Vol. 16(8), pp.

336-342, August, 2021

DOI: 10.5897/ERR2021.4179
Article Number: B7753C367459
ISSN: 1990-3839
Copyright ©2021
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article Educational Research and Reviews
http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Review

Scholars and educational positions under criticism and

praise in the Medieval Islamic Era
Hatim Muhammad Mahamid* and Younis Fareed Abu Al-Haija
Department of Education, Faculty of Management and Organization of Education Systems, Sakhnin College for
Teachers' Education, Isreal.
Received 14 June 2021, Accepted 28 July 2021

This research focuses on criticism and praise in Arabic literature, history and poetry towards those in
charge of the scientific movement in the Medieval Era. The research method was theoretical and
qualitative. Many poets and scholars praised the rulers and sultans who established mosques and
other educational institutions (madrasa-s) based on endowments, which had a role in sciences,
intellectual and religious renaissance. They were subject to criticism or praise for their work or the
educational role they followed. The topics of praise to the ulama centered on, their diligence and
dissemination of science, as well as of their behavior and moral manners. On the other hand, the
criticism of poetry centered on the mistakes of some scholars, their scientific stances in religious
matters and criticizing scholars of the sultans for their attitudes in serving the rulers. Poets were also
interested in criticizing scholars (ulama) who moved away from the path of morality, virtue, and shari‘a,
and who lead the teaching without qualification or mismanagement of the educational process; and
therefore do not preserve the rules of morality in lessons, education or discussions, and their lack of
good morals towards students.

Key words: Arabic literature, criticism and praise, science and scholars, rulers and sultans, Medieval Era.

INTRODUCTION

Scholars (ulama) had the main position in the educational became reliant on funding from endowments of rulers,
and religious life in medieval Islamic history. Students' Sultans and wealthy benefactors, scholars were
sessions were organized according to topics and connected with the endowments and their owners. So, it
specialties, besides they were known by scholars' names was usual to see that scholars were divided between the
or by their educational topic. So, students were not loyalists of the authority (Scholars of the Sultans) and
affiliated to the educational institutions but rather to their being independent scholars in work and opinions. Thus,
scholars, known by their fame. In consequence, scholars scholars had increased their strength and leadership
were considered the first reference in the educational position not only in their performance as teachers, but
activities of the medieval ages. After the spread of also in the management and educational activities of
madrasas and other educational institutions which madrasas.

*Corresponding author. E-mail: hatim_mahamid@hotmail.com.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
 Mahamid and Al-Haija 337

Unfortunately, with the political, economic and social AD), and then to Sultan Salaḥ al-Din al-Ayyubi (d. 589
changes and developments, corruption started to spread AH/1193 AD). Isfahani praised Sultan Maḥmud bin Zengi
in the educational institutions, especially in the late and Salaḥ al-Din al-Ayyubi for their policy that benefited
Mamluk era (since the late fourteenth century) in Egypt the Islamic religion, building schools in order to spread
and the Levant. religion and revive the Sunna, and fighting "bid‘a" and "
Both rulers and scholars needed to support and help Shi‘a" in Syria and Egypt (al-Maqdisi, 1991, 1:288).
each other; the rulers needed to legitimize their authority When Sultan Najm al-Din Ayyub (d. 647 AH/1249 AD)
with the support of scholars, while scholars were ruled Egypt and Syria in the late Ayyubid era, he built a
competing for religious, educational and administrative school in Cairo known as "al-Saliḥiyya", and arranged
posts under the rulers. lessons for jurists of the four doctrines in 641 AH/1243
This was one of the most important and notable factor AD. Al-Siraj al-warraq praised and bragged of its status
that led to the extent of corruption phenomenon and to as the superiority of "al-Nizamiyya" madrasa in Baghdad
taking over the endowments-funds for personal interests, (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1: 272-273; Al-Suyuti, 1968, 2:263). In
which was known by several labels in that period, such the Mamluk era, building madrasas and their endowments
as: "al-badhl”, "al-barṭīl, al-sa‘i" (bribery) and the pursuit were increasing and the educational movement that
of rulers and sultans to obtain important posts in established on Sunni doctrinal grounds spread out, as
madrasas and other educational and religious institutions, well as competition in this field increased. Shams al-Din
and even in judicial posts as well. Anyone who wanted a ibn al-Sayigh praised the Mamluk Amir Sarghatmush
post in madrasa or the judiciary, paid money depending when he established a madrasa in Cairo in 757 AH/ 1356
on the importance and status of the posts (Ahmad, 1979; AD, for its status and importance (Ibn Iyas, 1983,
Mahamid, 2013: 113-129). 1/1:555; al-Suyuti, 1968, 2:268; al-Maqrizi, 1997, 4:228).
As a result, the scholars of authority (‘ulama’ al-sulta) Moreover, al-Shihab ibn abi Hijla praised the Mamluk
and those close to them dominated the scientific leader Shikhu for building the Sufi "khanqah" and a
movement in schools and waqf institutions, and those mosque in Cairo in 757 AH/1356 AD, and Shikhu was
scholars were exposed to criticism by other scholars, one of the most dignified princes and actually the most
such as Sheikh ‘Izz al-Din ibn ‘Abd al-Salam (d. 660 AH/ well-known for his good deeds and love for scholars,
1262 AD) and Ibn Taymiya (d. 728 AH/1328 AD), who righteous and Sufis. He contributed in many abundant
were not close to rulers and wielded no political influence. endowments for knowledge sessions and scholars of the
Scholars, writers and poets also wrote a lot to describe four doctrines (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1:557-558; al-Suyuti,
the educational activities at this point, either praising or 1968, 2:266; al-Maqrizi, 1997, 4:220). In addition, Sultan
criticizing to reform things, or as a way to deter the Hasan (d. 762 AH/1361 AD) was praised and
corrupt people in this field, by criticizing or mocking them congratulated by the writer Ibn Nubata, when he built his
and exposing their actions contrary to religion and law. madrasa in Cairo to serve the four Sunni doctrines with
The majority of scholars were proficient in poetry and its mosque, and he became one of the masterpieces of
Arabic language with its branches, in addition to their what were built in the Mamluk state (Ibn Iyas, 1983,
involvement in religious subjects. Thus, this research 1/1:559-561). The Egyptian writer Ahmad Ibn al-‘Attar
mainly focuses on the subject of criticism and praise, the also praised the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Barquq (d. 801
aspects associated with the educational activities, such AH/ 1399 AD) when he finished building his madrasa "al-
as scholars, endowments and even contributors for Zahiriyya" and its facilities in 788 AH/1386 AD, which
constructing religious and scientific institutions. included several institutions and architectural building in
Cairo, including the madrasa itself, the mosque, the
khanqah and the dome (al-Suyuti, 1968, 2:271; Ibn Iyas،
OWNERS OF MADRASAS AND RELİGİOUS 1983,1⁄2:351-373).
İNSTİTUTİONS BETWEEN CRİTİCİSM AND PRAİSE On the other hand, some contributors in such
institutions faced some kind of criticism for what had
Many poets and scholars praised the rulers who been shown as corruption or dysfunction in their
contributed in establishing madrasas and specified charitable work. For example, the Mamluk Sultan Al-
endowments for funding and maintaining them. In their Mu’ayyad Shikh (d. 824 AH/1421 AD) was exposed to
historical writings, Muslim historians described these criticism and ridicule for his controlling of some buildings
educational and religious institutions, their importance, and facilities in Cairo in order to build his mosque in 818
impact on the spread of religious sciences, the fight AH/1415 AD, including the doors of Sultan Hasan’s
against "bid‘a" and all that contravene the instructions of madrasa and others. Later on, one of the mosque's
the Qur'an and the Sunna. So, the laudation and praise minarets fell down, which make people mocking him for
for those contributors of charity appeared in poetry, his approach in obtaining funds for building the mosque
prose, and their biographies. For example, ‘Imad al-Din illegally (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 2:20-21, 31, 35-36; Ibn Taghri
al-Isfahani was a teacher in Damascus and an advisor to Birdi, 1970, 14:43-44, 75-76; Ibn al-ʿImad, 9, 1992: 212;
Sultan Nur al-Din Maḥmud bin Zengi (d. 569 AH/1174 Al-Suyuti, 1968, 2:272-273).
338 Educ. Res. Rev.

SCHOLARS BETWEEN PRAİSE AND CRİTİCİSM 1987). Sheikh Zayn al-Din Ibn al-Wardi mentioned the
descriptions and titles of al- Nawawi, which referred to his
Scholars (ulama) formed the link between the common status saying: "Sheikh al-Islam, al-ʿalim, al-zahid, al-
people on one hand, and the upper class of rulers, rabbani, he had an exclusive biography about his
Sultans and other people of power on the other. Some personal sciences, writings, belief, certainty, piety,
scholars who were heads of religious posts in the ifta’, asceticism and conviction" (Ibn al-Wardi, 1996, 2:219).
the judiciary, teaching and preaching, and some also had Sheikh Taqiy al-Din Ibn Daqiq al-‘Id (d. 702 AH/1302
administrative and hisba (market) posts. Therefore, AD) was a prominent scholar in his time, and his death in
ulama were the focus of everyone's attention, for their Egypt was heartbreaking for scholars, as he was
manners, habits, knowledge and performance in these described by al-Subki: "Sheikh al-Islam who is al-ḥāfiẓ,
public and private posts. It is natural that they were al-zahid, al-wariʿ, al-nnasik, al-mujtahidand al-muṭlaq, he
exposed to either criticism and censorship or praise by was fully experienced in religious sciences, he also
everyone. After the increase of scholars of Islamic combined between science and religion..." (al-Subki,
doctrines for reviving the Sunna and the religious 1968, 9:207-249; al-Isnawi, I, 1987: 317-320; al-Isnawi, 2,
sciences because of intellectual and doctrinal conflicts up 1987: 102-106; Ibn al-Wardi, 1996, 2:244; al-Shukani, 2,
until the end of the first Abbasid era, rivalries between the 1998: 229-232; Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1:411-412; Ibn Qadi
Sunnis themselves remained with the emergence of Sufi Shuhba, 1979, 2:299-302). He was praised by Al-Suyuti,
movements, and conflicts over posts with the spread of the Tunisian Imam al-Maliki Ibn al-qawbaʿ and Sheikh
the madrasa, religious and educational institutions and Sharaf al-Din Muhammad al-Qusi for his high degree in
endowments. A lot of examples of those scholars and diligence, his reaching to the top level of science in his
their criticism or praise can be shown, especially in the time, his writings, moral advantages and religious and
late medieval ages. scientific status (al-Suyuti, 1968, 1:317-320; al-Isnawi,
For example, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH/1111 1987, 2:103; al-Subki, 1968, 9:210).
AD) reached a high status in religious sciences and As for the scholar Taqiy al-Din Ibn Taymiya (d. 728
education, but this did not prevent him from being AH/1328 AD), a lot of controversy was raised around him
exposed to many different situations from scholars in his life as well as after his death, between supporters
between supporters and opponents, and between and opponents for his dealing in some situations and for
criticism and praise for his ideas and religious views. some of his fatwas, which are due to his tough and
Actually, al-Ghazali was criticized for his rational views of controversial views among many scholars (Ibn Hajar al-
the Ash‘ariyya thought, asceticism and Sufism. On the ‘Asqalani, 1993, 1:144-160; Al-Nu‘aymi, 1988, 1: 32, =
other hand, he was praised for some of his religious 33, 211, 2:214-215; Al-Shukani, 1998, 1:64-65). Despite
writings, such as his book "Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din". Also, he that, when he died, his funeral was massive, and it was
wrote many books attacking philosophers and Shi‘ites estimated by two hundred thousand funeral-goers, that
such as: "Maqasid al falasifa" and "Iljām al-‘Awām ‘an ‘Ilm showed his distinguished status in his time. Besides, he
al-Kalām". In his book "Tahāfut al-Falāsifah", he refuted was given an elegy and praised by groups of scholars
the Greek Philosophy and their ideas, and he attacked and writers, including Ibn al-Wardi, al-Shukani, al-
Shi‘ites and their ideas and beliefs in the book of "Fada’ih Dhahabi and others, who described him to be
al-Batiniyya" (Al-Ghazali, 2020: 16-30). distinguished and that he had high scientific ability and
Sheikh al-‘Izz Ibn ‘Abd al-Salam (d. 660 AH/1262 AD) status (Ibn al-Wardi, 1996, 2:275-279; Al-Nu‘aymi, 1988,
was one of the greatest scholars called as Sheikh al- 1:75-77; Ibn al-ʿImad, 1992, 8:142-150; Ibn Taghri Birdi,
Islam and Sultan al-‘Ulama. Many historians had praised 9, 1970: 271-272; Ibn Kathir, 14, 1988: 135-140; Al-
him by writing his biography, such as Ibn Iyas for Shukani, 1998, 1:63-72). Ibn Taymiya was also praised
example, which says: "he is famous in teaching by the historian and scholar Ibn Kathir, who had a good
knowledge, promotion of virtue, prevention of vice and he relationship with him since childhood. Ibn Kathir
is harsh with Sultans and rulers. He actually learnt from respected, appreciated, praised him in his biography, and
Sheikh Fakhr al-Din Ibn ‘Asaker, he had miraculous also cited praise for him from the poetry of Sheikh Ibn al-
dignity and he learnt to be Sufi from Shahab al-Din al- Zamalkani (Ibn Kathir, 1988, 14:137, 139; Ibn al-Wardi,
Suhrawardi...” (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1:317-318; ibn Qadi 1996, 2:278).
Shuhba, 1979, 2:137-140; al-Isnawi, 1987, 2:84-85; al- The Andalusian Imam and scholar Athir al-Din
Maqdisi, 2002: 330; Ibn Taghri Birdi, 1999, 7; Al-Dhahabi, Muhammad al-Ghirnaṭi (d. 745 AH/1344 AD) was well
1999). Also, Sheikh Muhyi al-Din al-Nawawi (676 known for his stay in Egypt, where he learnt from senior
AH/1277 AD) was one of the most famous of the Shafi‘i scholars until he surpassed them in his time. He was
ulama in Damascus, he died at the age of forty-five proficient in science, grammar and poetry, and he wrote
years, and had reached a high status in his religious life venerable books. Besides, he was a great poet as usual
and sciences. He was one of the diligent and leading for the emigrated Andalusian scholars to the Levant. He
imams; some scholars praised him for his diligence in the received much praise and elegy after his death for his
judiciary, fiqh, teaching and writing books (Ibn Iyas, 1983, scientific and literary status from many historians and
1/1:364; Ibn Qadi Shuhba, 1979, 2:194-200; Al-Isnawi, scholars, such as Salah al-Din al-Ṣafadi, Ibn Iyas and
 Mahamid and Al-Haija 339

others (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1:501-502). The historian Burhan al-Din Ibrahim Ibn Jamaʿa (790 AH/1388 AD). He
Shams al-Din Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Dhahabi (d. voluntarily removed himself from the post of the judiciary
748 AH/1348 AD) was considered as critic by many several times to get away from authority, and then he
previous scholars, where he actually was not fair in their returned after the Sultan appeased him. He had religious
biographies, and he mentioned this in his writing whether and educational posts in Jerusalem, Egypt and
it was praise or criticism, for their scientific and religious Damascus, ended up to be the leader of scholars and he
positions. Taj al-Din al-Subki mentioned in his biography was well-loved by people. He was a good public
of al-Dhahabi that he was the top of hadith's scholars and speaker, teacher, judge, and then became sheikh al-
one of the four protectors of hadith in that era. Al-Subki sheikhs of Sufism in Damascus, as mentioned by Mujir
said in his book "Tabaqat al-Shafi‘iyya" that al-Dhahabi al-Din al-‘Ulaymi al-Hanbali (Al-‘Ulaymi, 2, 1999: 186-
has no counterpart, and he was the gold of the era 187; Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani, 1, 1993: 38-39; Ibn Iyas,
literally and actually, as if the nation was gathered and he 1983, 1⁄2:142; Al-Suyuti, 1968, 2:161; Ibn Taghri Birdi,
saw it, then began to write about it (al-Subki, 9, 1968: 1970, 11:314-315; Ibn Qadi Shuhba, 1979, 3:188-190;
101). Al-Dhahabi learnt hadith at a young age from senior Ibn al-ʿImad, 1992, 8:533-534; Salibi, 1958).
scholars of hadith in several places in the Syria, Egypt The nicknames mentioned by historians about the
and Mecca. He also left a rich legacy of historical writings description of some scholars were a sign of their status,
and classifications, biographies, hadith and other elevation for their posts, respect for them as an
sciences; the most notable of his book was "The History expression of praise and thanks for their status, and a
of Islam". When he died, al-Dhahabi received praise and tribute by poets, writers and historians. Ibn Iyas described
eulogy from many of his students such as Taj al-Din al- the scholar Akmal al-Din Muhammad al-Babarti al-Rumi
Subki and others (al-Subki, 1968, 9:100-123; Ibn Kathir, al-Hanafi in his biography (d. 786 AH/1384 AD), for
1988, 14:225; Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani, 3, 1993: 336-338; example, he praised him for his virtue and advantages in
Al-Nu‘aymi, 1, 1988: 78-79; Ibn al-ʿImad, 1992, 8:264- science and his high status, where they offered him posts
268; al-Isnawi, 1987, 1:273-274; Ibn Taghri Birdi, 10, of the judiciary and he refused them. Ibn Iyas referred to
1970: 182-183). him by several names, such as "unique of his time,
As for the Shafi‘i scholar Taj al-Din al-Subki (d. 756 shaykh al-shuyukh, he was an Imam, a virtuous scholar,
AH/1355 AD), he was a descendant of senior scholars proficient in science, a good ascetic, a religious scholar,
who had many religious posts in judiciary and teaching in refusing to get senior posts " (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/2:351-
Egypt and the Levant. When he died, he received praise, 353; Al-suyuti, 1968, 1:471). Abu Hafs Siraj al-Din ʿUmar
honor, and eulogy from the writer Sheikh Jamal al-Din Ibn Ibn Raslan al-ʿAsqalani al-Shafiʿi (d. 805 AH/1402 AD)
Nubata (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1:556-557). Also the famous received similar descriptions and nicknames such as:
historian and scientist Salah al-Din bin Aybak al-Safadi riʾasat al-ʿilm, baḥr al-ʿulum, farid ʿaṣrihi wa-waḥid
(d. 764 AH/ 1363 AD), received praise and eulogy from dahrihi. The scholar Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani recited a
many scholars when he died, such as Ibn Nubata al- lengthy poem highlighting his religious, scientific, and
Masri who mentioned al-Safadi's knowledge, virtues and moral ethics (Al-Suyuti, 1968, 1:329-335; Ibn Iyas, 1983,
writings, including the historical books" al-Wafi bil- 1/2:674-675; Al-Sakhawi, 1992, 6:85-90).
Wafayat", "Aʿyān al-ʿAṣr wa-Aʿwān al-Naṣr" and other As for Zayn al-Din ʿAbd al-Rahim al-ʿIraqi (d. 806
writings (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/2:7; Ibn Qadi Shuhba, 1979, AH/1403 AD), when he died, he received praise and
3:119-121). eulogy from his pupil Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani in a poem to
The family of Ibn Jamaʿa was famous for its high status honor him and maximize his scientific and educational
in religious matters and posts in the judiciary and status. Al-ʿIraqi had been described by historians and
teaching in the Levant and Egypt, among them are ʿIzz people of his time with several qualities that indicated his
al-Din ʿAbd al-ʿAziz Ibn Badr al-Din Ibn Jamaʿa (d. 767 status in the science of hadith, classification and
AH/1366 AD) (Salibi, 1958:97-109). He was a religious preservation (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/2:692; Al-Suyuti, 1968,
scholar, strict in Shariʿa matters, virtuous from bribery 1:360-362). Besides, when Shihab al-Din Ahmad Ibn
and took nothing from Sultans and rulers; he even left his Hajar al-ʿAsqalani (d. 852 AH/1449 AD) died, he received
post in the judiciary to avoid suspicions of bribes. Some praise and eulogy, where great sadness prevailed among
writers praised him for his posts and lack of closeness to his peers from scholars, writers and poets. Ibn Hajar al-
the rulers. ʿIzz al-Din Ibn Jamaʿa was a virtuous scholar, ʿAsqalani was knowledgeable in many fields of literature,
and he taught hadith, fiqh, ifta', speechify and took over poetry and religious sciences, and excelled in hadith’s
the judiciary in Egypt. He followed the approach of his sciences. He wrote many books, including: "Sharḥ al-
father, Badr al-Din Ibn Jamaʿa (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/2:32; Al- Bukhari", "al-Iṣaba fi Tamyiz al-Ṣahaba", "al-Durar al-
Suyuti, 1968, 1:359; Ibn al-ʿImad, 1992, 8:358-359; Al- Kāmina" and others. Historians and biographic, including
Shukani, 1998, 1:359-360; Ibn Qadi Shuhba, 1979, Ibn Taghri Birdi, IbnIyas and others, had concurred in the
3:135-138). descriptions and nicknames of Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani,
Additionally, the descendants of Ibn Jamaʿa were which he obtained through his numerous posts and
distinguished by chastity and virtues, who emerged from scientific and religious status (Ibn Taghri Birdi, 15, 1970:
340 Educ. Res. Rev.

532-534; IbnIyas, 2, 1983: 268-271; Al-Suyuti, 1968, the Sultan changed his view of al-Harawi, then he was
1:363-364; Al-Sakhawi, 1992, 2:36-40; Ibn al-ʿImad, 9, deposed in 822 AH/1419 AD (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 2:44-45; Al-
1992: 395-399; Al-Shukani, 1998, 1:87-92). Suyuti, 1991, 2:173-174; Al-Maqrizi, 1997, 6:471-472).

CRİTİCİSM OF SCHOLARS ABOUT THEİR CRİTİCİSM AND PRAİSE FOR EDUCATİONAL

CLOSENESS TO RULERS AND AUTHORİTY CİRCUMSTANCES, TEACHİNG TECHNİQUES AND
METHODS
There were some scholars who came close to rulers in
order to get religious and scientific posts, which made Scholars and poets did not hesitate to criticize or satirize
them subject to criticism by many other scholars who saw whatever they saw as deflecting from virtue of morals and
them as "Scholars of Sultans" (ʿulama’ al-salatin). For shariʿa. The Andalusian writer and poet Shihab al-Din Ibn
example, Ibn ʿAbd al-Birr mentioned many hadiths, Abi Hijla (d. 776 AH/1375 AD) had written "Diwan al-
narrations and poems about scholars' getting close and Ṣababa fi Akhbar al-ʿUshshaq" and other poetic and
coming to Sultans and rulers, for example the Hadith: literary works; he always criticized many scholars (Ibn
"two types from my nation if they be good, then all people Iyas, 1983, ½,:146; Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani, 1993, 1:329-
will be good: princes and jurists", and also from the 331). Criticism and mockery were also directed to those
sayings: "the worst princes are the farthest from scholars who got high posts without having the required
and the worst scholars are the closer to the princes" (Ibn qualifications and those who were known for their lying
ʿAbd al-Birr, 2008, 1:331-354; Ibn ʿAbd al-Birr, 1994, and not applying religion and its manners, for example
1:631-647). Najib al-Din Ibn al-Shuqayshiqa (d. 656 AH/ 1258 AD),
In addition, many scholars had written about getting who was famous for lying and weakness of his religion
away from authority because of its negative effects and (Al-Nuʿaymi, 2, 1988: 80-81; Ibn al-ʿImad, 1992, 7:492;
faring away from shariʿa. For example, al-Suyuti al-Maqdisi, 2002: 307).
classified a book in this field, titled: "ma rawahu al-asaṭin Criticism and ridicule were also directed to the scholar
fi ʿadam al-majiʾ ila al-ʾumaraʾ wal-salaṭin" (what the ʿAlam al-Din al-Isnwi (d. 777 AH/1376 AD), who came to
legends narrated badly about coming to the princes and power in Egypt without having sufficient knowledge and
sultans), in which he listed many prophetic hadiths and qualification (Al-Maqrizi, 4, 1997: 394). There were
relics about good predecessor in this field of entering into inordinate competition for getting high posts among the
the palaces of princes and sultans, because that might educational and religious leaders in Egypt and the
make scholars to be silent about the vices and Levant. For example, Ibrahim Ibn al-Miʿmar satirized the
impoliteness of the rulers, besides trying to satisfy those judge Taqiy al-Din al-Subki (d. 756 AH/1355 AD), who
rulers over the right of shariʿa matters and manners. He moved from Egypt to Syria, and took up the Shafiʿi
also warned about the phenomenon of coming close to jurisdiction in Damascus, and there was a sharp
princes and sultans (Al-Suyuti, 1991:67-70). disagreement between them about taking over
In the second era of the Mamluk state, corruption educational and religious posts (Ibn Iyas, 1983, 1/1:556).
spread due to the political, military and economic As for the judge, Kamal al-Din ʿUmar Ibn al-ʿAdim al-
conditions, so the phenomenon of "scholars of authority" Hanafi (d. 811 AH/1408 AD), he was prominent example
began to increase among rulers and sultans, some of in this context, where he was a senior judge and engaged
manifestations of corruption were: bribery, taking over the in fatwa and teaching. Despite his scientific status and
endowments and funds and increasing in their collection high posts, they did not prevent his rivals and critics from
arbitrarily by judges and princes, who used their posts in criticizing him, highlighting the disadvantages about his
the administration of State Affairs, judiciary, endowments way of dealing in the waqf sale and controlling their funds
and schools singly. For example, the judge al-Harawi (Ibn Taghri Birdi, 8, 1999: 262-264; Ibn Iyas, 1983, 2:791-
assigned for himself more governorship deputies than his 792; Ibn al-ʿImad, 1992, 9:137-138). Ibn al-ʿAdim held the
predecessor al-Bulqini judge in order to take over all post as a judge in Aleppo and dealt with the exploitation
matters; they numbered about twenty deputies. In this of endowments and caused sale and corruption of many
way, he contradicts with the previous judge. Moreover, of them. Then, he paid money and bribed to occupy the
he followed a certain type of clothing and riding in post of the chief justice in Egypt in 805 AH/1402 AD and
processions, which was contrary to the custom in the settled there. He continued on this approach to exploit his
conduct of judges followed in Egypt (Al-Maqrizi, 6, 1997: post in order to control the endowments and their
432, 463, 468, 483; 7, 269). Thus, al-Harawi continued resources in Egypt as well. Al-Maqrizi described Ibn al-
this course, taking advantage of the Sultan's respect and ʿAdim by saying: "he was a bad judge." In another place,
appreciation for him, until many people began to see this al-Maqrizi stated in this context: "anyone who wanted to
as derogation and a violation of customary morals, which sell or buy waqf, went to Ibn al-ʿAdim with money or high
was unworthy of the judges. So, people often filed standing, and then he gave them whatever they want...".
complaints and submitted grievances to the Sultan, until The phenomenon of selling waqf, dealing in bribery and
 Mahamid and Al-Haija 341

buying posts in exchange for money in the Mamluk state 1:548).

were widespread during the time of Ibn al-ʿAdim (Al-
Maqrizi, 1998, 3:268: Al-Maqrizi, 1997, 6:220; Ibn Taghri
Birdi, 1999, 8:264; Al-Sakhawi, 1992, 6:65-66; Ibn Iyas, CONCLUSIONS
1983, 1⁄2:667).
There were differences in teaching methods in the Mosques, madrasas and other religious and educational
medieval ages between religious sciences (al-‘ulum al- institutions had so much influence in the scientific
naqliyya) and philosophical sciences/ rational sciences renaissance and the flourishing of culture where the
(al-‘ulum al-ʿaqliyya). While the study of religious rulers and sultans in the medieval ages cared about the
sciences was mostly based on hearing, memorization, educational institutions. This renaissance gave the ulama
writing, explanation and interpretation; mental sciences strength and leadership posts in the management of
were mainly based on research and scrutiny, interview, institutions and scientific movement, which increased
investigation, debate and discussion. Scholars’ teaching competition for these posts, and made ulama, writers and
methods in the late Mamluk period in Egypt and the poets write about the description of the scientific
Levant seemed to have confused and mixed between the movement and its leaders at this stage, whether it was
various sciences, both transmitted and mental. This praise, criticism, advice, recommendation to fix things,
method of teaching led the Egyptian scholar Kamal al-Din get closeness or flattery. Many poets and scholars had
al-ʾIdfuwi (d. 748 AH/1347 AD) to criticize these methods praised the rulers and sultans who established madrasas
in religious sciences, and he also criticized teachers for and other educational and religious institutions, allocated
their scientific level and teaching methods (Ibn Qadi waqfs for their maintenance and disbursement, at the
Shuhba, 2, 1994: 519; Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani, 1993, same time they vilified and criticized rulers, sultans and
1:535-536). Moreover, historians and poets mentioned position owners who seized the funds of the endowments
the criticism of scholars who got in teaching posts without allocated to them and collected illegal funds. Poets not
qualification or good management of the educational only criticized and praised rulers and sultans, but also
process, which negatively affects education and its staff, wrote poems of criticism and praise for scholars. The
both scholars and students. Both Ibn Jamaʿa and al- praise poems for scholars were first to show gratitude
ʿAlmawi mentioned much criticism for teachers who did them for their hard work, efforts and diligence in teaching
not have the competence in the profession and the ability knowledge and education spread, besides their leading,
to manage the educational process (Ibn Jamaʿa, 2012: significant, religious and educational posts, and also for
71; Al-‘Almawi, 2004: 44). their interest in promotion of virtue and prevention of vice,
In a poem by the historian Abu Shama al-Maqdisi (d. this, in addition to praise scholar’s behavioral and moral
665 AH/1267 AD), the sharpness of criticism for the ethics. Critical poems had emerged and centered on the
conditions of education and schools in his reign appeared errors of some scholars, their negative scientific attitudes,
significantly. Abu Shama criticized teachers, students, religious posts, and their religious fatwas that left a sharp
those involved in the educational process and the way controversy among scholars. Criticism also extended to
students rely on Waqf funds as scholarships. He also the appearance and the external view of scholars from
made sharp criticism for some scholars who control over dress or habits, which were distracting from the familiar
the endowments of madrasas and their managements, and customary manners. A model of criticism appeared,
teaching by cheating, getting closer to the rulers and the which was concerned with the scholars who dealt with
holders of authority, scholars’ incompetence to corruption and bribery, their interest in getting closer to
educational posts, their lack of interest in science and the Sultans and rulers. Those scholars were known as
their interest only in external manifestations (al-Maqdisi, the scholars of the Sultans or "worldly life scholars". The
1, 1991: 91-102). poets did not hesitate to direct criticism or vilification to
In light of this, majority of poets and scholars stressed what they see as deviation from morality, virtue and
on the importance of learners’ good manners and ethics, shari‘a, also to those who obtain high posts without
as mentioned by the scholar Badr al-Din Ibn Jamaʿa in getting the knowledge that qualifies them. Some
his famous book "Tadhkirat al-Samiʿwal-Mutakallim fi scholars, writers and historians had been critical of the
Adab al-ʿAlim wal-Mutaʿallim". Many of these poets and scholars who got to teach without qualification or good
scholars stated such ethics either in prose or poetry (Ibn management of the educational process and the
Jama‘a, 2012: 85-147; Al-Zurnuji, 1981: 76, 78-98; Al- deterioration of the conditions of education and schools.
‘Almawi, 2004: 58-79; Al-Samʿani, 1993: 183-381, 517). Besides, they criticized some scholars who took over the
That's due to the fact that some scholars did not maintain endowments of schools and their management and
the rules of ethics in lessons, education or discussions, teaching by cheating. Unfortunately, this had a negative
and show their anger when discussing and arguing in impact on education and its staff, scholars and students
lessons, as the scholar Abd al-ʿAziz bin ʿAli al-Qudsi al- alike. They also criticized some scholars who did not
Hanbali (d. 846 AH/1442 AD) did with one of his students have the rules of ethics in lessons, education or
from Morocco (Al-Sakhawi, 1992, 4:224; Al-Najdi, 1996, discussions a sense of virtuous and benign morals
342 Educ. Res. Rev.

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The authors have not declared any conflict of interest.
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