of evolving, maintaining, and reviewing a ‘framework of consensus’ in
an extremely divergent society in the new nation.
• Manifested Integration despite contest and competition, articulation and
aggregation of multiple contesting interests.
• The system kept social divisions in check, denoted consensus rather than
confrontation, and shown the tendency to indulge & engage rather than
disciplining & coercing(forcing) the opposition parties and deviant groups.
• The system provided legitimacy and great symbolic values to the ruling party
and government in the initial years of independence.

Congress as coalition of factions

• Internalised political competition through networks of factions
• Party organisation based on leader-client relationship and faction chain
• Party organisation from village to centre level was like chain of leader-
client relationship
• Competitive relation between party and Govt and among the factions
• On many policy issues the Congress party held different view from the
Government.
• Different factions within the Congress held different views on policy
issues
• In built balancing and correctives through factionalism

13
 • Factionalism acted as effective internal checks & balances on the ruling
party and Government
• Internalization of opposition : Congress acting both as ruling and opposition
party
Role of opposition parties:
• Latent threat from outside the margin: Ready to topple the system if it strays(
go) too far from the balance of effective public opinion
• Making coalition of interest with factions within congress to bring about
changes in government and public policy
• Acted like pressure groups representing different interests and communities.

Factors supporting congress system:

• Institutional Charisma
• Historical situation : Association with National Movement
• Continuance of ‘historical consensus ( during the national movement)’ into
‘consensus at present’( for national integration and economic development)
• Balancing polar opposite factions- farmers vs landlords, labour vs owner,
masses vs elites, rural vs urban
• Charismatic Leadership
• Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad
• First Mover Advantage
• Had organisational structure all across nation in well before the first general
election in 1952
• Fragmented opposition
• 53 parties fought 1st general election getting more than 55% votes. But they
were fragments, fought separately and therefore Congress despite getting less
than 50 % popular vote won more than 2/3rd of seats. This was due to the feature
of FPTP electoral system
• Unitary nature of Indian Polity
• Since Congress was ruling party at centre as well as majority of states, Indian
polity was like a unitary system. The states acted like subordinate administrative
units to the central Government.
• Social cleavages on regional basis remained concealed at national level
Factors behind demise of the Congress System:
• Inability to hold and balance multiple factions
• Lost many factions to new opposition parties
• Instead of broad based factions, sharp social support base
• Leadership Crisis

14
 • Death of Nehru
• Intense competition and manipulation for top leadership
• Rise of backward caste, communal, identity, and region based politics
• Aspirational farming intermediate caste (OBC) left congress and suported
regional caste based parties such as RJD, JD(U), SP, JD(S), etc.
• Success of BSP represented rise of Dalit politics. This further eroded dalit vote
bank of Congress.
• Rising wave of Hindutva, Ayodhya Ram Mandir movement consolidated Hindu
votes cutting caste lines towards BJP
• Rise of regional parties : Akali Dal, NC,AGP, TDP, BJD, SP, BSP, JD(U), RJD,
TMC, JD(S), TRS, etc.
• Consolidation of opposition votes
• SVD in 1967 state election
• Janata Party in 1977 national election
• Declining legitimacy and consensus framework:
• Economic crisis, demographic shifts, anti-Govt movements and agitations,
disenchantment from existing political system
• Leadership style of Indira Gandhi :Confrontation rather than consensus
• High command culture : Congress party dependent on the popularity and
Charisma of the supreme leader
• Weakening of party organization

Conclusion:
Congress system represented a very unique phase in the party system in the Initial
phases of independent India. For the first 15 years since 1952, when first general
election took place, the Congress Party held The prime position as the dominant
political party in Indian electoral politics. Dominance of Congress party was different
from single party rule in Communist nations. It was also different from authoritarian
rule by one party in many afro-Asian nations. Congress system was a democratic, open,
and competitive system. Non-Congress parties had equal opportunity to fight Congress
electorally on equal footing.
Congress system started to weaken after 1967 and met its demise after 1989, the phase
witnessed fragmentation of the party system and emergence of the multi-party system
and the coalition era.
We must acknowledge the usefulness of the Congress system in the initial years of
India's democratic Polity. The Congress system acted as Consensus building
mechanism and training ground for party politics in India. It held the Indian polity stable
and functioning during those turbulent times. Its demise also denotes maturation of
democratic politics in India. As the democracy deepened, new political parties,

15
representing changed aspirations of communities/people successfully challenged the
dominance of the Congress party.

16
 THEME 2: ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCESSES

2.A: CBCS Syllabus

a) Electoral Process
b) Representation and social determinants of voting behaviour
c) Election Commission and Electoral Reforms

2. B: Key Points:

Electoral System:
• Electoral System: set of rules that structure how votes are cast at election and how
these votes are then converted into seats ( Gallagher, 2014)
• Electoral Rules
• Who are eligible to vote (franchise rule), voting rules, who are eligible to run
for election, Party funding & spending rule, party registration and symbol rule,
election periodicity, campaign rules, etc.
• Electoral Formula
• How votes are converted into seats- winning rule
• Majoritarian (First Past the Post), Proportional Representation, Mixed
Representation
• District(Constituency) Magnitude
• Numbers of seats or representatives per constituency
• Single Member District (SMD) or Multiple member District (MMD)
• Ballot Structure
• how voters cast their votes- secrete/open ballot, Ballot boxes, tick marking,
stamping, writing Electronic voting machines(EVM)

Electoral System in India

• Single Member Simple Plurality system, called FPTP, for general elections to Lok
Sabha and state legislative assemblies
• Proportional representation of single transferable vote ( PR STV) variant for the
election of president, vice president, and Rajya Sabha members.

17
Electoral Process in India
• As per article 324 of Indian constitution the superintendence, direction, and control of
elections is the responsibility of the election Commission of India(ECI). Following are
the electoral process under the superintendence and direction of ECI.
• Delimitation: fixing the boundaries of constituencies
• Preparation of the electoral roll or the voting voter list
• Announcing the date of election by the ECI
• Filing of nominations by the candidates
• Election campaign by the candidates fighting election
• Voting on the specified dates in multiple polling booths
• Counting of votes and declaration of the winning candidate

Factors influencing voting behaviour of Indian voters:

• Caste
o Biggest determinant of the voting behaviour at the constituency level
• Religion
o Religious identity and communal politics always remained a factor in Indian
elections
• Gender
o Of late, women have started voting independently of their husband and other
male members of the family
o Hence, Gender is becoming an Important factor now
• Class
o Issue of poverty, employment, and labour class remained a potent factor
determining the voting behaviour
• Ideology
o Ideological orientation of the voters plays an Important role in determining the
voting behaviour
• Public Policy
o Plays only a minor role
• Party Loyalty
o Very Important factor. The Loyalty make be historical or ideological.

Electoral Reforms
• Bringing positive changes in the electoral process to make it more transparent, fair, and
corruption free is called electoral reforms. Since independence successive Indian
governments, the parliament, and the judiciary have taken many decisions to bring
about electoral reforms. Some of them are as below:
1. Lowering of the voting age from 21 to 18 years

18
2. Anti-defection laws through 52nd constitutional amendment which added 10th
schedule to the constitution
3. Model code of conduct by the Election Commission of India
4. Limiting the amount of expenditure incurred by the candidate for election. To
monitor the expenditure by the candidates ECI nominates expenditure
observers.
5. Candidates can fight only from maximum of 2 constituencies
6 Introduction of voter identity card
7. Introduction of electronic voting machine(EVMs) and Voter verifiable paper
audit trail (VVPAT)
8. Barring persons convicted in criminal offense from contesting elections
9 Introduction of electoral bonds.

19
 2. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Critically examine the contemporary trends in the voting behaviour of

Indian electorate.

Similar questions:
Q.1 Explain different factors influencing the voting behaviour of Indian electorate in
the last decade.
Q.2: Explain different factors determining the voting behaviour of Indian electorate

Ans. Template:

Introduction:
Study of voting behaviour has gained importance in political science after the advent
of behavioral revolution 1950s. Why voter choose a particular party or on what factors
they vote has become important to understand politics, especially the electoral politics.
Politics is the game of power. Political parties contest elections to gain power such as
running the government to bring policies in accordance with their political values and
ideologies. As winning election is only way to get political power, all political parties
try their best to influence voters to vote for them. Therefore, understanding voters’
behaviour is of utmost importance for political parties. For political scientist it is very
important to understand the voting behaviour and the factors influencing the voting
behaviour.
Many factors influence the voting behaviour of people in any political system. But there
are some factors common to all political systems; they are : loyalty to political party
due to ideological inclination, the personality and reputation of the candidate, and
policy preference of the political parties. There are several other factors such Identity
politics, Money & Muscle power, role of media, economic issues, significant event,
demography, wave election, anti-incumbency, populist welfare measures, Freebies, etc
In Indian polity major factors which affect voting behaviour are caste, religion,
ideological orientation, and regional identity. Gender and class identity are still only
minor factors. Of late, the freebies offered by political parties such as free electricity,
free water, free food, free laptop/tablet, cycles, etc. have also started affecting voting
behaviour.
Factors affecting voting behaviour reflect the maturity of democratic polity in any
country. In very mature democracies such as in USA and UK voting behaviours are
generally determined by ideological orientation and policy preferences of the rival
political parties. But in new democracies such as in India voting behaviour,
20
 unfortunately, are also affected by caste, religion, and promises of freebies. The issue
of policy and development take a back seat. However, it is expected that as the
democratic polity in India matures voting behaviour will also change. In last decade
some traces of changes in the voting behaviour has been noticed. Development and
policy issues are now becoming important determinant of voting behaviour of Indian
Electorates.

In the next section of the answer, I will list out the main factors determining the voting
behaviour of Indian electorate. I will also outline some changes in the voting behaviour
of Indian electorate in the last decade.

Factors generally influencing voting behaviour of electorate in any political

system:
• Party loyalty
• Ideological alignment, traditional support, Charismatic leadership
• For example: supporters of Hindutva ideology may vote for BJP
• The candidate
• Personality, Reputation and Charisma
• Social Background, track record, people connect
• Policy Issues
• Favourable policies in the past: retrospective approach
• Expected favourable policies in future: prospective approach
• For example: policy of free electricity and water may influence voter’s
behaviour
• Others factors :
• Identity politics, Money & Muscle power, role of media, economic issues,
significant event, demography, wave election, anti-incumbency, populist
welfare measures, etc.

Factors influencing voting behaviour of Indian electorate:

Caste and Voting Behaviour

• Unfortunately, caste is still one of the biggest determinants of the voting
behaviour of Indian electorate
• Parties based on political mobilization of caste, especially the backward castes
and Dalits
• Caste calculations at constituency level integral to electoral politics

21
 • Voting for candidate from same caste or party with whom a particular caste
identify itself
• Cross- caste coalitions : anti hegemonic and sandwich alliances
• Anti Hegemonic coalition: In recent UP election, Yadavs and Jats made
an alliance to challenge the hegemony of BJP
• Sandwich alliances: Two castes at opposite pole join to challenge the
intermediate caste; for example alliance of Brahmin and Dalits to
challenge the OBCs.
• Starting 1967, OBC and middle caste peasants deserted Congress and backed
regional caste-based parties
• Upper caste, especially Brahmin, also changed its loyalty from Congress to BJP
• Lower OBC and Extremely Backward Castes swings its loyalty
• Factors of electoral mobilization of voters on caste lines
• Reservation politics
• Implementation of Mandal Commission is linked to rise of Backward
Caste Politics
• Feeling of empowerment and tangible benefits
• Yadavs & Dalits feel empowered on SP and BSP coming into power in
UP respectively

Religion as factor for voting behavoiur:

• Voters mobilization along religious cleavages on rise since 1990s
• Ram Mandir movement and Hindutva politics made religion an important factor
• At Constituency level religious minorities, especially Muslims, vote strategically to
defeat BJP
• BJP attempts to consolidate Hindu votes cutting caste cleavages
• Opposition parties try to build anti-hegemonic alliance consolidating Muslim votes

Gender as factor for Voting Behavoiur

• Electoral mobilization on Gender is restricted by multiple intersecting identities of
women- caste, class, religion
• Dalit, poor, non-literate, and Muslim women more likely to vote on religious
and community issues
• Caste and community overrides gender in women’s voting behaviour
• Gender not an independent variable in voting behaviour

Regionalism as factor for voting behavoiur

• Growing trends of Electoral mobilization on regional identity and regional aspirations

22
 • Voters mobilization around social cleavages of centre vs periphery
• In the recent election of West Bengal Bengali identity influenced voter’s
behaviour
• Regional parties getting more than 50 % of votes and seats in last several elections
except 2014
• Parties influencing voters on regional identity: Akali Dal in Punjab, NC and PDP in
J&K, DMK and AIDMK in TN, TDP in AP , TRS in Telangana, BJD in Orissa, SP and
BSP in UP, RJD and JD(U) in Bihar, JMM in Jharkhand, TMC in W.B., AGP in Assam,
JD(S) in Karnataka, Shiv Sena in Maharashtra

Class as factor for voting behavoiur

• Class Identity is subordinate to identity based on caste, religion, ethnicity
• Agrarian classes- farmers may vote on agrarian policy issues as class
• Example: in the recent farmer’s movement against the farm laws, farmers tried
to vote against the ruling party
• Labour class generally voted for Communist parties
• Class dominate electoral politics in Kerala, and West Bengal
• Class matters:
• 1971 : ‘Garibi Hatao’ slogan won election for Indira Gandhi
• RTE, MNREGA helped UPA-1 win 2009 election
• AAP won successive elections in Delhi on free electricity, water, school, and
hospitals for poor

Changing voter’s behaviour in the last decade:

• Caste and religion became two most important factors affecting voting behaviour
• Economic factors, public policies, and Corruption have started influencing voting
behaviour
• AAP won elections on the issue of corruption
• Hindutva politics has diluted the caste cleavages. But caste still remaining a very
important factor
• Regional parties, which were ruling the center in coalition govt , suffered a setback with
the rise of BJP
• First time in past 25 years, regional parties got less than 50% of votes and seats
• First time, single national parties won absolute majority in Lok Sabha in two successive
Lok Sabha elections
• Last two general elections depicted clear sign of wave election. BJP rode on the huge
popularity of Narendra Modi.

23
 • BJP has now displaced the Congress as the “pole around which political competition is
organized”
• Rise of the ‘Freebie’ politics. All parties try to influence voters by promising freebies
such as free electricity, power, food, income, laptop/tablets, cycle, TV, Fridge, etc.

Conclusion:
From the above discussion it is evident that voting behaviour of Indian electorate has
been changing in the past decade or so. Of late, economic development, public policies
and identity politics are becoming major determinants of the voting behaviour. But still
caste and religion remain the top most factors affecting voting behaviour of Indian
electorate. The rise of Hindutva politics has diluted to some extent the caste-based
politics. But on the other hand, it gave rise to politics based on religious identity.
Of late, the politics of freebies is on rice. All political parties try to influence voters by
promising freebies such as free electricity, power, food, income, laptop/tablets, cycle,
TV, Fridge, etc. Recently, the Supreme Court has to step in and direct the government
and election Commission of India to look into the issue of freebies promised during the
election.
As stated earlier the factors affecting voting behaviour denote the maturity of
democratic politics in any country’s polity. It is expected that as democracy deepens
and matures in India caste and religion will perhaps not remain the dominant factors
affecting the voting behaviour of Indian electorate. If factors such as economic
development, public policies, good governance, and corruption become important
factors of voting behaviour it will do a lot of good to Indian polity.

24
2. Write a short note on the Electoral Process in Indian Polity

Indian constitution granted right to vote to all adult citizens of India. Providing
universal adult suffrage was a big step in the Electoral Process in Indian Polity. The
Election commission, set up as per article 324 of the Constitution, faced the mammoth
task of conducting the largest multi-party election in the world in 1952. Biggest
challenge was to get millions of voters, majority of them illiterate, registered as voters
and prepare the Voter List / Electoral Roll. Thus, the first step in the electoral process
is voter registration and preparation of Electoral Roll.
However, even before this boundaries of the constituency may be fixed, changed or re-
fixed. This is called delimitation.
Next step in the electoral process is nomination of candidates from each constituency
by political parties. Besides the party candidate, anyone can file nomination as
independent candidate. Since India follows single member simple plurality system
(called first past the post- FPTP system), only one candidate can represent any
constituency.
Third stage is filing of nomination by the candidates. The nomination papers are filed
to the returning officer, normally the collector of the district, of the constituency. the
returning officer scrutinize the nomination paper and decides upon the validly of the
same. At this stage the candidates submit affidavit regarding their income, assets, and
educational qualifications. Candidatures can be withdrawn till a particular date before
the election as decided by the election commission.
Next stage in the electoral process is election campaign by the candidates and political
parties. This is the most visible and impactful phase. All efforts are done to influence
the voting behaviour of the voters/electorates. Election commission issue model code
of conduct for the candidates and political parties during the electoral process. But
model code of conduct does not have the force of law and many violations of them are
reported to the Election Commission.
Campaigning for votes stops 48 hours before the voting day. But door to door
canvassing continues. Then comes the most important phase in the electoral process,
that is, the actual voting at the polling booth by the voters. Multiple polling booths are
set up in each constituency. Each polling booth is managed by team of officials led by
the presiding officer. These days voters cast their votes through electronic voting
machines (EVMs).
After the polling is over, next phase is counting of votes polled and declaration of the
winning candidate who gets maximum numbers of votes among all the candidates.
Entire process of election is carried out by lakhs of Government officials under the
direction, superintendence and control of Election Commission of India.
Above description of the electoral process is of the general elections for Lok Sabha and
state legislative councils. For the election of president, vice president, and Rajya Sabha
members PR STV (Proportional representation Single transferable vote) system is used.

25
 The electoral process for these elections are different from those of the general
elections.

3. Write a note on the changing nature of representation in Indian Polity.

All democracies in the contemporary world follows representative democracy, in which

not the people themselves but their representatives rule. In parliamentary form of
representative democracy, the parliament embodies the principle of representation.
People choose their representatives, who on behalf of the people govern. Parliament
represents the popular will.
Some of people’s representatives (members of Parliament) govern as member of
council of ministers and remaining holds the executive accountable on behalf of the
people.
Since it was first constituted in 1950s, nature of representation and hence composition
of the parliament has changed considerably. Also changed the way it conducts its
businesses.
In the beginning representation was elitist. Well educated and wealthy persons from
upper caste used to win popular elections. Subaltern, marginalised and poor uneducated
people from rural backgrounds were hardly represented.
But since 1990s, in the coalition era, rising representation from subaltern class and
regional parties has dramatically changed the form and texture of representation in the
parliament. Now a large number of members come from rural and agricultural
background. Representation of women, backward or lower castes, and sub-altern
groups has increased. But still, representation of women are way below the percentage
of their representation in matured democracies.
Composition of voters has also changed. Now poor, women, Dalits, and sub-altern class
vote more than the rich and urban middle class. This is further changing the nature of
representation in parliament.
Some of these changes are positive but it is also increasing chaos, dissonance,
substandard quality of debates, and general indifference of the executives towards
parliament. Many critics also feel that quality of parliamentary debates have gone
down. Members strictly follow their party lines making the debate predictable and less
meaningful. Representatives, instead of raising issues of national importance, focus
more on issues of their constituencies, caste, religion, etc. These are disturbing trends.

4. Write short Notes on electoral reforms.

Essence of representative democracy.is free and fair elections. The base of clean and
corruption free polity is the free and fair elections. As per article 324 of the Constitution,
superintendence, direction and control of elections is vested in the Election
Commission of India (ECI). Since 1952, when the ECI conducted first general election,

26
 it has taken several measures to Reform the electoral process. Some of the electoral
reforms initiated by the ECI are: model code of conduct, electronic voting machine and
subsequently introducing Voter verifiable paper audit trail (VVPAT), LIMITING THE
expenditure incurred by candidates on election campaign, observers to monitor the
expenditures, voter ID card, etc.
The government, parliament, and Judiciary have also stepped in to initiate Electoral
reforms. The parliament passed enacted laws to lower the voting age from 21 to 18
years and ant-defection acts. The Supreme court, in 2013, ordered ‘None of the above’
(NOTA) button in the electronic voting machine. The SCI also passed many judgements
to reduce criminalisation of electoral politics. The SCI observed that freebies promised
by political parties in their election manifestos shake the roots of free and fair polls, the,
and directed the ECI to frame guidelines for regulating freebies in the election
manifestos of political parties. The government constituted Vohra committee in 1992 to
examine the criminalisation of politics. The committee studied the nexus among
criminals, politicians and bureaucrats.
In 2018, he Government of India notified the Electoral. Bond Scheme. Under the
scheme donations to political parties cannot be made in cash, and in unaccounted
manner. According to the Government, electoral bonds would keep a tab on the use of
black money for funding elections.
Successive governments have also constituted Commissions/committee for
recommending electoral reforms. Most important of these committees and their
recommendations are as below:

Tarkunde Committee (1975): This committee was constituted by Jayprakash Narayan on

behalf of the Citizens For Democracy
• The election commission should be a three member body.
• The minimum age of voting should be 18 years.
• The TV and radio should be placed under the control of autonomous statutory
corporation.
• A voter’s council should be formed in as many constituencies as possible which can
help in free and fair election.

Dinesh Goswami committee (1990)

• Issue of multi-purpose photo identity cards
• Steps for improving enrolment of all eligible voters
Restriction on candidates contesting from several constituencies.
• To discourage non-serious candidates, the security deposit for Lok Sabha should be
increased
• A series of legislative measures should be set up to eradicate booth-capturing rigging
and intimidating.

27
 • Amendment of the anti-defection law to restrict disqualification.

Jeevan Reddy Committee (2004):

• total ban on splits and mergers of political parties during the the Legislative
Assembly/house.
• Once a member has been elected on a ticket of a particular recognized party, then he
should remain in that party till the dissolution of the House or till the end of his
membership by resignation or otherwise.
• ten-fold hike in the deposits of independent and non-recognized party candidates.
• To curb criminalisation of politics, a person charged with serious offences should be
disqualified from contesting elections

Despite all these efforts many more reforms in the electoral process are required to make it free
from the money and muscle power. State funding of election campaign and election
expenditures, more transparent donations to political parties, audit of the accounts of political
parties, bring political parties into the ambit of RTI, and stricter code of conduct with force of
law, etc. are only some the long pending electoral reforms.

28
 THEME 3: RELIGION AND POLITICS

3. A: CBCS Syllabus
Debates on Secularism and Communalism

3. B: Key Points:
Meaning of Secularism:
• The principle of separation of the State and statecraft from Religion in such a way that
affairs of civil society and public sphere are not guided and dominated by religion.
• Freedom to practice one's faith or belief, propagate it, or to change it or not have one,
according to one's own conscience.
• Secularism also implies no discrimination on the grounds of Religion, that is , religious
beliefs or lack of them doesn't put anyone at an advantage or a disadvantage in public
life, employment, education, and before law.

Secularism in Indian constitution:

• Preamble: India a secular republic ; Liberty of belief, faith, and worship
• Article 14, 15, 16 : Rights to equality
• Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion
• Article 29 :Protection of interests of minorities.
• Article 30: rights of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
• Article 44 : The state shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code.

Key Debates on Indian Secularism:

• Nehruvian vs Gandhian Secularism
• Modern, rational, liberal democratic vs traditional, moral-ethical
• Individual vs community rights
• ‘Rights’ vs ‘good’
• Personal private sphere vs public/political sphere
• Majoritarianism vs minority politics
• Majority and minority communalism
• Formal vs substantive equality
• Special rights to minority
• Panth Nirpekshta VS Dharam Nirpekshta ( Religion/sect vs Dharma- way of life)

29
Main Thinkers on Indian Secularism:
Gandhiji:
• He proudly claimed to a religious person doing politics. He mixed religion and
politics. But for him religion was source of spirituality, ethics, morality and not
narrow secetarianism or communalism
J.L. Nehru:
• State should observe neutrality in regard to all religion ( Congress resolution on
fundamental rights, 1931, drafted by Nehru)
• It was neither irreligion nor anti- religion- accepts important role of religion in
individual & social life
• It meant equal respect for all faiths, complete freedom to individuals to follow
any religion/faith, and equal opportunities for those following different
religion/faith or atheist.
• State would be like neutral Umpire for all religious practices, but can intervene
to protect individual’s rights, freedom, public order, morality, social welfare.
• Religious equality, liberty, and protection of minority rights

Asish Nandy:
• Wrote ‘An anti-secularist manifesto(1989)’
• favoured non-modern, non-western traditional model of religious tolerance
• Rejected western secularism- strict separation of religion and politics
T.N.Madan :
• Wrote ‘Secularism in its place( 1987)
• Supports Gandhian conception of drawing absolute values from religion into
socio-political sphere
• Critic of modern western secularism
• Considered it unsuitable for Asian countries, especially India
Achin Vanaik
• A Marxist thinker who believed in western notion of secularism
• Critic of Neo-Gandhian anti-secularism thesis put forward by Ashish Nandy and
T.N.Madan
Rajeev Bhargava
• Wrote ‘Secularism and its critics ( 1998)’
• Critic of Neo-Gandhian anti-secularism thesis put forward by Ashish Nandy and
T.N.Madan
• Critic of the ideology of ‘Vulgar Gandhianism’

30
 3. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND
OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: What do you mean by Secularism. Discuss the major debates on

secularism in India?

Ans. Template
Introduction:
Secularism is generally understood as the principle of separation of the State and
politics from Religion in such a way that affairs of civil society and public sphere are
not guided and dominated by religion. It also implies freedom to practice one's faith or
belief, propagate it, or to change it or not have one, according to one's own conscience.
Secularism also implies no discrimination on the grounds of Religion, that is , religious
beliefs or lack of them doesn't put anyone at an advantage or a disadvantage in public
life, employment, education, and before law.
Secularism is essentially a western concept. The concept of secularism started to
emerge in the start of the modern era. Machiavelli was the first tinker in the modern era
to propose separation of church from the state. In European polity secularism, therefore,
meant that the spheres of politics and spirituality be strictly separated. It is not that such
separation of statecraft from spiritual domain was exclusive to western political
thought. The ancient political thinkers in India grappled( struggled) with this separation
of spiritual and temporal domain. But the secularism which India adopted and which
was inscribed in its constitution was definitely the western notion of secularism, that is,
strict separation between the state and the religion.
As our constitution adopted the western notion of strict separation of religion from
politics it remained incompatible with deep rooted spiritual society in which
spiritualism drawn from Dharma was part of all walk of life, including politics. Gandhiji
proudly claimed to be a religious person doing politics. He openly mixed religion and
politics. In Indian ethos the notion of Dharma is not same ag the notion of the religion
or sect in western cultures. In India Dharma is the way of life which represent moral
obligation, duty, and righteousness. Incompatibility between secularism as inscribed in
the constitution and secularism as understood in the social practices & traditions gave
rise to intense debate on secularism in Indian polity

In the next section of the answer, I will try to outline some of the debates on Indian secularism.

31
Key Debates on Indian Secularism:
Nehruvian vs Gandhian Secularism
Gandhiji:
• He proudly claimed to a religious person doing politics. He mixed religion and
politics. He said ‘those who believe religion and politics aren't connected don't
understand either’. But for him religion was source of spirituality, ethics,
morality and not narrow secetarianism or communalism
• He supported equal respect for all religion. He saw unity in all religion. He
abhored narrow secetarianism or communalism.
J.L. Nehru:
• Inspired by scientific humanism, Nehru adopted the western notion of
Secularism.
• State should observe neutrality in regard to all religion ( Congress resolution on
fundamental rights, 1931, drafted by Nehru)
• It was neither irreligion nor anti- religion- accepts important role of religion in
individual & social life
• It meant equal respect for all faiths, complete freedom to individuals to follow
any religion/faith, and equal opportunities for those following different
religion/faith or atheist.
• State would be like neutral Umpire for all religious practices, but can intervene
to protect individual’s rights, freedom, public order, morality, social welfare.
• Religious equality, liberty, and protection of minority rights
• But his stress on minority rights seemed like policy of appeasement to many,
especially the segment of the Hindu community.

Modern, rational, liberal democratic vs traditional, moral-ethical

• Secularism inscribed in Indian constitution is inspired from the Modern, rational, liberal
democratic ideologies. Whereas thinkers such as Ashish Nandy and T.N.Madan
advocate for traditional, moral-ethical, that is Gandhian notion of secularism in India
• On the other hand, thinkers such as Achin Vanaik and Rajeev Bhargava criticized the
attempt to revive communalism and negating the modern liberal notion of secularism
in the name Gandhian notion of secularism.

Individual vs community rights

• Western secularism, inscribed in Indian Constitution is individualistic. It gives
preference to ‘right’ , such as right to conscience & faith. Whereas Indian socio-
cultural tradition gives preference to moral obligation, duty, and ‘Common
Good’.

32
 • Hence, western secularism is not suitable for India

Majoritarianism vs minority appeasement

• Majority and minority communalism: another debate is majoritarianism vs
minority appeasement.
• BJP and others supporting Hindutva ideology charge the Nehruvian secularism
as the policy of minority appeasement. This fuelled majority communalism.
Hence, Nehruvian secularism should be replaced by Hindutva ideology as
formulated by Savarkar and RSS thinkers.
• Whereas, Congress and other non-BJP parties call Hindutva politics as
communal politics and majoritarianism

Formal vs substantive equality

• Merely providing equal opportunity to minority may not help them
• Special rights and protections should be granted to minority
• But many feel that granting Special rights to minorities may demoralize the
majority community and may fuel majority communalism

Panth Nirpekshta VS Dharam Nirpekshta ( Religion/sect vs Dharma- way of life)

• Finally, for many ‘dharma’ in Indian context is way of life; it denotes moral
obligation, duty, attribute held by anything, and righteousness. Dharma is not
same as western word religion or sect. Dharma guides all walk of life, including
politics, in Indian ethos. Therefore, politics in india cannot be separted from
Dharma. Hence, Dharam Nirpekshta, and what indian const term as seularism,
is not suitable for India.

Conclusion:
From the above discussion it is evident that there is still no consensus in Indian polity
as to what secularism as inscribed in Indian constitution mean and in what way should
it be practiced. This is unsettled issue of India Polity. Our constitution makers were
influenced by the western and liberal notion of secularism which meant strict separation
of religion from politics and statecraft. The fundamental right contained in Indian
constitution provided each individual freedom of religion and conscience. It also
provided the religious minority specific rights for protection of their religion and
religious practices. But many thinkers and political , especially supporting the
hindutuva ideology, raised objection against such western notion of secularism
contained in India constitution. For them, Dharma in Indian ethos cannot be same as
religion or sect in western culture. In Indian socio-cultural tradition Dharma is way of
life which denotes moral obligation, duty and rightiousness. It is all pervasive and guide
all walks of life including politics. Gandhiji proudly cliamed to have mixed religion

33
 with politics. Hence, supporter of this view claim that in India Polity western notion of
secularism is not suitable.
Whatever is the merit of the both sides of the debate one thing is obvious that Indian
polity need to settle the issue of secularism as soon as possible. India has substantial
numbers of minority communities and one of them has population of more than twenty
crores. In such situation continuous debate and ideological confrontation on the
meaning and practices of secularism as contained in Indian constitution will not only
widen the social cleavages around religious identity but also harm the social harmony.
Neither the majoritarianism nor the minority appeasement is preferable. We need to find
a third way which should be truly Indian way of secularism. Sonner we do that better it
would be.

Q.2 : Do you think that politics is religion neutral? Make arguments in

favour of your answer. New paragraph

Religion has always been the most important aspect of human life. It provides norms,
values, belief system and worldview which guides us to leave a fulfilled life. On the
other hand, politics is all about social arrangements to solve common problems and to
organise social life in a way in which an individual can leave a flourished and fulfilled
life. Hence, both religion and politics are integral aspect of human life. As per Aristotle
state( Polis) is required for flourished life of individual. He called humans a political
animal. Many philosophers since then have underlined the importance of politics in
human life. As per Hobbes state and the sovereign is required for a peaceful and orderly
life. Without a supreme political power the life would be miserable as it would be a war
of all against all.
Since time immemorial philosophers and political thinkers struggled as to how the two
realms of religion and politics should interact with each other. Ancient Indian political
thinkers, such as Manu and Veda Vyas subsumed the politics into larger domain of
Dharma. Veda Vyas gave the concept of Raja Dharma, that is , the duty and obligation
of the king towards his state and people. Kautilya, on the other hand, tried to separate
politics from religion giving more important to Danda representing statecraft over
Dharma representing spirituality. Buddhism tried more effectively to separate the realm
of dhamma from statecraft and politics but even in Buddhism ultimately both the realms
merged in the idea of chakravarti Samrat. In medieval era thinkers, such as, Barani and
Abul Fazl struggled to formulate the relation between religion and politics. Barani gave
Jawabit, a secular law but advised Muslim kings to protect and spread Islam in non
Islamic lands. Abul Fazl, on the other hand, fused the two realms- temporal and spiritual
into the Mughal king who not only represented temporal sovereignty but also spiritual
leadership. But such merging of religion with politics was secular, that is, the kingship
was above any religion and didn’t discriminate on the basis of religion.
In western political philosophy this issue was grappled by successive political thinker
starting with Marcello of Padua in medieval time and Machiavelli in the early modern
period. In fact, Machiavelli was the first modern thinker to suggest complete separation

34
of church from the state. Later on, the social contract theory further advocated
separation of religion from politics. Liberal democracy arising out of social contract
theory was based on rule of law and equality; both these values implied that state would
not consider religion in governance and treating its citizen. Modern liberal democracy
implied separation of politics from religion.
The Indian constitution, which was inspired by Liberal Democratic values also
inscribed secularism as separation of politics from religion.The constitution guaranteed
all citizens no discrimination on grounds of religion.It also gave fundamental right to
religion and Conscience. It protected the religious minority and gave them certain
fundamental rights to protect their language and culture.
Now the question comes weather politics is religion neutral. The statement implies that
whether it is possible for politics to be separated from religion? For Gandhiji such
separation was impossible. For many ancient and medieval thinkers also, religion and
politics cannot be separated. In their views Religion included politics. But as discussed
above, in modern era, especially since the advent of liberal democracies and acceptance
of rule of law and equality, politics has been kept separated from religion. Despite
intense debate over nature of secularism in India there is a broad consensus among all
that politics should be kept separated from religion. It is now and accepted paradigm
that religion should be a private affair of an individual and community whereas politics
is public affair in which the state cannot discriminate among citizen on the basis of
religious identity.
Another aspect of this statement that weather politics is religion neutral depends on how
we define religion. In Indian social tradition Dharma comes close to be called as
religion. What is Dharma? It is moral obligation, duty , righteousness and property held
by anything. In this sense Dharma is guide to virtuous life. Dharma also denotes
spirituality, connection of individual to transcendental or other world. In this sense
politics cannot be separated from Dharma. This is what Veda Vyas called Raja Dharma,
that is, the politics should have its own Dharma and therefore becomes part of the
domains guided by Dharma.
But if we define religion or sect or panth having a definite rule, having a definite
Prophet or spiritual leader and definite rules and regulations for rituals then in that sense
politics should be separated from religion. This is what western political thinkers in
modern era advocated through social contract theory and liberal democracy.
Hence, the statement that whether politics is religion neutral is essentially depends on
how we define religion . In a nutshell if religion denotes fixed rule, regulation, rituals
and supreme spiritual leader followed by members of that religion, then in liberal
democracies definitely politics should be separated from religion. The state and
government should not take religion into consideration while serving its citizen add
religion should be confined to the private domain. But if religion is what we call
Dharma in Indian social tradition which is not having any rigid rule, regulation, rituals
or one supreme spiritual leader but is more like a way of life denoting duty, moral
obligation, righteousness, morality, ethics and spirituality then politics should be

35
religious. It should follow its own Dharma. The king or the head of government should
follow the Raja Dharma; that would bring happyness and harmony all round.
So in conclusion, I will reiterate that the question whether politics is religion neutral
depends on how we understand and define religion. This is the root cause of debates on
Indian secularism. Secularism inscribed in Indian constitution is guided by Liberal
Democratic values emanating from western political thought, whereas the secularism
as understood by Indian people comes from the notion of Dharma which include all
walks of life including politics. Indian people cannot imagine that the king or the head
of government not following Raja Dharma which implies for the king that there cannot
be any discrimination based on any kind of primordial identity be it religion or caste
or sect or anything else. In this sense it is better that politics is guided by the morality,
ethics, and spirituality denoted by the Dharma or if we say religion. This is what
Gandhiji believed and this is what is the crux of the debate on Indian secularism.

36
 THEME 4: CASTE AND POLITICS

4.A: CBCS Syllabus

a) Caste in Politics and the Politicisation of Caste;
b) Intersectionality of Caste, Class and Gender,
c) Reservation and affirmative action policies

4.B: Key Points:

Casteism in politics: How caste affected politics?
• Electoral politics and caste
• Mobilisation of voters along caste lines
• Caste calculations in seat allocation in election and portfolio allocation in govt.
• At Constituency level, caste arithmetic became determining factor in choosing
candidate
• At state level, parties build winning caste alliance
• Party alliances on caste arithmetic
• Rising role of lower castes/ OBCs, and Dalits
• Mandal Commission Implementation further changed caste dynamics in Politics
• Reservation became instruments for mobilization of votes around caste lines
• Ssharpening of caste identity
• Rise of caste-based parties
• Ex: RJD , LJSP, RLSP in Bihar ; SP, BSP, APNA DAL, RLD, etc in UP;
JD(S) in Karnataka
• Shifting of political discourse and leadership
• From moral and normative concern to more earthy and empirical concerns
• Politics of ideology to politics of identity
• Public policies to solve problems of disadvantaged castes : RTE, Mid day meal,
MNAREGA, food/fertilizer/power subsidies, etc.
• Political leadership coming now mainly from lower/backward castes
• Caste and voting behaviour
• Parties based on political mobilization of caste
• Caste calculations at constituency level integral to electoral politics

37
 • Voting for candidate from same caste or party with whom a particular caste
identify itself
• Cross- caste coalitions: anti hegemonic and sandwich alliances
• OBC and middle caste peasants deserted Congress and backed regional caste-
based parties
• Upper caste also changed its loyalty from Congress to BJP
• Lower OBC and Extremely Backward Castes swings its loyalty
Politicization of caste: How politics affected caste?
• Disintegration of vertical hierarchical system of roles, rights, and obligations
• Ideological void
• Break down of localised caste system
• Horizontal integration of caste groups of different regions/locality
• Caste associations and caste federations
• Shift of power from upper to lower and middle castes
• Dalit assertion and rising caste violence
• Caste used as political instrument for equality among caste
• Intra caste factions/rivalries and inter caste alliances
• Factions / sub-caste competitions inside caste
• Rising middle class vs left out groups in Dalit and OBCs
• Anti-hegemonic vs Sandwich alliances

Important books on Caste and Politics in India

• Rajni Kothari ( 1928 – 2015) wrote ‘Caste in Indian Politics(1970)’
• M.N. Srinivas (1916–1999) wrote ‘Caste in Modern India(1962)’
• ‘Religion, Caste and Politics in India’- Christophe Jaffrelot
• ‘Caste and Democratic Politics in India’- Ghanshyam Shah
• ‘Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age(
1999)’- Susan Bayly
• ‘Class, Caste, Gender( 2004)’- Manoranjan Mohanty
• ‘Caste, Faction and Party in Indian Politics’- Paul Brass

Affirmative Action Policies in India

Meaning:
• Preferential treatments to persons from disadvantaged social/ethnic background
in jobs, political positions, education, and welfare services
• Preferential treatment may range from special concern to reserved quota

38
 • Justifications- social justice, substantial equality, equality of opportunity and
outcome
• The phrase first coined in USA in the executive order by president Kennedy; was given
legal sanction after enactment of Civil Rights Act in 1964, became popular by 1980
• Called Reservation, employment equity, special or preferential treatment, concessions,
protective Discrimination, Positive Discrimination, compensatory discrimination
Alternative Access

Affirmative Action policies in India

• 3 Dimensions of Affirmative Action policies in India
• Reservation/quota in legislatures, govt. jobs, educational seats
• Preferential treatment in govt. schemes/services- scholarship, loans, land
allotment, housing, health care, legal aid,
• Special protection to safeguard from oppression- special police station,
commission, prohibit forced labour, etc
• There have been different trajectories of affirmative action policies for Dalits/SC,
Tribal, OBC, Women, and other minority groups

39
 4. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Caste has remained the dominant factor in Indian politics since
beginning. Discuss the interaction of caste and politics in light of the
statement.

Answer Template
Introduction:

Caste system is all pervasive (present everywhere) phenomenon of Indian society. Caste
is the basic identity of Indian people. Though it was a functional category, but in modern
times its functional division feature has diluted to a great extent. But still many caste
names denote the profession or functions carried out by those castes. Caste hierarchy
still influences social status. In rural India, caste still bind individuals with certain
rights, obligations, and duties.
Since caste is the primary social cleavage in Indian society, naturally party politics use
this social cleavage to get votes and win elections. This is the main reason for caste
remaining dominant factor in electoral politics.
In the beginning almost all political parties were led by bourgeois class and forward
caste. But since 1990s, especially after the Mandal Commission, political parties of
backward caste and led by rural backward class/caste leaders gained ground. This was
combined with the rise of Dalit politics which was manifested in electoral wins of the
BSP. Caste calculations at constituency level now has become integral part of the
electoral politics. No political party can afford to ignore the caste wise distribution of
voters in any constituency.
Interaction of caste and politics is two ways. Not only there is Casteism in Politics but
also politicisation of caste. Horizontal integration of caste groups of different
regions/locality, caste violence, caste working as pressure groups, Caste being used as
political instrument for equality among castes, Intra caste factions/rivalries and inter
caste alliances, etc. are signs of politicisation of caste.

In the next section of the answer, I will outline this two way interaction between caste and
politics. Before conclusion, I will also critically analyse the pros and cons of caste in politics.

40
Casteism in politics
• 3 phases of caste in politics
• 1st Phase : 1885 till 1960s : Bourgeois leaders from the upper caste provided
political leadership
• 2nd Phase: 1960 to 1990s : Rise of middle and backward castes/ OBCs in politics
• 3rd phase: 1980s till date: Rise of Dalit caste politics and consolidation of
backward caste politics
• Electoral politics and caste
• Mobilisation of voters along caste lines
• Caste calculations in seat allocation in election and portfolio allocation in govt.
• At Constituency level, caste arithmetic became determining factor in choosing
candidate
• At state level, parties build winning caste alliance
• Party alliances on caste arithmetic
• Rising role of lower castes/ OBCs, and Dalits

• Mandal Commission Implementation further changed caste dynamics in Politics

• Reservation became instruments for mobilization of votes around caste lines
• Ssharpening of caste identity
• Rise of caste based parties
• Ex: RJD , LJSP, RLSP in Bihar ; SP, BSP, APNA DAL, RLD, etc in UP;
JD(S) in Karnataka
• Shifting of political discourse and leadership due to rise in backward caste politics
• From moral and normative concern to more earthy and empirical concerns
• Politics of ideology to politics of identity
• Public policies to solve problems of disadvantaged castes : RTE, Mid day meal,
MNAREGA, food/fertilizer/power subsidies, etc.
• Political leadership coming now mainly from lower/backward castes
Politicization of caste: How politics affected caste?
• Disintegration of vertical hierarchical system of roles, rights, and obligations based on
the norms of the caste system
• This created ideological void and resulted into break down of localised caste system
• Horizontal integration of caste groups of different regions/locality
• Caste associations and caste federations
• For Example: Jats of Punjab, Haryana, and UP integrating to form a combined
caste group for political purpose
• Shift of power from upper to lower and middle castes

41
 • Dalit assertion and rising caste violence
• Caste used as political instrument for equality among caste
• Intra caste factions/rivalries and inter caste alliances
• Factions / sub-caste competitions inside caste
• Rising middle class vs left out groups in Dalit and OBCs
• Anti-hegemonic vs Sandwich alliances
• Anti-Hegemonic coalition: In recent UP election, Yadavs and Jats made
an alliance to challenge the hegemony of BJP
• Sandwich alliances: Two castes at opposite pole join to challenge the
intermediate caste; for example, alliance of Brahmin and Dalits to
challenge the OBCs.

Discussion:
On the face of it, interaction of caste and politics may be considered as negative aspect
of Indian politics. Many may raise the point that casteism of politics has hampered
political development. Caste system is in-egalitarian(unequal) and hierarchical system.
It is based on graded inequality. It obstructs rule of law based on equality. But on deeper
analysis we may find many positives of the interaction of caste and politics. Since
numbers of backward caste and Dalit in Indian population are more than those of the
upper caste, electoral politics gave great opportunity to the backward and Dalit caste to
assert their numerical dominance. Electoral politics made these castes gaining political
power. In turn, the political power gives them social recognition and status. Thus,
electoral politics has done a great favours to the backward and Dalit castes. But on the
other hand, it has also made politics ridden with caste calculations, rivalry, and unholy
alliances. It has given an easy route to win elections without caring much for
development and fulfilling essential needs of the people.

Conclusion:
Caste is a brute reality of Indian society. It influences all aspect of socio-political life
of Indian People. Politics is very much affected by the caste system. However, the
interaction of caste and politics is two way. Caste has also got affected by politics. Thus
both casteism of politics and polarisation of caste is manifested in different ways.
Caste calculations at the constituency level, selection of candidate based on this caste
calculation, using the social cleavage around caste to influence voters, and using caste
related symbols in election, etc. are manifestation of casteism in politics.
Inter-regional Caste federation, caste alliances, caste rivalry, rising trend of backward
and Dalit politics, caste based political parties, caste acting as pressure groups, etc. are
manifestation of politicisation of caste
Arguments can be made both in favour and against the interaction of caste and politics.
Many may say that intermingling of caste and politics has hindered political

42
development and made Indian politics conservative, backward looking, status quoist,
unequal, and unjust. But many other may argue that interaction of caste and politics,
especially the electoral politics, has given political power, social recognition, and
upward mobility to the backward and Dalit castes. It has made Indian society more
egalitarian and just. It helped bring social justice.

43
Q.2: Evaluate the role of affirmative action policies in reducing caste and
gender-based inequalities in India.

Similar Question:
Q. Intersection of caste and gender is major form of discrimination in Indian Society.
Discuss the affirmative action policies in light of this statement.

Introduction:
Caste and gender have been the primary social identity in Indian society. Not only these
identities put an individual at a particular place in social hierarchy but also determine
their social status, life choices, rights, obligation, duties, and constraints. Unfortunately,
both the caste system and the gender division of society became unjust, in-equal and
exploitative system. Even more harming has been the intersection of caste and gender.
For example, a high caste Hindu woman is still better placed then a Dalit woman who
is facing double jeopardy (harms, risk), that is, first being Dalit with all kinds of
constraints, exploitations and second being a woman discriminated against their own
men folks.
Affirmative action policies attempt to improve upon the situation of such marginalised
and weaker section of society. It includes preferential treatments to persons from
disadvantaged social/ethnic background in jobs, political offices, education, and
welfare services. Preferential treatment may range from special concern to reserved
quota. Affirmative action policies are aimed to provide social justice, equality of
opportunity and substantial equality.
The term ‘affirmative action’ was first coined in USA in the executive order by
president Kennedy; it was given legal sanction after enactment of Civil Rights Act in
1964; by 1980 it became popular term worldwide. Many democracies, including India
adopted the policy.
It is called by different terms- Reservation, employment equity, special or preferential
treatment, concessions, protective Discrimination, Positive Discrimination,
compensatory discrimination, Alternative Access, etc. In India it is generally called the
reservation policy.
Constitution provided reservation in legislatures at center and state level for scheduled
caste and scheduled tribe. Initially the reservation was for 10 years but extended many
times and currently it is applicable till 2030. By 73rd and 74th constitutional
amendments, women were given reservation of 33% seats in local self-governments
under the Panchayati Raj system and municipalities. In 1990 Mandal Commission
report was implemented by the central government under which reservation were
extended to other backward castes. In addition to reservations governments at center
and states provided many special welfare measures to weaker sections of society. This

44
 came in the form of hostels for SC/ST, discount in education fee, scholarships, special
coaching, teaching assistance, book grants, etc.
But there is an intense debate in India on the justification and efficacies of the
affirmative action policies. Many feel that these policies have become an electoral tool
to get votes of the backward and Dalit castes. They also point out the creamy layer
phenomenon, that is, most of the reservation benefits have been cornered by a small
segment of the backward and Dalit caste community. This has created another layer of
inequality in these communities.
The reservation of women in Panchayati Raj institutions was largely subverted by the
husbands of the women functionaries who are kept behind whereas de-facto power is
exercised by their husbands. On the other hand, many argue that affirmative action
policies have helped reduce the caste and gender discrimination, increase the
opportunity and social status of the beneficiaries, and made them upward mobile.

In the next section of the answer, I will try to outline in brief the different types of special
treatments provided under the affirmative action policies to the backward, Dalit, tribes and
women in India. I will also try to list out the debates for and against the affirmative action
policies in India

Affirmative Action: Constitutional Provisions

• Article 15(4): Nothing shall prevent the State from making any special
provision for the advancement of any other socially and educationally backward
classes of citizens of or for the SC and ST.
• Article 16(4) : Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any
provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward
class of citizens
• Article 15(6) : provision for additional 10% reservation for any economically
weaker sections of citizens in educational institutions- both govt. and private
• Article 16(6): provision for 10% reservation in appointments or posts in favour
of any economically weaker sections of citizens; brought by 103rd Amendments.
• Article 46: The State shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of
the SC and ST, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation
• Article 330, 332: reservation for SC,ST in legislature
• Article 340: Commission to investigate the conditions of socially and
educationally backward classes( SEBC)

45
Affirmative Policies for SC (Scheduled Caste)/ST (Scheduled Tribe)
• In constituent assembly, consensus on special concessions to SC/ST- Article 15(4),
16(4)
• Reservation in legislature, jobs, and educational admissions; 15%-SC, 7.5%-ST for 10
years…which is extended every 10 years
• No creamy layer filtering for SC/ST reservations
• Special treatment: Hostel facility, scholarship, special coaching, lower fee, book grant,
etc.

Affirmative Policies for OBCs

• 1953-1st backward class commission- Kaka Kalelkar Commission
• 4 criteria- degraded status, education, low representation in civil services,
secondary and tertiary sectors – common denominator- lower caste
• List of 2399 OBC castes, 32% population based on 1931 census
• Congress govt. rejected the report on grounds of efficiency and socialist pattern
of economic development
• 1978 : Janata govt. set up Mandal commission ; report submitted 1980 ; implemented
in 1990 by V.P.Singh
• 3743 OBC castes, 11 criteria for backwardness, 52% population, 27%
reservation
• Justification: adequate representation in govt. job- higher social status-
community elevated in social power structure
• Subsequent reactions of upper caste politically mobilized OBCs
• 1993: SC verdict validated caste based quota with some conditions; put forward the
creamy layer policy.

Affirmative Policies for Women

• 1993- 73rd and 74th amendments reserved 1/3rd seats in Panchayati Raj
• 1996: bill presented in Lok Sabha for reserving 1/3rd seats in legislature
• 2010: the women reservation bill was passed in Rajya Sabha
• But the bill failed to pass the Lok Sabha and is still pending
• Special treatment: Diversity criteria in many universities, lower educational fee,
Ration card in the name of women, govt subsidies to family going into women’s
account, etc.

Issues of Affirmative Action Policies in India

• Enlarging scope of reservation policy
• After EWS reservation, almost 90% of population under quota system!

46
 • Still no reservation for Women, Muslims and other minorities such as LGBT,
• Increasing politicization of reservation policy – quota politics
• Economic liberalization, privatization, and globalization has shifted the goal post
• Less and less govt. jobs, and unattractive govt. run education
• Upper caste and Bourgeois class shifted to private sector jobs, private education,
and globalized job market in other countries

Impact of Affirmative Action policies on the target group/beneficiaries

• No systematic survey/study to assess the socio-economic impacts
• Social Impact
• Sense of social empowerment, upward mobility in benefitted communities
• Reinforced caste identity as the beneficiaries need to stress their caste identity
• However, social status still linked to caste hierarchy
• Economic Impact
• Creamy layer effect: Well off individuals were benefitted at the cost of poor and
more backwards in the same caste/tribe/community
• Increased economic disparities among the benefitted communities
• Political Impact
• Politicization of the reservation policy
• Increased politicization of caste and casteism in politics
• Post Mandal commission, political power shifted to OBCs

Pros and cons of Affirmative Action Policies in India:

Pluses or positives Minuses or Negatives

Aimed for substantive equality Reinforces caste identity

Based on the principles of distributive Gave rise to quota politics
and social justice

As per Aristotle’s principle of justice Politicized the caste; they started behaving like
based on proportional equality; it treats pressure groups fighting for quota benefits
unequal unequally
Provided dignity and empowerment to Created class differentiations among the target
hitherto marginalized group communities/castes as quota benefits were
cornered by small well off segment

More inclusive development Disincentivise merit, efforts, innovations. Bring

mediocrity.

47
 Helped reduce caste and gender based Leaves out minority, LGBT, and many other
discrimination marginalized groups
Not applicable in private sector.

Conclusion:
From the discussion it is evident that governments in India extended many kinds of
special treatments and reservations to the backward and Dalit castes, tribes and women.
Reservation for women in central and state legislature could not materialise till date.
Also, there are hardly any affirmative policies for the minority, LGBT, and many other
marginalised sections of society.
There is no doubt that the target castes and community have benefited from the
affirmative action policies. But it is also a fact that the benefits were largely cornered
by a small segment among the target beneficiary groups. This created a creamy layer
phenomenon. Other concerns also raised against the way affirmative action policies
have been implemented in India. Many argue that it has undermined merit, efforts and
gave rise to mediocrity. The private sector, where most of the employment exists
currently, are out of affirmative action policies. Hence, its impact on employment is not
much. Despite this, despite all shortcomings and objections against it, affirmative action
policies are important for bringing justice based on proportional equality and provide
distributive and social justice.

48
 THEME 5: TRIBES AND POLITICS

5.A: CBCS Syllabus

a) Policies and Challenges: Fifth and Sixth Schedules
b) Forest Rights Act;
c) Development and Issues of Displacement

5.B: Key Points:

Who are the tribal people?

• In India they are called ‘Adivasi’ which means people of lived in India from the
beginning. In this sense they are the native, indigenous, or aboriginal peoples.
• However, there is no consensus on the time period since they are living in India. Many
present-day Adivasi communities formed after the decline of the Indus Valley
civilisation.
• Indian Constitution put all tribal people into the category of Scheduled Tribe (ST)
• ST constitute about 8 % of Indian Population

Major Tribes of India

• Bhils- Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan
• Gonds- Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh
• Munda- Chhotanagpur Plateau region: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha
• Santhal: Santhal Pargana- Jharkhand and West Bengal
• Garo & Khasi: Meghalaya
• Ho: Kolhan region of Jharkhand and Odisha

Constitutional Provisions for the Scheduled Tribes:

• FIFTH SCHEDULE— Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled
Areas and Scheduled Tribes in 10 states other than the N-E States
• SIXTH SCHEDULE—Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States
of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Lok
Sabha
• Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
Legislative Assemblies of the States.
• Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.

49
 • Article 338A. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
• Article 339. Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the
welfare of Scheduled Tribes.
• Article 342: President to declare tribes or tribal communities as Scheduled Tribes
• Article 46. Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.
• Article 243D. Reservation of seats for ST in Panchayati Raj Institutions
• Article 243T. Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Tribes in every Municipality
• Article 244. Administration of Scheduled Areas and tribal areas.—The provisions of
the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration and control of the Scheduled Areas
and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura
and Mizoram.

Acts Related to Scheduled Tribes:

• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006

5th Schedule provisions:

• Article 244(1) of the Constitution, expression Scheduled Areas means such areas as the
President may by order declare to be Scheduled Areas.
• 5th Schedule States: Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan and Telangana
• Main provisions:
• Report by the Governor to the President regarding the administration of Scheduled
Areas
• Tribes Advisory Council: maximum 20 members for Scheduled Areas
• Law applicable to Scheduled Areas: Governor may direct that any particular Act of
Parliament or of the Legislature of the State shall not apply to a Scheduled Area
• The Governor may make regulations for the peace and good government of any area in
a State which is for the time being a Scheduled Area.

6th Schedule Provisions:

• 6th Schedule States: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram
• Autonomous districts and autonomous regions:
• Governor my notify any area in 6th schedule state as autonomous district.

50
 • If there are different Scheduled Tribes in an autonomous district, the Governor may, by
public notification, divide the area or areas inhabited by them into autonomous regions.
• District Councils and Regional Councils:
• Autonomous districts will have District Councils
• District Council:
o District Council for each autonomous district consisting of not more than thirty
members, of whom not more than four persons shall be nominated by the
Governor and the rest shall be elected on the basis of adult suffrage
o District Council will administer the autonomous district
Autonomous regions will have Regional Councils
• Regional Councils will administer the autonomous regions( within autonomous
districts)
• The Governor shall make rules for the first constitution of District Councils and Regional
Councils in consultation with the existing tribal Councils or other representative tribal
organisations within the autonomous districts or regions concerned
• District Councils and Regional Councils have powers to make laws on certain local matters
such as the allotment, occupation or use, or the setting apart, of land, other than any land
which is a reserved forest, the use of any canal or water-course for the purpose of agriculture,
social customs, etc.
• District Councils and Regional Councils have powers to adjudicate some cases between the
parties all of whom belong to Scheduled Tribes within such areas
• The District Council for an autonomous district may establish, construct, or manage primary
schools, dispensaries, markets, cattle pounds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road transport and
waterways, etc.
• District and Regional Funds: District Fund for autonomous district and for each autonomous
region, a Regional Fund to which shall be credited all moneys received respectively by the
District Council for that district and the Regional Council for that region
• Powers to assess and collect land revenue and to impose taxes.—The Regional Council for
an autonomous region and the District Council for an autonomous district shall have the
power to assess and collect land revenue and levy and collect taxes on lands and buildings,
and tolls on persons resident within such areas.
• District Council will have powers to make regulations for the control of money-lending and
trading by non-tribals
• Selective Application of Acts of Parliament and of the Legislature of the State of Assam to
autonomous districts and autonomous regions in the 6th Scheduled States/areas.
• Appointment of Commission to inquire into and report on the administration of autonomous
districts and autonomous regions
• One minister in each 6th schedule state for matters related to administration of autonomous
districts and autonomous regions

51
Major Issues of Tribal people:
• Displacement and losing their habitat due to developmental projects- dams, factories,
mining, etc
• Restrictions on their traditional rights on forest lands and resources
• Exploitations by outsiders, especially traders and money landers, in tribal areas
• Despite reservations, no effective voices in the Institutions of the state; they lacked
socio-political empowerment, are poorest among poor, and socio-economically
marginalised

52
 5. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q1. Write a short note on provisions for tribal people in the 5th & 6th Schedule
of Indian Constitution.
Tribal people in India are having very distinct way of life, traditions, and social customs.
To preserve and promote their distinct way of life and also to ensure proper socio-
economic development of the tribal regions, the Indian constitution has made elaborate
provisions through 5th and 6th schedules. The essence of these two schedules are to
provide for specific administrative arrangements for the areas populated by tribal
people. The union has taken over itself the responsibilities of managing the
administration of tribal areas. The governor of the concerned state has been assigned
special powers related to administration of tribal areas.
The 5th schedule pertains to the tribal majority areas, that is, where tribal population is
more than 50% in 10 states other than the north-eastern states. The 6th schedule, on the
other hand, pertains to 4 states of northeast -Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram.
There are major differences between the administrative arrangements mandated under
these two schedules.

Following are the salient provisions of the 5th and 6th schedule of the Indian
constitution:
5th Schedule provisions:
• Article 244(1) of the Constitution: expression Scheduled Areas means such areas as
the President may by order declare to be Scheduled Areas.

• 5th Schedule States: Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,

Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan and Telangana

Main provisions:
• Tribes Advisory Council:
o maximum 20 members for Scheduled Areas of whom, as nearly as may be,
three-fourths shall be the representatives of the Scheduled Tribes in the
Legislative Assembly of the State
o Tribes Advisory Council to advise on the welfare and advancement of the
Scheduled Tribes in the State
• Selective application of Law to Scheduled Areas: Governor may direct that any
particular Act of Parliament or of the Legislature of the State shall not apply to a
Scheduled Area
• The Governor may make regulations for the peace and good government of any area
in a State which is for the time being a Scheduled Area.

53
 • Report by the Governor to the President regarding the administration of Scheduled
Areas

6th Schedule Provisions:

• 6th Schedule States: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram
• Autonomous districts and autonomous regions:
o Governor my notify any area in 6th schedule state as autonomous district.
o If there are different Scheduled Tribes in an autonomous district, the Governor
may, by public notification, divide the area or areas inhabited by them into
autonomous regions.
• District Councils and Regional Councils:
• Autonomous districts will have District Councils
• District Council:
o District Council for each autonomous district consisting of not more than thirty
members, of whom not more than four persons shall be nominated by the
Governor and the rest shall be elected on the basis of adult suffrage
o District Council will administer the autonomous district
• Autonomous regions will have Regional Councils
o Regional Councils will administer the autonomous regions( within autonomous
districts)
• The Governor shall make rules for the first constitution of District Councils and
Regional Councils in consultation with the existing tribal Councils or other
representative tribal organisations within the autonomous districts or regions
concerned
• District Councils and Regional Councils have powers to make laws on certain local
matters such as the allotment, occupation or use, or the setting apart, of land, other
than any land which is a reserved forest, the use of any canal or water-course for
the purpose of agriculture, social customs, etc.
• District Councils and Regional Councils have powers to adjudicate some cases
between the parties all of whom belong to Scheduled Tribes within such areas
• The District Council for an autonomous district may establish, construct, or manage
primary schools, dispensaries, markets, cattle pounds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road
transport and waterways, etc.
• District and Regional Funds: District Fund for autonomous district and for each
autonomous region, a Regional Fund to which shall be credited all moneys received
respectively by the District Council for that district and the Regional Council for that
region
• Powers to assess and collect land revenue and to impose taxes.—The Regional
Council for an autonomous region and the District Council for an autonomous district
shall have the power to assess and collect land revenue and levy and collect taxes on
lands and buildings, and tolls on persons resident within such areas.
• District Council will have powers to make regulations for the control of money-lending
and trading by non-tribals

54
 • Selective Application of Acts of Parliament and of the Legislature of the State of Assam
to autonomous districts and autonomous regions in the 6th Scheduled States/areas.
• Appointment of Commission to inquire into and report on the administration of
autonomous districts and autonomous regions.
• One minister in each 6th schedule state for matters related to administration of
autonomous districts and autonomous regions

From the above information regarding 5th and 6th schedule provision in Indian constitution
it is evident that Indian state has taken upon itself the responsibility to ensure that tribal
way of life is preserved and protected and also the tribal area have proper socio-economic
development matching to other areas of the Indian state. Provisions contained in in these
two schedules put special responsibility for supervising the administration of tribal area on
the soldiers of governors who on behalf of the union government and president ensures that
the administration, welfare, and socio-economic development of the tribal areas are carried
out as per the provisions of 5th and 6th schedule.
But we should also understand that constitutional provisions are perhaps not sufficient for
preservation of traditional customs, way of life, rights, and socio-economic development
of the tribal people. The experience of about 70 years of working of Indian constitution has
shown that along with the constitutional provisions there should be enough will and
capacity in the political institutions to realise the pious intentions of the constitution makers
in schedule 5 and schedule 6 of Indian constitution.

Q.2: What are the major problems faced by the tribal people especially
related to developmental projects. Also discuss measures taken by the Indian
state to protect the interests of the tribal people.

Introduction:
Tribal people in India are living for ages mostly in forest and difficult geographical
areas with their own distinct way of life, social traditions, religious practices, customs,
and worldviews. During the colonial rule when outsiders started settling and interacting
with the tribal people they started to face problems in managing life in their own distinct
ways. British rule tried to discipline them; their traditional rights on forest lands and
minor forest produce were taken away. Revenue settlements of tribal lands as in normal
areas were attempted. The outsider non-tribal people started to settle in tribal areas. The
outsiders, especially traders and money lenders, trapped the poor and ignorant tribal
people in their dealings. Natural resources and tribal lands where grabbed and taken
away by the outsiders.
All these intrusions (invasions), interferences, exploitation and dominance were
resisted by the tribal people in the form of tribal revolts. Some of the famous revolts
were led by Birsa Munda in Jharkhand and Sidho-Kanho (Santhal movements) in

55
 Santhal Pargana. the Bhils and Gonds also revolted against exploitation and
interference.
Tribal people participated in Indian independence movement in the hope that after their
own rule they will regain their traditional way of life and get rid of exploitation by the
outsiders. The Tana Bhagats ( a religious tribal community in Jharkhand) were ardent
supporter of Gandhiji. Majority of tribal revolts were directed against the British rule
and the outsiders. But unfortunately even after the independence the exploitation and
marginalization of tribal people continued. This alienated them from the Indian state.
In many of the tribal region Naxalite movement started in 1970s.
In the next part of the answer, I will list out the problems faced by the tribal people,
Constitutional provisions for the tribal people, measures taken by the Indian parliament and
Government to improve upon the conditions of the tribal people. I will also critically analyse
the outcomes of these measures in terms of improvements in the conditions of the tribal people.

Following are the problems tribal people have been facing especially due to
development, resource exploitation, and outsiders:
• Displacement and losing their habitat due to developmental projects- mega dams,
factories, mining projects, etc
• Restrictions on their traditional rights on forest lands and resources
• Exploitations by outsiders, especially traders and money landers, in tribal areas
• Depletion of natural resources, due to developmental projects, in the tribal areas.
• Loss of their lands by the non-tribal people settling in tribal areas.
• Tribal becoming minority in their own traditional areas.
• Despite reservations, no effective voices in the Institutions of the state; they lacked
socio-political empowerment, are poorest among poor, and socio-economically
marginalised

The Indian constitution made elaborate provisions for protecting and promoting the interests
of the tribal people. Following are some of the provisions of the constitution related to
provision of special rights and protection to the tribal people.
• FIFTH SCHEDULE— Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled
Areas and Scheduled Tribes in 10 states other than the N-E States
• SIXTH SCHEDULE—Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States
of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Lok
Sabha

56
 • Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
Legislative Assemblies of the States.
• Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.
• Article 338A. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
• Article 339. Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the
welfare of Scheduled Tribes.
• Article 342: President to declare tribes or tribal communities as Scheduled Tribes
• Article 46. Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.
• Article 243D. Reservation of seats for ST in Panchayati Raj Institutions
• Article 243T. Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Tribes in every Municipality
• Article 244. Administration of Scheduled Areas and tribal areas.—The provisions of
the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration and control of the Scheduled Areas
and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura
and Mizoram.

To protect the tribal people from exploitation atrocities the Indian Parliament enacted
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
To provide the tribal people traditional rights on forest land and minor forest produce the Indian
parliament enacted Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of
Forest Rights) Act, 2006

Conclusion:
Despite such elaborate provisions in the Indian constitution for protection and promotion of
the welfare of the tribal peoples it is disconcerting (disturbing) to note that the tribal people in
India are still exploited, dominated, and marginalised. They are among the poorest of poor
people in India. Despite reservations in legislature and government jobs tribal people lack
socio-political empowerment. Their voices are hardly audible in the powerful institutions of
the state. Only some segment of the tribal people got benefited by the affirmative action
policies. They are still being exploited by the outsiders in their traditional areas. They are still
getting very restrictive rights in the forest areas beside which they have been living for ages.
They are still being displaced from their homeland and habitat for mega dam projects, mining
and setting up factories and manufacturing plants. They are still lacking proper education,
health care, and old age care. All these problems of the tribal people despite such elaborate
constitutional and statutory arrangements prove the fact that along with the constitutional
provisions there should be enough will and capacity in the political institutions to realise the
pious intentions of the constitution makers.

57
 THEME 6: THE CHANGING NATURE OF THE INDIAN
STATE
6.A: CBCS Syllabus
Developmental, Welfare and Coercive Dimensions of Indian State

6.B: Key Points:

Definition of state:
• As per the Montevideo Convention (1933), state is defined as a sovereign Political
organisation consisting of a permanent population, a defined territory, a government,
and Capacity to enter into relations with the other states.

Other Important definitions:

• Nation state
• Population of state are a nation- common culture, world view, way of life,
shared history
• Neutral state
• State like umpire mediating socio-political contestation among interest groups
• Instrumental state
• State as means of socio-economic transformation
• Interventionist state: state managing and controlling economy and public life
• Welfare State
• State plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social
well-being of citizens. State ensures equality of opportunity, equitable
distribution of wealth, social justice, and provision of basic minimum needs to
all.

Indian State: Unique features

• Indian state is the product of 3 factors
• State building during Colonial rule
• The Constitutional state: state as inscribed in the Constitution
• Post-independence state practices
• Idea of Indian state as imagined in the constitution
• Liberal Neutral arbiter vs Instrumental state
• Three dimensions of Indian State
• Developmental : Undertaking economic planning, executive mega projects,
building dams, factories, road, railways, ports, telecom, etc.

58
 • Development administration
• Community development projects
• Block Development officer
• District Development Officer
• Welfare State: Fulfilling basic needs of people, Public distribution system,
Food security, free education and medical care. Employment Guarantee
program- NAREGA, free housing, free gas cylinder, free ration, free health
insurance, etc.
• Coercive state: Emergency and suspension of Fundamental Rights, preventive
detention- TADA, POTA, UAPA, AFSPA, MISA, etc. State frequently using
police, para military to control social movements, etc.

Changing Nature of Indian State

• 1952-67 : Nehruvian state
• Accommodative and Consensual state
• Developmental state
• 1970s: Repressive state
• Socialist welfarist state- 20 point program
• Coercive state- Emergency, Preventive detention, suspension of FR
• 1980s: Techno managerial state ; crisis of governability- regional aspirations and
secessionist movements- Punjab, N-E, and J&K
• 1991 Onward : Indian state in the globalized era
• Techno-commercial, manipulative, competition, and internationalized state
• State as facilitator for free market neo-liberal economy
• Regulatory state
• Tension between Liberal capitalist vs welfare state

59
 6. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Discuss the changing nature of Indian state in the context of

globalization

Similar Question:
Q: “Globalisation has changed the nature of Indian State”. Discuss
Q: Discuss the impact of globalization on the nature of Indian state.

Ans Template:
Introduction:
State is defined as a sovereign Political organisation consisting of a permanent
population, a defined territory, a government, and capacity to enter into relations with
the other states. Indian state is the product of state building under colonial rule, national
movement, constitutional state under Indian constitution, and post-independence state
practices on top of complex age-old socio-economic structure and practices.
Duality and contradictions are inbuilt in both conception of Indian state in the
constitution and state practices and political processes. Three dimensions of Indian state
manifested in different periods post-independence are Developmental, Welfare and
Coercive. Developmental Nehruvian state gave way to coercive, welfare and socialist
state of 1970s which changed towards the techno-managerial state of 1980s.
Globalisation has changed the nature of states all around the world. In the globalised
world territorial boundaries of states lost their rigidness. Sovereignty of states was also
diluted in many spheres, especially in regulating trade, financial transactions and
political economy. What Robert Cox says, there was internationalization of state. Many
states started behaving like competition state, that is, states started competing for
foreign capital and investments. Thus, globalization has changed the nature of state in
many ways.
Indian state was also affected by the wave of globalization since 1991. Under the
structural adjustment program guided by IMF, Indian state adopted LPG, that is,
liberalization, privatization, and globalization. Indian state withdrew from many
economic activities and allowed private sector to come forward . The Indian state
became facilitator and neutral umpire promoting fair competition and level playing field
in the economic arena. Instead of undertaking economic activities directly, it started
regulating the economic activities by the private sector. Like many other developing
and post-colonial state, Indian state also tried its best to attract foreign capital and
investments. It provided many concessions to the multinational corporations for setting
up their facilities in India.

60
 On domestic front also the nature of Indian state underwent changes during the
globalised era. Its outlook became more technocratic; it used new managerial
techniques for governance; it adopted new governing practices such as New Public
Management, e-Governance and good governance. It also acquired many new
techniques and capabilities to monitor its population. This came in the form of universal
national ID cards, national population registry, linking Aadhar to voter ID, bank
accounts, mobile number, etc. It started using high end monitoring and surveillance
software. All this made the Indian state even more powerful in controlling its
population. In many respect the Indian state became more active and engaged not only
on domestic front but also in international politics.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to outline some of the major changes noticed in the
nature of Indian estate in the globalization era

Globalized Regulatory State: Changes in the nature of Indian state post 1991

• Process of liberalisation, privatisation, and globalization initiated in 1991 further

changed the nature of Indian state
• Political economy: state as facilitator of free market neo-liberal economic order
• Economic liberalization: end of License Permit Raj, FDI, concessions to MNCs,
liberalized trade, privatization, etc.
• Pvt. Sector were allowed entry into hitherto reserved sectors; role of PSUs
diminished
• Retreating State – Indian state retreated from many economic activities, allowed
the private sector to come forward. Instead of rowing( directly doing economic
activities), Indian state started steering.
• Regulatory state: State became the regulator of economic activities.
• But above changes diluted Indian state’s commitment towards social equity,
social justice, and social welfare
• Less Interventionist state
• Least interventionist, followed liberal democratic ideology of neutral arbiter
• Became a facilitator
• Political state
• Dilution of state sovereignty and regulatory capability
• Rising influence of MNCs, WTO, Other global convention, agreements,
and regimes
• Rise of coalition politics, rising importance of regional politics
• State acquiring new technique and capabilities to monitor and control its
population.

61
 • More active and engaged state:
• In the globalized era the Indian state became more active and engaged in
international politics. This is manifested in active role of Indian state on global
forums such as united nations, NAM, G-20 and many such inter-governmental
organizations. In WTO negotiations and climate change conferences the Indian
state became more assertive. Recently the engagement of Indian state in
multilateral alliances such as QUAD, BRICS, Shanghai corporation
organization, I2U2, IPEF, etc. has underlined the more engaged and active role
of Indian state in international politics.

Conclusion:
From the above discussion it is clear that the nature of Indian state underwent change
during the globalised era starting since 1991. The Indian state retreated from many of
the economic activities and allowed the private sector to come forward. It started
regulating the activities of private sectors. The Indian state also became more
competitive in attracting global capital and investments. It started behaving more like a
facilitator and a neutral umpire.
In international politics the Indian state became more active and engaged. On many
multilateral forums, such as, in UN, WTO and climate negotiations, it made effective
alliances with other developing nations and asserted its viewpoints. In domestic front it
behaved like techno-commercial managerial state regulating the economic activity
activities and balancing different interests. It acquired new and sophisticated
technologies to do effective surveillance of its population.
In many respects its authority and strength increased. But in this entire process of
change its focus on social equity, social justice, and welfare perhaps got diluted. If we
consider the three prime dimensions of Indian states, during the globalised era, it was
more like a developmental state but the coercive dimension also remained intact, though
it acquired new forms and techniques. What was diluted to some extent was its welfare
dimension. However, of late that dimension also has been regained by the Indian state.
The successive governments since 2004 have launched mega welfare schemes. Hence,
in conclusion, globalization has changed many aspects of Indian state but its essential
character of being a developmental, welfarist and coercive state has perhaps remained
intact, though in different forms and features.

62
Q.2: Critically examine the developmental, welfare, and coercive dimensions
of Indian state.

Introduction:

State is defined as a sovereign Political organisation consisting of a permanent

population, a defined territory, a government, and capacity to enter into relations with
the other states. Indian state is the product of state building under colonial rule, national
movement, formation of the constitutional state under Indian constitution, and post-
independence state practices on top of complex age-old socio-economic structure and
practices.
State is an invisible or intangible entity. We cannot see the state; we can only experience
or feel its nature when we interact with the state. When we talk about the nature of state
what do we mean? The state like an individual has certain personality. In its interaction
with its citizens or other states in international relation it behaves in a certain way. For
example, the behaviour of USA after the end of Cold War in 1991 has been hegemonic.
In international relations it started to behave like a village headman. Another example
is France. The French state consistently behaved in a responsible manner differing from
American viewpoint in international relations. On the other hand, UK completely allied
with USA in the post WWII world.
How and by whom the nature of the state is determined? Government of the day is the
visible or tangible part of the state. The nature of state at particular moment of time is
determined by the nature of the government of that time exercising the sovereign power
of the state. Since in India the head of the government is Prime Minister, nature of the
government reflects the nature of the Prime Minister. Therefore, the nature and style of
functioning of the Prime Minister ultimately determines the nature of the state at that
time.
Second question is how we determine the nature of the estate? How the state interact
with its population is one major determinant of its nature the state. If the state extends
welfare measures to its population, take care of its basic needs, and provide all the
required support to the weaker and marginalised section, then such a state will be called
a welfare state. On the other hand, if the state uses force , coercion and other disciplining
methods against opposition and dissident groups/people, its nature would be called
coercive. On the contrary, if the state opt for conciliation, accommodation, and
consensus in case of opposition then we call the nature of such state consensual or
accommodative. Finally, if the state focuses on economic development by way of
development administration, developmental policies, development of institutions and
their capacities to bring all round development in the socio-economic life in the country
then we term the nature of the state as developmental. This way we can delineate(
define) many different kinds of nature of the state.

63
 In case of the Indian state three dimensions of its nature manifested in different periods
in the post-independence era; these are Developmental, Welfare and Coercive nature.
Developmental Nehruvian state gave way to coercive, welfare and socialist state of
1970s which changed towards the techno-managerial state of 1980s under Rajeev
Gandhi.
In the next section of the answer, I will explain in brief the developmental, coercive and welfare
aspects of the nature of the Indian state.

Developmental Nature of the Indian State:

If we term the Indian state under Jawaharlal Nehru in the first 15 years of its
independence as the Nehruvian state, then the dominant nature of the Nehruvian state
was developmental. The Nehruvian state directly undertook economic activities
through public sector undertakings to build mega dams, factories, manufacturing, road
railways, port, and other vital infrastructure. The state focused on community
development program and created the powerful institution of block development officer
(BDO). In the district, district development officers(DDOs) where appointed. The
district administration which was focused on law and order and revenue collection in
the pre independence era was transformed into a development administration which
was proactive, change and action oriented and focused on rapid economic development.

The Nehruvian state adopted mixed economy model for economic development. The
government itself took upon the responsibility of huge capital investment for basic
infrastructure and heavy Industries whereas the private sectors were allowed in light
industries and consumer goods sectors. Another feature of the developmental state
under Nehru was the Five-year plans. The entire economic development was
systematically planned by the Planning Commission. It is interesting to note that
Planning Commission was neither a constitutional nor a statutory body; it was creation
of Nehru’s initiative for rapid development of India. Nehru Ji also set up National
Development Council ( NDC) of which he became the chairperson with all the chief
ministers as its members. Thus, the dominant nature of the Indian state during the Nehru
era was developmental.

The welfare state under Indira Gandhi

The dominant nature of the Indian state was welfarism during 1970s under the Prime
Minister ship of Indira Gandhi. During this period the Indian state behaved as a
socialist and interventionist state. Nationalization of banks were done; the Privy purses
of the wrest-while Princes of the Indian princely states were abolished. 20 point
program for fulfillment of basic needs of people was launched. Public distribution
system ( PDS) to provide food at affordable price to masses was launched. Free medical
care in rural areas through primary health centers (PHCs) were provided. Thus, by all

64
 count the Indian state looked welfarist during 1970s under the Prime Minister ship of
Indira Gandhi.
Since then, welfarism became the permanent nature of the Indian state. The Indian state
under successive governments continued to extend welfare measures to poor and
marginalized people.

Coercive nature of Indian state

There were many phases in which the Indian state came very hard on people and groups
opposing the government of the day. The first major such phase came during the Prime
Minister ship of Indira Gandhi. Beginning 1974, under the leadership of Jai Prakash
Narayan, a massive opposition to her government was launched in different parts of the
country. The Indian state came heavily on the opposition and dissident groups. Majority
of the opposition leaders and the dissidents were arrested under the draconian
maintenance of internal Security Act (MISA). The Indian state declared the state of
emergency on 25th June 1975. During emergencies the dominant nature of the Indian
state was coercive. It suspended all fundamental rights to the citizen including the right
to life. There was press censorship, federalism was also suspended, and the Indian state
behaved as big bully.

Since then, there are many occasions when the Indian state behaved in coercive manner.
Preventive detention through many draconian laws such as TADA, POTA, UAPA,
AFSPA, NSA, etc. continued. Forceful suppression of agitations, movements, protests
continued. On many occasions the state handled the opposition, the dissidents and the
deviant people with heavy hands. Thus, the coercive nature of the Indian state also
became permanent feature of Indian polity

Conclusion
from the above discussion it is evident that nature of the Indian state was primarily
determined by the policies and actions of the government of the day. Since the
government is headed by Prime Minister, hence the nature of the Indian state reflected
the nature and style of function of the Prime Minister of the day.
The Nehruvian state was primarily a developmental state. The focus was on rapid
economic development to make India self-reliant The Indian state under Indira Gandhi
during 1970s had the clear feature of the welfarist state .The state took a socialist turn
and focused on fulfilling the basic needs of the people. Eliminating poverty became the
the motto of the state. This was popularized by the slogan ‘Garibi Hatao’ by Indira
Gandhi. But unfortunately starting 1974, the Indian state under the the Prime Minister
ship of Indira Gandhi acquired the nature of a coercive state. It came heavily on
opposition parties, dissident and deviant groups, social movements and protests. It used
the instrument of preventive detention to crush the opposition. It also declared

65
emergency suspending all fundamental rights. Since then, the coercive nature of Indian
state manifested from time to time.
In conclusion, we may say that all the three aspects of the natures of Indian state, that
is, developmental, coercive, and welfarist became permanent feature of Indian polity.
The Indian state manifested these three aspects of its nature from time to time.

66
 SECTION 2

SAMPLE
PAPERS
3 SETS

67
 SAMPLE PAPERS WITH HINTS FOR THE ANSWERS

SAMPLE PAPER SET 1

Q.1:” Coalition era has come to end in Indian Politics.” Give arguments in favour of your
answer.
(Hint: It is same as asking discuss the change in party system post 2014 with the rise of BJP as
dominant political party in Indian Polity. You should discuss the era of multi-party coalition
beginning 1989 after the demise of the congress system, rise of regional parties, and
fragmentation of the party system. Thereafter, you should discuss the rise of BJP at the cost of
the Congress and its spectacular wins in the general elections of 2014 and 2019. You should
argue that despite BJP having absolute majority of its own in the Lok Sabha it preferred to
form a coalition Government at Centre, called the NDA. Hence, coalition politics has not ended
in Indian Politics. Still the primary rivals at national level are Congress led UPA and BJP led
NDA coalitions. Refer to answer at page 7, you will get many points from there)

Q.2: Describe the Electoral Process for Lok Sabha and State Legislative assembly
elections and role of Election commission of India in it.

( Hint: refer to the key points at page 17 and answer at page 24; you need to elaborate each
point and also the role played by ECI in each step of the process.)

Q.3: Define Secularism. Critically analyse the role of Indian state in the practice of
secularism.
(Hint: for the second part explain the secularism as inscribed in Indian Constitution. How
Indian state under Nehru and Indira Gandhi practiced secularism should be explained. The
Nehruvian state followed the Constitutional provisions of neutrality of state in religious matter.
Indian state kept distance from religion. But it intervened in religious matters wherever
religious issue contradicted fundamental rights, human rights and freedom. Hindu code bill as
an example should be elaborated. Indian state under Indira Gandhi went for strict and formal
secularism. The word secularism was inserted into the preamble of Indian Constitution through
42nd Constitutional Amendments. Her decision to allow army to enter the golden temple was
an example of practice of secularism by Indian state under Indira Gandhi. The Indian state
under Rajeev Gandhi adopted somewhat confusing stand on secularism. On one hand, in the
Sah Bano case ( this should be explained in detail), the Indian state went for appeasement of
the powerful lobby in Muslim community to subvert the SCI judgement and on the other hand,
by opening the lock of the Ram Mandir at Ayodhya, the Indian state seemed to appease the
powerful Hindu groups. Since then, the debate on secularism intensified. The Indian state under
the BJP government is practising secularism in very different manner than the previous

68
Congress Government. It seems to be guided by the thoughts of cultural nationalism by
Savarkar and a secular Hindu Rashtra. Indian state stopped the appeasement policy towards
religious minority. But it maintained secularism in governance and extending welfare benefits
to citizen of India. Some of its policies, such as, CAA & NRC, became controversial on grounds
of being, allegedly, against the secularism as enshrined in the Constitution. Refer to answer at
page 30 for answer to part one of this question)

Q.4: Caste has emerged as a dominant factor in contemporary Indian politics.

Explain the interaction of caste and politics in the above context.

(Hint: Rise of caste politics after Mandal commission implementations in 1990 should be
highlighted. Refer to answer at page 39 )

Q.5: What issues and challenges tribal people have faced, especially due the development
projects and forest laws. Discuss.

(Hint: You should focus on problems of displacement, losing traditional rights on forest,
exploitation by outsiders, traders and money landers, powerlessness and marginalisation.
Refer to answer at page 54)

Q.6: Globalisation has changed the nature of Indian state. Discuss.

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 59)

69
 SAMPLE PAPER SET 2

Q.1: Discuss the changing nature of party system in India from Congress system to
multiparty coalitions

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 7)

Q.2: Critically evaluate different factors influencing the voting behaviour of the
electorate during national elections in India.

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 19)

Q.3: What do you understand by the term secularism? Can Politics be religion neutral?
Discuss.

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 30 and 33)

Q.4: Intersection of caste and gender is major form of discrimination in Indian Society.
Discuss the affirmative action policies in light of this statement.
(Hint: It is same as asking discuss affirmative action policy and its role in compensating for
background inequalities due to caste and gender. Refer to answer at page 43)

Q.5: How far the Indian state was successful in helping tribal people preserving their way
of life and have socio-economic development? Critically examine.

(Hint: you should outline the Constitutional provisions for protection and empowerment of
tribal people and how the Indian state was able to practice the Constitutional provisions. Also
state the outcomes in terms of improvement in quality of life and empowerment of the tribal
people. Refer to answers at page 52 and 54; take some points from the key points at page 51)

Q.6: Critically examine the developmental and welfare dimensions of Indian state.

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 63)

70
 SAMPLE PAPER SET 3
Q.1: What has been the impact of party system fragmentation on Indian politics after
1989?

(Hint: This a paraphrased question. It is same as asking how single party dominance gave way
to multi-party coalition beginning 1989 and how it affected Indian Polity. Some of effects of
coalition era has been 1. Weak central Government 2. Rising importance of regional parties 3.
Rising importance of state level politics 4. Confrontation and tussle between the central and
state govts 5. Fall of Government and frequent elections 6. Defection and break up of political
parties, etc.; Refer to answer at page 7)

Q.2: Critically evaluate the contemporary trends in the voting behaviour of the Indian
Electorate

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 19)

Q.3: What do you mean by "Secularism"? Discuss the major debates on secularism in
India.
(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 30)

Q.4: Do you agree that development has replaced caste as the dominant factor in Indian
elections? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

(Hint: you should disagree. Caste remained the dominant factor in Indian Election despite all
talks on development. It is a paraphrased question; same as asking explain how caste remained
dominant factor in Indian Election despite focus on governance & development. Refer to
Answer at page 39)

Q.5: Describe the main provisions of 5th and 6th Schedule of Indian Constitution. How far
they helped the tribal people in protecting their distinct way of life, customs, rights, and
political empowerments?

(Hint: straightforward question; Refer to answer at page 52)

Q.6: Discuss the different phases of trends in the nature of the Indian State.
Highlight the linkage between the nature of the Indian state with the nature & leadership
style of the Indian prime minister.

(Hint: You can get many points from key points at page 59 and answer at page 63).

71
 SECTION 3

ANSWER WRITING TIPS

FOR ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

72
 Scoring Answer Writing Tips

How to Write Best Answers in University Exam?

BA Hons Pol Sc Exam Help

• Yes, one may score better marks by writing strategically. Essay type
answers require different skills than MCQs.

• Structure (Template), organization, flow, and style matter in essay types of

answers. Here are my Tips:

73
 First Tips : Analyse Past Year’s papers

Select the topics asked

Topic wise analysis of
repeatedly- select
3-4 year’s question
topics to cover at least
papers shall reveal the
70%- 5-6 questions for
question pattern
sure

• This I have done for you. I have analysed past four year’s paper of DU on
Political Process in India. Provided standard answer template on all of
those questions.

• In fact, the questions cover the entire syllabus. Thus, only by reading the
answers in this guide carefully and repeatedly, yes at least 7-8 times, you
will be covering the entire syllabus.

• When exam is very near, you may leave some of themes/topics by an

intelligent guess.

74
 2nd Tips: Make Intelligent Guess !

Yes, by carefully
analysing past papers Do it with
you can guess confidence!
expected questions.

• Yes, you should do it. Examiners set paper by going through past 3-4 year’s
paper.

• They have to meet 2 conditions; 1st the question should be within the
syllabus and 2nd they should be on similar pattern and difficulty level as
asked in earlier years. Hence, the paper setter normally set questions very
similar to one asked earlier.

• They also alternate the theme/topic. Thus, if a topic is asked in 2017, they
repeat that in 2019, and like that.

• Therefore, you can guess! Yes…

75
 3rd Tip: use the question as answer clue!

Answers are
Attentively read Provide standard
expansion of ideas,
question at least 3 Answers to twisted
issues stated in the
times, yes 3 times! questions
questions

• Answers are hidden in the Questions!

• While framing the question, the examiner is thinking about the answer.
Hence, by carefully and on multiple reading you can visualize the answer
hidden in the question.

• And, yes, also read the Hindi translation of the question. Sometime, you
may not know exact meaning of the key word in the question. Hindi
translation may give the meaning. Also, many a times, wording of Hindi
question disclose more about the hidden answer. This is due to translation
issue. Take advantage of questions in two languages.

76
 4th Tips: cleverly organise your answers

Write 1st answer on your best Choose 2nd best topic as last
prepared topic question

Because examiners pay more

Least prepared topics as 2nd attention to your first
and 3rd answers; Why? question, then the last, and
least to middle answers…yes!

• Yes, examiners actually browse through your answer, they don’t read word by word.

• Also, they assess your standard by your 1st answer. 2nd and 3rd answer may not change
your assessment. They assign you marks in range in accordance with the bracketing
they do in the 1st answer.

• Hence, write your best prepared topic as 1st answer. 2nd best as last, why? Because
examiner try to put some attention while browsing your last answer. Make use of his
attention. He may revise the marks bracket he decided while reading your 1st answer.

77
 5th Tip : Strategic writing?

How many words per

question? No fixed rule- Use standard answer
Normally, 800-1200 words structure (template)
(4-6 pages)

Numbered or bulleted Sprinkle and underline key

points in ‘Body’ phrases

• How many words to write?

• Actually, it shouldn’t matter. But unfortunately, in our country it does matter.
• Average writing speed is 25 words per minute. In a 180 minute (3 hour) exam, one may
write for about 160 minute, leaving 20 minutes for reading paper and organizing
thoughts. Therefore, in 160 minutes, maximum 4000 words can be written. This comes
to 1000 words per question.
• Write in bigger font, maximum 200 words in one page. Use bullets/number and
indenting. Leave good space between paragraph. They consume space.
• Examiners are used to see answers written in a particular template(structure). Follow
them. Carefully observe how I have tried to write in a fixed structure. I have given a
standard structure in next slide.
• Yes, insert standard phrases in your answer, sprinkle (scatter) them across your answer.
Why? Examiners are interested in seeing the key words/phrases in your answer, this
helps them quickly browsing your answer. If the found them they assume that rest of
your answer is also okay.
• And finally, repeat key phrases. Yes! You may write the key phrase in Introduction, in
body and in the conclusion. Why? Simple, because examiners are compelled to note the
key phrase/concept in your answer even if he is browsing through the answer. Hence,
don’t hesitate to repeat. It pays.

78
 Answer Template: Example: “Discuss the debates
on Secularism in India”
• Introduction
• Introduce the topic , e.g. Secularism
• Provide definition, meaning, and brief overview of the topic
• Give a glimpse of your conclusion- finally what you want to say
• Theoretical Foundation or Literature review
• State the ideas of main political thinkers on the topic/issue- Ashish Nandy, T.N.Madan,
Achin Vinayak, Rajeev Bhargava, etc.
• At least 4-5 names
• Just state their key arguments on Indian Secularism
• List out different debates on Secularism in India
• List out the main debates and just explain them in few lines.
• Provide your own view – crux of your answer
• Conclusion
• Paraphrase introduction
• State your final view and concluding remarks

• Introduction is where you should focus most. Why? Because examiner read first few
lines of Introduction carefully. It is here he is putting you in a bracket or grade for
marking. 20 % of the total words.

• Conclusion is basically introduction in other words. Both give an overview/summary

of the theme, explain a bit about the question asked and give very brief of their final
argument. Difference is in wording. Introduction says I will explain or as explained
below, whereas conclusion say, as I have explained above and so on. 10-15 % of the
total words.

• You can break the body of the answer in two parts. One informative and other analytical.
In the latter part you may critically analyse the statement or theme in context of the
question. You may even merge these two parts into one.

• You may also merge ‘discussion’ part of the ‘body’ into conclusion. In many answers I
have done that.

GOOD WISHES!

79