Appendix A.

Angular Momentum and

Spherical Harmonics

The total angular momentum of an isolated system is conserved; it is a constant

of the motion. If we change to a new, perhaps more convenient, coordinate
system related to the old by a rotation, the wave function for the system trans-
forms in a defmite way depending upon the value of the angular momentum. If
the system is made up of two or more parts, each of them may have angular
momentum, and we need to know the quantum rules for combining these to a
resultant. We cannot do more here than introduce and summarise a few salient
points about these matters. More detailed discussions of the quantum theory of
angular momentum are available in several treatises (for example, Brink and
Satchler, 1968; see also Messiah, 1962).
A general word of caution is in order. The literature on this subject presents a
wide variety of conventions for notation, normalisation and phase of the various
quantities which occur. Sometimes these conventions represent largely arbitrary
choices, sometimes they emphasise different aspects of the quantities involved.
If the reader is aware of this possibility, and if he adopts a consistent set of
formulae, little difficulty should be encountered.

AI ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN QUANTUM THEORY

An isolated system will have a total angular momentum whose square has a
discrete value given by j(j + 1)1i 2 , where1i is Planck's constant divided by 21T
and where j is an integer or integer-plus-one-half according to whether the

283
284 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

system as a whole is a boson or a fermion.* That is to say, the wave function of

the system will be an eigenfunction of 12 , the operator for the square of the
angular momentum
J 2 lj) = j(j + l)lj) (AI)
(Henceforth, we shall use natural units so that1i = 1.) Note that we often speak
of 'the angular momentum j' when strictly we mean that the square of the angu-
lar momentum isj(j + 1). The state lj) cannot be an eigenfunction of the
operator J because the various components of the vector J do not commute with
each other. Instead their commutation relations can be summarised by the
formula
J X J = iJ (A2)
Hence a system cannot simultaneously be an eigenfunction of the operators for
more than one component of J. Each component of J commutes with J2 , how-
ever, so we are free to choose J2 and one component to generate angular momen-
tum eigenfunctions. It is conventional to choose the z-component Jz and we
label its eigenvalues by m
Jz ljm) =mljm) (A3)
The lack of commutativity between the components J; can then be pictured by
using the vector model, Figure Al. In this model, the vector J has a definite
magnitude (j (j + 1)] 1 / 2 and a definite projection m on the z-axis, but its
direction is uncertain because of the uncertainty in Jx and Jy. This uncertainty
is represented by imagining the vector to be precessing around the z-axis so that
its x andy components fluctuate.
The prototypical angular momentum operators are those corresponding to
the orbital angular momentum L of a particle with momentum p. Explicitly
L=r X p, with Px = -i atax, etc.
or in polar coordinates
L± =Lx ±iLy

=± e±il/> {aao ± i cot 8 ~}

at/>

L =-r-
. a (A4)
z atJ>
*A nucleus is made up of A nucleons, each of which is a fermion and has an intrinsic spin
of111. Their relative orbital motions can have angular momenta which are integral multiples
of1r. The rules of angular momentum addition (gee below) then ensure that the total angular
momentum or 'nuclear spin' is an integral multiple of11 if A is even or an integer-plus-one-
half times11 if A is odd. Therefore nuclei with A even are bosons, while those with A odd
are fermions.
 APPENDIX A 28S

''
'' z'
'' m
''
''
'

Figure Al Vector model of an angular momentum vector /with a magnitude j [iU + 1)] 1•/2
and a z-projection equal tom. It precesses about the z-axis so that its x- andy-components
are variable. Its projection m' upon another z' -axis also fluctuates; classically only the range
of m' values shown is allowed but quantum indeterminacy allows -j .;;; m' .;;; j

and

L2 =- ti~ o aao (sin 8 a:)+ si~2 8 a: 22

}
{AS)

The expression AS for L2 is one which occurs when the Schrodinger equation
for a particle moving in a central field is separated into radial and angular equa-
tions (Messiah, 1962). The angular part of the wave function is an eigenfunction
of Lz and L2 ; these eigenfunctions are called spherical harmonics and denoted
Yf{' (8, </>). They obey the eigenvalue equations
L2 Y:' (8, </>) = Q(Q + 1) Y:' (8, </>) {A6)
Lz Y{' (8, </>)=mY{{' (8, </>) {A7)
Spherical harmonics and their properties are discussed in more detail in section
A3.
Another important set of angular momentum operators are those for spin-i
i t
particles. For these we have j = and J = d, with the vector o representing the
three 2 x 2 matrices of Pauli. With lz diagonal these are
286 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

(01)
ax= 1 0 ' ay = (0 -i)
i
(1 0)
0 ' az = 0 -1 {AS)

with
{A9)
Then the eigenfunctions for an intrinsic spin of 1/2 obey the eigenvalue equations
{AlO)
Besides the commutation properties embodied in equation A2, the a matrices
obey the anti-commutation relations
{All)
in particular, a~ =a~ =a; =1 , where 1 is the 2 x 2 unit matrix.
Together with 1 , the a1 are sufficient for a complete description of a spin-t
system, i.e. a system with two possible states (m =± t). For this reason they can

a,
also be used to represent the isospin of an isospin doublet such as the neutron-
proton pair. When used to represent isospin, the matrices are usually denoted
Tt (see Wilkinson, 1969).
It is often convenient to use two different coordinate systems which are
oriented in space in different directions. [One example is in the description of a
nucleus with a permanently deformed (non-spherical) shape. It is helpful to use
a set of axes fiXed along the principal axes of the nucleus {the body-fixed axes)
as well as a set independently ftxed in space {the space-fzxed axes). If the nucleus
is rotating, the body-ftxed axes will be rotating with respect to the space-fiXed
ones.] Then a state with angular momentum j which has a definite projection m
on one z-axis will have a distribvtion of projections m' with respect to the other
z' -axis. This distribution comes from the quantum uncertainty in the x andy
components and can also be visualised using the vector model as being due to the
precession of J about the z-axis (Figure Al). The rotational transformation
which determines this distribution in m' is described in standard texts {Brink and
Satchler, 1968; Messiah, 1962).

A2 ANGULAR MOMENTUM COUPLING AND SYSTEMS COMPOSED OF

TWO OR MORE PARTS

Often we have systems made up of two parts, each with angular momentum.
These parts may be two different particles, or perhaps the spin and orbital
properties of a single particle. Each part has associated with it an angular
momentum operator and its z-component. Let these be J 1 , J 1z, J 2 , and J 2 z.
Then we have two choices for a set of four commuting operators for the com·
bined system. One choice is
{Al2)
 APPENDIX A 287

The corresponding eigenfunctions are products of the eigenfunctions for each

part and obey the eigenvalue equations
Jlli1m1} lj2m2> = it(it + l)lhmt> lhm2> (A13)
(Al4)
where i = 1 or 2.
The other choice of a set of commuting operators is in terms of the total
angular momentum of the combined system, J = J 1 + J 2 • It is
(Al5)
The eigenfunctions of the coupled system we will write as Ij d 2 JM}. They obey
the eigenvalue equations
Jllitj2JM> = j;(j; + l)lid2JM>, i = 1, 2 (A16)

12 1iti2JM> =J(J + l)ljihJM> (A17)

lz lithlM> =Miid2JM> (A18)

For given i1 and j 2 , the values of J are restricted by the triangular condition of
vector addition
(Al9)
and the allowed J ranges between these limits in integer steps.
The choice Al2 would be especially useful if the system were isolated and if
there was no interaction between the two parts. Then the angular momentum
and its orientation for each part would remain constants of the motion, as is
expressed by equations Al3, Al4. However, if there is an interaction between
the two parts, it is likely that the individual components m; will not remain
constant even if the magnitudes it do: the two vectors ji will tend to precess
around their resultant J instead of each precessing independently about the
z-axis. If the system as a whole is isolated, J 2 and lz will remain constants.
These two extremes are pictured using the vector model in Figure A2.
These two descriptions are not independent but their eigenfunctions are
related by a unitary transformation. This may be written explicitly as
lid2JM} = ~ ljlml}lhm2} <iihm1m2lid2JM) (A20)
m1 m2
or the inverse
ljlml}lj2m2} = ~ liti2JM} <iti2JMij.j2mlm2} (A21)
J

These equations defme the (real and symmetric) Wigner or Qebsch-Gordan

coefficient
(A22)
288 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

--- ---
(D) (b)

Figure A2 Vector picture of two angular momentaj 1 andj 2 • (a) In the coupled (J, M)
representation, i 1 and i 2 have a resultant J with projection M. J precesses about the z-axis,
while j 1 and j 2 precess about J; m 1 and m 2 are indeterminate. (b) In the uncoupled
(j 1 m 1 j 2 m 2 ) representation i 1 and i 2 precess independently about the z-axis; their resultant
J fluctuates in direction and magnitude

For brevity, this is often written (j 1hm 1 m 2 1JM) and we shall follow this con-
vention. The coefficient vanishes unless J satisfies the condition A19; further,
since lz = JlZ +l 2 z, we must have M= m 1 + m 2 •
The vector model gives a physical meaning to the transformations A20 and
A21. The left side of Figure A2 represents a system with definite J and M; the
individual j; then precess around J in a correlated fashion and their correspond-
ing projections m; fluctuate. Equation A20 expresses the distribution of the m1;
<idzm 1m 2 1JM)2 is the probability that observation would yield the values m 1
and m 2 • Classically, the range of m; allowed for a given J, M would be determined
geometrically; quantum uncertainties allow all values of m1 from -it to i;, pro-
vided m 1 + m 2 =M.
The right side of Figure A2 pictures the state Ij 1 m 1 ) Ij 2 m 2 ) where the two
i; vectors precess around the z-axis in an uncorrelated way. Their resultant J then
fluctuates, and equation A21 gives the distribution of J values. The square of the
coefficient is now the probability of fmding a particular value of J.
Equations A20 and A21 represent a unitary transformation so the coefficients
must satisfy orthonormality relations
~ <JMiid2m1m2> <id2m1m2IJ'M'> = fjJJ' fjMM' (A23)
mtm2

and
(A24)
 APPENDIX A 289

Hence no given coefficient may exceed unity. An explicit general expression can
be given for the coefficients, as well as simple formulae for special cases (Brink
and Satchler, 1968). Numerical tables are also available. Physical arguments can
be used in some special cases. For example, suppose we have the system ljd 1 )
llzh.) in which each part has the maximum allowed z-component. Then the
resultant M =j 1 + j 2 is also a maximum and the rule A19 shows that only
J = j 1 + j 2 is allowed. Consequently, because of the normalisation condition
A24, <id2hh,iJ= it + j 2 , M=J) must have a magnitude of unity. Its sign is
arbitrary but the usual convention is to choose it positive.
The Clebsch-Gordan coefficient exhibits a number of symmetry relations
under permutation of its arguments. From the definitions A20 and A21 it is
clear that nothing physical is altered if we interchange the order of j 1 and h.; at
most the combined state may change sign owing to the phase conventions we
have adopted. Indeed, we find

(A25)
so that
(A26)
Similarly, changing the sign of the z-components is equivalent to inverting the
direction of the z-axis. This can have no physical significance for an isolated
system so we expect a corresponding symmetry relation. We find
<id2 -m1 -m21J-M>=(-)'-i1 -i2 <id2m1m2iJM) (A27)
Other symmetries are described elsewhere (Brink and Satchler, 1968; Messiah,
1962).
As examples, Tables Al-A3 give simple expressions for the coefficients when

TABLE AI Qebsch-Gordan coefficients [or j 2 = 0 or J = 0

<i OmO IJM> =li;J limM

TABLE A2 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients whenj2 = 1/2

J m2 =1/2 m2 = -1/2

jl +t [i1 +M+fJ/2 [i1 _M+tr'2

+1
2jl +1
2jl

,, -,
• 1 _[i1 -M+fJ 12
2jl +1
[j +M+fJ/2
1

2j, +1
290 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

TABLE A 3 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients when j 2 = 1

J m2 =1 m 2 =0 m2 = -1
[Vs +M)(is +M+l)r/2 e~ -M+1)(is +M+l)J'2 [<is - M) <is - M + 1)]1/2
/1 + 1
(2/ 1 + 1) (2/ 1 + 2) (2/1 + 1) Us + 1) ('}jl + 1) (211 + 2)

-[Vs +M>Us -M+l)J'2 M [Us -M>U 1 +M+l)]l/2

is
21s Us + 1) UsUs +1)]1/2 2/s Us + 1)

11 -1
[Us - M) (fs - M +
2/s (2/s + 1)
l)J' 2 [Us -M) Us +M)J/2
Is (2/s + 1)
[ul n
+M+ u~ +M)T/2
2/s (2/s + 1)

h =0, 1/2 and 1 from which numerical values may be obtained. They should be
used in conjunction with the relations A25 and A27. As an exercise, the reader
may also use these tables to verify the relations A23 and A24.
Among the various representations of the Clebsch-Gordan coefficient which
may be encountered, a popular one is the Wigner 3 - j symbol. This is renorma-
lised so as to give it a high degree of symmetry (see Brink and Satchler, 1968)

{a b c)= (-)11-b--y (2c + 1)- 1/ 2 (abCi{Jic- 1> (A28)

~0: t3 'Y
In most systems of physical interest there are more than two component
parts and we are faced with the problem of constructing states with good total
angular momentum from the angular momenta of these parts. In general there
will be more than one way of doing this. For example if we have three angular
momenta h, j 2 and h, there are three ways in which we may couple them to a
resultant J by applying twice the coupling relations A20 or A21. One is
(A29)
while another is
(A30)
Any of the three possibilities is a valid representation but they are not independ-
ent. The corresponding eigenfunctions are related by a linear transformation; for
example,
I (jlj2)J12, h ;JM) = I: ljl, (hh)J23 ;JM) (jl, V2h)J23 ;JI (jd2)J12 ,h ;J)
J23 (A31)

The transformation coefficient is real and independent of M; it is used to defme

the Racah coefficient W
 APPENDIX A 291

<it ,(hh)J23 ;JIUti2)Jn,h ;.!) = [(2l12 + 1) (2123 + 1)] l/2 WUti2Jh ;J12J23)
(A32)
By expanding the left-hand side in accordance with equations A20, the Racah W
can be expressed as the contraction (sum over z-components) of a product of
four Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. Consequently the Racah coefficients, or the
closely related Wigner 6 - j symbols

{;! ;} =(-1ytb+c+d W(abcd;en {A33)

are frequently encountered in any problems involving more than two angular
momenta. Their properties are well documented and extensive numerical tables
are available.
An example of two coupling schemes like A29 and A30 was encountered in
section 3.8.1 when dealing with the collision of two nuclei, each with spin,
whose relative orbital angular momentum was non-zero. For further information
about these and more complicated angular momentum coupling situations, the
reader should consult more specialised books (for example, Brink and Satchler,
1968).

A3 SPHERICAL HARMONICS

Spherical harmonics are solutions of the differential equation A6

[L2 - Q(Q + 1)] Yr (8, rp) =0 (A34)
with integral values for Q. The operator L2 is givett explicitly by equation AS.
The dependence on rp may be factored out
Yf (8, rp) =Sf (8) exp(imrp) (A35)
then the eigenvalue equation A7 follows immediately from the explicit form A4
for the operator L 11 • We have man integer with -Q EO; m EO; Q. The explicit defini-
tion of the er involves an arbitrary choice of phase; the one most commonly
used is that of Condon and Shortley (1951)

er (8) =(-)'" [(2Q + 1)

41T
(Q- m)!]
(Q +m)!
112
pr (cos 8) if m ;;;. 0

(A36)

Here Pr (cos 8) is the associated Legendre polynomial (Abramowitz and Stegun,

1970.) The spechl case with m =0 is the Legendre polynomial, P: (cos 8) =P'J.
(cos 8).
From equation A36 we have that
292 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

(A37)
Further, the parity operation (reflection through the origin) replaces (8, 1/J) by
(1r -- 8, 1/J + 1r). Since
(A38)
we see that the spherical harmonics have a definite parity of (-)Q. They are also
orthogonal over the unit sphere and, as defined, normalised so that

(A39)

where liab = 1 if a= b but liab = 0 if a* b. We also have a sum rule

l: I Y:Z (8,1jJ)I 2 = 2Q+ 1 (A40)

m 47T
A few examples of low order are

~ = (·L)''2 ; Y? = (:7T) 112 cos 8; Yf 1 = :j{;7Ty 12 sin 8 exp(±ii/J)

5 )1/2 ( 15)1/2
Y~ = ( - (3 cos 2 8- 1); Yf 1 = + - cos 8 sin 8 exp(±iljJ)
167T 87T
15 )1/2
Yf 2 = ( - sin 2 8 exp(±2i<P)
327T
The spherical harmonics also satisfy recursion relations (Messiah, 1962;
Abramowitz and Stegun, 1970) which enable us to generate values for larger
Q and m.
The spherical harmonic Y:Z (8, 1/J) goes through zero (Q- m) times in the
interval 0 < 8 < 1r; consequently I Y:Z 12 has (Q- m) minima(= zero) in this
interval. This sinusoidal-like behaviour may be seen explicitly from the asymp-
totic formula for large Q

P:Z(cos8)~(-Q)m ( -2 -)l/?.
Q7TSin 8
sin[(Q+t)8+(2m+l) -47TJ

which holds for Q>> 1, m << Qand 8 not too close to 0 or 7T.
The Y;' (8, 1/J) provide us with a complete set offunctions with which we
may expand any function of the angles 8 and 1/J, as was done in equation 3.34,
4.19, 4.60 or 4.61 for example. The Rayleigh expansion 3.35 of a plane wave is
a special case.
When m = 0, a spherical harmonic Y3
reduces essentially to a Legendre poly-
nomial PQ (Abramowitz and Stegun, 1970)

Ji (8, 1/J) =~] PQ (cos 8)

 APPENDIX A 293

These Pfl constitute a complete orthogonal set which may be used to expand any
periodic function f of 9 which is symmetric about 9 = 0,[(-9) = [(9). Since

f l

-1
Pfl(x)PQ'(x)dx = - -
2Q + 1
2
liQQ' (A41)

which is a special case of equation A39, we may write

[(9) = 1: aflPQ (cos 9)
Q

f
where
afl = 21 (2Q + 1) 0
1r f(9)PQ (cos 9) sin 9d9 (A42)

The results of measurements of an angular distribution or differential cross-

sections may be expressed in this form, with the coefficients afl being chosen to
optimise the fit of [(9) to the data. Some Legendre polynomials oflow order are
P0 (x)=1;
P2 (x)=t(3x 2 -1); P 3 (x)=t(5x 3 -3x)
P4 (x)=i(35x 4 -30x 2 +3)
For further properties of the spherical harmonics, see, for example, Brink and
Satchler (1968), also Messiah (1962) and Morse and Feshbach (1953).

A4 EXAMPLE 1: RADIOACTNE DECAY OF A NUCLEUS

Consider a nucleus, with spin J and z-component M, at rest; the wave function
describing its internal state is t/JJM(T). Suppose it decays by the emission of a
particle with zero spin, such as an a-particle, with orbital angular momentum Q.
Suppose the daughter nucleus has a spin J' and wave function t/J.t M'(r'). Then
the initial wave function breaks up as follows (compare equation A20)
(A43)

where m = M - M' and IJ' - QI .;;;; J .;;;; (J' + Q). Here <l>flm describes the a-particle
and its motion relative to the daughter nucleus
(A44)
where r is the vector joining the centres of mass of the a-particle and daughter
nucleus. The probability amplitude that the relative motion will be found with
Qz =m is just the Oebsch-Gordan coefficient in equation A43. The probability
of finding the a-particle at the position (r, 9, </>) is I <f>flm 12 weighted by the
probability of it being in the state <l>flm. We observe it at some large value of r,
moving in the direction with polar angles (9, </>),with a probability given by
294 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Now we do not observe the internal state of the a-particle or the daughter
nucleus, but only the direction of emission, so we must integrate over the
internal variables of thea-particle and the daughter nucleus. Since f dr' t/I;•M'(r') x
t/IJ'M"(r') = f>M 'M", etc., there is no coherence between transitions to differ-
ent final states with M' =I=M''. Further, the radial function u11(r) is a constant at a
flxed value of r. Consequently, the angular distribution of the radiation is simply
proportional to
(A45)

where m =M - M'. Because the dependence of lQ' on 1/J enters only through the
factor eimcf>, we see that WM is independent of 1/J; the distribution is symmetric
around the z-axis. In the special case that J' =0, so that Q =J and m =M, then
the Oebsch-Gordan coefficient is unity and
I
WM(8)= Y_f (8, 1/>)1 2 (A46)
Another special case occurs when J = 0, so that Q = J', m = - M' and the
Oebsch-Gordan coefficient has the value (-)12 -m (2Q + 1)- 1 12 • Then

Wo(8) = _1_ 1:
2Q+ 1 m
I Yfr (8, 1/>)12 (A47)

= 47T
from equation A40; that is, the ~gular distribution is constant or isotropic. This
is a general property of the angular distribution of products from a spin-zero
system; it may be shown to be true for J = 1/2 also.
Other cases follow by inserting explicit values for the coefficients in equation
A45.
If the initial nucleus was not prepared in a single substate M but oriented with
a distribution of M values with probabilities PM, the angular distribution of the
decay radiation becomes
(A48)

AS EXAMPLE 2: FORMATION OF A COMPOUND NUCLEUS AND

STATISTICAL WEIGHTS
One way of preparing the radioactive nucleus discussed in the previous section is
to form it as a compound nucleus in a nuclear reaction. Co11sider the collision of
two nuclei A+ a with spins h and ia, respectively. Following equation A21,
their wave functions may be combined to form channel-spin functions (compare
section 3.8.1)
 APPENDIX A 295

(A49)

where M 5 = MA + m 8 and Ih - ia I.;;;; S.;;;;; (h + i 8 ). Here the Oebsch-Gordan

coefficient is the probability amplitude for finding a particular value S of channel
spin with z-component Ms when the colliding pair has z-componentsMA and
ma. If the incident beam and target are unpolarised, the probability of any given
MA is (2h + 1r 1 and of any given m 8 is (2i8 + 1)- 1 • Consequently the proba-
bility of finding a given S and Ms in such a beam is

where the sum is constrained to values such that MA + m 8 =Ms. Now equation
A23 tells us that this sum is just unity so that

p - 1 (A51)
S,Ms - (_2/_A_+_1_)(_2_ia_+_1_)

This is independent of Ms, as would be expected since the two nuclei are not
polarised and therefore there is no preferred direction in space. The probability
of finding S irrespective of the value of Ms is
2S+ 1
g(S) = ~ Ps M = - - - - - (A52)
Ms ' 5 (2/A+1)(2i8 +1)

which is just the statistical weight for channel spin introduced in section 3.8.1.
The total angular momentum J of the system is obtained by combining the
channel spin S with the relative orbital angular momentum Q

(A53)

where M = M 5 + m and IS - QI.;;;; J.;;;;; (S + Q). Then the spin of any compound
nucleus which is formed is limited to one of these J values. Now the Oebsch-
Gordan coefficient is the probability amplitude for finding a particular J value in
a system with channel spinS, Ms and orbital Q, m. Including equation-A49, we
see that the probability amplitude for finding a particular value of J in a system
of two nuclei with MA and m 8 moving with relative angular momentum Q, m is
just

(A54)
In particular, the vector L is always perpendicular to the direction of motion; if
we take this direction (the beam direction in an experiment) as z-axis, then
m = 0 only andM=M5 •
When the incident spins h and i 8 are randomly oriented, the probability of
finding the channel spin S and total angular momentum J is
296 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

PsJ= 1 ~ kiAiaMAma1SM><S~IJM>I 2 (A55)

' (2h + 1)(2ia + 1)MAma I
where we chose the incident beam direction as z-axis. We saw above that sum-
ming the first Glebsch-Gordan coefficient over MA and ma (keepingM=MA +
ma constant) just gives unity, leaving

PsJ= 1 ~ I<S~IJM)I2 (A56)

' (2/A + 1) (2ia + 1) M

Permuting the arguments of the remaining coefficient (Brink and Satchler, 1968)
enables us to sum this one also; the result is independent of S (provided I£- Sl
:EO; J :EO; I £ + S I) and gives the statistical spin factor of equation 3.86

PSJ-- (2J + 1)
(A57)
, (2/A + 1)(2ia + 1)(2£ + 1)

REFERENCES
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (1970). Handbook of Mathematical Functions.
New York; Dover Publications
Brink, D. M. and Satchler, G. R. (1968). Angular Momentum. 2nd edn. Oxford;
Oxford University Press
Condon, E. U. and Shortley, G. H. (1951). The Theory of Atomic Spectra.
Cambridge; Cambridge University Press
Messiah, A.M. (1962). Quantum Mechanics I and II. Amsterdam; North-Holland
Morse, P.M. and Feshbach, H. (1953). Methods of Theoretical Physics. New
York; McGraw-Hill
Wilkinson, D. H. (1969), ed. Isospin in Nuclear Physics. Amsterdam; North-
Holland
Appendix B. Transformations between
LAB and CM Coordinate Systems

As was discussed in sections 2.2 and 3.1, it is particularly convenient to use a

moving coordinate frame in which the centre of mass of two colliding nuclei is
at rest. This is called the CMS or centre-of-mass system. A coordinate frame at
rest in the laboratory is called the LAB system. We shall only consider non-
relativistic kinematics here. (Marmier and Sheldon (1969) give the relativistic case.)
Suppose the target particle A, with mass mA, is at rest in the LAB and the
projectile a, with mass m 8 , is incident with velocity v8 • The CMS is moving in the
LAB with a velocity

(B1)

hence the projectile has a velocity in the CMS of

, mA (B2)
Va =va -VcM = Va
mA +ma
where we use primes to denote quantities measured relative to the CMS. The
target has a velocity in the CMS of vA. = - VcM. The total momentum of the
pair is zero in the CMS so that

Thus their speeds are in the ratio

,
Va mA
-, -- (B3)
VA ma

297
298 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

t
The bombarding energy E = mav~ becomes transformed into
E -2ma
_t v2
a
=tmaV~2 +t mAv~ +t(ma +mA)VJM
=t JlaV~ + t MVtM (B4)
=EQ +EcM
where Ita is the reduced mass of the pair

IJ.Ol = (BS)

and M is the total mass, M =m 8 + mA. We recognise EcM as the kinetic energy
associated with the motion of the centre of mass, while £ 01 is the kinetic energy
of relative motion in the CMS; also

(B6)
ma+mA
After a collision, the centre-of-mass motion, hence EcM and VcM, are un-
changed. The energy of relative motion E 01 will be unchanged if it is an elastic
collision, although the directions of motion of the two particles will change. If
the Q-value of a non-elastic reaction A(a, b)B is Q01 fJ, the energy of relative
motion after the reaction will be
Efl=£01 +Q01 fl (B7)
The reduced mass in the exit channel will be
mbms
IJ.(J=--- (B8)
mb+ms
In the special case of inelastic scattering, mb = m 8 and ms = mA so that IJ.(1 = 1J.01 •
Since the total momentum in the CMS must remain zero, the two residual
particles separate in opposite directions with equal but opposite momenta.
Hence their speeds in the CMS are related by

(B9)

Bl ELASTIC SCATTERING

After an elastic collision, the speeds of the two particles in the CMS are un-
changed (see equations B3, B9}. This is not true in the LAB because some
momentum has been transferred to the previously stationary target. Figure Bl
 APPENDIX B 299
illustrates the velocity relations after collision. From the sine rule for triangles
we have
sin (8cM - 8L) VcM
- , = x,say (B10)
sin 8L Va

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Figure Bl Velocity relationships in the LAB and CM systems for the elastic scattering of
two particles

(We follow the popular convention of using subscripts CM and L to denote

angles measured in the CMS and LAB, respectively.) Equations B1 and B2 give
rna (Bll)
X=-
mA

Equation B10 relates the CMS and LAB angles of scattering of the projectile a.
This relation is shown graphically in Figure B2 for several values of x. When
x.;;;;; 1, 8L increases monotonically from 0 to 11 as 8cM increases from 0 to 11.
For x > 1, two values of 8cM contribute to a given value of 8L and 8L has a
maximum value which is smaller than 'IT. This can be understood physically;
x > 1 means the projectile is heavier than the target and even a head-on collision
will leave the projectile still moving forward. In the CMS this would appear as
backward scattering.
The corresponding angles of recoil of the struck particle A (see Figure BJ)
are related by
(B12)
300 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

0 90 180
Bc.m. (dtQ)
Figure B2 Relationship between scattering angles in the LAB and CM systems. For elastic
scattering, xis the ratio of the masses of the two particles, x =mafmA. For non-elastic
scattering, x is given by equation B20

because v~ = VcM. Further' acM = 1T - 8cM' so that

Cl:L = t (1T- 8cM) {B13)
Another useful relation is obtained by equating components of the momenta
perpendicular to and parallel with the beam
v~ sin 8cM = Va sin 8L
v~ cos 8cM + VcM = Va cos 8L
These yield
sin 8cM
tan 8 L = - - - - - (Bl4)
x+cos8cM
or
x +cos 8cM
COS 8L = ----::--------:-:- (BlS)
(1 +x + 2x cos 8cM)
2 1 2 /

The definition of a cross-section implies that the same number of particles are
scattered into the element dilL of solid angle in the direction (8 L, tPL) as are
scattered into dilcM in the corresponding direction (8cM, tPcM)· Thus the
 APPENDIX B 301

differential cross-sections are related by

aL(lh)dnL = :rcM(8cM)dncM (B16)
Since the transformation between LAB and CMS is symmetric in azimuth about
the beam direction, we have tPL = 1/JcM, = 1/J say. Hence we need

-=--= (B17)
aL dncM d(cos 8cM)
From equation B15 we soon find
d(cos 8L) 1 +xcos8CM
=--------- (B18)
d(cos 8cM) (1 +x + 2x cos 8cM) 1
2 3 2

It is also convenient to have this relation expressed in terms of the LAB angle; it
can be shown that

d(cos 8L)
(B19)
d(cos 8cM)

B2 NON-ELASTIC COLLISIONS

We shall not derive these results here but leave that as an exercise for the reader.
The relations BlO and B14-B19 remain valid if the expression for xis generalis-
ed. For the reaction A(a, b)B the expression to use is

X = V~M
Vb
= [ mamb E01.
mAmB E01. + Q01.p
Jl/
2
(B20)

We note that x is still the ratio of the speed of the centre of mass to the speed of
the outgoing particle in the CMS (compare with equation BIO). The relation B12
no longer holds because in general we do not have v8 = VcM.

B3 SPECIAL CASES

When x = 1, as for the elastic scattering of two particles of equal mass, equation
B10 gives 8cM = 28L so that 8L cannot exceed ~1T (see Figure B2). The CMS
and LAB cross-sections are then related l:Sy

aL(8L) = 4 COS 8 L
---'---'--
acM(8cM)
Consequently, even if the angular distribution is isotropic in the CMS (aeM =
constant, as for the scattering oflow-energy neutrons from protons) the angular
302 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

distribution in the LAB is proportional to cos 8L. Further, equation B13 shows
that for elastic scattering

that is, the scattered and recoil particles move at right angles in the LAB.
When x << 1, we may expand in powers of x. For example
BcM R: 8L + x sin 8L
and if 8 is also small

Also

aL(OL) R: 1 + 2x cos 8L
acM(OcM)
and

acM (BcM) R: 1 - 2x cos BcM

aL(8L)

REFERENCE
Marmier, P. and Sheldon, E. (1969). Physics ofNuclei and Particles. New York;
Academic Press
Appendix C. Some Useful Data

The physical constants were obtained from E. R. Cohen (1976), Atomic Data
and Nuclear Data Tables, Vol. 18, 587. Note that m =metre, g =gramme,
s =second, J =Joule= 10 7 erg, 1r = 3.14159265, e = 2.71828183.

Cl PREFIXES

tera (T) = 10 12 deci (d) = to-t nano (n) = 10-9

giga (G) =109 centi (c) =10-2 pico (p) = 10- 12
mega (M) = 106 mil1i (m) = to- 3 femto (f) = t0- 15
kilo (k) = 103 micro (lJ.) = 10-6 atto (a) = w-11!

C2 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Speed of light c = 2.99792458 x 1011 m s- 1 ~ 3.00 x 10 23 fm s- 1

Elementary charge e = 4.803242 x to- 10 esu
= 1.602t89 X 10- 19 C
e = 1.4400 MeVfm
2

Planck's constant h = 6.626t76 X 10- 34 J S

=4.13570 x 10- 21 MeVs
'fi =h/21r = 0.65822 x t0- 21 MeV s
1i2 = 41.802 u MeV fm 2
Fine structure constant a= e2 /ftc= 7.29735 x 10- 3 = 1/137.036
Avogadro constant N A = 6.022 x 10 23 mol- 1
Boltzmann constant k 8 = 0.8617 x 10- 4 eV K- 1
Electron volt eV= 1.602t89 x 10- 19 J

303
304 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

C3 REST MASSES

atomic mass unit u = 1.660566 x 10- 24 g ={1/12) mass ofneutral 12 C

atom
uc 2 =931.502 MeV
electron me =0.54858 X 10- 3 U
mec 2 =0.51100 MeV
muon m,., =0.1134 u
m,.,c 2 = 105.7 MeV
pion m1r± = 0.1499 u
m1r±c 2 = 139.6 MeV
m1ro = 0.1449 u
m" 0 c2 = 135.0 MeV
proton mp = 1.007276 u
m p c 2 = 938.280 MeV
neutron m0 = 1.008665 u
m0 c 2 = 939.573 MeV
deuteron md =2.013553 u
mdc 2 = 1875.628 MeV
binding energy = 2.225 MeV
a-particle m01 = 4.001506 u
m01 c2 = 3727.409 MeV
binding energy= 28.30 MeV

C4 RELATED QUANTITIES

Compton wavelength: electron -fi/mec = 386.16 fm

proton fi/mpc= 0.2103 fm
Non-relativistic wave number for mass m with energy E
k =2rr/'A =0.2187 [m(u)E(MeV)] 112 fm- 1
Non-relativistic speed for mass m with energy E

v = ftk
- = 1.389 x 10 22 [E(MeV)/m(u)] 112 fm s- 1
m

Wave number for photon of energy E

k = 2rr/'A= 5.068 x 10- 3 (£(MeV)] fm- 1
Sommerfeld (Coulomb) parameter for two particles with charges Z 1 e and Z 2 e,
reduced mass m, CM energy E and velocity v

= Z 1Z 2 e
2
n = 0.1575 Z 1 Z 2 [m(u)/E(MeV)] 1/ 2
-ltv
 APPENDIXC 305

cs THE ELEMENTS

listed are the elements with their chemical symbols and their atomic numbers
Z. Also given is the mass number A of the most abundant naturally occurring
isotope. When there is no stable isotope, the A for the isotope with the longest
known lifetime is given in parentheses. Note that some elements have several
stable isotopes; the largest number occur for tin, Sn, which has 10.
Element Symbol z A Element Symbol z A
hydrogen H 1 krypton Kr 36 84
helium He 2 4 rubidium Rb 37 85
lithium li 3 7 strontium Sr 38 88
beryllium Be 4 9 yttrium y 39 89
boron B 5 11 zirconium 'h: 40 90
carbon c 6 12 niobium Nb 41 93
nitrogen N 7 14 molybdenum Mo 42 98
oxygen 0 8 16 technicium Tc 43 (97)
fluorine F 9 19 ruthenium Ru 44 102
neon Ne 10 20 rhodium Rh 45 103
sodium Na 11 23 palladium Pd 46 106
magnesium Mg 12 24 silver Ag 47 107
aluminium Al 13 27 cadmium Cd 48 114
silicon Si 14 28 indium In 49 115
phosphorus p 15 31 tin Sn so 120
sulphur s 16 32 antimony Sb 51 121
chlorine Cl 17 35 tellurium Te 52 130
argon Ar 18 40 iodine I 53 127
potassium K 19 39 xenon Xe 54 132
calcium Ca 20 40 caesium Cs 55 133
scandium Sc 21 45 barium Ba 56 138
titanium Ti 22 48 lanthanum I.a 57 139
vanadium v 23 51 cerium Ce 58 140
chromium Cr 24 52 praseodymium Pr 59 141
manganese Mn 25 55 neodymium Nd 60 142
iron Fe 26 56 promethium Pm 61 (145)
cobalt Co 27 59 samarium Sm 62 152
nickel Ni 28 58 europium Eu 63 153
copper Cu 29 63 gadolinium Gd 64 158
zinc Zn 30 64 terbium Tb 65 159
gallium Ga 31 69 dysprosium Dy 66 164
germanium Ge 32 74 holmium Ho 67 165
arsenic As 33 75 erbium Er 68 166
selenium Se 34 80 thulium Tm 69 169
bromine Br 35 79 ytterbium Yb 70 174
306 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Element Symbol z A
lutetium Lu 71 175
hafnium Hf 72 180
tantalum Ta 73 181
tungsten w 74 184
rhenium Re 75 187
osmium Os 76 192
iridium Ir 77 193
platinum Pt 78 195
gold Au 79 197
mercury Hg 80 202
thallium Tl 81 205
lead Pb 82 208
bismuth Bi 83 209
polonium Po 84 {210)
astatine At 85 {210)
radon Rn 86 {222)
francium Fr 87 {223)
radium Ra 88 {226)
actinium Ac 89 {227)
thorium Th 90 {232)
protactinium Pa 91 {231)
uranium u 92 {238)
neptunium Np 93 {237)
plutonium Pu 94 (244)
americium Am 95 {243)
curium Cm 96 {247)
berkelium Bk 97 {247)
californium Cf 98 {251)
einsteinium Es 99 {254)
fermium Fm 100 {253)
mendelevium Md 101
nobelium No 102 {255)
lawrencium Lw 103
rutherfordium Rf 104 {261)
hahnium Ha 105
Appendix D. Penetration of Potential
Barriers and the Fusion of Very Light
Nuclei

The most tightly bound nuclei are those near the middle of the periodic table
(A- 50 to 100, say). Consequently, a sufficiently heavy nucleus may release
energy by splitting (fissioning) into two lighter ones (Preston and Bhaduri,
1975). This may occur either spontaneously or after the capture of a neutron,
and is the source of energy in a nuclear reactor (as well as the fission or 'atomic'
bomb). On the other hand, two lighter nuclei may release energy by combining
(fusing) to form a heavier one. Many such fusion reactions have been studied
experimentally using beams of heavy ions from accelerators to bombard target
nuclei (sections 2.18.12 and 4.12), but only the fusion of two of the lightest
nuclei is likely to provide a practical source of energy. The reason is that the
repulsive Coulomb force between the two nuclei is proportional to the product
of their charges, Z 1Z 2 e 2 , and this Coulomb barrier (section 2.18.8 and Figure
2.35) must be overcome before the attractive nuclear forces can initiate the
reaction. This fusion process powers the sun and other stars, as well as the
fusion, or 'hydrogen', bomb. It is the focus of attention in attempts to produce
a controlled thermonuclear reactor. It also provides an interesting example of a
practical application of the theory of the tunnelling through potential barriers
that is allowed by quantum mechanics (section 3.6).
Deuterium, D, is an attractive fuel to burn because it is readily available from
the 'heavy water', D2 0, that is to be found in ordinary water, H2 0. Two
deuterium nuclei (deuterons) also have the lowest Coulomb barrier to be over-
come, with Z 1 =Z 2 =1. The two reactions of interest are
d + d-+ t+ p + 4.03 MeV,
d +d-+ 3 He + n + 3.27 MeV.

307
308 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

(The capture reaction d + d ~ 4 He + 'Y releases 23.9 MeV of energy, but the
branching ratio into this channel is extremely small.)
The relative velocity between two deuterons needed to surmount their
mutual Coulomb barrier may be obtained by heating a plasma of deuterium to
a very high temperature (hence the term thermonuclear reaction). The barrier
height is of the order of hundreds of ke V. Since Boltzmann's constant is
kB ~ 10-4 eV K- 1 (Appendix C), it takes a temperature 8 of over a billion
(10 9 ) degrees for the average kinetic energy of thermal motion(- kBO) to
surmount this barrier. Actually, a lower temperature is sufficient (Rolfs and
Trautvetter, 1978) because (i) the deuterons may tunnel through the potential
barrier (section 3.6) even when their energy is below its top, and (ii) the dis-
tribution of velocities in the plasma will provide a considerable proportion of
the deutrons with kinetic energies greater than the mean (which would be
ikBO for a Maxwell distribution). The appropriate conditions for fusion to
occur exist in the hot centres of stars, but their achievement on earth, and
the containment of the hot plasma, remains a formidable challenge to engineers
that is still being addressed.
The quantum mechanical tunnelling through the Coulomb barrier is possible
even when the deuterium is not at a high temperature, so that the deuterons
have very little thermal energy. This would lead to cold fusion. However, its
probability is very small (otherwise there would be very little deuterium left
on earth!). For example, consider a gas of deuterons at room temperature
(0 ~ 300 K). If the distribution of velocities is Maxwellian, the mean kinetic
energy of relative motion of two colliding deuterons is ikBO = 0.039 eV
(Clayton, 1968). Then we may use the low energy limit (equation 3.79) for
the barrier transmission factor, T. This gives the probability for two deuterons
with this mean energy of penetrating their mutual barrier to be T(E = 0.039 eV)
~ w- 2176 , an extremely small number!
However, this is very misleading because there is a distribution of velocities
in the gas which we must average over in order to find the overall probability of
fusion. The high energy tail of this distribution is very important because the
barrier transmission factor, T(E), increases so rapidly with energy, E. What is
required in order to evaluate the fusion rate (Clayton, 1968; Rolfs and
Trautvetter, 1978) is the average (a(E)v), where vis the relative velocity of
the pair of deuterons, and then, from equation 3.78, their cross-section for
fusion at energy E can be written in the form a(E) = E- 1ST(E), with the
'astrophysicalS factor' essentially constant (Clayton, 1968). Also, from
equation 3.79 we have Qn T(E) = -bE- 112 , with b constant. The probability,
P(E), of finding a pair with relative energy, E, is proportional to
E 112 exp( -E/kBO) if the distribution is Maxwellian (Clayton, 1968). Then the
product a(E) v P(E) is proportional to exp( -E/kBO - b/E 112 ), which is peaked
atE= E 0 = (!bkBOi1 3 with a full width at half-maximum of M/E 0 =
4(3E0 /kBOr 112 . Usually E 0 ~ kBO, so that the peak is sharp. In our case,
b ~ 990 (eV) 112 and, for example, E 0 = 3.05 kBO at a temperature of 108 K.
 APPENDIX D 309
However, at a terrestrial room temperature (J = 300 K, the peak moves out
much further on the tail of the distribution. Then E 0 R:: 211 kaO and
AE/Eo R:: 0.16. The barrier penetration factor at this energy E =E 0 is now
T(E 0 ) R:: 10-183 , an enormous increase over the value for the mean energy of
tk 8 0. (Of course, this advantage is partially off-set by the much smaller
probability, P(E 0 ), of finding two deuterons in the gas with this relative
energy.) Nonetheless, the fusion probability remains negligibly small.
The probability would be enhanced if some external environment could be
found that would 'squeeze' the deuterons closer together and thus assist in
overcoming the barrier. For example, the electrons in a deuterium molecule
bind the two deuterons and partially shield the Coulomb repulsion between
them. It has been estimated (Van Siclen and Jones, 1986) that this may greatly
increase the barrier penetration factor' perhaps to greater than w- 80 ' but still
it is small, ensuring that a gas of deuterium remains quite stable under normal
conditions.
A further gain is possible by replacing an electron in the deuterium molecule
by a muon (Massey et al., 197 4 ). The greater mass of the muon (207 times that
of the electron -see Appendix C) results in its occupying an orbit with a much
smaller radius than that of the electron, thus binding the two deuterons closer
together by a factor of about 200. The barrier penetration factor is again
estimated to be increased dramatically, perhaps to better than 10- 4 (Van Siden
and Jones, 1986) This is now sufficiently large for spontaneous fusion to have
been observed in muonic deuterium molecules (Massey et al., 1974). Because the
muon plays only a transitory role, it has been called muon-catalysed fusion.
Difficulties in utilising this process include (i) the muons have to be produced
independently, and (ii) they only live a short time (2.2 x w- 6 s) before decay-
ing into an electron and two neutrinos.

REFERENCES

Clayton, D. D. (1968). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis,

Chapt 4. New York; McGraw-Hill
Massey H. S. W., Burhop, E. H. S. and Gilbody, H. B. (1974). Electronic and
Ionic Impact Phenomena, Vol. 5. Oxford; Oxford University Press
Preston, M A. and Bhaduri, R. K. (1975). Structure of the Nucleus. Reading,
Mass.; Addison-Wesley
Rolfs, C. and Trautvetter, H. P. (1978).Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. Vol. 28, 115
Van Siclen, C. DeW. and Jones, S. E. (1986). J. Phys. Vol. 12, 213
Solutions to Exercises

1.1 (i) 2.4 x 10 18 MeV 2.39 x 10- 23 fm

(ii) 1.2 x 10 14 MeV 2.39 x 10- 19 fm
(iii) 10.1 MeV 9.02 fm
4.02 x 10- 12 MeV 1.01 x 10- 12 MeV
1.2 (i) 70 kW 0.35 g weight
(ii) 70 kW 0.17 g weight
(iii) 140 kW 0.17 g weight
1.3 143.2 em s- 1 = 5.16 km hr- 1 10.5 em
1.4 813 MeV 885 kg weight 2.24 X 10 27 X g

1.5 See equation 2.19 Vc(O) = Vc(R) t

Vc(O) = 25.3 MeV Vc(7)= 16.9 MeV
--- 6 Z 1 Z 2 e2
Vc(r ,;;;; R) = 5 = 20.2 MeV
R
1.6 Potentials:
r = 2 fm: 0.72 MeV 5.85 X 10-37 MeV 6.71 MeV
r = 1 fm: 1.44 MeV 1.17 X 10-36 MeV 27.4 MeV
Forces:
r= 2 fm: 0.36 MeV fm- 1 2.9 X 10-37 MeV fm- 1 8.15 MeV fm- 1
r = 1 fm: 1.44 MeV fm- 1 1.2 X 10-36 MeV fm- 1 47.0 MeV fm- 1

1.7 1.93e 6.45 X 10- 24 g 7.27 MeV

See Appendix C
1.8 6.07 X 10- 14 erg= 3.79 X 10-2 eV 1.35 X 10 3 m s- 1 5.625 X 10 1 ° K
1.9 6.05 x 1033 dyn cm- 2 ~ 3 x 1021 x K (steel)

310
 SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES 311

t
1.10 Q = Ze(a 2 - b2 ) (i) a/b = 1.35 (ii) a/b = 1.373
1.11 m =2m 0 if K =m 0 c 2
4MaMA (8Ma£)1/2
2.1 EA = E cos 2 (}A VA= COS (}A
(Ma +MA) 2 (Ma +MA)
Mn""' 1.16Mp En""' 5.7 MeV
2.2 See Appendix B and Figure B2
2.3 Ep =cos 2 Op MeV aL(Ep) =4 acME~/ 2 aL(Op) =4acMcos Op
2.4 4.029 MeV 9.40 MeV 107.30 MeV
2.5 38.18 MeV 27.57 MeV
Qe 6 o)= 11 or 12 Q(p)::: 4
2.6 359mb
2.7 Ve::: 21.47 MeV VN =- 1.97 MeV
Fe= 1.95 MeV fm- 1 FN:::- 3.95 MeV fm- 1
Fe + FN = 0 at r = 11.387 fm 78°
1
2.8 - - (r4 } q 4
120
3 oo q2P
F(q) = --[sin (qR)- qRcos (qR)] = ~ (-l)P (r2P}
(qR) 3 p=O (2p + 1)!

(r')= _3_ Rn
3 +n
Zeros when tan x = x (x = qR): x 0 ""'4.5, 7.75, 10.9 ...
(}min :::::; 19°, 31°, 48°; R "'-" 3.6, 3.8, 3.4 fm

2.9 z-axis parallel to k; I perpendicular to k

2.10 [((J):::k- 1 ~ (2Q+l)exp(i5 2 )sin5 2 PQ(cos0) if 11Q:::exp(2i5 2)
Q

da = k- 2 {sin 2 5 0 +6cos(5 0 -5I)sinli 0 sin 5 1 cos(} +9sin 2 5 1 cos 2 (J

dQ
. 25
- [Sin
a= 47T + 3 Sin
• 2
51]
0
k2
2.11 42 MeV
2.12 2.04% 3.72 X 10- 3 K 538 kG
2.13 dasym = 4daunsym (spin-0)
dasym = daunsym (spin-t)
312 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

s
2.14 2
2.16 1(8) = F0 (8) = sin 2 ()
t
1(8) = = isotropic

3.3 'IJ!=xi(r)l/II(TA)+x2(r)l/12(TA)
[V 2 - UII (r) + k~] XI (r) = UI2 (r)x2 (r)
[V 2 - U2 z(r)+k~]X2(r)= U2I(r)xi(r)
[V 2 - Ueff + k~] XI (r) = 0
1
if Ueff = UII + Lt UI2 U2I
e--+0 V - U22 + k~ + ie
2

Lt = <P .____!______ - irr 8(£- H); <P =principal value

e--+0 E-H+ie E-H

3.4 8=tan-I ~tanKR J-kR if K= [~7 (E-1I/

2
;;;:.o

amplitude
- = - - -for
-- r<-R _ [ 1 + (Ko
- _
2 2
- cos KR) ]-I/ wh ere K 0 -_ [ - 2mVJI/ 2
--
amplitude for r > R k 112

4rr . 2 tanK0 R
~
2
2 [
ao = - sm 8 -+ 4rrR - 1 ask-+ 0
k 2 KoR
a0 = 0 if tanK 0 R = K 0 R
See section 3.6.1

3.5

mV, R 2 mJI,oR
0 << 1 if kR << 1; ~-- << 1 if kR >> 1
~2 1i2k

3.6 ( da) =(2m Vo) 2(-1-)2 if q = 2k sin tO

"dn BA rdi 2 o? + q 2
Let a-+ 0, keeping (V0 /a) =- ZIZ 2 e2
3.7 0.59 fm
 SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES 313

3.9 f(O) = k- 1 l; {2!2 + 1) CQP!l(cos 0)

2
Oet = 47Tk- 2 l; (2!2 + 1)1 C2 12
Q

Oabs = 41Tk- 2 l; (2!2 + 1) [ImCQ- I qzl 2]

Q
Otot = 47Tk- 2 l; (2!2 + 1) ImCQ
Q

3.10 f(O) = g(cos 0) + h(cos 0) d·k x k' where cos (J = k·k'/k2

Polarisation vector is parallel to k x k'
f(O)=a+b(n•dt)(n·~)i'cn·(dt +d2)+dn•(I(J, -d2)
+ e(ll•d1) (ll•d2) + g(m·d1) (m·d2)
where a, b, ... are functions of k·k' and ll, m, n are orthogonal unit vectors:
ll = (k + k')/2k cos~() m = (k- k')/2k sin~() n = (k x k')/k 2 sin (J
d =0 for identical particles
4.1 (i) If(Jmin = 35°, 34.6°, 34.15°, 33.75°
then R = 6.46, 6.51, 6.57, 6.60 fm
CorrectedR= 7.26, 7.30, 7.36, 7.38 fm
r 0 = 1.45, 1.44, 1.44, 1.41 fm
(ii)R =6.62 fm correctedR =7.69 fm Q= 17.8

4.3 1R [J.I3 -(p.2 -1)3/2]

J.l
4.5 U(rp) = 1 0 [p(rp) + i V2 p(rp) (r2 ) + ... ]
4.6 u,(r) =J p(r') v,(r- r') dr' i =0, 1
Vo =-} (Vpn + Vpp) V1 =-} (Vpn - Vpp)
Vpn/Vpp =3 Up =- 55.3 MeV Un =- 44.7 MeV
4.8 W:::::: 53+ 25 (N- Z)/A MeV
wex:(£+ so)- 1' 2
4.9 4.62 fm 0. 79 fm 0.068 fm
4.10 At r =7.7 fm (see Exercise 4.1)
U= (2.23 + 0.52i), (2.29 + 0.411), (2.33 + 0.34i) MeV
4.11 A = (-)n-m (k/K) with (Ka + £\) =m1r and m integer
A =(- )n-m with (Ka + £\) =(m + ~ )7r and m integer

4.12 cS 0 = -kR +tan -1 [k-K tan KRJ~ where K

2m
= [ 112 (E + V)
] 1/2

tanK0 R ] 2
OeJ ~ 47TR 2 [ - 1
KoR
314 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

4.13 v~ 51 MeV
A ~83, 292
Vp ~57 (A= 70), 6p (A= 230)
4.14 Tpd = D(K)F(Q)
where D(K) =I l/l~(s)Vpn(s) exp(-iK·s) ds, K=tkd -kp
F(Q) =I 1/>(rn) exp(-iQ·rn) drn, Q =.kd - (Ms/MA)kp
C =[cxfj(a+~)Jl/2
27r{P- a) 2
8:e32d) 1/2(a: a )3/2
D(K) =Do ~2/(K2 + ~2), Do=- ( ... .- .-

2
F(Q)= ;-L NL [47r(2L + 1)] 1 / 2 2R 2 [h(QR)h5}>'(iKnR)
Q +Kn
- hil) (iKnR)j~ (QR)]
where J;_ = (dfLfdr)lr=R
4.15 L = 3.0, 1.9, 1.1, 0
R = 8.36, 7.63, 7.34, (?); R ~ 2.0 x A 113
if h(x) maximum at x = 4.5, 3.35, 2.1, 0 for L = 3, 2, 1, 0
4.17 rn = 0.0409 r'Y
4.19 See Blatt and Weisskopf(1952), page 426; Lynn (1968); Lane and Thomas
(1958)

4.21 tan 8 1 =sin 204 (:: -cos 29 2)

where 9 1 =laboratory angle of projectile of mass m 1 and 9 2 =laboratory
angle of recoiling target of mass m 2
4.22 j 2 = (i + 1)2 commutes with Joi
1
<H> = £jU + 1)- JZ(JZ + 1)- i(i + 1)]
4.23 M= 2: W(8) = sin 28
M= 0: W(8) = 1 + 3 cos 29
 Index

Absorption 80, 120-121, 143-145, Classical scattering theory 132-138

152, 187-189 deflection function 134, 135
attenuation of a beam by 30, 31 glory 138
reflection by 120, 121 orbiting 136
See also Strong absorption rainbow 137
Adiabatic approximation 167-170 semi-classical 139-143
Angular correlation 53, 54 Clebsch-Gordan coefficient 287-290
Angular distribution 28, 37, 74-77, Compound nucleus 64-66, 74-77
87,282,293-294 resonances 69-71, 223-234
See also Cross-section, differential statistical theory see Statistical
Angular momentum 56, 57, 64, 74, model
75, 81, 104, 105, 126-129, Coulomb barrier 77, 78, 86, 113,
283-291 121, 122
conservation of 7, 27, 127,243 Coulomb excitation 49, 50, 172-174,
transfer 202, 205 271
vector model 284, 285, 288 interference with nuclear excitation
Antisymmetry 7, 59 172-174
Asymmetry (scattering) 51-53 Coulomb scattering 34-50, 113
amplitude 114
Bessel functions 56, 105-107, 162, classical 34-38
166,170,171 Mott formula 39
Binding energy 9 of electrons 44-49
Blair phase rule 171 orbits 35, 36, 43, 44
Born approximation 100, 101,204- phase shifts 114
206,213 Coupled equations 97-99, 219-221
distorted-wave Born approximation Cross-section 28-30
101, 102,206-210 absorption or reaction 29, 115-
Bosons 7 118, 121, 128, 152,260,261,
Branching ratio 73, 74 277
Breit-Wigner formula 70 differential 28, 37, 74-76, 95, 96,
115
integrated 115-118
Capture reaction 25 limits 238
Centre-of-mass system 22-24, 91-93, Mott 39
297-302 near threshold 124-126
Centrifugal barrier 59, 105 non-elastic 259-261
Channel 26, 129 Rutherford 37,38
channel spin 126 total 29, 32, 118-120, 177-181,
Charge distribution 9, 10,44-47 258
315
316 INDEX

Deep-inelastic scattering see Heavy ions Form factor 44, 49, 148
Deflection function 134, 135 Fragmentation 265
Deformed nuclei 11, 14, 19, 167, Fusion 4, 64, 81, 83,307
170,264,265
Density-dependent interactions 183, Giant resonance 78, 79, 262-265
193 Glauber method 142, 143
Density of nuclei, distribution 9, 10 Glory scattering 138
Density of nuclei, transition 49, 148 Green function 104
Deuteron stripping 67, 74, 212-214
and deuteron break-up 221 Hamiltonian 96
Butler theory 208, 214, 280 Hard sphere scattering 112, 231
Differential cross-section see Cross- Hauser-Feshbach theory 245, 270,
section 271
Diffraction 8 0, 144-14 5 Heavy ions 75, 81-83,267-273
Direct reactions 65-69, 74-76, deep inelastic or strongly damped
167-175,201-218 collisions 81, 268, 269
as energy-averages 256-257 quasi-elastic collisions 268, 271-
Born approximation 204-206, 273
213 shock waves 2 71
distorted-wave Born approximation Hyperons 3, 27
206-210
inelastic sea ttering 21 0-212 Identical nuclei 59, 60, 87
knock-out 215-218, 267 Impulse approximation 146-148,
multistep processes 218-223 216,266
semi-classical model 202-204 distorted-wave impulse approxi-
stripping and pick-up 67, 212-215 mation 216
strong coupling 218, 219 multiple scattering series 146
with heavy ions 271-273 Independence hypothesis 65, 66, 74,
Distorted-wave Born approximation 242-244
101, 102, 206-210 Inelastic scattering 25
adiabatic approximation 167
Effective interaction 150 and collective model 210-212,
Eikonal approximation 141-143, 220, 221
179,265 and strong absorption 167-172
Elastic scattering 25,41 with Coulomb excitation 172-174
and strong absorption 154-166 Integral equation for scattering 99,
compound-elastic 231, 258, 260 100, 102-104
potential or shape-elastic 231, 260 See also Schrodinger equation
Electron scattering 9, 44-49 Inverse reactions 60, 61, 87,110,
Energy resolution 63, 266, 267 131
Evaporation from compound nucleus Isobaric analogue resonance 239-242
65, 72, 76,78,248-249 Isospin 7, 239-242, 286
Excitation function 63, 68, 69
Knock-out reactions 215-218, 267
Fermions 7
Fission 4, 12, 81,268,270,307 Legendre polynomial see Spherical
Fluctuations (statistical) 79, 80, harmonics
252-257 Level density 248-250
and compound elastic scattering Lippman-Schwinger 103
260,261
correlation in energy 253, 254, 256 Magnetisation in nuclei 47-49
distribution of cross-sections Mean free path 31, 80
252-255 Mesons 3, 22, 27, 267
effect of direct reactions 256, 257 Molecules (nuclear) 83
 INDEX 317

Neutron scattering 31-33, 69, 72 Quark-gluon plasma 82, 271

optical model at low energies Quasi-free scattering 67
262-265 Q-value 24-27
strength function 261-265, 279
total cross-sections 31-33, 177-181 Racah coefficient 290, 291
Nucleon-nucleon force 42, 43, 57, Radius of a nucleus 9, 10, 30-33,
58, 86, 87, 183 40,41,45-47,198-201
effective interaction 183 charge radius 40, 45, 198, 199
Nucleon-nucleon scattering 42 matter radius 199, 201
potential radius 190, 191, 197,
200,201
Optical model 80, 17 5-198 strong absorption radius 41, 42,
at low energies 257-265 154, 157, 158, 196, 199-201,
Optical potential 99, 175-177 277
ambiguities 192, 194-197, 279 Rainbow scattering 137, 138
Rearrangement collision 25
empirical potentials for alpha Reciprocity 61, 110
particles 195-197, 279 Reduced mass 93
empirical potentials for neutrons Relative momentum 92, 93
194 Relativity 16, 19, 82,266,271,297
empirical potentials for protons
191-194 Reorientation 219
energy dependence. 183, 184 Resolution (energy) 63
folding model for composite nuclei Resonance 69-71, 224, 226-242
186, 187 Breit-Wigner 70, 227, 229
folding model for nucleons 181- isobaric analogue 239-242
183, 185,278 partial width 228, 229, 231,233,
for heavy ions 197, 198 234
imaginary potentials 187-189, time delay 235-237
278 wave function 234, 235
mean square radius 193 width 70, 71,227,231
phenomenological form 190, 191 See also Giant resonance
spin-orbit coupling 185, 186 R-matrix 131, 132
symmetry potential 194, 278 Rotational states 13, 14, 167
volume integral 193 Rutherford scattering 34-38
Optical theorem 118, 119, 129 orbits 43, 44
Orbiting 136
Scattering amplitude 94, 95, 100,
108, 151
Born approximation 100, 101
Parity 7, 11, 243 distorted-wave Born approximation
Partial waves 54-59, 104-107 101, 102
partial wave amplitudes 56, for particles with spin 151
112-114 impulse approximation 146-148
Partition 26 multiple scattering series 146
Peripheral reactions 67 partial-wave expansion 56, 112-114
Phase shift 56, 86, 109-112, 150 See also Strong absorption
Pick-up reactions see Direct reactions Scattering matrix 108-110, 129, 130
Plane waves 90-92, 106, 107 poles of 239
Polarisation 50-53, 151, 186 symmetry 110, 130
tensor 50, 51 unitarity 109, 110, 130
vector 51 Schrodinger equation 96-100
Potential barriers 59, 77, 78, 105, coupled equations form 97-99
113, 120-124 for potential scattering 96, 104,
Pre-equilibrium reactions 69, 250, 251 105
318 INDEX

Schrodinger equation (cont.) and the compound nucleus 244,

integral form 99-104 245
radial equation 1OS Blair phase rule 171
Selectivity of reactions 6 2 Coulomb effects 158-161, 164,
Semi-classical theories 13 2, 13 9-143, 165, 172-174
145 Fraunhofer diffraction 161-165,
effects of absorption 143-145 17Q-172
eikonal approximation or Glauber Fresnel diffraction 165, 166
method 141-143 quarter-point recipe 166
WKB approximation 140, 141 sharp cut-off model 154
SheH model 5, 12-14 smooth cut-off models 15 5-15 7
Single-particle states 12-14 Strong coupling see Direct reactions
Sommerfeld parameter 43 Strongly damped coHisions see Heavy
Spallation 265 ions
Spectrum (energy) 71, 72, 78 Super-heavy elements 83
Spherical harmonics 55, 105-107, Surface diffuseness 10, 45, 157, 158
115,166,170,205, 21Q-211,
213,285,291-294 Threshold 27
Spin 10, 11, 126-129, 151, 185, cross-section near 124-126
285, 286 Time reversal 60, 61
channel spin 126 Transfer reactions see Direct reactions
spin-orbit coupling 185, 186, 282 Transition density 49, 148
statistical weight for 61, 127, 128, Transmission coefficient 121-124,
131, 237, 294-296 244,245
Statistical model 242-250
and strong absorption 244, 245 Unitarity 109, 110
angular distributions 246, 247
evaporation model 248, 249 Vibrational states 13, 14, 170
Hauser-Feshbach theory 245
temperature 249 Wavelength 21, 22
Statistical weights see Spin Wick's inequality 118
Strength function 79, 261, 279, 280 Width of resonance 70, 71,227,231
Stripping reactions see Direct reactions partial width 228, 229, 231, 233,
Strong absorption 58, 80, 143-145, 234
153-175 Wigner n-j symbols 290, 291
and inelastic scattering 167-172 WBK approximation 140, 141