QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313

3.7 Angular momentum operator

In quantum mechanics, the angular momentum operator is one of several related operators
analogous to classical angular momentum. The angular momentum operator plays a central role in the
theory of atomic physics and other quantum problems involving rotational symmetry. In both classical
and quantum mechanical systems, angular momentum (together with linear momentum and energy)
is one of the three fundamental properties of motion.
There are several angular momentum operators: total angular momentum (usually denoted J),
orbital angular momentum (usually denoted L), and spin angular momentum (spin for short,
usually denoted S). The term angular momentum operator can (confusingly) refer to either the total or the
orbital angular momentum. Total angular momentum is always conserved,
3.7.1 Orbital angular momentum, L
The classical definition of angular momentum is . The quantum-mechanical counterparts of these
objects share the same relationship: where r is the quantum position operator, p is the quantum
momentum operator, × is cross product, and L is the orbital angular momentum operator. L (just like p
and r) is a vector operator (a vector whose components are operators), i.e. L  Lx , Ly , Lz  where Lx, Ly,
Lz are three different quantum-mechanical operators.
In the special case of a single particle with no electric charge and no spin, the orbital angular
momentum operator can be written in the position basis as:

i j k
           
L   ir      i x y z   i i y  z   j  x  z   k  x  y 
     z y   z x   y x 
x y z
           
L   i i y  z   j  x  z   k  x  y   iLx  jLy  kLz
  z y   z x   y x 
        
Hence Lx  i  y  z  L y   i  z  x  Lz  i  x  y 
 z y   x z   y x 
and L2  L2x  L2y  L2z
where ∇ is the vector differential operator, del.

3.7.2 Spin angular momentum, S

There is another type of angular momentum, called spin angular momentum (more often shortened to
spin), represented by the spin operator S. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around
an axis, but this is only a metaphor: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of
motion in space. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin, which is usually nonzero. For
example, electrons always have "spin 1/2" while photons always have "spin 1" (details below).

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QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313

3.7.3 Total angular momentum, J

Finally, there is total angular momentum J, which combines both the spin and orbital angular
momentum of a particle or system:
Conservation of angular momentum states that J for a closed system, or J for the whole universe, is
conserved. However, L and S are not generally conserved. For example, the spin–orbit interaction
allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total J remaining
constant.

Example
Use the following definitions of the angular momentum operators
        
L x  i  y  z  L y   i  z  x  L z  i  x  y 
 z y   x z   y x 
and L2  L2x  L2y  L2z
and the relationships
x, px   i y, p y   i z, pz   i
To demonstrate the following operator identities i.e. determine whether or not many of the
following angular momentum operators commute


(a) L x , L y  iL z

(b) L ,L   iL
y z x

(c) L z , L x   iL y


(d) L x , L2  0

(e) L , L   0
y
2

(f) L , L   0
z
2

Solution (only for question (a), (b) and (d))

 
L x , L y  ypz  zpy , zpx  xpz 
  
 ypz , zpx   ypz , xpz   zpy , zpx  zpy , xpz 
  y, z  px pz  z y, px  pz  y pz , z  px  yz pz , px 
 y, x pz pz  xy, pz pz  y pz , xpz  yx pz , pz 
   
 z, z  px py  zz, px py  z py , z px  zz py , px
 z, x pz py  xz, p p  zp , xp  zxp , p 
z y y z y z
As can be easily ascertained, the only non-zero terms are

Lx , Ly  y pz , zpx  xz, pz py  y i px  xi py
 y i px  xi py  i ypx  xpy   iLz

L , L   zp
y z x  xpz , xpy  ypx 

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QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313

 
 zpx , xpy  zpx , ypx   xpz , xpy  xpz , ypx   

 z, xpy px  x z, py px  z px , xpy  zx  px , pz 
 z, y  px px  yz, px  px  z px , y  px  zy  px , px 
 
 x, xpy pz  x x, py pz  x pz , xpy  xx pz , py  
 x, xpy pz  xx, p p y z  x p , xp  xxp , p 
z y z y

 x, y  px pz  yx, px  pz  x pz , y  px  xy  pz , px 
Again, as can be easily ascertained, the only non-zero terms are:

L y , Lz   z px , xpy  yx, px pz  z i py  yi pz
 z i py  yi pz  i zpy  ypz   iLx

L x , L2   Lx , L2x  L2y  L2z 

     
 Lx , L2x  Lx , L2y  Lx , L2z
 L , L   L , L 
x
2
y x
2
z

 L , L L  L L , L  L , L L  L L , L 
x y y y x y x z z z x z

 iL L  L iL    iL L  L  iL 

z y y z y z z y

 iL L  L L  L L  L L 
z y y z y z z y

 i L , L   L , L   0
z y y z
Exercise: Attempt questions (c), (e ) and (f)

Worked Examples

1. Consider a particle of mass m in a potential well described by

 0, 0  x  L
V x   
, otherwise
A complete set of orthonormal eigenfunctions of energy is given by
2  n x 
sin  n x  
; n  1, 2, 3,     
L  L 
Show that the corresponding eigenvalues are
 2 n 2 2
En 
2mL2
Solution
Use the Eigen value Schrodinger equation in order to determine the eigenvalues
H ( x)  En ( x) and since the potential V = 0

2 d 2
  ( x)  En n
2m dx2

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QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313

d2  2  nx   2 d d   nx   n 2 d nx


dx 2  L  L   
sin  sin  
L dx dx   L   L L dx
cos
L
 
 n   nx 
2
2
   sin 
 L  L  L 
Hence

2 d 2  2 nx     2   n  2  nx 
2
 
 2 
sin          sin 
2m dx  L  L    2m   L  L 
 L

 n ( x)  n ( x)

n 2 2  2 2  nx 
 sin 
L 
2
2mL L
 n ( x)

Which is simply

n 2 2 2
H n ( x)  En ( x)  2
 n ( x)
2
mL
En

2. Replace the following classical mechanical expressions with their corresponding quantum
mechanical operators.
1
a. K.E. = m 2 in three-dimensional space.
2
b. p = mv, a three-dimensional Cartesian vector.
c. y-component of angular momentum: Ly = zpx - xpz.
Solution
1
K .E : m 2 
2
p2

2m 2m
1
 p x2  p y2  p z2 

1        
2
 
2 2

 i  i   i 
2m   x   y   z  

 i 2 2   2 2 2 
  2  2  2 
2m  x y z 
2  2 2 2  2 2
K.E.         
2m  x 2 y 2 z 2  2m
2 2 2   
where       i  j k
2
;
x 2 y 2 z 2 x y z

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QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313

       
p  m  ip x  jp y  kp z  i  i   j   i   k   i 
 x   y   z 
   
  i i  j  k    i
 x y z 
    
Ly = zpx - xpz  z   i   x  i 
 x   z 

Worked Example – Infinite Potential well (Example 7.2)

3. Consider a particle in the ground state of a rigid box (infinite potential well) of length a. For a
particle in an infinite potential well;
2  n x 
 x   sin  ; n = 1, 2, 3, …….
a  a 
(a) Find the probability density  x  .
2

(b) Where is the particle most likely to be found ?

(c) What’s the probability of finding a particle in the interval between x = 0.50a and x = 0.51a
?
(d) What would be the average result if the position of a particle in the ground state were
measured many times?

Solution
 x 
(a) Ground state means n = 1 so   x  
2
sin  and hence the Probability density =
a  a 
2  x  2  x  2 2 x 
 x     x . x  
2
sin  sin   sin  
a  a  a  a  a  a 
which is sketched in Figure 2 (see also Fig. 2.6 (c)).

Figure 2: Probability density of a particle in the ground state of a rigid box.

(b) The most probable value, x mp , is the value of x for which  x  is a maximum. From Figure
2

a
2 (or Figure 2.6 (c)), this is seen to be xmp 
2

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QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313

(c) The probability of finding the particle in any small interval from x to (x +  x) is given by as
P(between x and (x +  x) ≈  x  . x
2

Thus,
 
P(0.50a ≤ x ≤ 0.51a) ≈   x  0.50a   0.01a  sin 2    0.01a  0.02  2%
2 2
a 2
(d) The average result if we measure the position many times (always with the particle
in the same state) is
a
 x   x  x  dx
2

The average value x is called the expectation value of x. It is the average value expected
after many measurements. For the ground state
 x 
a
2 a
 x   x. sin 2   dx 
a0  a  2
For the ground state of a particle in a box, the most probable position x mp and the mean
position x are the same, but this is not always the case as we shall see.
Example
4. Show that the wavefunction,
2   x   2x 
 n x   A sin   2 sin  can be written as  n x   A 1  2 2  hence
L  L   L 
a) determine the normalization constant A in the integral    x   .
b) Find the expectation of energy in the state  x,0
c) Find the state of the particle  x, t  at a later time t. Is this state a stationary state ?
Solution
2  nx  2  x  2  2x 
n  sin  1  sin  2  sin 
L  L  L L L  L 
 2  x  2  2x 
 n  x   A sin   2 sin   A 1 x   2 2 x 
 L L L  L 

Normalization integral   dx  1


 

A2   1  2 2  1  2 2  dx  1
 


Which on expanding leads to


  
    
 
  
A2    1  1 dx   2 1  2 dx   2 2  1 dx   4 2  2 dx   1
  

    
By exploiting the orthornormality condition

   
1 if i  j
 

 i j  j  i dx   ij  0 if i  j

 
  dx  [II]

We see that the 2nd and 3rd integrals of equation [I] will equal to zero.
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QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 SPH 313


  
  


A2    1  1 dx  0  0  4   2  2 dx   1


  
A2 1  4  1
1
 A
5
 
 1    1 
 E    x, 0 H  x, 0dx     1   2  E1  E2   1   2  dx
2 2
b)
   5 5   5 5 

 1  2   1 2 
 E     1   2   E1 1  E2 2  dx
  5 5  5 5 
   
E1 4E 2E 2E
 E  
5 
 1 1  2  2 2  2  1 2  1  2 1
5  5  5 
By exploiting the orthornormality condition stated in eqn [II], the 3rd and 4th integrals reduce
to zero and the 1st and 2nd integrals equal to unity
1 4
 E   E1  E2
5 5
Note: Suppose this problem was for a harmonic oscillator ? For the case of a harmonic
oscillator,
3 5
E1   and E 2  
2 2
13  45  23
E           
5 2  52  10
Note: Suppose this problem was for a particle in a box ? For the case of a particle in an infinite
box of width L nm
1  h 2  4  4h 2  17 h 2
 E      
5  8mL2  5  8mL2  40 mL2
Example
ip  ip

1. (a) By letting x  i show that e .x.e     x

p
Solution

(a) Writing x  i
p
 ip /     ip /    i   p 
e     ( p)  ie ip /   e ip /   p   e ip / 
p 
 i e 
  p    
 i  p    p     i 2  
 ie ip /  .e ip /       i  ( p)    x  ( p)
  p    p 