Psychology Notes

This is the
combination of
lectures delivered in
the first semester of
MS ELM at SZABIST
campus Larkana
Complied by:
Imran K. Kalhoro
MS- ELM
ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Dr. Muhammad Aslam Kamboh
Advanced Educational Psychology Dr. Aslam Kamboh MS ELM
Psychology and Educational Psychology
 What is psychology?
 What are branches of Psychology?
 What are branches of psychology of interest to a teacher? And why?
 What is educational Psychology?
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Psychology meaning and word origin

 WORD origin of PSYCHO lies in GREEK word PSUKHE, or PsyckhuhA which means SPRIT/ soul or
BREATH and in French and New Latin language there is a word psychologia.
 history of the word dates in back 1675-85.
 The science of the mind or of mental states and processes.
Best Definitions of Psychology in use in Descending order

• Psychology is defined as the science that deals with emotional and mental processes.
• The emotional and behavioral characteristics of an individual, group, or activity.
• Psychology is the summary of a person's characteristics including how they think, feel or behave.
• The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.
• The branch of metaphysics that studies the soul, the mind, and the relationship of life and mind to the
functions of the body.
• (uncountable use) The study of human behavior.
• A particular system of psychology.
• (uncountable) The study of the human mind.
• The sum of the actions, traits, attitudes, thoughts, mental states, etc. of a person or group. Example the
psychology of the adolescent
• Subtle tactical action or argument used to manipulate or influence another.
• Techniques intended to manipulate another or others.
• The emotional and behavioral characteristics of an individual, a group, or those engaged in a given
activity.
• The behavioral and cognitive characteristics of a specific individual, group, activity, or circumstances.
• The mental, emotional, and behavioral characteristics pertaining to a specified person, group, or activity.
• The study of animal behavior.
Branches/Areas of psychology
• Research and Practice in and of psychology has given birth to many established branches of interest for
the end user.
• From the education point of view beside many others following branches are important: Behavioral
psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Educational Psychology, school
psychology and social psychology
Behavioral psychology:
• also known as behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning.
• People often utilize behavioral strategies such as classical conditioning (linking new Stimuli with Existing
Response) and
• Operant conditioning (reward and punishment) to teach or modify behaviors.
Cognitive Psychology:
• it is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal mental states.
• Psychologists who work in this field often study things such as perception, motivation, emotion, language,
learning, memory, attention, decision-making, and problem-solving.
• Cognitive psychologists often use an information-processing model to describe how the mind works,
suggesting that the brain stores and processes information much like a computer.
Developmental Psychology
The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change
throughout life and develop. Developmental psychologists often study things such as physical growth,
intellectual development, emotional changes, social growth, and perceptual changes that occur over the
course of the lifespan.
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These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or geriatric
development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays. This field covers a huge range of
topics including everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease.
Alzheimer's disease
• It is a chronic, irreversible disease that affects the cells of brain and causes impairment of intellectual
functioning.
• It is brain disorder which gradually destroys the ability to reason, remember, imagine and learn.
• It is type of dementia.
• It is a brain disease that causes problems with memory, thinking and behavior.
Educational Psychology
• It is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues, and
student concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with
students, parents, teachers, and administrators to improve student outcomes.
• They might study how different variables influence individual student outcomes. They also study topics
such as learning disabilities, giftedness, the instructional process, and individual differences.
• Personality psychology
• It is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of the thought patterns, feelings, and behaviors
that make each individual unique.
• Personality psychologists might study how different factors such as genetics, parenting, and social
experiences influence how personality develops and changes.
School Psychology
• It is a field that involves working in schools to help kids deal with academic, emotional, and social issues.
School psychologists also collaborate with teachers, students, and parents to help create a healthy
learning environment.
• Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but others work in private clinics,
hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into private practice and serve as consultants,
especially those with a doctoral degree in school psychology.
Social Psychology
• It seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics including group behavior,
social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication, and social influences on decision-making.
• This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group behavior, social
perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. Social influences on behavior are
a major interest in social psychology, but social psychologists are also focused on how people perceive
and interact with others.
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a
child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual
skill, language learning, and other aspects of the developed adult brain and cognitive
psychology.
 Definition and Explanation
 History of Cognitive Development Theories
 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Information Processing Theories
 Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Cognitive Development: What we know from the theories
o CD at infancy
o CD at toddlerhood
o CD at pre school
o CD at School
o CD: Common Problems
o CD: Parental Concerns
o CD: When to call the doctor
 Key Terms used in CD
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Definition & Explanation
Definition
Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving,
and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood
Explanation
It was once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form complex ideas and remained without
cognition until they learned language. It is now known that babies are aware of their surroundings and
interested in exploration from the time they are born. From birth, babies begin to actively learn. They gather,
sort, and process information from around them, using the data to develop perception and thinking skills.
History on CD theories
Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test first adopted for use in the United States by psychologist Lewis
Terman (1877–1956) in 1916 from a French model pioneered in 1905. These theories came under increasing
criticism for defining intelligence too narrowly and for being biased with regard to race and gender.
In contrast to the emphasis placed on a child's native abilities by intelligence testing, learning theory
grew out of work by behaviorist researchers such as John Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904–
1990), who argued that children are completely malleable. Their Learning theory focuses on the role of
environmental factors in shaping the intelligence of children, especially on a child's ability to learn by having
certain behaviors rewarded and others discouraged
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

French psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) published his theory of Cognitive Development (CD)
in 1952 His theory grew out of decades of extensive observation of children, including his own, in their natural
environments as opposed to the laboratory experiments of the behaviorists. He was interested in how children
reacted to their environment, he proposed a more active role for them than that suggested by learning theory.
He envisioned a child's knowledge as composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used to organize past
experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new ones.
What are Schemas? How do they work?

Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary processes that Piaget termed assimilation
and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process of taking in new information by incorporating it into
an existing schema. In other words, people assimilate new experiences by relating them to things they
already know. On the other hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema itself changes to
accommodate new knowledge. To him cognitive development involves an ongoing attempt to achieve a
balance between assimilation and accommodation that he termed equilibration.
Paget's Stages of CD
1. Sensorimotor stage (infancy): In this period, which has the sub-
stages:
 Intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use
Pre-Operational
Formal Operational
Concrete Operationa
Sensorymotor
of symbols.
 Knowledge of the world is limited, but developing, because it is
based on physical interactions and experiences.
 Children acquire object permanence at about seven months of age
(memory).
 Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing
new intellectual abilities.
 Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
2. Pre-operational stage (toddlerhood and early childhood)
 This has two sub stages:
 intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols,
 Language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a non-
logical, non-reversible manner. Egocentric thinking predominates.
3. Concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence): This stage is characterized by seven
types of conservation:
1) Number
2) Length
3) Liquid
4) Mass
5) Weight
6) Area
7) Volume
 At this stage intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols
related to concrete objects.
 Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).
 Egocentric thought diminishes.
4. Formal operational stage (adolescence and adulthood): In this stage:
 Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in
the period there is a return to egocentric thought.
 Important to note: only 35 percent of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal
operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.
Information processing theory: An alternate to Paget's

work
Researchers using information-processing theory to study cognitive development in children have focused
on areas such as the gradual improvements in children's ability to take in information and focus selectively
on certain parts of it and their increasing attention spans and capacity for memory storage. For example,
researchers have found that the superior memory skills of older children are due in part to memorization
strategies, such as repeating items in order to memorize them or dividing them into categories.
Lev Vygotsky cognitive development 1934

Piaget and Gesell believed development stemmed directly from the child, and although Vygotsky
acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the language, writings, and concepts arising from
the culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005).
Interaction between Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding=

Vygotsky stated that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can almost perform a
task, but not quite on their own without assistance. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the
child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then perform
the task unaided. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
Zone of Proximal Development

 This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently
and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
 Child decides on “what is beyond my reach?”; “what is within my reach?” and “ what can I learn with
support?”
 Before making decision he contextualize for “ available technology and tools” and “knowledgeable others”
Vygotsky postulated theory for cognitive development.

“social interaction is fundamental to cognitive development. Vygotsky’s theory is comprised of concepts such
as culture-specific tools, language and thought interdependence, and the Zone of Proximal Development.
Vygotsky Emphasizes
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1. Culture affects cognitive development (CD)
2. Social factors contribute in CD. Cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided
learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.
3. More role of language
4. Adults are important in CD
5. Private speech – self dialogue or collaborate within themselves
Private speech Piaget v/s Vygotsky

Theoretical Predictions PIAGET VYGOTSKY
Developmental significance of Represents an ability to take the Represents external thought; its
private speech perspective of another and function is to communicate with
therefore to engage in truly the self for the purpose of self –
relational and reciprocal guidance and self -direction.
communication
Course of development Decline monotonically with age Curvilinear, increasing at the
younger ages, but gradually
decreasing at it loses its audible
quality and becomes internal
thought.
Relationship to social speech Negative; is eventually is Positive at the younger ages.
replaced by social speech
Influence of environmental Increases with task difficulty; the
contexts: Task difficulty greater effort needed to reach a
solution necessities the action
regulating role of private speech
Summary Piaget V/s Vygotsky

Piaget Vygotsky
Socio cultural context Little emphasis Strong emphasis
Stages Strong emphasis on stages of No general stages of development
development proposed
Key processes in Equilibration; schema; adaptation; Zone of proximal development;
development and assimilation; accommodation scaffolding; language/dialogue; tools
learning of culture
Role of language Minimal- language provides labels of Major- Language plays a powerful
children’s for children’s experiences role in shaping thought.
(egocentric speech)
Teaching implications Support children to explore their world Establish opportunities for children to
and discover knowledge. learn with the teacher and more
skilled peers.
Classroom Applications Vygotsky

 Social interaction
 Collaborative learning and construction or negation of knowledge.
 Teaching styles based on constructivism mark a conscious effort to move from ‘traditional, objectivist
models didactic, memory-oriented transmission models’.
 Instructional concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship,"
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Cognitive Development: What we know from the theories

Cognitive Development at infancy
As soon as they are born, infants begin learning to use their senses to explore the world around them. Most
newborns can focus on and follow moving objects, distinguish the pitch and volume of sound, see all colors
and distinguish their hue and brightness, and start anticipating events, such as sucking at the sight of a
nipple. By three months old, infants can recognize faces; imitate the facial expressions of others, such as
smiling and frowning; and respond to familiar sounds.
At six months of age, babies are just beginning to understand how the world around them works. They
imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice, recognize parents, fear strangers, distinguish between
animate and inanimate objects, and base distance on the size of an object. They also realize that if they drop
an object, they can pick it up again. At four to seven months, babies can recognize their names.
By nine months, infants can imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties of
objects, understand simple words such as "no," and understand that an object still exists even when they
cannot see it. They also begin to test parental responses to their behavior, such as throwing food on the floor.
They remember the reaction and test the parents again to see if they get the same reaction.
At 12 months of age, babies can follow a fast moving object; can speak two to fours words, including
"mama" and "papa"; imitate animal sounds; associate names with objects; develop attachments to objects,
such as a toy or blanket; and experience separation anxiety when away from their parents. By 18 months of
age, babies are able to understand about 10–50 words; identify body parts; feel a sense of ownership by
using the word "my" with certain people or objects; and can follow directions that involve two different tasks,
such as picking up toys and putting them in a box.
Cognitive Development at Toddlerhood

Between 18 months to three years of age, toddlers have reached the "sensorimotor" stage of Piaget's theory
of cognitive development that involves rudimentary thought. For instance, they understand the permanence
of objects and people, visually follow the displacement of objects, and begin to use instruments and tools.
Toddlers start to strive for more independence, which can present challenges to parents concerned for
their safety . They also understand discipline and what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate, and they
understand the concepts of words like "please" and "thank you."
Two-year-olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about ten new words
per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of emotions, such as love, trust, and fear. They begin to
understand some of the ordinary aspects of everyday life, such as shopping for food, telling time, and being
read.
CD at Preschool
Preschoolers, aged three to six, should be at the "preoperational" stage of Piaget's cognitive development
theory, meaning they are using their imagery and memory skills. They should be conditioned to learning and
memorizing, and their view of the world is normally very self-centered. Preschoolers usually have also
developed their social interaction skills, such as playing and cooperating with other children their own age. It
is normal for preschoolers to test the limits of their cognitive abilities, and they learn negative concepts and
actions, such as talking back to adults, lying, and bullying. Other cognitive development in preschoolers are
developing an increased attention span, learning to read, and developing structured routines, such as doing
household tasks.
CD at School
Younger school-age children, six to 12 years old, should be at the "concrete operations" stage of Piaget's
cognitive development theory, characterized by the ability to use logical and coherent actions in thinking and
solving problems. They understand the concepts of permanence and conservation by learning that volume,
weight, and numbers may remain constant despite changes in outward appearance. These children should
be able to build on past experiences, using them to explain why some things happen. Their attention span
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should increase with age, from being able to focus on a task for about 15 minutes at age six to an hour by
age nine.
Adolescents, ages 12 through 18, should be at the "formal operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive
development theory. It is characterized by an increased independence for thinking through problems and
situations. Adolescents should be able to understand pure abstractions, such as philosophy and higher math
concepts. During this age, children should be able to learn and apply general information needed to adapt to
specific situations. They should also be able to learn specific information and skills necessary for an
occupation. A major component of the passage through adolescence is a cognitive transition. Compared to
children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, and generally more complex.
This ability can be seen in five ways.
First, during adolescence individuals become better able than children to think about what is possible,
instead of limiting their thought to what is real. Whereas children's thinking is oriented to the here and now—
that is, to things and events that they can observe directly—adolescents are able to consider what they
observe against a backdrop of what is possible; they can think hypothetically.
Second, during the passage into adolescence, individuals become better able to think about abstract
ideas. For example, adolescents find it easier than children to comprehend the sorts of higher-order, abstract
logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. The adolescent's greater facility with abstract
thinking also permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to social and ideological
matters. This is clearly seen in the adolescent's increased facility and interest in thinking about interpersonal
relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, and morality.
Third, during adolescence individuals begin thinking more often about the process of thinking itself,
or metacognition. As a result, adolescents may display increased introspection and self-consciousness.
Although improvements in metacognitive abilities provide important intellectual advantages, one potentially
negative byproduct of these advances is the tendency for adolescents to develop a sort of egocentrism, or
intense preoccupation with the self.
A fourth change in cognition is that thinking tends to become multidimensional, rather than limited to
a single issue. Whereas children tend to think about things one aspect at a time, adolescents can see things
through more complicated lenses. Adolescents describe themselves and others in more differentiated and
complicated terms and find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspectives. Being able to understand
that people's personalities are not one-sided or that social situations can have different interpretations
depending on one's point of view permits the adolescent to have far more sophisticated and complicated
relationships with other people.
Finally, adolescents are more likely than children to see things as relative, rather than absolute.
Children tend to see things in absolute terms—in black and white. Adolescents, in contrast, tend to see things
as relative. They are more likely to question others' assertions and less likely to accept facts as absolute
truths. This increase in relativism can be particularly exasperating to parents, who may feel that their
adolescent children question everything just for the sake of argument. Difficulties often arise, for example,
when adolescents begin seeing their parents' values as excessively relative.
Cognitive Development: Common Problems

Cognitive impairment is the general loss or lack of development of cognitive abilities, particularly autism and
learning disabilities. The National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH) describes learning disabilities as a
disorder that affects people's ability to either interpret what they see and hear or to link information from
different parts of the brain. These limitations can show up in many ways, such as specific difficulties with
spoken and written language, coordination, self-control, or attention. Such difficulties extend to schoolwork
and can impede learning to read or write or to do math. A child who has a learning disability may have other
conditions, such as hearing problems or serious emotional disturbance. However, learning disabilities are not
caused by these conditions, nor are they caused by environmental influences such as cultural differences or
inappropriate instruction.
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Cognitive Development: Parental concerns

As of 2004 it is widely accepted that a child's intellectual ability is determined by a combination of heredity
and environment. Thus, although a child's genetic inheritance is unchangeable, there are definite ways that
parents can enhance their child's intellectual development through environmental factors. They can provide
stimulating learning materials and experiences from an early age, read to and talk with their children, and
help children explore the world around them. As children mature, parents can both challenge and support the
child's talents. Although a supportive environment in early childhood provides a clear advantage for children,
it is possible to make up for early losses in cognitive development if a supportive environment is provided at
some later period, in contrast to early disruptions in physical development, which are often irreversible.
Cognitive Development: When to call the doctor?

If, by age three, a child has problems understanding simple directions or is perplexed when asked to do
something simple, the parents or primary caregiver should consult a physician or pediatrician. The child may
have a delay in cognitive development. Parents should also consult a healthcare professional if, after age
three, their child's cognitive development appears to be significantly slower than their peers.
Key Terms used in Cognitive Development

 Autism —A developmental disability that appears early in life, in which normal brain development is
disrupted and social and communication skills are retarded, sometimes severely.
 Cognition —The act or process of knowing or perceiving.
 Egocentric —Limited in outlook to things mainly relating to oneself or confined to one's own affairs or
activities.
 Learning disabilities —An impairment of the cognitive processes of understanding and using spoken
and written language that results in difficulties with one or more academic skill sets (e.g., reading, writing,
mathematics).
 Metacognition —Awareness of the process of cognition.
 Schemas —Fundamental core beliefs or assumptions that are part of the perceptual filter people use to
view the world. Cognitive-behavioral therapy seeks to change maladaptive schemas.
 Stanford-Binet intelligence scales —A device designed to measure somebody's intelligence, obtained
through a series of aptitude tests concentrating on different aspects of intellectual functioning. An IQ score
of 100 represents "average" intelligence.
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Socialization Theories of Self Development:

Psychological, and Sociological Perspective
When we are born, we have a genetic makeup and biological traits. However, who we are
as human beings develops through social interaction. Many scholars, both in the fields of
psychology and in sociology, have described the process of self -development as a pioneer to
understanding how that “self” becomes socialized.
 Self Esteem
 Socialization, Morality and Self
 Psychological Perspective
 Sociological Perspective
 Linking the Perspectives
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Self Esteem
 Self-esteem is an individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth.
 Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair,
pride, and shame.
 Self-esteem is your overall opinion of yourself — how you feel about your abilities and limitations:
Types of Self Esteem

1. High Self-esteem- When you have healthy self-esteem, you feel good about yourself and see yourself
as deserving the respect of others. With healthy self-esteem you're:
 Assertive in expressing your needs and opinions
 Confident in your ability to make decisions
 Able to form secure and honest relationships and less likely to stay in unhealthy ones
 Realistic in your expectations and less likely to be overcritical of yourself and others
 More resilient and better able to weather stress and setbacks
2. Low self-esteem. When you have low or negative self-esteem, you put little value on your opinions and
ideas. You focus on your perceived weaknesses and faults and give negligible credit to your skills and
assets. You believe that others are more capable or successful. You might have difficulty accepting
positive feedback. You might fear failure, which can hold you back from succeeding at work or school.
3. Inflated self-esteem: when you have this one then you pretend, you know, capable etc.
Components of Self-esteem:
These are four in number: confidence, identity, feeling of belonging, and feeling of competence.
Word of Advice:
Self-esteem affects virtually every facet of your life. Maintaining a healthy, realistic view of yourself isn't about
blowing your own horn. It's about learning to like and respect yourself — faults and all.
Theorists on Self Development

Psychological perspective
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Id, ego and superego: conflict between id and supper go. Ego is rational and pragmatic part, it is partly
conscious and partly unconscious part, it is your self and its function is to balance between biological urges
and social norms and compulsions. Personality resides among the conflicts between the three. Bringing
unconsciousness into consciousness was important to him.
He believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he divided the maturation
process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He posited that people’s self-
development is closely linked to early stages of development, like breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual
awareness (Freud 1905).
Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

Negotiation based stages -between base desires and socially accepted values, …)
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Psychosocial crisis Basic virtue and culmination in old age Age
1 Trust V/S Miss Trust Hope ( old age results in appreciation of interdependence and 0-1 ½
relatedness)
2 Autonomy V/S Shame Will ( Acceptance of the cycle of life from integration to 1 ½ -3
disintegration
3 Initiative V/S Guilt Purpose (old age shows signs of humor, empathy, resilience) 3-5
4 Industry v/s inferiority Competence ( humility, acceptance of the course of ones life, and 5-12
unfulfilled hopes
5 Identity v/s Role Fidelity or loyalty ( sense of complexity of life, merging of sensory, 12-18
confusion logical and aesthetic perception
6 Intimacy V/s Isolation Love (sense of complexity of relationship, value of tenderness and 18-40
loving freely
7 Generativity V/S Care (caring for others empathy and concern 40-65
stagnation
8 Ego integrity v/s Wisdom ( existential identity, a sense of integrity, strong enough 65
despair to withstand physical disintegration Plus
Virtue explained
1 Hope: (for care) If not met will lead to mistrust, fear, sense of insecurity and anxiety then child will
learn influencing environment with his actions like crying, mood swings, and many other ways
2 Will: Because of mobility child will proclaim independence in actions. Example selection in relations,
toys, wearing, eating and will discover many abilities. Assist the child in independent actions and
avoid his continuous failure.
3 Purpose. Interest in leading roles develops: play groups and family. Failure is discouraging
4 Competency (achievements gives positive feelings on accomplishments and needs encouragement.
Discouraging attitudes gives sense of inferiority, self-doubt, etc in abilities (Heffner, 2001).
5 Loyalty: children remains examining their independence and exploring their sense of self.
Encouragement and reinforcement from this personal examination will appear in a strong sense of
self and a feeling of independence and control. Child that go on unsure of their beliefs and desires
can feel apprehensive and puzzled about themselves and their futures.
6 Love: on onset of adulthood he/she starts exploring intimacy of relations with other than a family
member for a longer term commitments and enjoys relationships, commitments, safety, and care
within a relationship. When we avoid intimacy, and fear commitment and relationships we suffer from
isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression (McLeod, 2008).
7 Care: Here at this stage individual begin to establish careers, settle down within a relationship and
starts family life and give back society children, works, and becomes involved in community activities
& organizations. Failure individual become an idle and feel lifeless (McLeod, 2008).
8 Wisdom: Here an individual has reduced productivity, and live life as a retired person. On onset of
this stage starts pondering on accomplishments, feels sense of honor on leading a successful life or
guilt about past situations, which lead to depression and hopelessness (Heffner, 2001)
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a psychologist who specialized in child development who focused specifically
on the role of social interactions in their development. He recognized that the development of self evolved
through a negotiation between the world as it exists in one’s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced
socially (Piaget 1954).
Note: All three (Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget) of these thinkers have contributed to our
modern understanding of self-development.
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Sociological Perspective
Charles Cooley (1864–1929):
He asserted that people’s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view
them—a process termed “the looking glass self” (Cooley 1902).
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)

He studied the self, a person’s distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage
in this process of “self,” an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That’s
not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone
else’s shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we
look at ourselves from the perspective of the “other.” The case of a Girl ABC, for example, illustrates what
happens when social interaction is absent from early experience: The Girl ABC had no ability to see herself
as others would see her. From Mead’s point of view, she had no “self.” Child starts with imitation and copying
father mother roles then from play group games various roles. Finally, children develop, understand, and
learn the idea of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage
of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others—and thus,
from a sociological perspective, to have a “self” (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Moral development is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers to the way people learn
what society considered to be “good” and “bad,” which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral
development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society
and good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is
right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes
three levels: pre conventional, conventional, and post conventional.
1. In the pre conventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience
the world around them only through their senses
2. It isn’t until the teen years that the conventional stage develops, when youngsters become increasingly
aware of others’ feelings and take those into consideration when determining what’s “good” and “bad.”
3. The final stage, called post conventional, is when people begin to think of morality in abstract terms,
such as Americans believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At
this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly (Kohlberg
1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government corruption,
they were using post conventional morality. They understood that although their government was legal,
it was not morally correct.
Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development and Gender

Another sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936–), recognized that Kohlberg’s theory might show gender bias since
his research was only conducted on male subjects. Would females study subjects have responded
differently? Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer
the first question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan’s
research demonstrated that boys and girls do, in fact, have different understandings of morality. Boys tend
to have a justice perspective, by placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, have a care
and responsibility perspective; they consider people’s reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong.
Gilligan also recognized that Kohlberg’s theory rested on the assumption that the justice perspective was the
right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was “better”: the two
norms of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work
environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment
where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).
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Linking Psychological and sociological theories for self-

development of moral self
Psychological theories of self-development have been broadened by sociologists who explicitly study the role
of society and social interaction in self-development. Charles Cooley and George Mead both contributed
significantly to the sociological understanding of the development of self. Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol
Gilligan developed their ideas further and researched how our sense of morality develops. Gilligan added the
dimension of gender differences to Kohlberg’s theory.
Psychological Sociological
perspective perspective
•Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): •Charles Cooley (1864–1929): introduced the
identified close links between sexual & concept of “the looking glass self” others view
personality development is important in Moral development (Cooley
•Erik Erikson: identified negotiation based 1902). Others view is important in Moral
stages between base desires and socially development
accepted values, … in moral/ social •George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)
development) emphasized social interaction in developing
•Jean Piaget (1896–1980) recognized ability to look one’s self from others point of
negotiation between the world as it exists in view. Emphasized social interaction.
one’s mind and the world that exists as it is •Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development:
experienced socially in moral emphasized the concept of socialization to
development(Piaget 1954) develop the concept of good and bad. For
this he introduced three levels:
preconventional (sensory), conventional
(considering feelings of others important in
determining good or bade, and
postconventional (when people begin to think
of morality in abstract terms: Example might is
right)
•Gilligan’s Theory: He found, Boys tend to
have a justice perspective, by placing
emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the
other hand, have a care and responsibility
perspective; they consider people’s reasons
behind behavior that seems morally wrong.
Questions
 What is moral self?
 How development of moral self happens?
 What are 3 types of moral self? what are there pros and cons?
 What is the role of a teacher in the development of moral self?
 What are psychological theories on the development of moral self? Discuss each
 What are sociological theories of on Devlopment of moral self? Discuss each?
 Which is the theory whom you support and why?
 What course of action would you follow for the development of moral self?
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High quality teacher student relationship

Ten tips
Tips for developing high quality teacher student

relationships
 Get to know the students by name as quickly as possible. Students will appreciate this.
 Get to know some personal things about each student.
 Conduct a values analysis discussion about some current event or topic.
 Provide positive comments when appropriate.
 Be positive and enthusiastic when teaching.
 Show students that you are not only interested in them but also that you care about them.
 Avoid the use of threats and punishment.
 Do not play favorites
 Create a supportive classroom environment.
 Create an environment where questions and answers-even wrong answers-are encouraged and valued.
4 Timeless Elements of Strong Student-Teacher

Relationships
1. Consistent Communication
2. An Emotionally-Safe Learning Space
3. Mutual Respect, Trust, & Feedback
4. True Equity
Importance of teacher student relationship

Positive and supportive relationships between teacher and students ultimate create an intelligence
belongingness and motivate students to willingly take part in various classroom activities.
It has immense effect on learning and school experience.
Benefits of positive Teacher-student relationship

 Promotes Academic Success
 Helps to develop self-worth- especially for those having learning difficulties and with low economic status.
 Professional Growth
Methods to improve teacher-student relationships:

 Provide structure- A mainstream of the students responds well to a structured environment. So, teachers
should elucidate clear expectations to their students. Rules and regulations must be followed and
continuously reinforced.
 Teach with enthusiasm and passion
 Display a positive attitude-Positive attitude promotes a sense of belonging and encourages learners to
take part cooperatively in study activities.
 Make learning fun-fun learning helps to build a good relationship between students and teachers.
 Treat students with admiration-teachers should treat students with admiration.
Six strategies to build positive teacher student

relationships
1. Believe that all students can succeed.
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2. Get to know your students.
3. Say hello and goodbye to every student, every day.
4. Laugh with your students.
5. Provide students with choice.
6. Accept students–and their mistakes in the classroom.
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Individual Differences among learners

Differential psychology studies the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior and the
processes that underlie it. This is a discipline that develops classifications o f psychological
individual differences.
 Meaning & Definition
 Types of individual differences
 Personality differences and theorists
 Causes of Individual Differences
 Role of Individual Differences in Education
 Practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences
 Plans for individualized training
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Definitions of Individual Differences:

 Drever James: “Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or
physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual differences.”
 Individual differences can be defined as personal characteristics that distinguish learners from each
other in the teaching and learning processes.
 Good, C.V.: “The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single characteristics or a number
of characteristics, those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another.”
 Skinner, C.E.: “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total
personality.”
 Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.:“Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics
physical mental abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.”
Types of Individual Differences
Physical Differences in Differences in Differences in

differences intelligence attitudes achievement
Differences Differences
Differences in Racial
on account of due to
motor ability differences
sex nationality
Differences
due to Differences in Emotional Personality
economic interests differences differences
status
Classification on the basis of Personality differences

Various theorists have classified personality differences in different ways. Some of the classifications are
given below:
 Spranger’s classification of individual differences
 Jung’s classification on the basis of the ability of expression of ideas
 Jordon’s classification on the basis of the thinking styles
 Thorndike’s classification on the basis of types of thinkers and
 Terman’s classification on the basis of a scale of intelligence
Spranger Jung Jordon Thorndike Terman
•Theoretical •Introverts •Active •Abstract •Genius

•Economic •Extroverts •Reflective thinkers •Near genius
•Aesthetic •Ambiverts. •Ideational •Very superior
•Social balanced thinkers •Superior
•Political between •Object thinkers •Average
•Religious
introvert and •Thinkers in •Backward
extrovert whom sensory
behavior •Feebleminded
experience is
predominant. •Dull
•Idiot.
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Causes of Individual Differences

1. Heredity
2. Environment
3. Influence of caste, race and nation
4. Sex differences
5. Age
6. Intelligence
7. Temperament and emotional stability
8. Other Causes: Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home
background lead to individual differences.
9. Economic conditions
Role of Individual Differences in Education

Individuals have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different abilities. We
cannot afford to ignore these individual differences in imparting education to children. Since school work is
planned on group basis it presents a formidable challenge to all teachers.
Suggestions to cope with individual Differences

1. Limit size of the class
2. Proper division of the class
3. Home task
4. Factor of sex
5. Curriculum
6. Methods of Teaching
7. Educational Guidance
8. Vocational Guidance
9. Individual Training
Individual training plans

(i) Dalton Plan:
According to this plan, the school is regarded as a ‘children house.’ The principles underlying the plan are
freedom, co-operation and allocation of time. The pupils are free to continue without interruption the work in
which they are absorbed, unhindered by time tables.
They are not taught in class-rooms. They are given subjects that suit their interests. The advantage of this
plan is that each pupil is allowed to proceed at his own rate and in accordance with this individual ability.
Thus the instructions are completely individualized.
(ii) Morrison Plan:

This plan is based on directed guidance and stresses unit assignment. To establish learning unit is an
important task in the Morrison plan. The plan is based on individual needs and interests.
(iii) Winnetka Plan:

This plan is based on the principle that the pupils should be allowed to follow his own rate of learning in each
of the subjects of his curriculum. Before instituting this plan it is observed through an examination that how
much an individual already knows. On the basis of it, specific learning unit is planned for him.
Progress is checked by the pupils himself by means of self-administered tests. The advantages of this plan
are that the backward and the intelligent are to proceed at their own rates. Moreover, there are no failures
since the pupil is measured against his own progress.
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(iv) Contract Plan:

In this plan, the subjects of study are determined like the Dalton method; the pupil’s progress is measured
through tests like the Winnetka method. Thus this plan is a synthesis of Dalton and Winnetka methods.
(v) Project method:

This method was suggested by Kilpatrick. In this method each member of the group can work in terms of his
interest and ability. Hence this method is also in the direction of individualization of instructions.
Direct instruction v/s Differentiated instruction

 Direct instruction is a method of teaching that places the teacher at the center of the classroom.
Students learn directly from the teacher. Differentiated instruction is a process of making adaptations
to instructional methods, materials, and assessments so that all students can access the curriculum.
 Three characteristics of differentiated learning: readiness, interest, and learning profile.
Elements to focus on differentiated learning

Teachers can differentiate at least four classroom elements based on student readiness, interest, or learning
profile:
 Content – what the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to the information;
 Process – activities in which the student engages in order to make sense of or master the content;
 Products – culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse, apply, and extend what he or she has
learned in a unit; and
 Learning environment – the way the classroom works and feels.
Selecting and presenting content in differentiated learning

Examples of differentiating content at the elementary level include the following:
 Using reading materials at varying readability levels;
 Putting text materials on tape;
 Using spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students;
 Presenting ideas through both auditory and visual means;
 Using reading buddies; and
 Meeting with small groups to re-teach an idea or skill for struggling learners, or to extend the thinking or
skills of advanced learners.
Setting Process in differentiated learning

Examples of differentiating process or activities at the elementary level include the following:
 Using tiered activities through which all learners work with the same important understandings and skills,
but proceed with different levels of support, challenge, or complexity;
 Providing interest centers that encourage students to explore subsets of the class topic of particular
interest to them;
 Developing personal agendas (task lists written by the teacher and containing both in-common work for
the whole class and work that addresses individual needs of learners) to be completed either during
specified agenda time or as students complete other work early;
 Offering manipulatives or other hands-on supports for students who need them; and
 Varying the length of time a student may take to complete a task in order to provide additional support for
a struggling learner or to encourage an advanced learner to pursue a topic in greater depth.
Selecting and setting Products in setting differentiated learning

Examples of differentiating products at the elementary level include the following:
 Giving students options of how to express required learning (e.g., create a puppet show, write a letter, or
develop a mural with labels);
 Using rubrics that match and extend students' varied skills levels;
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 Allowing students to work alone or in small groups on their products; and
 Encouraging students to create their own product assignments as long as the assignments contain
required elements.
Setting Learning Environment for differentiated learning

Examples of differentiating learning environment at the elementary level include:
 Making sure there are places in the room to work quietly and without distraction, as well as places that
invite student collaboration;
 Providing materials that reflect a variety of cultures and home settings;
 Setting out clear guidelines for independent work that matches individual needs;
 Developing routines that allow students to get help when teachers are busy with other students and
cannot help them immediately; and
 Helping students understand that some learners need to move around to learn, while others do better
sitting quietly (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999; Winebrenner, 1992, 1996).
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Motivation
 What is motivation?
 Types of motivation?
 Uses of motivation?
 Impact of motivation?
 Tips for finding motivation?
 Potential pi\falls of motivation?
 History of Motivation?
 5 Surprising Ways to Get Motivated
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What Is Motivation?
 Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
 It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to
gain knowledge.
 Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior.
 In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something. It
is the driving force behind human actions.
What are causes of motivation?

What exactly lies behind the motivations for why we act? Psychologists have proposed different theories of
motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory, and humanistic theory (such as Maslow's hierarchy of
needs). The reality is that there are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations.
Types of Motivation
Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic:
 Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as
trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
 Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword
puzzle purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem.2
Uses of Motivation
There are many different uses for motivation. It serves as a guiding force for all human behavior, but
understanding how it works and the factors that may impact it can be important in a number of ways.
Understanding motivation can help people:
 improve the efficiency of people as they work toward goals
 take action
 Get encouragement to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors such as risk-taking and addiction
 feel more in control of their lives
 Improve overall well-being and happiness
Impact of Motivation
There are three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.3
 Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.
 Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of
persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
 Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.4 For example, one
student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in
discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks
intensity, while the second pursues their educational goals with greater intensity.
The degree of each of these components of motivation can impact whether or not you achieve your goal.
Strong activation, for example, means that you are more likely to start pursuing a goal. Persistence and
intensity will determine if you keep working toward that goal and how much effort you devote to reaching it.
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Tips for Finding Motivation

All people experience fluctuations in their motivation and willpower. Sometimes you might feel fired up and
highly driven to reach your goals, while at other times you might feel listless or unsure of what you want or
how to achieve it.
Even if you're feeling low on motivation, there are steps you can take that will keep you moving forward.
Some things you can do include:
 Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you
 If you're tackling something that is just too big or too overwhelming, break it up into smaller steps and try
setting your sights on achieving that first step toward progress
 Improve your confidence
 Remind yourself about what you achieved in the past and what where your strengths lie
 If there are things you feel insecure about, try working on making improvements in those areas so that
you feel more skilled and capable.
Potential Pitfalls of Motivation

There are a few things you should watch for that might hurt your motivation. These include:
 Quick fixes or all-or-nothing thinking. It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't fix something immediately
or if you can't have it all at once. Remind yourself that reaching your goals takes time.
 Thinking that one size fits all. Just because an approach or method worked for someone else does not
mean that it will work for you. If something isn't helping you reach your goals or is making you feel
unmotivated, look for things that will work better for you.
Talk to your doctor if you are feeling symptoms of apathy and low mood that last longer than two weeks.
Sometimes a persistent lack of motivation might be tied to a mental health condition such as depression.
History of Motivation
What are the things that actually motivate us to act? Throughout history, psychologists have proposed
different theories to explain what motivates human behavior. The following are some of the major theories of
motivation. Those are: instincts, Derives and needs, arousal levels.
1. Instincts
The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and
inborn patterns of behavior.5 Psychologists including William James, Sigmund Freud, and William
McDougal have proposed a number of basic human drives that motivate behavior. Such instincts might
include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival such as fear, cleanliness, and
love.
2. Drives and Needs
Many of your behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are motivated by biology. You have a
biological need for food, water, and sleep. Therefore, you are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep. Drive
theory suggests that people have basic biological drives and that behaviors are motivated by the need to
fulfill these drives.6
3. Arousal Levels
The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help
them maintain their optimal level of arousal.3 A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing
activities such as reading a book, while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in
exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors, such as motorcycle racing.
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5 Surprising Ways to Get Motivated

1. Use Incentives Carefully
 If someone already enjoys doing something, then it stands to reason that rewarding them for the
behavior would make them like it even more, right? In many cases, the answer is actually no. Giving
incentives for activities that people are already driven to perform can sometimes impair motivation.
 Researchers have found that rewarding people for doing things that they are already intrinsically
motivated to do can actually backfire.1 Remember, intrinsic motivation arises from within the individual.
It is essentially doing something for the pure enjoyment of it. Doing the task is its own reward.
 In instances where children are rewarded for doing something they already enjoy, such as playing with a
certain toy, their future motivation to engage in the activity actually decreases. Psychologists refer to this
phenomenon as the over justification effect.
 So be cautious with rewards. Incentives can work well to increase motivation to engage in an activity that
is otherwise unappealing, but over-dependence upon such rewards might actually end up decreasing
motivation in some cases.
How Can You Use This Concept to Increase Motivation?

 Use extrinsic rewards sparingly.
 Rewards can be effective if the individual truly has no intrinsic interest in the activity.
 Try an extrinsic reward during the initial learning period, but phase out these rewards as the learner
become more interested in the activity.
2. Introduce Challenges
When facing a task, which do you find more motivating – doing something easy that you’ve done a hundred
times and could probably do in your sleep, or doing something that is within the realm of possibilities but
requires learning something new or stretching your existing abilities? For many people, the first option might
be the easiest, but the second more challenging option will probably sound more interesting and motivating.
If you are trying to increase your motivation to do something, like getting out of bed early for a run, breaking
away from the same old routines and introducing new challenges can be an effective way to keep that
motivational spark.
How can you make the most of this tendency? Challenge yourself. Sign up for a local marathon. Focus on
improving your times or going just a little bit further than you usually do. No matter what your goal, adding
incremental challenges can help you improve your skills, feel more motivated, and bring you one step closer
to success.
3. Don’t Visualize Success

One of the most common tips for getting motivated is to simply visualize success, yet research suggests that
this might actually be counterproductive. The problem is that people often visualize themselves achieving
their goals, but skip over visualizing all the effort that goes into making those goals a reality.
 Note: By imagining that you have achieved the desired goal, you’re actually depleting the amount of
energy you have available to devote to accomplishing the task itself.
Previous research has shown that idealized fantasies about the future typically predict poor achievement,
and more recent research has found that mentally indulging in such visualization saps available energy.2
So what does work?

 Instead of imagining yourself suddenly successful, imagine all the steps it will take to achieve that
success.
 What challenges will you face? Knowing what you might encounter can make it easier to deal with when
the time comes.
 What strategies can you use to overcome those challenges? Planning ahead can leave you better
prepared to overcome the difficulties you might face.
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4. Take Control
People often feel more motivated when they feel like they have control over what is going to happen. Have
you ever been part of a group where you felt like you really had no personal control over the outcome? Did
you feel particularly motivated to contribute to the group?
One of the reasons people sometimes dislike “group work” is that they lose that individual sense of control
and contribution.
What can you do to take back control in group situations?

 If you are working in a group (or trying to motivate a group of followers), finding a way to make each
person feel empowered and influential can help.
 Give individuals control over how they contribute to how their ideas are presented or used.
 Allow group members to determine what goals they wish to pursue.
5. Focus on the Journey, Not the Outcome

Constantly fixating on the outcome, on success or failure, can seriously impair motivation. In her research on
different mindsets, psychologist Carol Dweck has found that praising children for fixed traits (such as being
smart or attractive) can actually decrease motivation and persistence in the future.
This type of praise, she believes, causes people to develop what is known as a fixed mindset. People with
this mindset believe that personal characteristics are simply inborn and unchanging. They think that people
are either smart or dumb, pretty or ugly, athletic or non-athletic, and so on.
How Can You Avoid Developing a Fixed Mindset?

 Praising efforts rather than traits is the key, Dweck suggests.
 Instead of just focusing on the outcome, on whether you will succeed or fail, try to focus on the journey
toward reaching your goals.
 What have you learned from the process? Remember, the journey is just as important as the outcome.
 What actions have been the more effective and rewarding? By assessing your efforts, you can fine-tune
your future actions to achieve better results.
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Behavioral learning theory
 How was the Introspection Psychology in education?
 How behaviorism was reaction to introspection psychology?
 What is behavioral learning theory?
 What are key terms of this leaning theory?
 What is view behaviorists view on knowledge, learning and motivation?
 What are implications of behaviorism in education?
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Discipline Based perspective on learning

 Behaviorism
 Cognitive Constructivism
 Social Constructivism
 Neuroscience and How Students Learn
 Cognitive Science: Memory and Learning
 Anthropology: Situated Learning in Communities of Practice
 Psychology: Motivation and Learning
 Education: Organizing the Learning Process
 Education: Learning to Think in a Discipline
Introspection psychology in education

 Introspective psychology dominated 19th century and early part of 20th century.
 Wilhelm Wundt “study of the consciousness (happenings in mind) was the primary object of this
psychology”.
 Method of the psychologists like him was introspective, which heavily relies on preoccupation in mind i.e.
“first-person reports of his sensations and constituents of immediate experiences”.
 Consequently Introspective method was subjective and unquantifiable.
Key terms of behavioral learning theory

 Reinforcement: It is reward
 Positive reinforcement: Surely having reward each time for an action/ success/ performance or even
attention
 Negative reinforcement? Leaving unattended success
 Stimulus: External factor in an environment, which instigates the response
 Response: It is dependent variable and depend on stimulus
Behavioral theory
 J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner were its proponent
 Pavlov’s Dogs is a popular behaviorism experiment.
 By bringing changes in stimulus or by controlling stimulus response can be modified improved or
changed.
 Theory is scientific because both stimulus and response can be measured and quantified or qualified
Behaviorists View on knowledge: Watson and Skinner

 Knowledge is repertoire (catalogue) of behavior
 Knowledge is action or at least rules for action
 Knowledge is set of passive, largely mechanical responses to environmental stimuli
 Knowledge that is not actively explained in behavior can be explained as behavioral capacities
 Knowledge is like having an appropriate repertoire of behavior and it will be taken as understood.
 Knowledge requires no cognitive process is necessary to be understood.
Behaviorists View on learning

Learning is the transmission of information from teacher to learner, essentially the transmission of appropriate
response to a certain stimulus. Thus, the point of education is to present the student with appropriate
repertoire of behavioral responses to specific stimuli and to reinforce those responses through an effective
reinforcement schedule.
An effective reinforcement schedule requires consistent repetition of the material, small, progressive
sequence of tasks; and continuous positive reinforcement. Without positive reinforcement, learned
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responses will quickly become extinct. This is because learner will continue to modify their behavior until they
receive some positive reinforcement.
Behaviorists’ View on Motivation

 Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of schedules of positive and negative reinforcement.
 Pleasant experience cause human learners to make the desired connections between specific stimuli
and the appropriate response.
 Human learners avoid responses that are associated with punishment or unpleasant consequences such
as poor grades or adverse feedback.
Implications for Teaching

The Behaviorists teaching methods:
 rely on “skill and drill” exercise to provide consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of
response patterns.
 include question (stimulus) and response framework in which questions are gradually increasing difficulty;
guided practice; and regular reviews of material.
 rely on positive reinforcement such as verbal praise, good grades and prizes.
 assess the degree of learning using methods that measure observable behavior such as exam
performance.
 have proven most successful in areas where there is a correct response or easily memorized material.
 have proven most successful where there is structured material such as facts, and formulae, scientific
concepts and foreign language vocabulary.
 efficacy of behaviorist teaching method in comprehension, composition, and analytical abilities is
questionable.
http://gsi.berkeley.edu/media/Learning.pdf
Behaviorist Teaching Strategies

There are many including the following:
Drills
•Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the repetition and
reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.
Question and answer
•Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response, gradually getting harder with
questions to help students.
Guided practice
•Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to give them the
reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.
Regular review
•Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material and giving positive
reinforcement will help students retain information much better.
Positive reinforcement
• Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can be in the form of verbal
reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more.
How can teacher apply behaviorist learning theories in the

class?
 Teacher leads the class through a topic.
 Students listen silently.
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 Teacher then sets a task based on the information.
 Students complete the task and await feedback.
 The teacher gives feedback, then sets the next task.
 With each round of feedback, the student is being conditioned to learn the material.
How to use behaviorism in the class?

According to Skinner, behavior is a learned response reinforced by the consequences resulting from that
behavior. For instance, if students are rewarded for doing extra work, they're more likely to repeat that
behavior. Behaviorism is no less relevant today than when introduced to schools in the 1950s by B.F. Skinner.
Incorporate Behaviorism into Course Design:

The Office for Teaching and Learning and Wayne State University suggest that using weighted grades for
homework assignments, exams and class participation is an effective application of behaviorism. If you
assign more points for some activities than others, students are reinforced for putting their efforts into the
correct priorities. For example, students would know that you consider it more important to do well on a group
project worth 40 percent of their grade than on quizzes worth 10 percent of their grade. Students who budget
their time accordingly would likely attain a higher grade. Additionally, you should give students ongoing
feedback to point out what they’re doing well and where they need improvement.
Implement a Classroom Reward System

You may want to implement a behaviorism strategy called a token economy. Students are told how to earn
a token, such as listening, staying on task and raising their hand. Depending on the child's age, tokens can
be stars, stickers or a punch card. When tokens accumulate, students may exchange tokens for a reward
that the student chooses. For instance, a token economy reportedly improved school climate at Stanfield
Elementary in Oregon. When students are observed doing good deeds, teachers give students a “GOTCHA”
ticket that can be exchanged for prizes. The Vanderbilt Kennedy Center notes that the token system can also
be effective with students with autism spectrum disorder.
Team Up With Other Teachers for Support

You may find it helpful to collaborate with other teachers interested in using behaviorism to improve student
performance and behavior. Many schools rely on a behavioral framework known as Positive Behavioral
Intervention and Supports to shape behavior in classrooms and extracurricular activities. Teachers target up
to five behaviors to reinforce throughout the curriculum. A PBIS approach emphasizes positive reinforcement
rather than harsh discipline, such as out-of-school suspension, which is strongly discouraged by the U.S.
Department of Education. Key components of PBIS include clear communication of rules, regular routines,
consistent reinforcement of targeted behaviors, social skills training and natural consequences, such as
temporary loss of privileges.
Apply Behaviorism to Classroom Teaching and Discipline

You can use behaviorism to increase learning and decrease distracting student behavior. When writing
lesson plans, identify what knowledge and skills you want students to master. Determine how you'll
objectively evaluate performance. Develop a system for tracking student progress, and intervene if problems
arise. Communicate to students your academic and behavioral expectations. Use exams and grades to
encourage students to do their best work. For instance, if you suspect students aren't completing assigned
readings, you could start giving quizzes to motivate students and reward those who work hard. To control
disruptive behavior that can affect teaching and learning, praise positive behavior, ignore mildly irritating
behavior and consistently enforce consequences for breaking rules.
Behaviorism summarized
View of knowledge Knowledge is repertoire of behavioral response to environmental response
View of learning Passive absorption of a predefined body of knowledge by the learner. Promoted by repetition
and positive reinforcement.
View of motivation Extrinsic, involving positive and negative reinforcement.
Implications for teaching Correct behavioral response are transmitted by the teacher and absorbed by the students.
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Cognitive learning theories

Theories related with cognition, "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".
Cognitive Learning Theory uses metacognition —“thinking about thinking”—to understand

how thought processes influence learning. It's often contrasted ag ainst—or complemented
by—Behavioral Learning Theory, which focuses on the outside environment's influences on
learning.
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What is cognitive mental action or process?

Cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving.
These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language, imagination, perception, and
planning.
Delays and difficulties in learning are seen when cognitive processes are not working regularly. Example is
when attention and observation are not properly paid, retrieval from long-term memory is not happening, and
categorization are not working properly then there is problem in learning cognitively.
Types/Elements of Cognitive Processes

There are many & may include:
Attention It allows people to focus on a specific stimulus in the environment.

paying
Language It is an ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken and

coding and written words and communicate with others as well.
decoding
Learning It involves in taking in new things, synthesizing information, and
ability integrating it with prior knowledge.
Memory short It allows people to encode, store, and retrieve information and retain
and long term knowledge about the world and their personal histories.
Perceptional It allows taking in information through senses (sensation) and utilize this to
ability respond and interact with the world.
Thought or It is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows people to

thinking engage in decision-making, problem-solving, and higher reasoning.
ability
Uses of Cognitive Processes

1. Learning New: it enables able to take in new information, form new memories, and make connections
with other things that you already know. Researchers and educators use their knowledge of these
cognitive processes to help create instructive materials to help people learn new concepts.
2. Forming Memories: remembrance, and forgetting. Memory is much like a video camera, carefully
recording and cataloging life events, and storing them away for later recall, research. Memory is much
more complex than above exemplified analogy ordinary.
Tips for using Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Processes are influenced by a range of factors including genetics and experiences. Here nothing
can be done but there are many other things which may maximize your cognitive abilities. Those are:
 stay healthy,
 think critically,
 stay curious and
 skip multitasking.
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Drawbacks/pitfalls of cognitive processes

Cognitive processes are complex and often imperfect. Potential Pitfalls that can affect cognition include:
Problems with attention: attentional blink may miss something important while paying selective attention
to a limited entity/ resource.
Memory Problems and limitations: such as short terms memory, fragile and fallible memory. Further
misinformation, and formation of false memories.
Cognitive biases: Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking related to how people process and
interpret information about the world. The confirmation bias is one common example that involves only paying
attention to information that aligns with your existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that doesn't support your
views.
History of cognition and philosophical origin

Plato advocated “understand the world by first identifying principles buried deep in yourself and then use
rational thought to create knowledge”. Philosophers like Ren Desecrate and linguist Noman Chomsky
supported this notion and called it rationalism.
Aristotle contrary to Plato advocated, “Observation of the world around to acquire knowledge”. John Locke
and B.F. Skinner also advocated this point of view, which is often referred to as empiricism.
Today, cognitive learning theory is dominant in psychology. It is broken down into two categories.
1. Social Cognitive Theory
 This theory helps us understand how people are influenced and their influence on the environment.
 One of the major components of social cognitive theory is observational learning. It is the process of
learning others’ desirable and undesirable behaviors through observation.
 It is a quick way of acquiring information when you individually take action. A person who demonstrates
behavior for another person is known as a model.
 These may be real people such as teachers, our peers, and supervisors, or symbolic models, also known
as fictional characters that influence an observer’s behavior.
 Observational learning teaches people both positive and negative behaviors. For example, a manager
within a company can teach the employees how they are supposed to behave ethically and be socially
conscious when interacting and dealing with rude customers. Moreover, the manager can also train
his/her employees on the different procedures that they can take in case of fire or other low probability
hazardous scenarios.
2. Cognitive Behavioral Theory
 This theory mainly refers to our mental processes, such as our thoughts and interpretations of life events.
 It explains how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of a person interact with each other. Thoughts lead
to particular emotions, which in turn lead to specific behavioral responses.
 When we change our thoughts, we can change our emotions and then our behaviors. It also works in
reverse where changing how we behave leads to changes in our feelings and, ultimately, our thoughts.
Thought changes emotions and emotions change behavior
 Let’s take an example of a student who encounters a problem in a particular sphere of mathematics and
automatically believes that the mathematics is difficult for him/her right away. The studnet is automatically
likely to have a negative attitude towards this mathematics, and his performance will likely be poor on
mathematics.
Benefits/ positive effects of Cognitive Learning

1. Enhances learning: Cognitive learning theory enhances lifelong learning. students can build upon
previous ideas and apply new concepts to already existing knowledge.
2. Boosts confidence: student become more confident in approaching tasks as they get a deeper
understanding of new topics and learn new skills.
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3. 3. Enhances Comprehension: Cognitive learning improves learners’ comprehension of acquiring new
information. They can develop a deeper understanding of new learning materials.
4. Improves problem-solving skills: Cognitive learning equips studnets with the skills they need to learn
effectively. They are thereby able to develop problem-solving skills they can apply under challenging
tasks.
5. Help learn new things faster: Through the experience of learning, the student will be able to recycle and
use the same learning methods that worked previously. This will help them learn new things a lot faster
as they already know what works for them when it comes to obtaining new knowledge.
6. Teaches to form concept formation (think abstract): Cognitive learning can also teach your employees to
form a range of different concepts such as easily perceiving and interpreting information that could boost
creativity and lead to innovations at the workplace.
Cognitive Learning Strategies:

Learner-centered strategy
Jean Piaget termed learning as relating information to already existing knowledge. Each learner starts with
their own knowledge and experience.
To him, learning begins with the accumulation of some basic knowledge and advancing deeper into the field
with time. Piaget suggested three vital components of learning:
 Accommodation - taking new information into account by modifying what we already know.
 Assimilation - the arrangement of new knowledge inside our heads beside what we know.
 Equilibration - balancing what we already know with the new information that we are trying to acquire.
Each teacher should develop their lessons with a personalized learning approach to make it engaging for
their students to achieve better results. Teaching professionals should focus on the following points:
 Develop and introduce lessons/topic based on already existing knowledge.

 Provide analogies to connect new knowledge with already existing knowledge.
 Divide learning materials into stages and maintain a logical flow of lessons taught.
 Provide examples or practical tasks that show how new information or principles can connect with
previous knowledge, or enhance it.
 Encourage questions and comments from students.
Meaningful Experiences strategy

 David Ausubel made a clear distinction between meaningful learning and rote learning.
 According to him, material that was closely related to what the learner knew was meaningful and always
turned out to be effective.
 Learners with relevant background knowledge find it easier to add new information.
 During the schooling of learners in an institution, there should be an emphasis on the meaningfulness of
each session of the class to the task at hand.
 Background information on new material is essential.
 New information should be instilled in learners in a sequence to build on what is already understood.
Learning through Discovery strategy

Jerome Bruner is a psychologist who built his theory on top of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development that
was focusing on learning through discovery.
His theory identified three stages of cognitive representation which are enactive, iconic, and symbolic.
Enactive defining the representation of knowledge through actions, iconic being the visual summarization of
images, and symbolic which is the use of words and symbols to describe experiences.
Through his study of cognitive learning in children, he suggested that they should be allowed to discover
information for themselves. He believed that learners review previously learned material even as they gain
new knowledge.
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His interpretation of Cognitive Learning Theory in a corporate environment can be put by:
 Allow the taught to learn new skills and get new knowledge through new tasks and challenges.
 Challenge the learner to solve real-world problems your organization faces.
Personalized learning strategy

All of these strategies can be combined into one personalized learning approach. Each learner is unique and
has their own experience, knowledge, and perception. Which can greatly influence the way they interpret and
consume new information.
Creating learning experiences that fit each individual based on their own knowledge that is meaningful for
their role which encourages them to discover new solutions/ results and improve their overall performance.
Teaching professionals should try to organize a learning environment, to allow learners to learn at their own
pace, and with a variety of learning opportunities.
A common practice in recent years to create personalized learning is the use of modern technologies: AI
recommendations, learning paths, machine learning, natural language processing. For example, a digital
learning assistant has the capability to recognize what the skills of the learner are, what they have learned
so far, and automatically suggest to them what they should learn next.
Moreover, the education can save a significant amount of resources with a learning assistant as it can make
your institution’s learning environment flawless.
Furthermore, having the ultimate access to a range of institutional resources, no two employees need to learn
or go through the same learning process as they can cherry-pick what they want to learn from
Modern theories of learning

These are three and those are: Piajet’s development theory, Lev Vygotsky’s social cultural cognitive theory
(social interaction) and the information-processing theory view mind as a system that process information.
Piajet’s development theory. To him organization and adaptation are two important cognition process to make
sense of the world. He proposed 4 stages. On each stage child views world differently. (i)Those are sensory
motor or sensory perception stage (0-2) aware only of in front objects, (ii) preoperational stage (2-7) able to
think symbolically even in absence of objects, (iii) concrete operational stage (7-11) child becomes aware of
surroundings and less self-centered. (iv) Formal operational stage (11-15) child is able to think abstractly and
logically.
Cognitive Learning Examples

1. Explicit Learning; It happens when you intentionally seek knowledge to attempt and learn a new skill or
process that may be vital to your subject/ topic. It requires you to be attentive and take action to acquire
knowledge.
2. Implicit Learning: Sometimes you passively gain new knowledge and learn some new skills. It is known
as implicit learning, where you are unaware of the entire process until you realize you have retained
something new. This type of learning may occur when you are working, talking, or going about your
normal life.. Typing fast and without looking at your keyboard is one good example of implicit learning
that comes automatically over time.
3. Meaningful Learning: Meaningful learning is when you are capable of acquiring new information and
relating it to past experiences. This is because this cognitive learning approach teaches students build
transferable problem-solving skills that can be applied in other areas. An example of meaningful learning
is when during your studies you decide to take an advanced course in your tutorship to deepen your
understanding of the subject.
4. Discovery Learning: It happens when you actively seek new knowledge by researching new concepts,
processes, and subjects. For example, learning using Grammarly, by using this tool in hand with the
manuals, this would cause them to learn the features and abilities of the tool through discovery.
5. Receptive Learning: Lectures where you sit in groups and a speaker feeds the audience with information
on a specific subject is an example of receptive learning. It requires the learner to be active by asking
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questions and taking down short notes. During training in your workplace, this type of learning comes in
handy where you get a deeper understanding of new information by being active and responsive to the
speaker.
6. Non-Associative Learning (Habituation and Sensitization): It is a type of learning that enables humans to
adapt to something by facing it frequently. Example … Sensitization is the vice versa whereby your
reaction towards something increases as you get frequent exposure towards it. Example …
7. Emotional Learning: Emotional learning helps people learn how to take charge of their emotions and also
understand others’.
8. Experiential Learning: Our experiences in life are our best lessons. Your interactions with other people
always teach you some precious life lessons. What you learn depends on how you interpret it. For
example, an intern learns by shadowing an experienced senior employer to gain experience. He acquires
new skills that are relevant to his line of work.
9. Observation Learning: it mainly involves imitation of skills from colleagues and superiors.
10. Cooperative and Collaborative Learning: Working and learning in groups is encouraged in many
institutions. Cooperative learning helps bring out one’s best skills and deepens the collaboration between
a group of people (read more about collaborative learning). However, for an individual to learn this way,
he/she has to be an active and equal participant and interact with fellow group members.
Supplementary material
 https://360learning.com/blog/cognitive-learning-theory/
 https://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/learning/theories/cognitive-learning-theory/
 https://www.wgu.edu/blog/five-educational-learning-theories2005.html
Gagne Hierarchy of learning (mix of behaviorism and

cognitivism, Simple to complex)
The varieties of learning

Behavioral Aspect: Cognitive Aspect:
identified by Gagne:
•Signal learning (signal) •Multiple Discrimination •Verbal Information Skills,

•Stimulus-Response learning (Discrimination) •Intellectual Skills,
(Response) •Concept learning (Concepts) •Motor Skills,
•Chaining (Process or •Rule learning (Rules) •Cognitive Strategies,
Procedure) •Problem solving (PS) •Attitudes
•Verbal association
(Terminology)
Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC)

Category Area Influence Category type Cate # Activity
Teacher Talk 1 Accepts feeling
2 Praises or encourages
3 Accepts or ideas of pupil
4 Ask questions
5 Lecturing
6 Giving Direction
7 Criticizing or justifying authority
Response 8 Pupil-talk response
9 Pupil talk initiation
Silence 10 Silence or confusion
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Taxonomies of learning, assessment and

homework
Bloom b. Anderson c. Stiggins
 How the cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspect of human learning can be
measured.
 Convert each of cognitive levels of Blooms Taxonomy in behavioral terms.
 Convert each of the affective domain of the blooms taxonomy in behavioral terms.
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Benjamin Blooms Taxonomy (1956)

This is composed of 3 domains: Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor.
Cognitive domain can be measured by using traditional paper-pencil based tests. Whereas remaining two
which involve complex behavior or skill or both can be measured by using rubric
Cognitive Domain
Cognitive level Behavioral Terms
Knowledge define, describe, identify, label, enumerate, match, outline, select, state,
Knowledge
name, reproduce
Summarize, paraphrase, rephrase, convert, estimate, explain, generalize,
Comprehension
paraphrase, infer, rewrite, compute
Use, employ, give examples, changes, demonstrate, modify, predict, show,
Application
problem solving
Relate, distinguish, differentiate, illustrate, separates, subdivides Synthesis
Analysis Formulate, compose, produce, categorize, combine, create, devise, design,
generate, organize, rearrange, reconstruct, reorganize, revise
Formulate, compose, produce, categorize, combine, create, devise, design,
Synthesis
generate, organize, rearrange, reconstruct, reorganize, revise
Evaluation Appraise, decide, justify, conclude, criticize, describe, defend
Affective Domain
Affective Behavioral Terms
Receiving Asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, locates, points to, relies, uses
Responding Responding Answers, assists, complies, conforms, greets, performs, practices,
presents, recites, reports
Valuing Completes, explains, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, shares, studies
Organization Adheres, alters, arranges, defends, generalizes, integrates, orders, prepares,
relates
Characterization Acts, discriminates, displays, influences, modifies, proposes, qualifies, questions,
revises, serves, solves, verifies
Psychomotor Domain
Imitation Observes a skill and attempts to repeat it
Manipulation Performs skill according to instruction rather than observation
Precision Reproduces a skill with accuracy, proportion and exactness
Articulation Combines more than one skill in sequence with harmony and consistency
Completes one or more skills with ease and becomes automatic with limited physical
Naturalization
or mental exertion
Alignment of cognitive competence, skill demonstrated in Behavioral
Terms
Competence Skill Demonstrated Behavioral Term
Observation and recall of information, List, define, tell, describe, identify, show,
Knowledge Declarative knowledge, Mastery of label, collect, examine, tabulate, quote,
subject matter name
Understanding of information , Grasp
meaning, Translate knowledge into Summarize, describe, interpret, contrast,
Comprehension new context, Interpret facts, compare, predict, associate, distinguish, estimate,
contrast, Order, group, infer causes, differentiate, discuss, extend
Predict consequences
Use information ,Use methods, Apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete,
Application
concepts, theories in new situations · illustrate, show, solve, examine, modify,
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Competence Skill Demonstrated Behavioral Term

Solve problems using required skills or relate, change, classify, experiment,
knowledge discover
Seeing patterns, Organization of parts, Analyze, separate, order, explain, connect,
Analysis Recognition of hidden meanings, classify, arrange, divide, compare, select,
Identification of components explain, infer
Use old ideas to create new ones, Combine, integrate, modify, rearrange,
Generalize from given facts, Relate substitute, plan, create, design, invent,
Synthesis
knowledge from several ideas, Predict, what if?, compose, formulate, prepare,
draw conclusions generalize, rewrite
Compare and discriminate between

Assess, decide, rank, grade, test,
ideas, Assess value of theories,
measure, recommend, convince, select,
Evaluation presentations, Make choices based on
judge, explain, discriminate, support,
reasoned argument, Verify value of
conclude, compare, summarize
evidence, Recognize subjectivity
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) Taxonomy

 ILO: Statements that describe intended learning outcomes (ILO) as a result of instruction are framed in
terms of some subject matter content (knowledge) and the action (process) required with the content.
 Both Proposed elimination of the anomaly of Uni-dimensionality of the statement of learning intents (LI)
and use of noun phrases and verbs in LI.
 These two proposed two separate dimensions of learning: The knowledge dimension and the cognitive
process dimension. Knowledge Dimension has four categories, three of which include the subcategories
of knowledge in the original Blooms taxonomy. The fourth, however, is a new one, something that was
not yet gaining massive popularity at the time when the original taxonomy was conceived. It is new and,
at the same time, important in that it includes strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, and
self- knowledge.
4 Knowledge dimensions and categories Anderson & Krathwohi (2001)

1. Factual Knowledge: terminology like definitions, details, and elements. use of this knowledge is to
familiarize the subject matter or propose solutions to problems within the discipline.
2. Conceptual Knowledge: This includes knowledge about the connection of information and other
elements to a larger structure of thought so that a holistic view of the subject matter or discipline is formed.
Students classify, categorize, or generalize ideas into meaningful structures and models.
3. Procedural Knowledge: This category of knowledge dimension includes the knowledge in doing
some procedural tasks that require specific skills and methods. The subtypes of it are subject-specific
skills and algorithms.
4. Metacognitive Knowledge: this involves awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition.
Students know how they are thinking and become aware of the contexts and conditions within which they
are learning. Metacognition involves knowledge of cognition and awareness. The subtypes are strategic
knowledge (e. g. use of heuristics), knowledge of cognitive tasks (e. g., knowledge cognitive demands of
different tasks), and self-knowledge (awareness of one’s own knowledge level).
Blooms (Nouns) v/s Anderson (verbs)

Blooms Anderson
Remembering. This includes recalling and recognizing relevant knowledge from
Knowledge
long-term memory.
Understanding. This is the determination of the meanings of messages from oral,
Comprehension
written or graphic sources.
Applying. This involves carrying out procedural tasks, executing or implementing
Application
them in particular realistic contexts.
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Blooms Anderson
Analyzing. This includes deducing concepts into clusters or chunks of ideas and
Analysis
meaningfully relating them together with other dimensions.
Evaluating. This is making judgments relative to clear standards or defensible
Synthesis criteria to critically check for depth, consistency, relevance, acceptability, and other
areas.
Creating. This includes putting together some ideas, concepts, information, and
Evaluation other elements to produce complex and original, but meaningful whole as an
outcome.
Stiggins and Conklin’s Taxonomy (1992) Emphasizes

categories of learning to state learning intents
To them categories of learning are:
 Knowledge: Understanding and mastery of subject matter, processes, and procedures. This learning
may take the form of remembering facts, figures, events, and other pertinent information, or describe,
explain, and summarize concepts, and cite examples. Learning intents must endeavor to develop mastery
of facts and information as well as simple understanding and comprehension of them.
 Reasoning: Ability to use deep knowledge of subject matter and procedures to make defensible reason
and solve problems with efficiency. Tasks under this category include critical and creative thinking,
problem solving, making judgments and decisions, and other higher order thinking skills. Learning intents
must, therefore, focus on the use of knowledge and simple understanding of information and concepts to
reason and solve problems in contexts.
 Skills. This is ability to demonstrate skills to perform tasks with acceptable degree of mastery and
adeptness. For this category, learning intents have to take particular interest in the demonstration of overt
behaviors or skills in actual performance that requires procedural knowledge and reasoning.
 Product. Ability to create and produce outputs for submission or oral presentations. Outputs generally
represent mastery of knowledge, deep understanding, and skills, they must be considered as products
that demonstrate the ability to use those knowledge and deep understanding, and employ skills in
strategic manner so that tangible products are created. For the statement of learning intents, teachers
must state expected outcomes, either process- or product-oriented.
 Affect. Focus is on the development of values, interests, motivation, attitudes, self-regulation, and other
affective states. In stating learning intents on this category, it is important that clear indicators of affective
behavior can easily be drawn from the expected learning tasks. Although many teachers find it difficult to
determine indicators of affective learning, it is inspiring to realize that it is not impossible to assess it.
Other Psychologists having worked on Blooms Taxonomy

Robert J. Marzano has worked on Dimensions of Learning (DOL) and has identified six levels of learning
in a taxonomic model called the new taxonomy (Marzano & Kendall, 2007).
De Bono’s (1985) Six Thinking Hats There are six thinking hats, each of which is named for a color that
represents a specific perspective.
Robert M. Gagne. In his theory of instruction to facilitate teachers in achieving high learning focused on
three domains. The cognitive domain includes Declarative (verbal information), Procedural (intellectual skills),
and Conditional (cognitive strategies) knowledge. The psychological domain includes affective knowledge
(attitudes). The psychomotor domain involves the use of physical movement (motor skills).
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Teaching as a process & Effective Teachers

Basically, a teacher is effective when he/ she gives his/her best in teaching and able to make
his/her students learn or master the skills and turned them meaningful, relevant and
applicable in real life situations. ... Likewise, if you are an effective teacher, most likely you
are efficient.24-May-2013
 Differentiate between effective and efficient teacher.
 Spell out the teaching process.
 What are qualities of an effective teacher?
 What are characteristic of an effective teacher?
 Qualities v/s characteristics
 Quality is a synonym of characteristic
 Effective V/S Efficient Teachers
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Teaching as a process
Teaching is fundamentally a process, including the five steps illustrated in the diagram below:
Among these, Planning and teaching a class are familiar ideas to most instructors.
Planning
More overlooked are the steps of evaluation and revision. Without classroom
assessments or some other means of receiving feedback on a regular basis,
it is surprisingly easy to misunderstand whether a particular teaching method Revision Implementation
or strategy has been effective. A teacher can create an environment of
mutual trust and respect by relying on students for feedback -- students can
be a valuable resource for verifying whether the class pedagogy is (or isn't) Evaluation
working. Self-examination with feedback from your students and the instructor are
key to improving your teaching.
Qualities of an effective Teacher

POSITIVE
Keep your students engaged with a positive attitude. Teaching is most effective when students are motivated
by the desire to learn, rather than by grades or degree requirements. Think of your students as teammates,
not adversaries. Learning and teaching are challenging, but that doesn't mean that you can't have fun in the
classroom. Stay focused, but don't be afraid to be creative and innovative. Allow yourself to be enthusiastic
and find ways to let students see what is interesting about your subject.
PREPARED
You should know the course material. If students are required to attend lectures and read assignments, then
it seems reasonable that you would do the same. Review key concepts and ideas if you are unclear about
them. Think about how the material can be most effectively demonstrated and design a strategy. Write an
outline or take notes to follow during a lecture, and prepare your overheads, diagrams, handouts and other
aids well in advance. Don't wait until the morning of the class!
ORGANIZED
Have a plan for what you want to teach. Your job is to illustrate key points and essential context, to help
students integrate all of their work (reading, labs, exams, papers, lectures, etc.) for the course. Given that
there is never time to teach everything, choose the most important concepts and show how they are related.
Explain ideas so students are able to build on material they have already mastered, whether from your course
or previous classes. Don't just focus on what you happen to be teaching today. Show students how what they
are learning now is connected to material covered later in the course. Keep your long term goals in mind,
pace yourself so that you don't run out of time at the end, and try to end every class with a conclusion.
CLEAR
Effective teachers can explain complex ideas in simple ways. Help students understand and use new
terminology of your discipline. Many concepts can be more effectively demonstrated with visual aids such as
diagrams, drawings, charts, slides, etc. Think about the role body language can play. Ask someone to
observe your teaching and give feedback for wrong habits (or even better, having it videotaped).
ACTIVE
Keep your students thinking. Unless they are actively using the concepts you are teaching, most students
will remember only a small fraction of what you teach. A lecture is an efficient way to deliver information to
large numbers of people, but it is an inefficient way to provide students with lasting knowledge and skills.
Consider using at least some classroom time for activities other than traditional lectures, discussions or
question and answer sessions. Problem solving exercises in small groups can take no more than a few
minutes, yet allow students to engage with the material being covered.
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PATIENT
Remember what it is like to learn something for the first time. Give students time to process information and
answer questions. Know that it is fine for students to make mistakes if they can learn from them. Realize that
learning can be hard work, even for the most motivated students. Rather than blaming students when things
don't go right, consider ways you could change your approach to reach them more effectively. Concepts,
background information or conclusions that seem obvious to you may not be so clear to someone who is new
to the subject. Be patient with yourself, too. Teaching can be difficult and frustrating at times. Give yourself
the same opportunity to make mistakes and learn from them.
FAIR
Consider what it would be like to be one of your students. Chances are you would want an instructor who set
clear expectations, applied them consistently and could admit when they were wrong. Whether you mark off
points on an exam question, give a low grade on a paper, or penalize someone for a late assignment, you
should be able to explain why you did it. Of course it helps if you have already outlined clear policies, both
for the entire course and for each assignment. Once you have set standards, it is very important to apply
them equally and consistently, otherwise you will lose credibility. On the other hand, if you make a mistake
or don't know the answer to a question, it is much better to acknowledge rather than ignore it.
Summary of the characteristics of an Effective teacher

Prepared The most effective teachers come to class each day ready to teach that day’s lesson.
They:
 Jump right into the lesson with enthusiasm.
 Avoid wasting instructional time. They start class on time, teach for the entire
class period, and time flies in their classes.
Positive The most effective teachers have optimistic attitudes about teaching and their
students. They always:
 Look on the bright side of every situation.
 Communicate with students about their progress.
 Praise and recognize students for hard work.
 Help students act kindly toward one another.
Hold High The most effective teachers believe every student can be successful. They:
Expectations  Hold students to the highest standards.
 Consistently challenge their students to realize their potential.
 Build students’ confidence and teach them to believe in themselves.
Creative The most effective teachers are resourceful and inventive in their teaching methods.
They:
 Might wear a clown suit if the class reaches its academic goal.
 Agree to participate in the school talent show.
 Use technology effectively in the classroom.
Fair The most effective teachers handle students and grading fairly. They:
 Allow all students equal opportunities and privileges.
 Provide clear requirements.
 Recognize that “fair” means giving every student an opportunity to succeed.
 Understand that not all students learn in the same way and at the same rate.
Display a The most effective teachers are approachable and friendly. They:
Personal Touch  Connect with students personally.
 Are genuinely interested in who their students are as people.
 Visit the students’ world. For instance, they sit with them in the cafeteria; they
attend sporting events, plays, and other events outside normal school hours.
Cultivate a The most effective teachers have a way of making students feel welcome and
Sense of comfortable in their classrooms.
 Have a warm, welcoming attitude that helps students know they belong in your
Belonging classroom.
 Communicate how much they love teaching and prefer it to other occupations.
Compassionate The most effective teachers are concerned about students’ personal problems and
can relate to them. Numerous stories established how the sensitivity and
compassion of caring teachers affected them in profound and lasting ways. They:
44
 Understand when students are having a difficult time and act accordingly.
 Remember that students are people with lives outside of the classroom, just like
teachers.
Have a Sense The most effective teachers do not take everything seriously and make learning fun.
of Humor They:
 Use humor to break the ice in difficult situations.
 Bring humor into the everyday classroom.
 Laugh with the class but never at the expense of any particular student.
Respect The most effective teachers do not deliberately embarrass students. Teachers who
Students give the highest respect get the highest respect. They:
 Respect students’ privacy when returning test papers.
 Speak to students in private concerning grades or conduct.
 Always avoid situations that unnecessarily embarrass students.
Forgiving The most effective teachers do not hold grudges. They:
 Forgive the students.
 Start each day with a clean slate.
 Understand that disruptive or antisocial behavior can quickly turn a teacher
against a student, but that refusing to give up on a difficult student can produce
success.
Admit Mistakes The most effective teachers are quick to admit it when they’re wrong. They:
 Apologize to mistakenly accused students.
 Make adjustments when students point out errors and oversights.
Note
As nouns the difference between quality and characteristic is that quality is (uncountable) level of excellence
while characteristic is a distinguishable feature of a person or thing.
As adjectives the difference between quality and characteristic is that quality is being of good worth, well
made, fit for purpose while characteristic is being a distinguishing feature of a person or thing.
Effective V/S Efficient Teachers

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS
 Effective teachers have mastered their subject, are well read, and can answer questions spontaneously
about what they teach.
 When the effective teacher lectures, he or she is well prepared and can carry on a discussion in an orderly
manner
 Effective teachers can relate their subject area to real life circumstances and offers practical illustrations
to enhance student understanding
 Effective teachers know how to check for understanding. They encourage students’ questions and
opinions.
 The effective teacher is enthusiastic about his/her subject area and communicates this to his/her
students.
 The effective teacher is approachable, friendly, and makes himself/herself available to his or her students
after school hours.
 Effective teacher are concerned about their students’ and places a high priority on their achievement.
 The effective teacher has a sense of humor and knows how to motivate his/her students will humorous
stories and appropriate jokes.
 The effective teacher displays warmth, and kindness, and does his or her best to understand student
circumstances that may interfere with their academic success.
 The effective teacher knows how to use their resources and is not afraid to ask for help when needed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT TEACHERS

 The efficient teacher understands and is sensitive to administrative timelines.
 The efficient teacher understands the policies and procedures of the school.
 Efficient teachers have daily routines for completing lunch counts, taking attendance, and grading work,
and recording of grades.
45
 The efficient teacher makes time to call parents and schedules meeting with administration and other
teachers as needed.
 Teachers, who are efficient, have procedures in place to manage supplies such as pencils, paper, and
other non-teaching items.
 The efficient teacher keeps a neat and orderly work environment.
 Teachers who are efficient set goals for the entire school year, and plan their objectives for each lesson
on a weekly basis.
 The teacher, who is efficient, knows how they are going to handle problems with students, parents,
administration, and other teachers before they happen.
 The efficient teacher knows how to cut through red tape and does his/her job regardless of any outside
circumstance that may interfere with student learning.
 The efficient teacher is concerned with teaching and takes responsibility for the academic success of his
or her students.
46
Home work to an effective teacher and in an

effective teaching
How can teachers use homework effectively?
 Effective Homework
 8 keys of homework simplified by Barbara Blackburn (2018)
 Characteristics of good homework
 What parents can do to make homework effective?
 3 Ways/Strategies to make homework more effective
 Checklist for good homework assignments
 Types of Home work
47
Effective Homework
Homework spelling consists on eight letters. Each letter stands for phrase as the following:
 H Has a clear purpose
 O Opportunity for success
 M Makes quality the focus
 E Extends, reinforces, or previews content
 W Work is done independently or with appropriate support
 O Ownership felt by students
 R Receives feedback of some type
 K Kid-friendly
8 keys of homework simplified by Barbara Blackburn (2018)

To her
1. Purpose: clear objective, learning intent, etc.
2. Opportunity for success: Don’t waste your time or your students’ efforts on work that offers no
opportunity for success.
3. Focus on quality: rather than quantity. There is saying “Practice doesn’t make perfect. Perfect practice
makes perfect.”
4. Extend, Reinforce, or Preview Content: assign an independent project to enhance their understanding
or allow them to apply their knowledge, or even additional practice.
5. Independent work: can be completed independently with minimal and appropriate support.
6. Ownership: Students should feel as that they have a stake in the assignment in wider perspective.
7. Feedback: sometimes informal feedback is far more effective than formal grades or marking. Students
need the opportunity to share and receive feedback on work they have completed.
8. Kid-Friendly: Homework may depend on the age and skill level of each student, generally, effective
homework is practical, doable, and interesting.
Characteristics of good homework

Cathy Vatterott (2010) identified five fundamental characteristics of good homework:
I. purpose, means that all homework assignments are meaningful. Why homework?
II. efficiency,
III. ownership,
IV. competence, and
V. aesthetic appeal
What parents can do to make homework effective?

 Know the teachers — and what they're looking for. Attend school events, such as parent-teacher
conferences, to meet your child's teachers. Ask about their homework policies and how you should be
involved.
 Set up a homework-friendly area. Make sure kids have a well-lit place to complete homework. Keep
supplies — paper, pencils, glue, scissors — within reach.
 Schedule a regular study time.
 Help them make a plan.
 Keep distractions to a minimum. This means no TV, loud music, or phone calls.
 Make sure kids do their own work. They won't learn if they don't think for themselves and make their own
mistakes. Parents can make suggestions and help with directions. But it's a kid's job to do the learning.
 Be a motivator and monitor. Ask about assignments, quizzes, and tests. Give encouragement, check
completed homework, and make yourself available for questions and concerns.
 Set a good example.
 Praise their work and efforts. Mention academic achievements to relatives.
48
 If there are continuing problems with homework, get help. Talk about it with your child's teacher. Some
kids have trouble seeing the board and may need glasses; others might need an evaluation for a learning
problem or attention disorder.
3 Ways/Strategies to make homework more effective

 Spaced repetition: few weeks latter repetition to encounter declining learning or forgetting or de-leaning.
 Retrieval practice: frequent self-assessment gives students multiple opportunities to retrieve the
information from their memory. Design homework assignments that focus less on information input and
more on getting students to pull that information out of their brains.
 Flipping the classroom involve video lectures that students view at home as many times as they choose.
This can help them digest difficult concepts, since they won’t need to rely simply on lecture notes hastily
taken in class.
Checklist for good homework assignments

 Are not given as a matter of routine, but with clear purpose for enhancing student learning.
 Are engaging and not simply “busywork.”
 Give students the opportunity to make choices and use creativity (for example: figure out the best ways
for you to learn the multiplication tables and come back and share with the class).
 Offer adequate feedback on what students have mastered, and what they still need to practice. Web-
based platforms offer an easy way for kids to get instant feedback. For traditional assignments, set aside
class time for students to correct, discuss and reflect upon their homework answers.
 Are differentiated to meet individual students’ learning needs (for example, not every student needs to do
the same number or type of math problems).
 (With the exception of flipped-classroom videos) clearly relate to material already taught in class.
 Are explained thoroughly (in terms of directions and expectations) before students leave class.
Types of Home work

Dr. Raymond Huntington quoting US department describes four common types of homework:
Practice It is intended to bolster classroom learning and help student’s master

specific skills.
Preparatory homework introduces concepts and ideas that will be
Preparatory
covered in class in the near future. Common preparatory homework
examples include learning vocabulary or reading a textbook chapter
before the content is to be discussed the next day.
Extension It is often assigned when teachers want to challenge a student with

opportunities to apply what they have learned to something new. and
Integration
Requires students to apply different skills to a single task .
49

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Psychology and Educational Psychology

 What are branches of Psychology?

 What are branches of psychology of interest to a teacher? And why?

 What is educational Psychology?

Psychology meaning and word origin

Best Definitions of Psychology in use in Descending order

 Definition and Explanation

 History of Cognitive Development Theories

 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

 Information Processing Theories

 Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

 Cognitive Development: What we know from the theories

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

What are Schemas? How do they work?

Information processing theory: An alternate to Paget's

Lev Vygotsky cognitive development 1934

Interaction between Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding=

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky postulated theory for cognitive development.

Private speech Piaget v/s Vygotsky

Summary Piaget V/s Vygotsky

Classroom Applications Vygotsky

Cognitive Development: What we know from the theories

Cognitive Development at Toddlerhood

Cognitive Development: Common Problems

Cognitive Development: Parental concerns

Cognitive Development: When to call the doctor?

Key Terms used in Cognitive Development

Socialization Theories of Self Development:

 Socialization, Morality and Self

 Linking the Perspectives

Types of Self Esteem

Theorists on Self Development

Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial crisis Basic virtue and culmination in old age Age

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development and Gender

Linking Psychological and sociological theories for self-

High quality teacher student relationship

Tips for developing high quality teacher student

4 Timeless Elements of Strong Student-Teacher

Importance of teacher student relationship

Benefits of positive Teacher-student relationship

Methods to improve teacher-student relationships:

Six strategies to build positive teacher student

Individual Differences among learners

 Meaning & Definition

 Types of individual differences

 Personality differences and theorists

 Causes of Individual Differences

 Role of Individual Differences in Education

 Practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences

 Plans for individualized training

Definitions of Individual Differences:

Types of Individual Differences

Physical Differences in Differences in Differences in