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THE WELFARE OF DOGS

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Animal Welfare
VOLUME 4

Series Editor

Clive Phillips, Professor of Animal Welfare, Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics,
School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Australia

Titles published in this series:

Volume 1: The Welfare of Horses

NatalreWaren
ISBN 1-4020-0766-3

Volume 2: The Welfare of Laboratory Animals

Elia Kaliste
ISBN 1-4020-2270-0

Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats

Irene Rochlitz
ISBN 1-4020-3226-9
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The Welfare of Dogs

by

KEVIN STAFFORD
Institute of Veterinary Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University,
Palmerston North, New Zealand
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A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-10 1-4020-4361-9 (HB)

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4361-1 (HB)
ISBN 1-4020-4362-7 (ebook)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4362-8 (ebook)

Published by Springer,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

www.springer.com

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

© 2006 Springer
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception
of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Printed in the Netherlands.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Series Preface................................................................................................ vii

Preface ........................................................................................................... ix

Acknowledgements...................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................... 1
The Domestication, Behaviour and Use of the Dog

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................. 31
Free Living Dogs

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................. 55
Breeds and Breeding

CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................. 83
Canine Nutrition and Welfare

CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................... 101

Health and Welfare

CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................... 111

Pain in Dogs: Its Recognition and Alleviation

CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................... 129

Training Methods

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CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................... 143

The Welfare of the Athletes; Greyhounds and Sled Dogs

CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................... 161

The Dog as a Research Animal

CHAPTER 10 ............................................................................................. 179

Dogs in Shelters

CHAPTER 11 ............................................................................................. 199

Behavioural Problems

CHAPTER 12 ............................................................................................. 215

The Pet Dog

References................................................................................................... 237

Index ........................................................................................................... 275

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ANIMAL SERIES BY SPECIES: SERIES

PREFACE

Animal welfare is attracting increasing interest worldwide, but

particularly from those in developed countries, who now have the knowledge
and resources to be able to offer the best management systems for their farm,
companion, zoo and laboratory animals. The increased attention given to
animal welfare derives largely from the fact that the relentless pursuit of
financial reward and efficiency has led to the development of intensive
animal management systems that offend the conscience of many animal
users. In developing countries, human survival is still a daily uncertainty, so
that provision for animal welfare has to be balanced against human welfare.
Welfare is usually provided for only if it supports the output of the animal,
be it food, work, clothing, sport or companionship. In reality there are
resources for all if they are properly husbanded in both developing and
developed countries.
This series has been designed to provide academic texts discussing the
provision for the welfare of the major animal species that are managed and
cared for by humans. They are not detailed blue-prints for management,
rather they describe and consider the major welfare concerns of the species,
often in relation to similar species or the wild progenitors of the managed
animals. Welfare is considered in relation to the animal’s needs,
concentrating on nutrition, behaviour, reproduction and the physical and
social environment. Economic effects of animal welfare provision are also
considered where relevant, and key areas requiring further research.
Other titles published in the series
1. Natalie Warran, The welfare of horses
2. Eila Kaliste, The welfare of laboratory animals
3. Irene Rochlitz, The welfare of cats

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PREFACE

There are about 500 million dogs in the world (Macpherson et al., 2000)
and only a small percentage of them live as pampered pets of the relatively
wealthy, the majority live free-ranging lives in Africa, Asia and Latin
America. Indeed an indicator of wealth and national development may be the
number of free-ranging dogs. The life of many pet dogs is long and
comfortable, but they may live in socially uninteresting environments while
free-ranging dogs may live short, possibly brutal but certainly complex lives.
The presence of zoonoses, especially rabies, in free-ranging dogs makes
their control and perhaps ultimate extinction in many countries necessary.
Indeed the control of rabies may have more of an effect on the welfare of
such dogs than any desire to improve their welfare per se.
The physical requirements of the dog are easily met. They need a warm
dry place to sleep. There is a wide variety of sustaining dog foods in many
grocery stores and dogs will eat what we eat or don’t eat. However, the
social, exercise, and activity requirements of an individual dog is more
difficult to define and to meet by busy owners. The presence of animal
shelters and local government dog pounds in many towns and cities in the
developed world suggests that there are many problems with the welfare of
dogs in these societies.
The welfare of an animal relates to its subjective experience of life. The
emotional life of a dog is probably simpler than that of a human and possibly
limited to a few emotions of evolutionary consequence such as fear, anger
and pleasure. The strength of these emotions may be measured using
physiological and behavioural parameters that appear to be common to many
mammals including humans. The biological functioning of an animal, both
short and long term may also reflect its welfare (Duncan et al., 1993). In the
short term the effort made to maintain homeostasis and the presence of stress

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or distress may reflect an animal’s welfare. In the longer term an animal’s

health, reproductive success and longevity may be influenced by its physical
and mental wellbeing.
The biological functioning of dogs managed under different
circumstances is difficult to assess for technical, philosophical and financial
reasons and a more practical approach to discussing and assessing animal
welfare is used in this book. In this approach the physical components of an
animal’s life such as its nutrition, health and comfort and its ability to
behave ‘normally’ are evaluated, and its experience of suffering (pain,
anxiety, fear, distress) is assessed using physiological, immunological and
behavioural parameters. We can never know the subjective experience of a
dog, but we can be reasonably sure of its physical condition and can use the
parameters mentioned to give some indication of an animal’s experience of
suffering and pleasure. However, in the end this interpretation is always
subjective. Choice tests and demand curve tests are used to get an idea of
what is important to an animal and how hard it will work to gain access to
different elements of the environment. These tests have not been used on
dogs to identify their environmental needs.
The physical components of dog welfare have been intensely studied.
Knowledge of canine nutrition and dietetics have increased greatly in the last
40 years and the nutrition of dogs owned by people who buy dog food is
probably better now than ever (Chapter 4). The developments in veterinary
medicine since 1950 mean that all the major infectious diseases and most
parasite infestations of dogs can be prevented or treated (Chapter 5).
Veterinary surgery now allows safe de-sexing, a major weapon in improving
the welfare of dogs, and the treatment of many previously life threatening or
painful conditions for companion, sport and working dog (Chapter 8). In the
developed world at least there are sufficient veterinarians to tend the dog.
The development of cheap and effective analgesics has been a major step
towards reducing pain in dogs (Chapter 6).
The ecology of stray, free-ranging and feral dogs and their control is now
well understood and if there are still many unwanted free-ranging dogs it is
not due to a lack of knowledge (Chapter 2). The welfare of dogs in animal
shelters (Chapter 10) and in research laboratories (Chapter 9) has been
studied in some depth. The use of the dog in research has declined in some
countries over the last decade, but it is a useful model for many human
diseases and surgical development.
There is a paucity of research into the psychological status of companion
dogs (Chapter 12). There are many problems with the management of pet
dogs which will impact on their welfare. The explosion of interest in the
behaviour problems of companion dogs suggests that all is not well with
them (Chapter 11). The aetiology and pathophysiology of anxiety-based
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behaviours is poorly understood despite excellent work by dedicated

therapists such as Overall (1997). The observation that pet dog numbers are
declining in some countries is almost certainly good news as it may result in
a decrease in the number of unwanted and unhappy dogs.
Most of the emphasis on animal welfare research has been on quantifying
and reducing the deficits in the lives of animals and few attempts made to
monitor the pleasure experienced by animals (Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003).
The relationship between dogs and humans is complex and depends on the
attitude and behaviour of individual humans and the animal’s response.
Understanding the welfare of dogs is always going to be a challenge, but
physically dogs have never had it so good in many parts of the world and
their psychological needs are being addressed more now than ever before.
Dogs are used in a wide variety of activities and it is naïve to believe that
their welfare will not always be compromised to some degree regardless of
the intentions of owner or handler. However at present the cup of canine
welfare is really half full and filling.

Kevin Stafford
New Zealand
December, 2005
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the University of Tokyo for allowing me time and space in which
to draft this book while on sabbatical leave from Massey University. I would
like to thank Professors Yuji Mori and Nobuo Sasaki, and Dr Hiroyuki
Nakayama, and all the students in the veterinary ethology laboratory, for
making my stay at Tokyo University so very pleasant.
At Massey University, I would like to thank Dave West, David Mellor,
Peter Wilson and Vicki Erceg and a ‘procrastination’ of graduate students
who, over the last 14 years, have helped me with ideas on animal behaviour
and welfare. I thank Michelle Cook and Janice Lloyd who edited this book
and helped me with my thinking and writing
This book is dedicated to Yvonne van der Veen Stafford, who has
supported me throughout my career and understood my need for seclusion to
write this book.

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Chapter 1
THE DOMESTICATION, BEHAVIOUR AND USE
OF THE DOG

Abstract: The wolf was domesticated and became the dog more than 15,000 years ago.
Since then dogs have been used by humans for many purposes. Initially they
probably assisted humans during scavenging and hunting and acted as
sentinels. Later they were used to to guard and to drive livestock. More
recently the dog is being used for an ever increasing range of activities and it
has become a close companion for many people. The social behaviour of the
dog makes it suitable as a companion but its need to live in a group may be
compromised when individual dogs live with busy people in modern post-
industrial societies. The welfare of working and sporting dogs may be
compromised at work but for many of them work is a positive experience.
Police, military, racing and hunting dogs may be injured during training or
work. Gundogs may be shot by accident. Dogs used for fighting are often
seriously injured and killed. This is an unacceptable use of dogs even if the
breeds used to fight are game to do so. In some countries dogs are eaten and
their welfare may be compromised by inadequate management particularly
during marketing and slaughter. The welfare of guide dogs for the blind and
other assistance dogs is generally high. Dogs used for showing may be
modified surgically to meet breed standards. Tail docking, ear cropping and
dew claw removal are common practices in some countries for specified
breeds. There is a dearth of information on the longevity and health of working
and sporting dogs and on the stress experienced by these animals during
training and work.

1. INTRODUCTION

The wolf (Canis lupus) was the first animal to be domesticated,

becoming the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). The dog has been a close
companion of humans for at least 15,000 years (Savolainen et al., 2002) but

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the wolf was probably a camp follower for thousands of years before that
(Clutton-Brock, 1995). The role of the dog in human development is
controversial, but dogs were probably used as food, as sentinel animals and
in a supportive role during scavenging and hunting. It was a support animal
when other species were being domesticated and livestock farming
developed. The value of the dog to humans can be seen in the rapidity with
which it moved from its site of origin in East Asia (Savolainen et al., 2002)
to Europe and North America (Leonard et al., 2002).
The dog is a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. There
are between 34 (Wayne, 1993) and 38 (Clutton-Brock, 1995) canid species
and they have been divided using allozyme genetic differences and
chromosome morphology into four groups. These are wolf-like canids
including the domestic dog, South American canids, red-fox-like canids of
the Old and New World and a few monotypic genera like the bat eared fox
and racoon dog (Table 1) (Wayne, 1993; Clutton-Brock, 1995).
Dogs have always been working animals, but recently, especially in post-
industrial western societies, their work has decreased and they have become
more important as companions. However, in other societies dogs are
considered unclean and are not to be touched. The contrast between the lives
of a street dog in Yemen, a working sheep dog in New Zealand and a
pampered pet dog in the Unites States illustrates the considerable difference
in how dogs experience life. The welfare of the dog, more than that of any
other species reflects its use, and the attitude and welfare of their human
community (Podberscek, 1997). Dogs are not essential animals in post-
industrial urban society and therefore their welfare is impacted by the wealth
and philosophy of their owners. In these societies the physical welfare
(health, nutrition, comfort) of dogs may be high but their lives may be dull
as they are severely restricted in where they can go, what they can do and
who they can meet (Kobelt et al., 2003b). By contrast, the poor physical
welfare of free-ranging dogs, owned or not-owned, may be leavened by their
active but often short lives.
In this chapter, the domestication and the uses of the dog will be outlined
as the background to modern dog-human relations. The behavioural
characteristics of the dog and how they impact on canine welfare will be
discussed as will the welfare of working and sport dogs.
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Table 1. Categories of canid species and their geographical distribution.

Species Distribution
Wolf-like canids (12-30kg)
Canis familiaris Domestic dog Worldwide
Canis familiaris dingo Dingo Australia, Asia
Canis simensis Ethopian wolf Ethiopia
Canis lupus Grey wolf Holartic
Canis latrans Coyote North America
Canis rufus* Red wolf Southern US
Cuon alpinus Dhole Asia
Lycaon pictus African wild dog Subsaharan Africa
Wolf-like canids (5-10 kg)
Canis aureus Golden jackal Old World
Canis adustus Side-striped jackal Subsaharan Africa
Canis mesomelas Black-backed jackal Subsaharan Africa
South American canids
Speothos venaticus Bushdog Northeast South America
Cerdocyon thous Crab-eating fox Northeast South America
Chrysocyon brachyurus Maned wolf Northeast South America
Dusicyon australis Falkland Island Wolf Falkland Islands
Dusicyon culpaeus Culpeo Patagonia
Dusicyon culpaeolus Santa Elena zorro Uruguay
Dusicyon gymnocercus Azarra’a zorro Patagonia
Dusicyon inca Peruvian zorro Peru
Dusicyon griseus Grey zorro Patagonia
Dusicyon fulvipes Chiloe zorro Island of Chiloe
Dusicyon sechurae Sechuran zorro Peru, Equador
Dusicyon vetulus** Hoary zorro Brazil
Atelocynus microtis Small-eared zorro Brazil
Red Fox-like canids
Vulpes velox Kit f ox Western USA
Vulpes vulpes Red f ox Old and New World
Vulpes chama Cape fox Southern Africa
Vulpes corsac Corsac fox Central Asia
Vulpus ferrilata Tibetan fox Tibet
Vulpus bengalaensis Bengal fox India
Vulpus cana Blandford’s fox Southwest Asia
Vulpus pallida Pale fox Sahel
Vulpus rueppelli Ruppell’s fox North Africa and Southwest Asia
Alopex lagopus Artic fox Holartic
Fennecus zerda Fennec fox Sahara
Other canids
Otocyon megalotis Bat-eared fox Subsaharan Africa
Urocyon cinereoargenteus Grey fox North America
Urocyon littoralis Island grey fox Californian islands
Nycteruetes procyonoides Racoon dog Japan, China
Adopted from Wayne (1993) and Clutton-Brock (1995)
*Hybrid Grey Wolf and Coyote
** Also Lycalopex vetulus
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2. DOMESTICATION

The details of the process of domestication whereby the wolf came to live
with humans and became the dog is unknown, but Clutton-Brock (1995)
suggested that wolves may have lived in association with early hominids
from the Middle Pleistocene period and that early human hunters would have
tamed wolf pups, which may have bred and scavenged around human
settlements. Wolf skulls with minor morphological changes suggestive of
domestication have been found on archaeological sites 14,000 and 10,000
years old in Europe and Alaska respectively (Musil, 1984; Olsen, 1985). The
refinement in the use of bows and arrows for hunting in the Mesolithic
Period may have given the dog a role in tracking wounded animals (Clutton-
Brock, 1995) and accelerated the process of domestication. The early
intimacy of humans and dogs is suggested in a 12,000 year old grave in the
Jordan valley in which a small dog is buried with a woman (Davis & Valla,
1978). Recently Savolainen et al. (2002) produced genetic evidence from the
mitochondrial DNA of 654 domestic dogs that the wolf was domesticated in
East Asia between 40,000 and 15,000 BP. This team of researchers
suggested that 15,000 BP was the likely time of domestication and the
archaeological evidence from China, Southwest Asia and Europe supports
this date. This date is supported by evidence of the origin of dogs in the
Americas (Leonard et al., 2002), but they observed that dogs were rapidly
distributed throughout Europe, Asia and America within a few thousand
years of domestication and that when they arrived in America they were
already genetically diverse. This had led Wayne to support 40,000 BP as the
time of domestication (cited by Hecht, 2002), but alternatively, dogs could
have been traded widely in the years after domestication, because they were
highly valued. Behaviourally, modern Homo sapiens may not have emerged
until about 55,000 BP (Diamond, 2002) and if the earlier date is accepted
then dogs have been with us for nearly three quarters of our existence! The
origin of the dog in East Asia is supported by the recent finding that the most
ancient breeds (Chinese Shar-pei, Shiba Inu, Chow Chow and Akita) come
from that part of the world (Parker et al., 2004).
The role of the dog in human development has been exaggerated by some
(Newby, 1997), but the development of improved hunting technology plus
the domestication of the dog allowed for more effective hunting (Eaton,
1969). Lee (1979) found that dogs were involved in up to three-quarters of
the prey animals killed by the Kung San Bushmen although dingoes were of
variable help to Australian Aborigine hunters (Meggitt, 1965). The human-
dog hunting team probably resulted in the depletion of large mammalian
prey species. This made hunting-gathering less rewarding and encouraged
the development of agriculture about 10,000 BP (Diamond, 2002). Human
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civilisation is based on agriculture and our use of the dog to slaughter large
mammalian species was probably a significant key to our becoming farmers
and subsequent urbanisation. Agricultural development and sedentary living
may have accelerated the development of the dog.
The domestic dog originated from five female wolf lines but there is no
evidence that the morphological variation in dog breeds resulted from
wolves being domesticated in different parts of the world (Savolainen et al.,
2002). The process of wolf domestication remains unknown and there are
two, not mutually exclusive, theories. The territorial nature of wolves may
have encouraged juvenile wolves that had just left the natal pack to live on
the outskirts of human encampments and to scavenge off the rubbish and
faeces left by humans. Human encampments might have been unattractive to
pack wolves with large territories but might have been a relatively safe
haven for the young wolf. Some of these wolves would have bred
successfully having not sufficiently impinged on the human existence to be
killed. Wolves may have accompanied humans on scavenging and hunting
trips and were found to have been of use, when competing with other
carnivores at kills. Wolves would have been inadvertently selected for an
ability to live close to humans.
The alternative theory is that humans tamed young wolves, found them
useful, as described above, and allowed them to breed. Many hunter-gatherer
peoples have pets and pet keeping might be a common behaviour of humans.
However, if this was the methodology then we have to ask why other
mammals were not domesticated at the same time as the wolf? The wolf has
two characteristics that predispose it to domestication, namely, being a social
animal and having a catholic diet. However, its territoriality may also have
been an important behaviour in the process of domestication, although this is
not generally considered to be a factor predisposing an animal to domesti-
cation (Price, 1984).
Domestication is a biological and a cultural process (Clutton-Brock,
1995). The biological process of wolf domestication involved wolves
adapting to living in proximity to humans and the natural selection for a type
of wolf that could breed when living close to humans (O’Connor, 1997).
Then the cultural component engaged in selecting animals that are
particularly attractive and useful. The valued wolf/dog was isolated from
their wild con-specifics. The artificial selection involved in domestication
was probably quite severe. When Belyaev domesticated the fox (Vulpes
vulpes) he allowed 4 or 5% of the males and 20% of the females to breed
and over 40 years produced a population in which 70-80% of the foxes were
human-friendly and could be reared as affectionate pets (Trut, 1999).
The numbers of wolves killed as unsuitable during the process of
domestication is unknown, but it was certainly substantial. One can imagine
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the brutality expressed towards a potential predator as it moved to live

alongside people. Even when the usefulness of the wolf/dog had been
recognised a scarcity of food might still have caused considerable
malnutrition for them. In an attempt to domesticate river otters (Lutra lutra)
and grey rats (Rattus norvegicus) only 16% and 14% respectively were
reproductively successful and Trut (1999) concluded that domestication
must put animals under extreme stress. The dog is predisposed to live
alongside humans and even when opportunities allow it to go feral, as the
dingo has done, it is easily recaptured and tamed. In many countries where
dogs have the opportunity to go feral they are remarkably unsuccessful as
hunters (Butler et al., 2004) and in a North American urban environment
they do not reproduce well enough to establish a wild population and
disappear unless an ongoing supply of pets are abandoned on to the street
(Beck, 1973). Populations of wild dogs in many countries survive by living
on garbage dumps apparently bound inextricably to human resources. Thus it
appears that the dogs’ natural environment is now close to human society
(Douglas, 2000).

3. THE OUTCOME OF DOMESTICATION

Domestication resulted in paedomorphosis with the dog becoming

physically similar to the juvenile wolf (Goodwin et al., 1997). The physical
changes included a decrease in body and teeth size, a shortening of the skull,
a change in hair colour and tail carriage, and a decrease in the brain to body
size ratio (Clutton-Brock, 1995). However, the progenitor of the dog, the
Asian wolf, has a smaller brain than some other grey wolf types, so the
decrease in brain size may not been substantial. A scarcity of food would
limit physical size. The mandible became rounded and the eyes more
forward looking. These physical changes could be a by-product of the
selection for docility (Wayne, 2001) and similar physical changes were
observed in the fox domestication experiments of Belyaev (Trut, 1999) and
in black-footed ferrets bred in captivity (Wisely et al., 2002). The dingo
appears to be a reasonably defined prototype dog and many street and village
dogs in Asia and Africa are middle sized, fawn or black and tan, short haired
and reasonably light dogs. However in breed development some infantile
physical characteristics were probably deliberately selected (Coppinger
et al., 1987).
Physiologically the dog reaches puberty earlier than the wolf (Price,
1984). Many female dogs can breed twice rather than once a year and dog
litter sizes are greater than in the wolf (Clutton-Brock, 1995). The dingo,
however, usually breeds only once each year (Thomson, 1992b). In general,
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male domestic dogs do not assist bitches with the rearing of pups, but all the
other canids and dingo males do (Thomson, 1992b). Dogs are more
promiscuous than wolves and are not monogamous.
During domestication behavioural neoteny also occurred (Frank & Frank,
1982) and the adult dog now behaves as a juvenile wolf with reduced
aggression and increased submission (Price, 1999). Thus, adult dogs retain
the sociability of the young wolf, they bark more than adult wolves do and
they continue to play. Neoteny is associated with an increased capacity to
cope with environmental change (Price, 1984). Dogs are more skilful at
reading human communicative signals than wolves, a skill which puppies
can achieve without much contact with humans (Hare et al., 2002). This
ability appears to be the result of domestication when dogs were selected for
social cognitive abilities that enabled them to understand human behaviour
effectively. Thus the wolf/dogs that could read human intentions were more
likely to survive and reproduce successfully than their less skilful cospecifics
(Mikosi et al., 2003). Wolves do not have this skill and neither do New
Guinea singing dogs (Koler-Matznick et al., 2003), which appear to have
lost the skill when they went feral.
Dogs exhibit a range of attachment behaviours towards their owners
similar to those seen in infant humans and chimpanzees towards their
mothers (Topal et al., 1998; Prato-Previde et al., 2003) suggesting a high
level of attachment. This level of attachment to humans suggests that dogs
regard humans as conspecifics and is the outcome of humans favouring dogs
that were social and attached to them. This closeness has led to dogs being
able to change from being leader to follower and vice versa, depending on
the role they have with humans, as seen in guide dogs for the blind (Nadri
et al., 2001) and hunting dogs. Dogs that were stroked, scratched, talked to
and gently played with by their owners had increased plasma dopamine
levels, which indicates that they were experiencing pleasure in this intimate
contact (Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003).
The dog has been a remarkably successful species. There are about 500
million dogs (Matter & Daniels, 2000) and they have inhabited all the
continents, even Antartica where they were used as sled dogs. This success
is in marked contrast to their Canidae relatives, many of which including the
Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis) are endangered. Moreover, even the
progenitor of the dog, the wolf, is extinct in much of its former range and
endangered in much of the rest. The ability of the dog to be useful to humans
has made it one of the mammalian success stories and even when its welfare
is compromised it still exists in large numbers. Local populations of dogs
depend on factors such as resource availability, climate, geography but most
importantly, the human attitude towards dogs (Matter & Daniels, 2000).
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4. THE BEHAVIOUR OF DOGS

The behaviour of dogs is basically similar to that of their progenitor the

wolf but it has been changed during domestication. The dog is defined
behaviourally as a cursorial hunter, promiscuous, a scavenger, a social
animal, territorial with a propensity for barking and one that uses urine and
faeces in communication and uses its teeth in aggression. The social,
reproductive and foraging behaviour of free-ranging, feral and wild dogs has
been reviewed recently by Matter & Daniels (2000) who identified six
classes of dogs based on the closeness of the relationships with humans
(Table 2).

Table 2. Classification of dogs according to their origin, behaviour and relationship with
people.
Wild Wild for thousands of years (e.g. dingo)
Feral wild for a few generations
Free-ranging (un-owned) not owned (abandoned or born from free-ranging female)
Free-ranging village owned by villager rather than individual household and not
(neighbourhood owned) restrained
Free-ranging family hold owned by individual household but not restrained
owned)
Restrained owned and with restricted movement
Adapted from Matter & Daniels, 2000

The social behaviour of these different classes of dogs is influenced by

the level of restriction imposed on them by their human owners, by the
resources available to them (food, shelter) and by pressure of predation by
humans and other species. Thus, restrained dogs live in the social group
owned and determined by their owner.
Free-ranging but owned dogs often live solitary lives and rarely group up
with dogs other than those with which they are familiar from their home. In
several studies of North American urban and rural owned free-ranging dogs
the tendency was to live solitarily and to avoid others (Beck, 1973; Daniels,
1983b). When groups formed they were transitory collections of owned and
un-owned dogs (Rubin & Beck, 1982) which formed and split apart
regularly (Daniels, 1983a). Group formation of owned but free-ranging dogs
is strongly influenced by the behaviour and practices of the dogs’ owners
(Daniels & Beckoff, 1989a). As most free-ranging dogs, owned or not, live
on garbage there may be few advantages to be gained from foraging in a
pack. However, village dogs (free-ranging and un-owned) in one Italian
study (Macdonald & Carr, 1995) lived most of the time alone but belonged
to social groups as indicated by amicable interaction. These groups appeared
to defend territory and there were aggressive interactions between different
groups. Groups of free-ranging dogs occur in many countries.
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Feral dogs tend to have larger social groups than owned free-ranging
dogs. On the Galapagos Islands feral packs of up to 8 animals were found by
Kruuk & Snell (1981) and in Alabama, USA, packs of from two to six
animals were identified by Causey & Cude (1980). In Italy, feral dogs were
generally seen in groups (Macdonald & Carr, 1995) and these groups were
aggressive towards each other. Pack hunting by feral dogs is generally
unsuccessful and thus they tend to live off garbage which does not require
pack cooperation. Feral dogs may sometimes attack people usually children
or old people and in some circumstances, pack living may protect individual
dogs from larger predators and perhaps humans. The pack structure of feral
dogs may lack the social cohesion seen in dingo packs, but this may improve
over generations if the pack is successful in rearing puppies. The pack
behaviour of feral dogs suggests that given time, and without human control,
dogs will return to a pack social life. In one Italian study, a pack of feral
dogs was maintained by immigrants and remained physically close together
even when the den site of a female was far from the usual resting area
(Boitani et al., 1995). The poor reproductive success of feral dogs is
explained by the poor integrity of the pack when it comes to supporting a
bitch rearing puppies. Reproductive success may be better in dingo packs
that hunt, rear young and protect territory together.
Unlike free-ranging and feral dogs, dingoes live in packs that exist long-
term although all members may not be together all the time (Thomson,
1992c). The pack consists of a pair and their offspring from different years.
Pack size varies and many dingoes remain solitary either permanently or
split from their pack temporarily. Dingoes are successful because they
cooperate while rearing young (Corbett & Newsome, 1975). The social
organisation of dingoes varies depending on the prey species, climate,
habitat and interaction with humans (Corbett, 1995). Dingoes hunt together
when targeting larger prey species such as kangaroos, but the maximum
pack size appears to be six (Thomson, 1992d). Hunting packs are more
successful than individuals, but when large prey become scarce then packs
will split up and individual animals will target smaller species. Dingoes
occur in Australia, and in many East Asian countries such as Thailand,
Malaysia, the Phillipines, Laos, Indonesia and India, but, the pure dingo is in
decline in all these countries as they interbreed with free-ranging dogs
(Corbett, 1995).
Thus the further dogs are removed from direct human control the more
likely they are to form groups and these may eventually evolve into cohesive
packs. Individual free-ranging animals once released from human control
can migrate into feral groups (Boitani et al., 1995) which may become self-
sustaining depending on available resources and the impact of human control
efforts.
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Dingo puppies can be captured and tamed easily as can un-owned free-
ranging dogs. However, there is little to indicate a voluntary movement of
dogs born from free-ranging females back towards close contact with
humans. This may be due to the danger involved, as many such animals are
killed, but may also reflect the suitability of the free-ranging life living off
human refuse for the domestic dog. The tendency of free-ranging un-owned
dogs to form groups reflects the innate social behaviour of these animals,
which has implications for the welfare of the isolated indoor dog that lives
with a busy person or any dog that spends a large proportion of its time
alone.
Many of their behavioural characteristics have made the dog an ideal
assistant in human endeavours. The territoriality and tendency to bark have
allowed us to use dogs as sentinels and guardians of property and livestock.
Their scavenging has allowed us to use them for garbage disposal. Their
hunting has been adjusted to suit a range of hunting conditions and live-
stock driving. Their chronic sociability has allowed dogs to be exchanged
regardless of age and to be introduced to new environments without diff-
culty. This sociability allows dogs to fit easily into human families. The
playfulness of dogs makes it easier for them to interact with humans who are
also playful. In addition their catholic diet and promiscuity have allowed
them to survive in urban and rural environments even when they are not
owned and sustained directly by humans.
However, some of these behaviours have made the dog’s existence on the
street unacceptable for social and welfare reasons (Serpell, 1995). Its
promiscuity and the production of surplus and unwanted pups has made
reproductive control necessary for many modern urban human communities.
Barking is unacceptable to urban and suburban communities as is the
random depositon of faeces on streets and in parks. The tendency of some
dogs to hunt other companion animals and livestock is unacceptable as is its
disposition to chase after bicycles, joggers and cars.
In the English language when ‘Dog’ is added to any word it signifies
worthlessness; as in dog rose. This indicates that humans are ambivalent
about dogs, thinking of them as mean and low whilst also praising their
values at hunting and other activities. Bringing dogs indoors has certainly
reduced the social problems caused by dogs in public places but this practice
may have resulted in problems most appreciated by dog owners and their
neighbours. Its intense social nature makes living in isolation difficult and
being alone for long periods of time may predispose a dog to anxiety-based
behavioural problems.
In post-industrial wealthy urban societies legislation regarding dog
control and ownership is making the ownership of dogs more difficult. In
such societies, dogs cannot roam the streets, owners must clean up after their
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dogs in public places, dogs must be exercised on a leash or in specific

exercise areas, dogs of specific breeds must be muzzled in public and dog
breeding may be controlled. Thus many of the characteristics which made
the dog such a useful companion in the past have made it a pariah in a
modern urban context. The legislation restricting dog ownership and
management has occurred largely because of the constant public pressure
that dogs should be controlled and owners should be responsible for that
control, and that dog ownership is earned and not a right per se. This
emphasis combined with the growing concern about dog attacks has forced
legislators to restrict the lives of dogs and their owners.
Legislation and social pressure to move dogs indoors to live alone for
most of the time in socially uninteresting and physically dull environments
has made the disparity between the nature of the dog and its everyday
environment more obvious. That the dog is inherently unsuited to this
isolated existence because of its behavioural requirements is probably being
recognised by society and may have encouraged the decline or stabilization
of dog populations in some European countries including Germany, the
Netherlands and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom the dog
population has declined from about 7.2 million in 1987 to 6.1 million in
2002 (Anonymous, 2003e). This decrease is to be welcomed as it may
signify that people have recognised the unsuitability of dogs to the modern
urban environment and to modern lifestyles.
In many countries, however, dog numbers are stable or increasing. The
apparent increase in the dog population in China, Indonesia, or Malaysia
may represent a change in the dog-human relationship as these countries
become wealthy and may represent an increase in ownership rather than dog
numbers per se. This may be accompanied by a decrease in un-owned dogs.
Databases of dog populations may be quite inaccurate depending on the
methodology used to estimate the population (Patronek & Rowan, 1995). It
is difficult to obtain accurate data on the population of dogs in most
developing countries. The World Health Organisation (WHO) databases
provides figures for the numbers of dogs vaccinated against rabies
worldwide and estimates of the national dog populations but these figures
appear to be rough estimates.
Where there is human conflict and the rule of law breaks down or where
serious human poverty exists then many owned dogs live free-ranging lives
on the street and there may be many ownerless and feral animals also.
Pictures of scavenging, often diseased, dogs upset many people living in
countries where dogs have been moved off the streets but these dogs are
living as dogs have lived for thousands of years and by definition, therefore,
more normal lives, than those confined in an apartment.
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5. THE WELFARE OF WORKING AND SPORT

DOGS

The majority of dogs living in Europe, North America and Oceania are
pet animals although unusually in New Zealand, with its large sheep to
human ratio, working dogs outnumber pet dogs 2:1. During and following
domestication and human settlement dogs were used for a limited number of
purposes. However, their uses increased in the subsequent millennia and
continue to increase so that today the domestic dog is used for a wide range
of work and sporting activities. The traditional jobs like guarding, hunting,
sledding and herding continue, but nowadays dogs work with the disabled, in
conservation (Engeman et al., 2002), with the military, police and customs,
in search and rescue, even controlling wildlife at airports (Carter, 2003) and
in the media. Dogs are involved in a great number of sports including racing,
hunting of many sorts, sheepdog gundog and guard dog trials, sled racing,
obedience tests of all sorts, agility, showing and newer dog sports like
frisbie. Recently interest has developed in using dogs as diagnostic tools in
human and veterinary medicine.
The welfare of fighting and baiting dogs is obviously seriously compro-
mised. In addition, the welfare of other working dogs may be compromised
in a number of ways which relate to their specific activity. Some jobs such as
landmine detection are obviously dangerous but police dogs may become
stressed and jobs like sledding are obviously hard work. Working and sporting
dogs are usually bred for their particular activity and are predisposed to
engage in that particular activity.
The welfare of dogs used for the different purposes varies considerably
and it is difficult to discuss the degree, if any, of welfare compromise due to
a lack of information and detailed research into the activity. Many dogs work
under difficult physical conditions and their working life may be short which
might indicate poor welfare. There is limited published information on the
percentage of dogs entering training that succeed as working or sport dogs,
their subsequent health and longevity and the stress caused by training and
the work or sport per se. There is some data on the incidence of work-
related injuries and diseases. However a brief description of the activity and
the obvious dangers gives some indication of the welfare compromise, either
physical or psychological. Many dogs have been bred for specific functions
and engaging in these is a powerful positive reinforcement and therefore, by
definition, pleasant. Also many dogs are trained to engage in specific
activities by positive reinforcement and the activity is often, apparently, a
pleasure. Physical dangers and injury have to be valued against the obvious
enjoyment some dogs get in doing specific work.
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The stress or distress experienced during training for, or engagement in, a

particular activity has been poorly determined in the dog. There is a need for
more knowledge about the physiological status of dogs during training and
work. There are techniques available to monitor blood pressure (Vincent
et al., 1993) and heart rate remotely (Vincent & Leahy, 1997). Saliva
(Kobelt et al., 2003a), plasma, and faecal corticosteroid and plasma
catecholamines levels are easily measured (Beerda et al., 1996). However, it
may be difficult to differentiate, using physiological parameters, between the
stress of the excitement of work, as seen in working sheep dogs and the
distress caused by overwork. There is a need for longer term studies to
examine chronic stress in working dogs by monitoring the effect of training
and work on immunological status (Beerda et al., 1997) and health (Davis et
al., 2003b).
Overt behaviours have been identified which occur during stress. These
include paw lifting, yawning, snout licking, lowering body profile, and
vocalising while more severe stress may induce dogs to pant and increase
salivation (Beerda et al., 1997). Other behaviours such as stereotypic
activities may indicate chronic stress but so do increased paw lifting,
yawning, increased activity, nosing and urinating (Beerda et al., 2000).
In the following section the welfare issues identified with the different
uses of dogs will be considered.

5.1 Guard dogs

Dogs have always been used as sentinel and guard animals and many are
used to protect property and individuals from humans or other animals, and
as such their work may be dangerous. Dogs have three sleep-wake cycles per
hour during the night and these make them useful as guard dogs (Adams &
Johnson, 1994a, b). Guard dogs may patrol inside fences or buildings or may
be tied up to act as sentinels. Guard dogs may be poisoned and many are
trained not to eat except what the handler gives them. Guard dogs are trained
using an attack sleeve to bite and hold. Side to side movement of the sleeve
by the handler places undue stress on the teeth which may fracture (Jennings
& Freeman, 1998). Some breeds such as the Belgian Malinois may be prone
to tooth damage. Root canal treatment which leaves the dog with a broken
tooth, and placing metal crowns on broken teeth are effective therapies for
broken teeth (van Foreest & Roeters, 1997). Damage caused by choke chain
misuse is sometimes seen in guard dogs. The damage may involve loss of
hair, skin abrasions and serious musculoskeletal damage to the neck
(Jennings & Freeman, 1998).
Patrol dogs are often released to guard a property alone at night. They
may have little interaction with any other dog and minimal time with the
handler. Many are tied up by a chain on the property during the day and may
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become agitated and injure themselves. However, there is little evidence to

show that penning a dog is better than having it tethered (Yeon et al., 2001).
There are concerns about the techniques used to train guard dogs (Chapter 7).

5.2 Dogs as food

The eating of dogs is common in China (Cui & Wang, 2001), North and
South Korea and the Philippines and less frequently in Vietnam, India,
Thailand, parts of West Africa (Eze &d Eze, 2002) and elsewhere. In the
past the eating of dogs was widespread in Central America (Tykot et al.,
1996) and Europe. Some dog breeds such as the Chow Chow may have been
developed as meat dogs and apparently St. Bernard Dogs are being cross
bred with local Chinese dog breeds to produce a fast-growing meat dog. It is
believed that millions of dogs are eaten annually but data are scarce and in
Korea and parts of China dog meat is considered a health food. In South
Korea 28% of people eat dog. Taiwan and the Philippines have banned the
eating of dog (World Society for the Protection of Animals, 2004). Dog meat
was eaten by the poor in Cambodia but recently it has become more popular
and apparently paws and kidneys are particularly sought after (Prasso, 1993).
The management of dogs bred and reared for meat and their transport and
management pre-slaughter and subsequent slaughter may have serious
implications for their welfare. In China there are dog farms which specialise
in producing dogs for the meat market. Dogs, along with many other animals
and birds, are often transported to market in small cages and held in them
while awaiting purchase. Slaughter may be by clubbing followed by
ensanguination. This is probably no different from how many other species
of animals and poultry are managed in these countries. If dogs reared in
groups for meat production are healthy, fed well and given sufficient space,
exercise and attention and provided they are transported and slaughtered in a
humane manner then their welfare requirements are taken care of and may
be no more compromised that any other meat animal.
Among the Sioux Indians of North America and in pre-colonial Hawaii,
dogs that were for eating were treated well and killed quickly and with
respect (Serpell, 1995). Australian Aborigines ate dog only when other food
was scarce because they considered it unpalatable (Meggitt, 1965). Those
who keep dogs as companions may think that the eating of dog meat is an
unethical and immoral activity. However, although the use of dogs as meat is
repugnant to many people this use per se has little welfare significance if the
animals are managed correctly throughout the process.
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5.3 Hunting dogs

There are many different kinds of hunting dogs; hounds that hunt in
packs or pairs, gazehounds that course, terriers and daschunds that hunt
above or below ground, bird dogs that point set retrieve or drive, and dogs
that bail up or kill animals. Hunting dogs are an important tool in
conservation being used for the detection of endangered birds, such as Kiwi
in New Zealand, and for the selective detection and often destruction of
unwanted and destructive pest species such as goats on the Galapagos
Islands. Most types of hunting may be physically taxing but not dangerous.
Hunting dogs are usually bred, trained and exercised to engage in their
specific hunting activity. Injuries sustained during hunting may occur
because of the enthusiasm of individual dogs.
Some specific injuries are more likely to occur in hunting dogs than
others. Injuries caused by seeds, such as wild barley seeds, which may lodge
in the nose and cause epistaxis, in the ears and cause otitis externa, or under
the axilla or between the toes and cause ulceration, are not uncommon in
hunting dogs. The aspiration of plant material was implicated in chronic
suppurative and pyogranulomatous lesions in hunting dogs (Frendin, 1998).
Injuries may be caused by barbed wire or thorns. Hunting dogs may also be
exposed to the carcasses of poisoned pest animals. Dogs hunting
underground may get stuck and starve to death unless dug out. Farm terriers
sometimes disappear for days or even weeks and then reappear having
eventually escaped from some burrow. Some types of prey are dangerous to
the hunting dogs. Pigs, deer and all the large cats can defend themselves and
inflict severe injuries on hunting dogs.
A condition know as limber tail caused by damage to the coccygeal
muscles has been identified in English Pointers after being worked hard in
cold conditions, or held in a small cage for a long period (Steiss et al., 1999),
and in Labrador Retrievers after hunting (Wilkins, 1997), swimming (Jeffels,
1997) or being showered in cold water (Hewison, 1997; Stockman, 1997).
Hunting dogs, hounds and working dogs are more likely to suffer from
leptospirosis than other dogs (Ward et al., 2002).
Dogs used for shotgun hunting of birds, ground game or vermin may be
shot accidentally (Keep, 1970. Many injuries caused by shotgun pellets go
unnoticed especially if caused by small shot (Keep, 1970) and are often first
noticed when the dog is radiographed for other reasons. Lead pellets are
rapidly encapsulated in fibrous connective tissue and surgical removal is not
necessary unless the pellet is lodged in a joint when the synovial fluid
dissolves the lead and causes toxicosis (Grogan & Buchholz, 1981). There is
a shift away from lead to steel shot in wildfowl hunting. In future dogs may
be peppered with steel rather than lead shot. Steel shot corrodes in tissues
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and caused severe inflammation (Bartels et al., 1991). If bacterial infection

occurs then draining tracts could develop and the condition would be more
serious than that caused by lead.

5.4 Draft dog

In a few countries dogs are still used as traction animals. The use of dogs
for pulling carts was one of the reasons why welfare organisation became
interested in the welfare of dogs in the 19th century and in the UK the use of
dogs for transport was banned in 1854 (Hubrecht, 1995). The use of animals
for traction is always associated with specific issues such as overloading,
long hours of work, too little and too poor food, and physical abuse. These
were certainly associated with the use of dogs as draught animals but the
practice is now rare and more of a novelty than an economically significant
activity.

5.5 Service dogs

Dogs are used by police and military forces around the world for
tracking, guarding and identification work. In addition many dogs owned by
individuals are involved in search and rescue work. Police dogs have to be
physically capable and of a temperament suited to the type of work they do.
Up to 70% of dogs bred at the South African Police Breeding Centre were
not suited for use as police dogs as they did not meet the standard required
for advanced training (Slabbert & Odendaal, 1999). In New Zealand about
40% of dogs bred for police work are successful, but a much smaller
percentage of donated dogs become active police dogs (Kyono, 2002). In
this study of 74 police dog handlers, many thought that dog and handlers
were not well matched (Kyono, 2002). In one sample of 40 police dogs, 24
dogs had had one handler, 13 had 2, 3 had 3 and 1 dog had 4 handlers. This
suggests that up to 40% of dogs were mismatched initially (Stafford et al.,
2003)
Police dogs working crowd control can be injured by glass and more
rarely by petrol bombs, flying bricks or stones. Police dogs can be injured
when tracking criminals. In some countries police dogs can only bail up
criminals, but with particularly vicious individuals it may be better if the dog
is allowed to bite and hold. Police dogs are stabbed, beaten and killed by
criminals. Dogs trained to bail up rather than bite and hold are particularly
susceptible to attack from criminals. The New Zealand police have had 20
dogs killed on active service since 1956.
Tracking from the scene of a crime is a common practice for police dogs.
This can be stressful, particularly at night, when both dog and handler may
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be in danger. Some very successful police dogs get stressed by this activity
and may lose weight and have persistent diarrhoea. They usually recover
after a break but need to be managed sensitively. Dogs appear to cope with
shift work quite effectively probably due to their short sleep-wake cycles
(Adam & Johnson, 1994b)
Drug and bomb detection dogs need to be physically fit, love praise,
have a strong hunting instinct, and be both focussed and have sustained
attention (Mozdy, 1997). This combination of characteristics makes for a
hard-working-dog and it may have to be taught when to work, and when to
rest (Luescher, 1993; Rouhi, 1997). Drug and bomb detection dogs sniff up
to 300 times a minute when working and this is probably strenuous enough
without having to search actively through baggage. Following extreme
physical activity there is a decrease in sniffing frequency and an increase in
panting with a consequent decrease in explosive detection (Gazit & Terkel,
2003) and moderate physical conditioning will help dogs maintain olfactory
acuity (Altom et al., 2003). Dogs that search for drugs or explosives may
become stressed and stop working effectively. This may be due to the
difficulty of the work, its duration or an inappropriate reinforcing schedule
(Luescher, 1993). Drug detection dogs may ingest drugs before their handler
can reach them and become poisoned by the drugs (Dumonceaux & Beasley,
1990). In Australia many drug and custom detection dogs work for up to
eight years which suggest that the work is not too distressing.
Dogs are also an important tool in the detection of wildlife and other
biological materials being smuggled across borders and thus help maintain
nations remain free of disease that may affect endemic flora and fauna and
commercial livestock, poultry and crops.
Landmine (McLean, 2001) and bomb detection work are obviously
dangerous, but drug detection may also place the dog in physically
dangerous environments. Trained landmine detection dogs are valuable.
They are protected by their handlers, but nevertheless this is a dangerous job
for dogs. Nevertheless, mortality rates in mine detecting dogs are very low
and in Afghanistan 3 or 4 dogs have been killed in 15 years of operations
with up to 140 dogs working 6 days a week (Ian McLean, Geneva
International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, personal communication
2004).
Military dogs can be deployed in countries which have diseases and
environmental conditions which are foreign to them. In Vietnam the injuries
of American military dogs varied depending on the work; 15% of scout dogs
were injured severely enough to stop work while only 5% of tracker or
sentry dogs were injured (Jennings et al., 1971). In one study of 927
American military dogs the majority died or were euthanased because of
diseases associated with advanced age (Moore et al., 2001). The leading
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causes of death were degenerative joint disease, neoplasia, spinal cord

disease, geriatric decline and gastric dilatation-volvulus. The latter is to be
expected as these dogs are often large, deep chested animals (Herbold et al.,
2002). Military dogs are expensive to produce and consequently receive very
good veterinary care. Of 2,500 American military dogs subject to necropsy,
18 died from injuries caused by bullets or bombs, and 17 died from heat
stroke (Robinson & Garner, 1973). The average age at death or euthanasia
was 10 years and those that died before eight years of age usually died due to
heat stroke or a mishap during anaesthesia.
In the past, serious weight loss (10%) was observed in military dogs
following short intense tours of action and this was considered due to the
constant stress and tension that the dogs experienced (McNamara, 1972).
The adrenal glands of military dogs were sometimes five times as large as
ordinary dogs. High calorific density diets were recommended to maintain
bodyweight (McNamara, 1972) but presumably the high levels of stress
continued. About one quarter of military dogs with behavioural problems
engage in repetitive behaviour, often spinning in a tight circle (Burghardt,
2003). Stereotypic behaviour like this is probably stress related.
Search and rescue dogs are used in urban and rural disaster and search
work. They may have to work after natural disasters such as earthquakes,
hurricanes, storms, floods and avalanches and man-made disasters such as
explosions, fires and bombings. They may also be used to search for lost
hikers and for cadavers. In many of the situations in which search and rescue
dogs work there are definite hazards. These may be physical or chemical.
In the search and rescue operation after the bombing in Oklahoma City in
the USA in 1995, details of health and injuries sustained by 69 of the 74
dogs used at the site over 491 dog days (Duhaime et al., 1998) were obtained
by surveying their handlers. Of the dogs, 46 were search, 14 patrol, 12
explosion detection and two search/patrol dogs. Nineteen dogs (28%) were
injured. Footpad injuries were most common (18 of 20 injuries) and 15
(22%) became ill. Search dogs were more likely to be injured during the first
two days of work. Older German Shepherd Dogs were especially succeptible
to injury (Duhaime et al., 1998). Dogs did not get foot injuries when they
wore booties. Many of the illnesses were management related, diarrhoea or
vomiting from eating too much or too many treats, but some dogs had
irritated eyes and respiratory problems and became hypothermic. These dogs
were walking over broken glass, reinforcing iron rods and other slippery and
sharp surfaces and overall considering the conditions, the number of injuries
was small. When they returned home after the exercise many dogs were tired
and stressed. Duhaime et al. (1998) recommended that if dogs are used at
such sites then they should have cages at the work place and an isolated rest
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zone which is quiet and where they can rest without being disturbed. They
should also be washed frequently and wear booties.
When working in urban disaster sites dogs are often exposed to a range
of toxic chemicals (Gwaltney-Brant et al., 2003; Murphy et al., 2003) and
may absorb them through the skin or nose. If they are doing a lot of scent
work then they need to have their noses wiped regularly and to be bathed
and rinsed often and kept well hydrated (Wismer et al., 2003). It may be
advisable to provide the dogs with booties and goggles to reduce intoxication
(Wisner et al., 2003).
The breeding and selection of dogs for service work has been
investigated so as to maximise the success of breeding and training
programmes. The success of these means fewer animals are rejected and
have to be re-homed or euthanased. Heritability for success or appropriate
temperament is reasonably high for service work (Mackenzie et al., 1985;
Wilsson & Sundgren, 1997) which suggests that breeding for success is
relatively easy. However developing behaviour tests on young dogs to
identify those suited for service work have not been so successful.
Nevertheless, Slabbert and Odendaal (1999) found that the retrieval
behaviour of eight-week old pups and aggression at nine months could
predict adult police dog efficiency.

5.6 Cattle and Sheep dogs

When sheep and goats were domesticated, dogs were initially used for
guarding flocks. This practice continues today with specific breeds being
developed for specific guarding characteristics (Green & Woodruff, 1988).
This work entails defending flocks from predators and thieves. These dogs
have to be willing to attack bears, wolves, coyotes, other dogs and thieving
humans. When dogs are used to protect livestock, especially sheep, from
predators (Linhart et al., 1997; Hansen et al., 2002) then the size and type of
predator and the number and ability of the guard dogs will determine the
level of danger they experience. Bears, large cats and wolves are able to kill
dogs. Coyotes are more likely to try and avoid dogs.
When the size of the herds and flocks owned by humans increased
greatly dogs were selected and trained to drive animals in addition to being
guard dogs. There have been many types of driving dogs. In New Zealand
two types of sheep dogs were bred in the last century for helping shepherds
manage the large sheep flocks common in that country. One type is the
Huntaway, a dog bred to bark and drive sheep from behind. The other type is
called a Heading Dog or an Eye Dog and it works to direct sheep and it is
similar to the Border Collie. Severe selection would have been fundamental
to the production of these two types of dogs and many unsatisfactory dogs
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would have been killed in the process. The working of sheep is generally
safe but injuries do occur (Table 3) with subluxation and hyperextension of
the carpus being common (Walker, 1997a, b).

Table 3. The type and cause of serious injuries sustained by 69 working sheep and cattle dogs
in New Zealand.
Breed Cause Injury Type
31 Heading Dogs Falls 2 Fractures 36
29 Huntaways Fence/gate 6 Joint luxations or
6 Border Collies Livestock17 Ligament instability 35
3 Bearded Collies Vehicle 19 Muscular or tendon
Unknown 25 problem 6
Adapted from Walker, 1997a

Dogs are used to drive and direct cattle by barking, snapping at the heels,
and sometimes grabbing the nose. Thus, while Corgis are heel snappers
many dogs used on wilder cattle snap at the animals’ heels, but also grab the
face to turn cattle and get them to move. This is dangerous work, and cattle
dogs when young and naïve, or old and slow, are kicked, gored, head butted
and stamped on by cattle.

5.7 Fighting dogs

In some parts of the world dogs are used for baiting bears, bulls or pigs,
or for fighting. These activities have obvious significant effects on the health
and wellbeing of the animals involved. Fighting dogs inflict serious injuries
on each other. Specific breeds and strains of dogs are bred for fighting, but
dogs of other breeds may be used as sparring partners during training and
they may be injured seriously. Dog fighting is legal in several states in the
USA and in Japan. In the UK, dog fighting is illegal but it was considered
well established in 1988 by Wilkins et al. (1988). The Tosa (Japanese
Fighting Dog) breed and dog fighting appears to be declining in Japan but
dog fighting appears to be booming in the USA with both impromptu street
fights and organised pit fighting. These impromptu street fights usually end
before serious injuries are sustained, but in organised pit fighting death or
serious injuries occur.
Not surprisingly, there is very little information about the injuries caused
by dog fighting in the veterinary literature, but two reports, one from the
USA and one from the UK, give an idea of the injuries involved (Clifford
et al., 1983; Hnatkiwskyj, 1985). Clifford et al. (1983) examined 32 dogs
(American Pit Bull Terriers, American Staffordshire Terriers, Staffordshire
Bull Terriers, Mixed breeds) that had been removed from the homes of dog
fighters and detailed their injuries (Table 4). Hnatkiwskyj (1985) described a
Staffordshire Bull Terrier after a fight with the entire skin and muscles
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covering its lower jaw ripped off and its mandible exposed for half its
length. This dog was treated and during the days in the veterinary surgery
the dog showed no concern for her wound and ate vigorously. Fighting dogs
appear to have a very high pain tolerance (Clifford et al., 1983), which is
presumably necessary to keep fighting.

Table 4. Injuries of fighting dogs.

Adult Males (n = 9) Adult Females (n = 17)
Wounds 1 2
Abscesses 1 2
Scars
Ears 4 9
Muzzle 4 9
Throat 1 5
Frontlimbs 5 13
Hindlimbs 6 10
Adapted from Clifford et al., 1983

The American Pit Bull Terrier, which was bred to fight in a pit, has
gained worldwide notoriety because of the breed’s vicious behaviour, and its
attacks on humans. It has been banned in some countries and restricted in
others. Some strains of this breed may be non-aggressive, but Mason (1991)
observed 30 adult Pit Bull Terriers in a shelter over a period of several
months and was shocked by their agility, aggressiveness and destructiveness.
A tyre would be destroyed by one dog in a day and they had to be kept out of
sight of each other. The decision to destroy all of these terriers in the UK
caused quite a furore but veterinarians who wrote to the Veterinary Record
appeared generally in favour of destruction (Flower, 1991). Fighting dogs
are bred to fight, to be game for fighting and proponents of the activity argue
that because they are bred to fight and apparently are game for it then it is
acceptable. This is a spurious argument and does nothing to offset the
injuries which occur during the training and fighting of these dogs.

5.8 Racing dogs

Many types of dogs, including several gazehound breeds, sled dogs

(Chapter 8) and terriers are raced for sport, but the Greyhound is the ultimate
canine athlete having being bred for field coursing and track racing for many
years (Chapter 8). There are several aspects of greyhound racing which
cause concern: the wastage of dogs that never race, injury during training
and racing, the length of their racing career and what happens to Greyhounds
when their racing career is over. These are discussed in Chapter 8.
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5.9 Assistance dogs

Dogs are used to help people who are visually impaired, have poor
hearing or are disabled in other ways. Dogs are probably well suited to this
type of work, being focussed on human behaviour (Pongracz et al., 2001)
and capable of cooperating with humans (Naderi et al., 2001). Nevertheless,
cooperating with people who have sensory, physical and/or mental
deficiencies may be a stressful experience. Guide dogs for the blind may
have a difficult and stressful job. The success rate of matching dogs to their
handler was found to be about 74% in one New Zealand study of 118 dogs
(Lloyd, 2004) and Nicholson et al. (1995) reported that 15 of 59 dogs (25%
were withdrawn from work. Some dogs considered by their handlers to been
a mismatch were not returned to the guide dogs providers but kept and
worked (Lloyd, 2004). The welfare of these dogs may have been
compromised if they were used by people who found aspects of their
behaviour difficult. Mismatched dogs are usually given to a second handler.
Of 20 dogs identified by Lloyd (2004) as being re-matched 5 failed
completely and of the remaining 15, four were on their third handler.
In a survey of the success rate of guide dogs, more handlers considered
that they had not been matched successfully with their second guide dog
(31%) than their first dog (20%) or third dog (13%) (Lloyd, 2004). More
second dogs were returned for non-work related issues than either first or
third dogs. Guide dogs are about 18 months to two years of age when
allocated to a handler and in Lloyd’s (2004) study, 79 dogs had a working
life of on average 4.7 years. The working life of guide dogs is influenced by
their deteriorating health and they becoming too slow for their handlers.
The temperament of individual guide dogs influenced their heart rate
during training and some were apparently less capable of damping down
large changes in heart rate than others (Vincent & Leahy, 1997). The
Labrador Retriever has been the guide dog of choice for many years. This is
possibly due to their high trainability and physical size, however their low
reactivity (Hart & Hart, 1985b) is also important. Guide dogs spend a lot of
time doing nothing and then have to take responsibility for guiding, a breed
with an easy relaxed nature is necessary for this type of lifestyle.
Individual dogs may be matched with a person with serious physical
and/or mental problems and this may make the work of the dog very
difficult. However guide dogs appear to be able to change their role from
that of leader to that of being led, depending on circumstances. In some
guide dog–human dyads, the dog initiated most actions but in others it was
the reverse and in none did any party initiate more than 80% of actions
(Naderi et al., 2001). This allows the dyad to develop new types of action
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and may reduce the stress on the dog and its handler as both work together in
a cooperative manner.
Dogs trained to assist people with physical disabilities have surprisingly
physically active roles and Lane et al. (1998) were concerned about the use
of breeds susceptible to hip dysplasia for this work. The attitude of the
handlers of these dogs was influenced by whether getting the dog had been
their idea or not. If the decision to get a dog was not that of the handler the
dog was likely to be regarded as no more than a work animal and such
handlers tended to agree that it might be more trouble that it is worth.
However, there was no evidence that the welfare of dogs of these handlers
were any less well treated than those of handlers who chose to acquire a dog
(Lane et al., 1998).

5.10 Therapy dogs

Dogs may assist in the diagnosis of some diseases. They are used to help
people in hospices and hospitals. The work itself should not be particularly
stressful and their welfare is discussed in the chapter dealing with
companion dogs (Chapter 12)

5.11 Entertainment dogs

Dogs are commonly used in advertisements, traditionally in circuses and

occasionally in zoos. In circuses, advertising and the stage, dogs are often
trained to do tricks and while some consider these acts to be demeaning it is
unlikely that the dogs think of them as such. Good entertainment dogs
usually appear to enjoy their work and provided it is not damaging there are
probably no major concerns for the dogs’ welfare.

5.12 Laboratory dogs

Dogs are used in research laboratories for a variety of purposes. They are
used in models of human disease and for research relating to canine health
and nutrition. The use of any animal in a laboratory or testing laboratory
causes concern for their welfare, but concern for the dog has resulted in a
reduction in dog usage by scientists in many countries over the last decade
(see Chapter 9). Some dogs are rehomed after careers as laboratory dogs.

5.13 Sport dogs

Dogs are used for showing, agility and obedience competitions and many
types of field trials.
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Showing dogs is a very popular sport and forms the backbone to the
breeding of most pedigree dogs (Chapter 3). Breed standards are discussed
in chapter 3 but the process of showing and preparation for showing are
discussed here. To succeed in the show-ring dogs have to be presented as
expected for the breed and behave as is appropriate. All dogs have to be
clean and for some their hair has to be dressed in an appropriate style. Dogs
in the show-ring have to be non-aggressive and confident if they are to
succeed. These are all good for the welfare of the dogs being shown.
However, there are specific breeds that have to be modified physically to
enter the show-ring. These modifications include ear cropping, tail docking
and dew claw removal.
Ear cropping is banned in many countries but in others it is routinely
carried out on fighting, show, guard and pet dogs. In The Complete Dog
Book of the American Kennel Club (Anonymous, 1998a) the ears of the
Doberman Pinscher, Boxer and Miniature Schnauzer must be cropped,
while those of the Giant and Standard Schnauzer, Great Dane, Bouvier des
Flandres, Miniature Pinscher, Affenpinscher, Manchester Terrier and Boston
Terrier may be cropped or not. Ear cropping is not carried out in some
countries (UK, New Zealand, Ireland). It is carried out when the puppies are
weeks or months of age (Table 5). The procedure is certainly painful and
there are the attendant risks of anaesthesia, haemorrhage and infection
(Nolen, 1999). Many object to ear cropping as it is carried out purely for
cosmetic purposes (Anonymous, 2003d) but others argue that if a particular
society desires such a procedure then veterinarians should carry out the
procedure (Stone, 2000) rather than have it done by anyone else.

Table 5. The age when ear cropping should be carried out and the amount of ear remaining
after surgery.
Breed Age Amount of ear remaining
Schnauzer 10 weeks 2/3 remaining
Boxer 9-10 weeks 2/3 to ¾ remaining
Doberman Pinscher 8-9 weeks ¾ remaining
Great Dane 9 weeks ¾ remaining
Boston Terrier 4-6 months Full trim
Adapted from Slatter (1993)

Tail docking has been a major source of disagreement between kennel

clubs and animal welfare organisations (Bennett & Perini, 2003) for the last
twenty years or so. It is carried out worldwide with only a few countries
where it is not allowed. The welfare organisations and many veterinarians
(Morton, 1992; McCreath, 1993; Wansbrough, 1996) argue that it is painful
and unnecessary and removes a major means of communication whilst the
kennel clubs and many veterinarians argue that it is of little significance,
necessary, virtually or completely painless, traditional and that dogs with
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long tail can damage them easily (Dean, 1990; Webster, 1992; Mercer, 1992;
Collins, 1993; Brown, 1998a; Warman, 2004). Many breeds of dogs are tail
docked (Table 6) and the procedure is usually carried out in the first few
days of life by surgical removal using scissors or scalpel sometimes followed
by a suture (Slatter, 1993), or by an elastic band. In the past dogs were
docked for spurious reasons, such as to prevent rabies, to prevent tail injuries
while fighting, and in some countries to avoid paying tax as only the dogs
with a long tail were considered for tax purposes (Wansbrough, 1996).
Tail docking had no prophylactic effect in reducing tail injuries in the
study of Darke et al. (1985). There was an association between docking and
acquired urinary incontinence due to incompetence of the urethral sphincter
mechanism, but this may relate to a breed predisposition rather than be
caused by docking per se (Holt & Thrusfield, 1993, 1997). Brachycephalic
breeds that have their tails docked may be predisposed to perineal hernia
(Burrows & Ellison, 1989), which may be due to poor muscle development
in docked animals (Canfield, 1986 cited by Wansbrough, 1996) but this has
not been confirmed by research.
When puppies were tail docked using scissors they shrieked at the time of
amputation but settled down to sleep after about 3 minutes (Noonan et al.,
1996). This suggests that the procedure is painful but the pain is short lived.
The pain caused by docking in puppies cannot be compared to that in lambs
as the former is much less developed when docked than the latter. The
development of neuromas (Gross & Carr, 1990) and adhesions (Carr, 1979)
may be painful, and dogs may lick and bite at their tails which have to be
shortened again (Scott et al., 1995). Dogs may develop a phantom tail but
this has not been determined. Pain in newborn and premature children is now
assumed to occur. Schuster and Lenard (1990) suggest that those who carry
out potentially painful operations without analgesia on neonates should have
to prove that the latter do not feel pain. To carry out such surgery is to go
against everyday experience and scientific knowledge. Boys who had been
circumcised displayed more pain behaviours at four and six months of age
when vaccinated than uncircumcised boys (Taddio et al., 1995) so it is
possible that docking may have long term effect on pain perception in dogs.
Wansbrough (1996) was concerned about the development of pathological
pain in puppies following docking, but there is no evidence of this
happening. There are likely to be differences in the pain experienced during
and after short docking (eg. the rottweiler which is left with one or two
coccygeal vertebrae) and long docking (eg. the wirehaired pointing griffon
which is left with two thirds of its tail), but this has not been investigated.
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Table 6. Breeds of dogs that are routinely or sometimes docked in the USA (Anonymous,
1998a).
Sporting Breeds 12 of 24 breeds docked
German Shorthaired Pointer docked leaving 40% of its length
German Wirehaired Pointer docked to 2/5 of its original length
Clumber Spaniel docked in keeping with the overall proportion of the adult dog
Cocker Spaniel Docked
English Cocker Spaniel Docked
English Springer Spaniel Docked
Field Spaniel docked to balance the overall dog
Sussex Spaniel docked from 5-7 inches
Welsh Springer Spaniel Docked
Visla tail should reach back of stifle joint
Weimaraner measure 6 inches at maturity
Wirehaired Pointing Griffon docked by 1/3 ½
Hound breeds none of 22 breeds docked
Working breeds 5 of 20 breeds docked
Boxer Docked
Doberman Pinscher docked at approximately second joint
Giant Schnauzer docked to the second or not more than the third joint
Rottweiler docked short or close to the body leaving 1 or 2 vertebrae
Standard Schnauzer docked to not less than 1 inch or more than 2 inches
Terrier breeds 10 of 25 breeds docked
Australian Terrier docked in balance with the overall dog
Wire Fox Terrier docked a ¾ dock is about right
Irish Terrier docked taking off about 1/4
Lakeland Terrier docked
Minature Schnauzer docked
Norfolk Terrier docked (medium)
Norwich Terrier docked (medium)
Sealyham Terrier docked
Soft-coated Wheaten Terrier docked
Welsh Terrier docked to a length approximately level with the occiput
Toy breeds 6 of 19 breeds docked
Affenpinscher docked or left natural
Brussels Griffon docked to about 1/3
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel docking is optional, no more than 1/3 to be removed
English Toy Spaniel docked to 2 to 4 inches in length
Miniature Pinscher docked in proportion to the size of the dog
Silky Terrier Docked
Non-sporting breeds none of 16 breeds docked
Herding breeds 4 of 17 breeds docked
Australian Shepherd docked or naturally bobbed, not to exceed 4 inches
Bouvier des Flandres docked leaving 2 or 3 vertebrae
Old English Sheepdog docked close to the body
Pembroke Welsh Corgi docked as short as possible without being indented
Miscellaneous class 2 of 5 breeds docked
Jack Russell Terrier docked to the tip is approximately level to the skull
Spinone Italiano docked
A total of 39 breeds docked out of 148 breeds
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Table 7. Criteria to test the necessity of elective surgery on the dog.

Is there evidence that leaving the dog intact predisposes them to harm?
Is there evidence that surgery is in the best interests of the dog and is beneficial to it?
Would the harm or benefit occur in a significant proportion of dogs and therefore justify the
surgery on a particular breed?
Does the surgery cause greater harm than the damage one is trying to prevent?
Is there another way with fewer or no adverse effects to achieve the same end?
Does the increase in value as a result of surgery justify the damage done?
Adapted from Wansbrough (1996) and Morton (1992)

Tail docking has been banned in several countries (Israel, Finland,

Switzerland, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Australia) and will be banned in
more countries soon. The prohibition of docking appears to have occurred
primarily because it is a cosmetic and painful procedure. However there has
been little effort to develop pain control protocols in the young pup. Local
anaesthetic can be used to alleviate the pain caused by docking but
Wansbrough (1996) was concerned that a 2% solution of lignocaine might
be toxic to young pups. General anaesthesia in very young animals may be
dangerous. If analgesia was used in the young pup before, during and after
docking then the pain-related argument against docking would be weakened.
However, the possible side effects such as haemorrhage and infection, and
potential long term effects will remain arguments against the procedure.
Moreover, the removal of the tail may influence the ability of dogs to
communicate effectively with conspecifics and it also makes it more difficult
for humans to understand them.
Morton (1992) developed six criteria to test the necessity of docking
(Table 7), and Wansbrough (1996) found that the general reasons advanced
for docking dogs tails did not satisfy these criteria and concluded that it
cannot be justified. However, the docking of specific breeds engaged in
work may meet the criteria, thus in Germany docking is banned, unless it is
absolutely necessary for hunting, and then must be carried out by a
veterinarian. This might satisfy those who believe that working English
Springer Spaniels require the last third of the tail removed to prevent injury
in the hunting field (Webster, 1992; Neal, 1992), but there is no published
evidence to support their concern about injury to this breed during hunting.
Dew claws are the first digit of the limbs. In hunting dogs the dewclaws
are removed from the hind legs to prevent damage, and in toy breeds they
are removed from front and hind limbs to facilitate clipping (Bojrab et al.,
1983). They are usually removed at 3-5 days of age (Slatter, 1993) when
haemorrhage is usually small. They are cut off with scissors or a scalpel
blade and sutures are not usually placed. In many breeds it is recommended
that the dewclaws be removed (Anonymous, 1998a) but in some breeds such
as the Kerry Blue Terrier, dogs are disqualified if they have dew claw on
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hind limbs. If dewclaws are damaged on an adult dog then the dewclaws
may have to be removed surgically under general anaesthesia.
Agility, flyball and obedience activities are often recommended to keep a
dog busy and to develop the dog-human bond. Dogs may find agility, flyball
and obedience competitions stressful but whether these activities are
damaging or not is unclear. It is likely that successful dogs find them
exciting and some of those that do not succeed find them too stressful. Linda
Beer (2003) suggest that frustration is an important source of stress and that
it is used in training dogs for flyball to increase speed. If the dog’s
frustration level is allowed to escalate the dog may become aggressive
towards its handler or other dogs. She felt that, if possible, dogs awaiting
their turn to compete should be held out of sight of the competing animal.
There is a need for more data on the stress experienced by competing dogs
and how success and failure in these sorts of competitions affects different
dogs.

5.14 Companions

The close human dog relationship probably developed during the later
stages of domestication when the wolf/dog was willing to come into contact
with human beings. This change in behaviour was observed during
Belyaev’s study of fox domestication when foxes approached humans and
became willing to physically contact them (Trut, 1999). The human need for
heat probably accelerated the closeness of the relationship and dogs were
used as bed warmers by Aborigine people in Australia (Meggitt, 1965). The
shift from wary associate to companion was a driving force in the human-
dog relationship and generally this relationship has continued to benefit both
species. However Meggitt (1965) observed that wild dingoes were in better
condition than tame dingoes, as the latter were only fed bones and then left
to fend for themselves.
This type of companionship is common between humans and other
species including cattle and pigs. Dogs may be able to read human intentions
effectively (Hare et al., 2002) but humans may not be so sensitive to what
dogs are intimating. However, humans can recognise what dogs mean by
their different types of barking (Douglas, 2004). Many dog owners regard
their dogs as companions and work mates, but these dogs sleep outside and
are fed and managed separately from humans and often from their pet dogs.
Companion does not mean family member. The statement that people regard
their dog as a family member needs to be interpreted cautiously and the
number of dog behaviour problem books published in the last two decades
suggests that there are serious problems in the human-dog relationship.
Human expectations may be greater than what is possible.
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Domestication may be a process of reduction in ability to cope quickly

with the dangers and stresses of the natural world, a process which results in
an animal with a tolerance of stress, a docile nature and a lack of fear
(Hemmer, 1990). This process is ongoing and may be fundamental to the
long-term success of the dog as a house dog and companion. The difficulties
experienced in post-industrialised societies in the last half century with dog
behaviour may have been a result of the movement of the dog off the street,
for welfare reasons, and into a much less interesting environment, the house.
This movement has not been accompanied by a deliberate selection of
animals to cope with such an environment. A minority of breeders may
breed from their own house dog but much pedigree dog breeding continues
to select for physical characteristics and temperaments which may or may
not be suited to the relatively dull life of the modern companion animal
(Chapter 12).

6. CONCLUSION

The domestic dog has lived with humans for thousands of years and has
been and remains a useful companion in many of our endeavours. In many
of these activities the dog is put in danger and dog fighting is often
prohibited because of the damage caused to the dogs. The distress or lack of
distress caused by many of the activities that dogs are used in has been
poorly investigated, and the health and longevity of working and sport dogs
has been poorly defined. There is a need for research into the distress caused
to dogs during work and sport, and during the training of dogs for these
activities. The dog has a limited capacity to cope with all of our expectations
and unless its physical and social requirements are met then its welfare will
be compromised. Compromise may occur when the animal’s physical needs
are met but its social and psychological needs are not.
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Chapter 2
FREE LIVING DOGS

Abstract: The majority of dogs are free-ranging and may or may not be owned. Many
are appreciated for their sentinel activities and disposal of garbage but there
are also fears in many countries of zoonotic diseases especially rabies. The
nutrition and health of these dogs is poor and their lives short and possibly
brutal. In most wealthy developed countries free-ranging dogs are uncommon
as dog control legislation forces owners to identify and restrict their dogs and
dogs found roaming are caught, held and either reclaimed, re-homed or
euthanased. The means to control free-ranging dog populations are well
known, but the political will or the financial capability to do so is often not
available. Free-ranging dogs become a political issue when zoonoses or dog-
attacks become important and then dog control programmes may be initiated.
These are often under funded, incomplete and short lived. Legislation, animal
control and education are essential to dog control. De-sexing and killing are
standard tools in dog population control but education, registration, and habitat
modification are also important. The methods used to kill dogs vary depending
on philosophy, funding and the availability of drugs and trained personnel.
The method used to control free-ranging dogs varies, depending on the
philosophy of the community. In some countries where killing is not
acceptable, de-sexing and habitat adjustment are necessary to control free-
ranging dogs. Dogs are highly fecund and if food is available the removal of
dogs from a location will be rapidly followed by the immigration of dogs from
other areas. The welfare of free-ranging dogs is the most significant welfare
issue of dogs and assistance from animal welfare organisations in the
developed countries to animal welfare organisations and veterinarians in
developing countries may be the most effective way to improve dog welfare
worldwide.

31
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1. INTRODUCTION

The world population of domestic dogs has been estimated at around 500
million (Matter & Daniels, 2000) and by some estimates, about 75% of these
animals are free-ranging. These figures are approximations as it is difficult
to determine the population of dogs. This is true even in countries where the
majority are owned as pets or working animals (Patronek & Rowan, 1995)
and it is even more difficult to determine what percentage of dogs are owned
and free-ranging, or not owned and free-ranging or wild. There is a problem
with dog population control in many countries (Leney & Remfry, 2000) and
this has serious public health and dog welfare implications. It is believed that
the problem with free-ranging dogs, dog-related zoonoses (Cleaveland et al.,
2003) and dog attacks is increasing as is the threat posed by dogs to wildlife
in some countries (Pain, 1997; Butler et al., 2004)
A dog may be a beloved pet, a valuable working animal or an incidental
animal living with humans without any major function. They may also be
unwanted but continue to live close to humans feeding off garbage, or
become wild, living distant to humans and without any direct dependence on
humans (Boitani et al., 1995). In simple terms, dogs may be owned valued
and restrained, owned but free-ranging, not-owned and free-ranging, feral or
wild (see Chapter 1, Table 2). The term ‘stray’ refers to owned dogs living
with humans, but allowed to be free ranging, or to dogs living close to
humans, dependent upon human refuse or handouts for food but not owned.
Wild dogs are domestic dogs that have returned to the wild permanently.
They may live away from human habitation but often live on city dumps.
In discussing the welfare of free-ranging or wild dogs it is necessary to
look at the background to human concerns about these animals, and the
efforts made by humans to control the population of dogs worldwide. The
human interest in free-ranging dogs ranges from a fear of rabies and other
zoonoses, worry for the safety of livestock or wildlife or a genuine concern
for the welfare of these dogs. The type of interest will depend on the lives of
the people concerned, their own welfare and quality of life, religious beliefs
and wealth. It is foolish to expect people who are struggling to feed and rear
their children to be too concerned with the survival of a mangy scavenging
dog or to expect people to whom the dog is by religious conviction a dirty
animal to worry about the mortality rate of newborn pups. However it may
be that the concern for human health, especially the drive to reduce the
incidence of rabies, may also improve the welfare of dogs in many countries
by reducing their numbers and controlling unwanted pup production. Many
free-ranging dog become victims of road traffic accidents. They may be
beaten severely or killed by humans or other dogs if they behave in what is
considered to be an inappropriate manner.
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Dog population control is an important aspect of public health

programmes in many countries. The control of free-ranging dogs is also
important for livestock protection and for conservation reasons in some
countries. In some societies the presence of stray or wild dogs is
unacceptable for philosophical and/or aesthetic reasons and in these societies
dog control is carried out not because of public health issues but for animal
welfare reasons. In this chapter the welfare of free-ranging dogs will be
discussed in relation to why they are considered a nuisance and how they are
controlled.

2. DOGS AS NUISANCE

The dog is a barking, scavenging, territorial, sexually promiscuous,

social, pack protecting animal with a propensity to defaecate or urinate just
about anywhere. These behavioural characteristics do not lead to
neighbourhood harmony. A brief litany of the anti-social behaviours of dogs
include chasing cars and bicycles, causing car accidents, attacking livestock
and other companion animals, damaging property, producing unwanted pups
and attacking humans (Murray, 1993). The positive effects of dog ownership
are relevant to the individual (Hart, 1995) rather than society and dog
behaviour is a common cause of disagreements amongst neighbours. In
Melbourne, Australia, the most common category of neighbourhood dispute
related to a neighbour’s animals, usually a dog or cat (Technisearch, 1990),
and in Queensland, Australia, municipal authorities ranked dog problems as
their second greatest management problem, following rates collection
(Murray, 1993). In the 1970s in the USA 60% of mayors reported that
animal problems led the list of complaints from the public (Katz, 1976).

Table 1. Dogs caught and handled by the police and dog wardens in the UK and dog control
personnel in Japan.
1988 1996
UK*
Dogs caught as strays 240,000 139,000
Reclaimed 60,000 46,500
Dogs adopted or sent to shelter 90,000 51,600
Dogs euthanased 90,000 16,200
Japan** 1989 2000
Dogs caught as strays 297,454 126,570
Reclaimed 12,210 15,004
Euthanased 285,224 111,566
*Adapted from Leney and Remfry (2000)
** Ministry of Health, Japan
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The political recognition that dogs can be a nuisance and a cause of

zoonotic diseases led to the establishment of public dog control programmes
in cities in North America and Europe in the 19th century, programmes
which continue to this day. That these programmes continue suggest that
there are ongoing problems in the human–dog relationship and urban dog
management. The number of dogs picked up off the street in the UK and in
Japan has decreased significantly over the last decade (Table 1) and this
reflects an improvement in dog control measures plus an increased
recognition by the general public of the need for stricter dog control. The
establishment of stricter dog control legislation in many developed countries,
such as restricting dog breeding and controlling ownership makes dog
ownership more difficult and less attractive which will reduce the social
problems caused by dogs. If dog ownership becomes more difficult and dog
numbers decline then hopefully the welfare of individual animals in
developed countries will improve as only determined and dedicated owners
will have dogs as pets.

3. ZOONOTIC DISEASES

Dogs are implicated in the transmission of several important infectious

and parasitic diseases of humans including rabies, hydatids disease, visceral
larval migrans, and visceral leishmaniasis (Calum et al., 2000). Some of
these diseases, especially rabies and leishmaniasis, have major implications
for the welfare of dogs in that they are significant diseases of dogs per se.
The methods of controlling these diseases directly through vaccination or
treatment programmes, or indirectly through dog population control may or
may not be humane.
World Health Organisation data show that each year more than 50,000
people die from rabies, of which 30 to 50% are children under 15 years of
age. Rabies is a very unpleasant disease of the nervous system, which cannot
be treated effectively once clinical signs occur. The main route of rabies
transmission is through the bite of a rabid dog. Two and a half billion people
are at risk of contracting rabies in over 100 countries reporting the disease
(WHO data cited by Haupt 1999). The vast majority of rabies cases occur in
countries with large free-ranging dog populations, and mortality figures
range from 0.001 to 18 per 100,000 people in the USA and Ethiopia
respectively (Haupt, 1999). In 1992 about 6.5 million people were
vaccinated for rabies after exposure to rabid dogs. Of these, 5 million were
in China and half a million in India (WHO, 1994). On a local scale, in the
city of Maracaibo in Venezuela there were 207 cases of canine rabies in
1985. Most of these occurred in neighbourhoods with a high dog population,
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a high proportion of free-ranging dogs and low vaccination rates (Malaga

et al., 1992). Some countries are free from canine rabies (e.g. New Zealand,
Australia, Ireland, UK), because of strict dog control measures and effective
quarantine programmes. Many other countries have rabies under control
using vaccination and dog control programmes.
The control of rabies in dogs is a significant public health activity in
many countries. It is expensive, and many countries do not vaccinate the
minimum percentage of dogs required for rabies control (Meltzer &
Rupprecht, 1998). Rabies control is carried out by encouraging owners to
vaccinate their dogs or by making it compulsory. In many countries
government veterinary services carry out vaccination programmes. WHO
figures for 1995 show that more than 34 million dogs were vaccinated
against rabies but these figures do not include data from some countries and
so is a very low and conservative number. This number was considered to be
41% of the dogs in the countries surveyed. The percentage of dogs
vaccinated ranged from 1 to 120% with many countries below the 60 to 70%
necessary to prevent the transmission of rabies in dogs (Meltzer &
Rupprecht, 1998; Cleaveland et al., 2003).
Rabies vaccination is often accompanied by dog population control
programmes. In many countries these involve killing dogs. This is more
expensive than vaccination (Meltzer & Rupprecht, 1998) but may have other
positive effects with regard to dog attacks and other diseases. Compulsory
dog registration, public education, habitat modification, de-sexing, the
capture and destruction of free-ranging dogs plus vaccination are standard
elements in successful programmes to control rabies in dogs, and all have
implications for the welfare of dogs. In general fewer dogs are killed than
are vaccinated. From 1984 to 1994 in Sichuan Province in China more than
1.4 million dogs were killed each year, while 26 million dogs were
vaccinated against rabies during these 11 years, and the incidence of human
rabies dropped dramatically. In Chile, 196,000 dogs were killed over two
years in the 1990s, which was about half the number of dogs vaccinated
against rabies (Meslin et al., 2000).
Hydatid tapeworms (Echinococcus granulosus) are a dangerous parasitic
infection of humans, particularly in sheep farming communities. The cysts
caused by the parasite in humans can become very large and dangerous, and
people can die if the cysts are ruptured accidentally. The tapeworm is of
little significance to the health of the infested dog. A standard method of
eliminating the disease is to treat all dogs for the tapeworm at regular
intervals. Enforced regular treatment as occurred in New Zealand and
Iceland (Meslin et al., 2000), may have had other effects as dogs had to be
brought to central locations for treatment. Dogs that were unwanted or
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serving no purpose would probably be killed rather than be brought for

treatment.
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a problem in some countries associated
with dog ownership (Gavgani et al., 2002a). The disease, which is usually
found in children, causes intermittent mild fever, hepatosplenomegaly and
anaemia and can be fatal if not treated. In dogs the disease often starts as a
chancre on the ear or nose and the parasites infect the lymph nodes and bone
marrow. The disease may progress slowly, or rapidly cause death. In Brazil,
dogs that are serologically positive for VL are killed, and this, combined
with the treatment of human cases and control of insect vectors, has resulted
in the eradication of the disease in part of the country (Palatnik-de-Sousa
et al., 2001). The treatment of infected dogs was considered prohibitively
expensive by Palatnik-de-Sousa et al. (2001). In Iran, putting insecticide
impregnated collars on dogs reduced the risk of VL in children but did not
eradicate it, probably because transmission continues in sylvatic reservoirs
(jackals and foxes) (Gavgani et al., 2002b).
Visceral larval migrans is a disease syndrome usually found in children.
It is caused by the roundworm, Toxacara canis, the common internal
parasite of dogs (Overgaauw & van Knapen, 2000). Visceral larval migrans
may result in fever, malaise, abdominal pain, poor sight and blindness in
children. Control of this disease involves regular anthelmintic treatment of
dogs, especially pregnant and lactating bitches, and pups. Reducing the
number of stray dogs and preventing dogs from contaminating areas
frequented by children such as school grounds and sand pits is also effective
(Overgaauw & van Knapen, 2000). Restricting areas where owned dogs can
run loose may have a significant effect on available exercise areas. In some
countries dogs have to be always on a leash in public or may be allowed to
run free only in limited and defined areas. In many developed countries
owners are not allowed to exercise their dogs in school yards and playing
fields because of the danger of visceral larval migrans. In countries with
large populations of free-ranging dogs a great change in dog management
and a sizable reduction in the population of free-ranging dogs would be
required to reduce the danger of this disease.
Injuries caused by dogs are another major public health concern in many
countries. In the USA, dog bite injuries were considered a serious public
health problem by Hunthausen (1997) with 1 to 3 million dog bites, and
about 18 human deaths each year due to dog attacks. The victims of fatal
attacks were usually either very young or very old. In the USA un-owned
free-ranging dogs are unlikely to be a significant public health nuisance
(Beck, 2000). There are 100,000 free-ranging dogs in Bangkok, Thailand
alone (Ratanakorn, 2000), and the people, mostly Buddist, support the
feeding and protection of these dogs. Dog bites account for 5.3% of all
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injuries seen at a teaching hospital in Bangkok. The majority of these are

inflicted by free-ranging dogs and are apparently unprovoked (Bhanganada
et al., 1993). The danger of injury from dog bites is apparently increasing in
some South American countries. This increase may be due to a change in
the type of dogs living on the streets. However, without doubt, the majority
of dog bites in developed countries are from owned pet dogs rather than free-
ranging dogs, although bites from the latter are more likely to be treated
medically because of the fear of disease. Dog bites can be serious, but death
due to bites from free-ranging dogs is probably rare worldwide (Beck, 2000).
It is possible that the dangers from zoonoses which are transmitted to
humans from dogs, will result in more determined efforts by countries with
large free-ranging dog populations to reduce the numbers of these animals.
This activity would reduce the number of underfed and diseased free-ranging
dogs and perhaps allow a better life for those that continue to run free.

4. DOGS AND OTHER ANIMALS

Domestic dogs may attack and kill livestock, other companion animals
and other dogs. They may be important predators of livestock (Schaefer
et al., 1981; Blair & Townsend, 1983; Fleming & Korn, 1989) and the
killing of cats by dogs is a common source of anguish. In one study of over
1000 incidents of dog attacks on livestock in semi-rural Western Australia in
1989-1990, Jennens (Garth Jennens, personal communication) found that
many dog owners allowed their dogs to wander unsupervised and most
thought that their dogs were too timid to attack stock. In that study Jennens
found a 25 to 30% annual turnover of dogs caused, he believed, by the
inability of owners to manage their dogs. The dogs, identified by Jennens, as
having chased and killed sheep, were usually friendly house dogs. They
chased sheep either alone or in small groups of dogs of many different
breeds. Dogs may be encouraged to chase sheep if in the company of a
chasing dog (Christiansen et al., 2001b) and some breeds are more likely to
chase sheep than others (Christiansen et al., 2001a). In most rural societies
dogs that chase and kill sheep are killed if caught in the act.
Dogs are a major threat to wildlife. They may spread disease to other
canidae and some felids and may predate on wildlife (Pain, 1997; Scott,
1988; Lever, 1985). In 1994, distemper from dogs killed one third of the
lions (Panthera leo) in Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park. It was suggested
that it spread from dogs to the lions via spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta)
which often mix with lions at a kill. Distemper is also a threat to wild canids
including those species that are endangered such as the Ethiopian wolf (Pain,
1997). The presence of dogs within a wildlife research area in Zimbabwe
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was considered to be a potential source of canine disease for jackals and

spotted Hyena (Butler et al., 2004). In that study leopards (Panthera
pardus), lions and spotted hyenas preyed on dogs. They killed about 6% of
the dog population in 1993 thus being exposed to canine disease. Dogs may
also spread rabies to other canids and Rhodes et al. (1998) argued that as the
side striped jackal (Canis adustus) population was too low to maintain rabies
it had to be regularly introduced by rabid dogs. Predation by dogs on species
vulnerable to extinction has been a problem in Australia (Paltridge, 2002),
and in New Zealand dogs regularly kill Kiwi.

5. FREE-RANGING DOG POPULATIONS

The dog population of many countries is usually an approximation.

Populations are based on dog registrations in some countries (Hart et al.,
1998), but a percentage of owned dogs will not be registered and many free-
ranging dogs may be not included anyway. This problem also occurs when
dog populations are determined by surveys of households (Odendaal, 1994;
Patronek & Rowan, 1995). In specific localities the dog population may be
estimated using distance sampling (Childs et al., 1998) or marking recapture
methods, techniques typically used for wildlife population surveys (Matter
et al., 2000). The dog population appears to be increasing in many
developing countries, for example, Zimbabwe, which has a dog population
growth rate of 6.5% (Butler, 2000; Butler et al., 2004). The population of
free-ranging dogs usually increases when there is a breakdown of civil order,
such as during wars and rebellion. Leney & Remfry (2000) suggested that
the dog population is related to the human population within the range of one
dog per 6 to 10 people except in some countries in the Middle East (Yemen,
Syria, Jordan) where the ratio was lower.
The population of any species depends on available resources, its
reproductive success and mortality rate. The large canines are fecund. In
African hunting dog packs a single litter is produced each year by the
dominant bitch and the mean litter size in Selous Game Reserve was about 8
pups (Creel & Creel, 2002) with more surviving to become yearlings in
larger packs. Wolf fecundity varies with litter sizes of 3 to 6 pups quoted for
European populations by Pulliainen (1975). Wolves may give birth to and
rear more pups to weaning than there is space for. In the wild, many canid
pups leave the natal pack and either succeed in joining up with other
juveniles and carving out a territory, or die through starvation, injury,
predation or disease.
One of the effects of domestication has been to reduce the age of puberty
and to increase the number of periods of oestrus per bitch per year. Female
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domestic dogs can breed when less than 12 months of age and produce up to
2 litters per year depending on breed and individual ability. Free-ranging
bitches may breed once (Pal et al., 1998a; Pal, 2003a) or twice (Daniels &
Beckoff, 1989b) each year. In Italy litters with an average of 5.5 pups were
found by Macdonald & Carr (1995). In rural India, free-ranging bitches
breed seasonally during October in the late monsoon and the average litter
size is 5.7 pups. The majority of pups died within a few months of birth (Pal,
1998a; Pal, 2003b). High mortality rates in pups was also noted in an urban
dog population in West Bengal, with 67% of pups dying before 4 months of
age and 82% dead within the first year of life (Pal, 2001). In a rural dog
population in Zimbabwe’s communal lands there was very high juvenile
mortality, with 71.8% of dogs dying before one year of age (Butler, 2000).
Similar mortality rates are reflected in the demography of dogs in a rural
district of Kenya (Kitala et al., 1993). In one study of feral dogs in Italy only
two out of 40 pups survived to adulthood (Boitani, 1995). Communal rearing
of pups was seen by Daniels & Beckoff (1989b), which is interesting as in
wolf packs only the dominant female breeds (Vanhoof et al., 1993).
Bitches can produce 5 to 10 or more puppies each year, so perhaps hund-
reds of millions of puppies die amongst free-ranging and wild dogs
worldwide each year. These pups may die from a combination of malnutrition,
disease, predation and exposure, there being insufficient resources for the
bitches to rear and protect their litters. The diseases of pups, such as Parvo
Virus Disease and Distemper plus internal parasitism caused by Toxacara
canis are endemic in free-ranging dogs. Unfortunately little can be done
about these diseases in large populations of free-ranging dogs that produce
large numbers of pups. The dispersal of pups is probably associated with
reproductive behaviour. Pal et al. (1998a) found that one third of puppies left
the natal territory and most of those that did so were juvenile males that
dispersed when the females were in oestrus during the monsoon.
The life expectancy of free-ranging dogs in most situations is short. In a
classic study of urban free-ranging dogs in Baltimore, USA by Beck (1973)
the life expectancy was 2.3 years. In Zimbabwe’s communal lands the life
expectancy of a dog was calculated to be 1.1 years (Butler, 2000) but had
been 4.6 in the district of Manicaland (Brooks, 1990). Despite this, the
population is growing in Zimbabwe. The cause of death of older dogs is
likely to be a combination of malnutrition and disease, but con-specific
aggression and predation by larger predators may play a part and many may
be killed deliberately or accidentally by humans. These pup survival rates
and life expectancy figures contrast with those seen for puppies born to dogs
owned as pets in wealthier societies. The average age of dogs in rural
Zimbabwe and Kenya was 2 to 2.3 and 1.8 years respectively (Brooks, 1990;
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Butler, 2000; Kitala et al., 1993) and in the former, 40% were less than one
year of age.
The reproductive rate of the free-ranging dogs obviously far exceeds the
capacity of their environment to support them. The holding capacity of a
particular area is determined principally by food availability (Butcher, 1999;
Font, 1987). Dogs are scavengers and their diet will reflect what is available
in the environment. The diet of free-ranging dogs varies from urban to rural
populations. In a study in Mexico, recently abandoned dogs initially
survived by living off garbage in a dump but feral dogs rarely visited dumps.
This suggests that feral dogs were utilising other food sources (Daniels &
Bekoff, 1989a). This contrasts with feral dogs in Italy that regularly visited
dumps (Boitani et al., 1995; Macdonald & Carr, 1995). In rural Zimbabwe
the diet of free-ranging but owned dogs was made up of porridge (22%),
cow carrion (16%) and human faeces (21%) (Butler & du Toit, 2002). Most
of the food (88%) was human-derived, but only 13% was actually fed to the
dogs, the bulk of it being scavenged. In a Kenyan study, 95% of dogs were
fed household scraps (Kitala et al., 1993) and nearly 20% of these dogs were
restricted to the household with 69% of them running free all the time.

6. DOG POPULATION CONTROL

When resources are not limiting then population control depends on

either preventing conception, birth or increasing the mortality rate. Dogs
give birth to many unwanted and surplus puppies if some form of
contraception is not practised. In rural communities where un-owned and
uncontrolled dogs may chase and kill livestock these unwanted dogs are kept
under control by preventing bitches from breeding, by killing surplus
puppies and by killing un-owned and free-ranging dogs (Leney & Remfry,
2000). Puppies may be killed by exposure, starvation, drowning or by one of
many other means. In cities this control of the dog population breaks down
as the danger from unwanted animals differs and control leaves the hand of
the individual and is transferred to local authorities. City people may leave a
litter of puppies on the street and hope that someone will take care of them,
thus not accepting their responsibility for puppies they produced (Hsu et al.,
2003).
In some countries, most cities and towns have an animal welfare
organisation such as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(SPCA) which attempt, by education and action, to reduce the problem of
unwanted puppies being produced and to find homes for the dogs
surrendered to their shelters. In addition, local government may attempt to
control the population of dogs according to national and local legislation.
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Local government and veterinary department interest in unwanted dogs is

generally based on public expectations and public health. Free-ranging dogs
are perceived as a health problem, especially in countries where rabies is
endemic, but they may also act as scavengers, cleaning up after humans,
removing human faeces and other waste materials. The widespread
acceptance of organisations concerned with the welfare of unwanted dogs
and the presence of pounds and shelters indicates that people in many
societies accept that there is a problem with unwanted, stray and surplus
dogs, and the public is willing to pay local government and to fund charities
to deal with the problem.
Local government officers enforce both national laws and local
government by-laws. These laws are directed towards dog control, dog
registration, reduction in public nuisance (fouling, barking, stock chasing)
and dog aggression. They often have staff dedicated to catching and
impounding dogs until their owner reclaims them or they are re-homed or
killed. These organisations are funded for the public good and while they
may enforce animal welfare legislation their primary function is to reduce
problems that dogs create in society. That dogs are a public nuisance is
obvious in that almost every small town in the developed world has a dog
pound where stray, unwanted and problem dogs are held until their fate is
decided. Staff working in many dog control programmes are often poorly
trained, under equipped and their knowledge of the theory of population
control, dog capture and handling and euthanasia may be limited.
The simplest dog control programmes are ones in which dogs are killed,
or captured and killed. Because dogs are highly fecund, killing programmes
have to be well resourced and ongoing so as to kill enough bitches to reduce
pup production significantly. If sufficient food is available dogs will migrate
to the food supply, and a population of dogs will be maintained, unless a
breeding control programme to promote a stable non-breeding population is
initiated.
Dog control programmes vary considerably from country to country,
depending on the prevailing social attitude towards dogs. In countries where
dogs are considered to be important companions of humans, dog control is
usually aimed at the elimination of free-ranging dogs, registration, de-sexing
and responsible ownership. In countries where dogs are regarded as unclean,
then the dog population will be maintained at a level acceptable to the
society and if it gets too large then dogs will be killed. In some countries
killing dogs is unacceptable and thus unwanted dogs are allowed to multiply
and live or die. In the latter societies, de-sexing and habitat change may be
the only acceptable methods of population control.
If dogs are eaten then this puts another pressure on the dog population
and may be a force in control. In a country in the Middle East, in the 1970s,
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the author observed a particularly efficient short-term dog control

programme when a road construction company from an Asian country
purchased dogs from the local community for food. The different attitudes
towards free-ranging dogs were well illustrated in a conference on urban
animal management held in Amsterdam in 2000. In Chile humans may
consider the stray animals in the streets as partners and they are relatively
untouchable by the authorities (Tallo, 2000). In Belgrade, the municipality
kills free-ranging dogs while the shelters catch dogs to protect them and then
keep them alive in overcrowded conditions (Butcher, 2000). In India and in
Taiwan, religious beliefs preclude euthanasia as a means of control (Butcher,
2000; Hsu et al., 2003).
The welfare of surplus or unwanted dogs is a major issue with
controversy surrounding the methods used to control dog populations and
the management of surplus and unwanted animals. The foundation of any
dog control programme is acceptance by the community that it has to be
done. Control is usually accepted if the community regards rabies or other
dog related diseases or behaviour as significant or if dogs are considered to
be of sufficient nuisance value to require control. The control programme
can then focus on the tools used to control dog population, namely
education, dog registration and identification, restriction of movement,
habitat modification, de-sexing and contraception, killing, and capture and
euthanasia (Table 2).
The reasons for dog control have to be specified as this determines the
desired outcome of the programme, for example a rabies control programme
may differ from a welfare based programme. Rabies control might concentrate
on vaccination and destruction of all non-vaccinated dogs and excess puppy
production can be taken care of by natural attrition and destruction of non-
vaccinated animals. However, a welfare-based programme could not accept
natural attrition that is starvation and disease, as a method of control but would
concentrate on reducing the production of unwanted puppies by other means.
In many countries forcing owners to take their dogs off the street is an
important part of dog control legislation and it is the basis of dog control in
Europe and North America. This is very useful in dog control and will have a
significant effect in towns and cities worldwide but may not be pertinent to
village and rural communities in many parts of the world.
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Table 2. The key issues in dog control depend on status of the dog.
Owned Owned Not-owned
Restricted Free-ranging Free-ranging or Wild
Legislation enforced Legislation enforced Legislation enforced
Education Education
Registration Registration Identification
Habitat Control Habitat Control
De-sexing De-sexing De-sexing
Contraception Contraception
Capture, Reclaim Capture, Reclaim
Capture, Euthanase Capture and Euthanasia Kill

6.1 Legislation

The development of useful and enforceable laws is fundamental to

effective dog control. Enforced registration with penalties for unregistered
dogs (Hsu et al., 2003) and routine capture and holding of unregistered free-
ranging dogs is important for success.

6.2 Education

Agreement between dog owners and the general public that something
needs to be done is essential for dog population and behaviour control
programmes. If the majority of dog owners are willing to have their dog
identified or, even better, keep it at home, then dog control can begin in
earnest. If dog owners want their dog to roam freely then having it identified
by a collar or tattoo allows dog control staff to capture non-owned free-
ranging dogs and kill them, or hold identified dogs for reclaiming.
Registration of ownership may or may not be applicable, depending on the
community and its use for, and attitude towards, dogs. It may not be possible
to register community owned dogs. However in more and more
communities, dog registration fees are used to finance dog control staff and
facilities.

6.3 Habitat Control

If food is available for free-ranging and wild dogs then a population will
become established to utilise what is available. The presence of garbage
including food waste and human faeces on the streets of many cities, towns
and villages worldwide provides the nutrition required to sustain free-
ranging dogs and many are let loose each day to scavenge for their food in
addition to being fed by their owners. Un-owned free-ranging dogs depend
on street garbage and dumps for their nutrition. The removal of garbage
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reduces the food available and this in itself reduces the number of stray dogs
an environment can sustain. The removal of street garbage and improved
sanitation has significant human health benefits and is a primary
responsibility of local government and society. In some countries such as
Thailand it is considered appropriate to leave food out for free-ranging
animals and then these dog populations are deliberately maintained.
Many free-ranging and wild dogs live on garbage dumps which can be
fenced off and/or used as a focus for population control activity either by de-
sexing or killing. Fencing off major sources of food will starve a population
to death so it is best if fencing is combined with killing, or capture and
killing. If fencing is impossible then de-sexing the resident dogs at a dump
will produce a defined population in which no more pups are being born. If
de-sexed dogs are easily identified, for example by removing a piece of an
ear, then new immigrants can be caught and de-sexed, or killed, depending
on the desired outcome of the control programme. If more than 90% of a
stray dog population is de-sexed then the population may eventually collapse
but this is unlikely to happen if dogs can migrate towards a food source from
other areas.
Habitat modification is a good tool to use in a dog population control
programme. However, some communities use dogs as garbage removal
agents and they will want the dogs to do so until there is an alternative.
Garbage removal is a costly business and needs to be thorough to reduce the
food available for dogs. In many cities and towns in poorer countries it is not
carried out very effectively and food is easily available for free-ranging
dogs. Removing available food or making access impossible is important if
dog control is to be achieved. It may also have huge benefits to local
residents with regard to fly and mosquito control and reduction in human
disease.

6.4 Killing

The bitch can up to 12 pups per year if resources are available. If a dog
population control programme is based on the killing of free-ranging dogs
then 50 to 80% of the dog population have to be killed each year for it to be
a successful strategy (Kuwert et al., 1985). This is an expensive strategy to
use to control rabies but is one tool used in the control of free-ranging dog
populations in the wealthy countries of the world where the dogs are
captured, held for a period and then killed.
In many Asian countries or communities, people are Buddist or Hindu
and killing any animal, including dogs even to control rabies, is seriously
opposed (Panichabhongee, 2001) and free-ranging dogs may be fed. In these
countries alternative methods are required to control dog populations. In
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countries where Islam is the predominant religion it may be difficult to get

people to handle dogs as to people of that faith dogs are unclean. This makes
the killing of dogs by capture and euthanasia difficult. Shooting is dangerous
in urban areas and poisoning may be the only alternative. However, the dead
and dying dogs have to be picked up and destroyed or buried. In addition,
killing free-ranging dogs is often unpopular as many owned dogs are also
killed. If it is to be carried out, then human safety and dog welfare must be
considered. Wild dogs are usually killed either by poisoning or shooting (see
6.6 Control of Wild Dogs).
In countries where dog registration either does not exist or is not enforced
then using killing as the only method to control dog numbers is expensive,
difficult and unlikely to succeed. Indeed killing dogs in one area will result
in other dogs migrating to that area if resources are available. This
movement of dogs is contraindicated if rabies control is one of the reasons
why dog population control is initiated, as it will draw dogs into the
community and results in social unrest amongst the dogs and may bring
disease into the area. In Guayaquil, Equador, about one quarter of the dogs
were killed in 1981 and 1982 but it had no long-term effect on the dog
population, or the incidence of rabies (Meslin et al., 2000).
The personnel involved in dog control programmes are generally directed
to reduce dog numbers in a community. This can be achieved in the short
term by the killing or capture and euthanasia of free-ranging dogs. In the
long term this will not succeed due to constant immigration unless it is
accompanied by habitat modification, education, de-sexing, registration and
eventually a change in attitude to how dogs are to be managed.
Capture techniques are important. It may be possible to capture tame
dogs with a little bait and a simple loop to put around their neck. More
suspicious animals may be captured using a loop on the end of a handle or a
net. Wilder animals may need to be trapped using a cage trap. The trap
should be baited for a few days to get the animal accustomed to it before it is
sprung. Sometimes dogs have to be immobilized using a blow gun or dart
gun (Leney & Remfry, 2000).
Dogs should be transported to the pound in an enclosed vehicle and the
pound should pen dogs individually to reduce inter-dog aggression. Many
pounds are built of concrete with poor conditions for dog comfort. Dogs
should be able to sleep on a bed off the ground, to reduce cold and draughts,
and the cages should be easily cleaned. Bitches with pups should be held
apart from other dogs to prevent aggression and cannibalism, and injured or
diseased dogs should be separate and killed as soon as possible to reduce
unnecessary suffering.
The word euthanasia is derived from the Greek eu meaning good and
thanatos meaning death signifying ‘good death’. It is defined as using a
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method of killing that causes rapid loss of consciousness with minimal pain
or distress and thereafter death. Many methods of killing dogs do not cause
rapid loss of consciousness and cause pain or distress. If dogs are to be killed
than it is important that humane methods of killing are used. Euthanising
agents cause death by one of three methods; hypoxia, direct depression of
neurons necessary for life and physical disruption of brain activity, and
destruction of neurons necessary for life (Beaver et al., 2001). However, for
death to be pain and distress free, loss of consciousness must precede loss of
motor activity and therefore agents that cause muscle paralysis without loss
of consciousness are not acceptable as sole agents of euthanasia. In many
countries the methods used to kill dogs are anything but humane and dogs
may be drowned, beaten or starved to death, electrocuted, or poisoned
(Butcher, 2000). A wide range of techniques can be used to kill dogs
humanely and these are discussed below.

6.4.1 Injectable agents

Barbiturates, which are frequently used to euthanase dogs, are anaesthetic

agents. They depress the nervous system starting at the cerebral cortex
causing loss of consciousness, anaesthesia and with over-dosage, apnoea and
cardiac arrest. A common and a humane way to kill dogs that are used to
being handled by humans is to inject the dog intravenously with barbiturates
(usually pentobarbitone or pentobarbital sodium). The dog is restrained
manually, the drug injected intravenously and the dog rapidly becomes
unconscious and dies. There may be some vocalisation during the process. In
most countries barbiturates can only be used by veterinarians. The standard
dosage rate of pentobarbitone is 150 mg/kg when given intravenously. Some
veterinarians use a sedative before giving the barbiturate.
Barbiturates can also be injected intraperitoneally when it is difficult to
inject them intravenously. The time to unconsciousness is greater following
this route of administration and the dog may become distressed when it starts
to become unconscious. Barbiturates may also be given orally; either
squirted into the mouth or fed in a bait or meal. When given orally it may
take half an hour or longer for the dog to become unconscious and then a
further dose of barbiturate can be given intravenously to kill the animal.
Pentobarbitone sodium is bitter tasting.
Thiopentone may be used instead of pentobarbitone sodium. It can only
be given intravenously and acts more rapidly than pentobarbitone. It is often
used in human surgery so may be available when pentobarbitone is not but it
is usually more expensive.
If the dog is difficult to handle, because it is afraid of humans or is
dangerous, it may have to be caught with a dog pole and sedated using an
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intramuscular injection given by hand or using a pole syringe. Then when it

is safe to handle, the dog may be killed using an intravenous injection of a
barbiturate. Xylazine may be used as an intramuscular sedate at a dose of 1-2
mg/kg (Reilly, 1993).
T61 is a mixture of three different chemicals that act as a general
anaesthetic, a curariform drug and a local anaesthetic. It has been used as a
substitute for barbiturate, but if administered at the wrong speed it can cause
muscle paralysis in the still conscious animal. For this reason it is not
available anymore in the USA but is available elsewhere.
A dog may be anaesthetised with other injectable drugs such as a
ketamine/xylazine mixture or by inhalation of gaseous anaesthetics (see
below) and can then be killed with a variety of chemicals including
magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) delivered intravenously as a concentrated salt
solution. MgSO4 may cause the bowels to empty and so using it for
euthanasia can be a dirty procedure. Potassium salts such as KCl, KNO3,
KSO4 can also be given intravenously to kill anaesthetised dogs (Leney &
Remfry, 2000).
It is important after using intravenous drugs, to ensure that the dog is
dead. There must be no respiration, no heart beat, no corneal reflex and the
eyes should have glazed over.

6.4.2 Inhalation agents

Gaseous anaesthetics such as halothane (Reilly, 1993) can be used to

anaesthetise smaller dogs which then may be killed by shutting off the
oxygen supply or using any of the drugs listed above. Animals may struggle
during anaesthesia induction and Beaver et al. (2001) recommended that, in
order of preference, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurance are
acceptable for use in dogs that weigh less than 7kg.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless and odourless gas that is not
explosive below 10% concentrations. It is used in many shelters to kill dogs.
It is highly poisonous and dangerous to humans. Pure CO can be purchased
as a compressed gas in cylinders and used through a special unit. It is also
present in the exhaust fumes of cars and these can be cleared and cooled
through a set of filters but there may be problems with concentrations and
other gases so that only CO from gas cylinders should be used (Beaver et al.,
2001). When CO was used to kill dogs there was a 20 to 25 second period of
abnormal cortical function and dogs vocalised during this time and became
agitated (Chalifoux & Dallaire, 1983). Humans often use CO for suicide. CO
poisoning in humans is associated with dizziness, nausea and headaches so it
probably causes some distress in dogs before they lose consciousness.
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Carbon dioxide (CO2) at 30 to 40% concentrations has been used to

induce anaesthesia in dogs, within one to two minutes, usually without
struggling, retching or vomiting. Beaver et al. (2001) recommended
compressed CO2 in cylinders for use as a euthanising agent for dogs.
Nitrogen (N2) at a concentration of 98.5% caused dogs to become
unconscious after 76 seconds and their electroencephalograms became
isoelectric after 80 seconds. Following loss of consciousness the dogs
vocalised, gasped and convulsed and some had muscle tremors. Herin and
colleagues (1978) concluded that it was a humane method of euthanasia but
Beaver et al. (2001) did not recommend it for dogs as it may cause hypoxia
before loss of consciousness.

6.4.3 Firearms

A restrained dog can easily be killed using a revolver, pistol, shotgun or

small bore (0.22 calibre) rifle or a captive bolt pistol. The captive bolt pistol
should be held against the dogs head between the eyes and ears. It may only
stun the dog which then has to be bled out. Captive bolt pistols may be
difficult to use as the dog may not hold steady and the heads of small dogs
may make it difficult to use effectively.
A pistol should be held against the head but other firearms should be held
about 5 cm away from the head. There is a danger with using revolvers and
rifles of the bullet ricocheting against the floor or wall if shooting is carried
out inside or in a concrete enclosure. A small gauge shotgun (410) is safer to
use and very effective if held 10 to 20 cm away from the head.

6.4.4 Clubbing

The idea of clubbing a dog to death is unacceptable to many people but a

well placed blow from a weighted pipe to the head can incapacitate the dog
making it unconscious and a second blow result in death. A confident, well
trained, capable person can dispatch dogs humanely using this method.
However poor delivery of the initial blow can result in a very inhumane
death and this method is not recommended.

6.4.5 Electrocution

Electrocution using alternating current has been used to kill dogs. It

causes death by cardiac fibrillation and animals may not lose consciousness
for 10 to 30 seconds after the onset of fibrillation, therefore, it is better if
animals are unconscious before electrocution (Beaver et al., 2001). Electrical
stunning can also be used but the electrical current has to be directed through
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the brain to induce rapid loss of consciousness (Beaver et al., 2001). If the
current passes only between fore and hind limbs, or neck and feet, it causes
cardiac fibrillation without a sudden loss of consciousness (Roberts, 1954).
Boxes designed to pass an electric current thorough the brain to render it
unconscious and cause cardiac arrest used to be manufactured. Their use was
considered humane by Leney and Remfry (2000) but they are no longer
manufactured.
There are many other methods of killing dogs that are not recommended
because they cause serious pain and distress or do not cause the animal to
lose consciousness quickly. Drowning has been commonly used in the past
to kill dogs especially pups. Chloroform chambers were also used to kill
pups but their use was discontinued for human health reasons as chloroform
is toxic. Curare drugs should not be used as they cause paralysis of the
respiratory muscles and this is known in humans to be very distressing.
Beaver et al. (2001) recommended barbiturates, inhalant anaesthetics,
CO2, CO and potassium chloride in conjunction with general anaesthetic as
acceptable means of euthanasia in dogs. They suggested that N2, Ar,
penetrating captive bolt and electrocution were conditionally acceptable. A
major problem with the barbiturates and inhalant anaesthetics is that they can
be used by veterinarians only and they are generally expensive to purchase
and to deliver. Thus in pounds and shelters where funds are scarce and
equipment non-existent they cannot be used. Reilly (1993), in reviewing
euthanasia of animals used in research, recommended pentobarbitone either
intravenously or intraperitoneally and accepted with reservations halothane,
CO, CO2 and captive bolt. Ether, chloroform and hydrogen cyanide were
unacceptable to Reilly (1993) because they are a danger to use.
Decompression and electrocution were unacceptable as being possibly
inhumane, aesthetically unpleasant, and require specialist equipment.

6.5 Control of reproduction

Where there are difficulties with using killing as a population control

method and when a stable, controlled population of free-ranging dogs is
acceptable, then de-sexing or contraception may be a suitable method to
reduce reproductive success and establish a defined and controlled
population of dogs. Free-ranging dogs are useful to people living in many
countries in that they act as sentinels outside houses and dispose of garbage.
They may not be owned but they are valued, and controlled populations may
be the optimum outcome. Contraceptive methods can be applied to the
female or male or both depending on the programme developed and what is
socially acceptable. However many people object to their dog being de-
sexed and men especially object to having their male dog castrated.
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6.5.1 Female

The simplest way to prevent a bitch having pups is to keep her indoors
away from male dogs. Specially designed pants or intravaginal plugs may be
used on individual animals, but these are subject to failure. In addition
reproduction may be controlled surgically by ovariohysterectomy (the
removal of the ovaries and uterus), hysterectomy or ovariectomy alone, the
use of contraceptive pills or injections, and immunocontraception (Lohachit
& Tanticharoenyos, 1991; Fayrer-Hosken et al., 2000).
Surgical de-sexing of females is the best method of population control. It
is permanent and while the animal maintains her status and position in the
community of dogs she is now sterile. Indeed her health may improve and
she may attain a higher position in the pack and will live longer than if she
continued to breed. Because a general anaesthetic is needed and the surgical
procedure is complex, de-sexing of the bitch has to be carried out by a
veterinarian. The surgical risk is small if the veterinarian is trained correctly.
In many developing countries veterinarians focus on livestock production
and health, and may not concentrate on dog health. Minor modification to
the curriculum in most veterinary schools may make their graduates capable
of carrying out an ovariohysterectomy and if they have the means available
then they can carry out this procedure anywhere. It is also important to stress
the population dynamics of dogs as many veterinarians may believe that
capture and killing is a more effective way of population control.
Ovariectomy may also be carried out rather than ovariohysterectomy and the
former is a simpler surgery with fewer post-operative problems. The incision
is shorter, there is less trauma in the abdomen, and the broad ligaments are
not torn and the surgery is much shorter. Pyometra is apparently not a
problem (Janssens & Janssens, 1991; Okkens et al., 1997; Veenis, 2004).
Ovariectomy may be the technique of choice in developing countries
wanting to maximise de-sexing at minimal cost. Hysterectomy is not
recommended as it results in the bitch continuing to cycle with all the
attendant social problems.
With good anaesthesia, surgical technique and post-surgical management
mortality following ovariohysterectomy can be almost zero. The major cause
of mortality is poor equipment, technique and training. There is a link
between ovariohysterectomy and urinary incontinence (Gregory, 1994) but it
also has a positive effect in reducing the likelihood of mammary tumours
developing. There is a greater incidence of obesity in spayed bitches
(Anderson, 1973; Edney & Smith, 1986) but this is unlikely to be a problem
with free-ranging animals. Increasing the longevity of bitches is important as
it makes for long-term stabilization of the population. Spaying may make
bitches more aggressive and this may make them more successful foragers
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and also increase their longevity. The pain after surgery can be reduced by
systemic analgesia (see Chapter 6).
There are several hormonal treatments available to reduce conception
in bitches. These are useful in owned animals and for short term population
control but longer term treatment may cause unwanted side-effects (Evans &
Sutton, 1989). The development of longer lasting hormonal contraception
techniques in the bitch, such as the use of long lasting gonadotrophin
releasing hormones, show promise (Trigg et al., 2001).
In Thailand reproduction control has become an integral part of the rabies
control programme and in 1996 660,000 bitches received contraceptive
hormonal injections and 55,000 were spayed. It is not known what the effect
of this will be on the population in the long term (Meslin et al., 2000)
An ideal contraceptive would be a long-acting drug, effective for 3 or 4
years, that could be given orally in a bait to free-ranging dogs. This would be
particularly suited to countries such as Thailand where killing is not well
accepted. Oral administration would be much better than an injectable
format as a large percentage of bitches would have to be contracepted to
stabilize the population and prevent pups being born. Free-ranging dogs will
easily take food baits but catching and injecting them is much more time
consuming and less effective.
There are two types of immunocontraceptive vaccine; one generates
antibodies against the zona pellucida (ZP), the other antibodies against
luteinising hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) which controls the release
of male and female hormones like testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen.
Both are usually temporary in action and need to be given every 6 to 12
months. In ZP immunocontraception, the bitch is vaccinated with ZP
glycoproteins leading to immunocontraception (Olson & Johnston, 1993).
The method works by stimulating the production of anti-ZP antibodies
which then block fertilization. This form of contraception does not stop
cycling and so bitches will come into heat but not conceive. The LHRH
vaccine can be given to male or female dogs rendering them infertile for 6
months. It is also possible to cause abortion in pregnant bitches using a
number of hormones.

6.5.2 Male

There are four principal methods of reproduction control in the male dog;
surgical castration, vasectomy, chemical sterilization by injecting a chemical
intra-testicularly or into the epididymis (Olson & Johnston, 1993), and
castration by burdizzo or rubber ring (Lohachit & Tanticharoenyos 1991).
Surgical castration is a guaranteed method of reducing fertility in male
animals. Surgical castration of dogs should be carried out under general
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anaesthesia which limits the procedure to veterinary surgeons. The pain

experienced after recovery is likely to be significant and more veterinarians
are using systemic analgesics to reduce this pain. Lohachit &
Tanticharoenyos (1997) suggested that a modified human vasectomy clamp
could be used as a fast and easy method for mass sterilization of dogs.
General anaesthesia would still be required but if it is a more rapid procedure
then it might be suited to public programmes. Vasectomy may be an
effective means of contraception but the dog will continue to mate and may
be involved in aggression with other dogs which may result in injury. That
the testicles remain might satisfy those owners, usually male, who object to
having their dog castrated.
In chemical castration any one of a number of chemicals is injected into
the testicles, ductus deferens or epididymis resulting in azoospermia (Olson
& Johnston, 1993). The pain caused by chemical castration of dogs nor its
efficiency has been documented but in cattle chemical castration was painful
and also not very effective and it is probably not suited for use in dogs. The
pain caused by burdizzo and ring castration has not been defined in dogs, nor
has their efficacy been demonstrated. Rubber rings should not be used to
castrate dogs as it takes several weeks for the scrotum to detach. The use of
the burdizzo is also questionable. To establish a stable population long living
dogs are required and castration may facilitate this better than vasectomy.
In developed countries a large percentage of dogs are de-sexed. In
Ontario 66% of dogs were de-sexed and 20% of the remainder were kept for
breeding whilst 14% had reproduced (Leslie et al., 1994). However in
Sweden, less than 2% of dogs were de-sexed (Sallander et al., 2001) and
the presence of unwanted pups was not a greater problem than elsewhere.
De-sexing is useful when it is difficult to restrict dogs to an apartment or
household and when many dogs are free-ranging. All de-sexed animals
should be marked with either a tattoo in the ear or an ear notch if returned to
a free-ranging state so that they can be easily identified. De-sexing male
dogs is not as effective as de-sexing females and if resources are limited then
de-sexing programmes should concentrate on the females.

6.6 Control of wild dogs

Wild dogs are animals that have left human society and generally live
removed from human settlement. They may prey on livestock and are
frequently targeted by farmers. In Australia wild dog control is carried out
by shooting and poisoning. Dogs can also be used to kill wild dogs.
When guns are used to kill free-ranging dogs the type of weapon used
depends on the location of the dogs. All firearms are dangerous and high
calibre rifles should not be used in built up areas. Good marksmen can use a
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12 gauge shotgun if the dogs are to be shot within 20 to 25 meters and 0.22
calibre rifles are effective if the bullet is placed correctly. Shooting dogs is
similar to shooting any animal. A clear field of fire is required and the
animal should be shot in the head, neck or heart area. However, a gunshot to
the neck or heart may not immediately render an animal unconscious
(Beaver et al., 2001). Marksmen should be skilled and a rifle of sufficient
calibre should be used. Although 0.22 calibre rifles are probably sufficient,
larger calibre rifles will always have a greater impact and are more suited for
dog shooting in rural areas.
Meat baits containing 1080 (Sodium monofluoroacetate) are used for
poisoning wild dogs and dingoes in Australia (Fleming, 1996). The
percentage of dogs or dingoes killed, varies from 10% (Bird, 1994), 22%
(McIlroy et al., 1986) to 69% (Best et al., 1974) and above 70% (Fleming,
1996). Aerial baiting with 1080 poisoning is also a very effective method of
killing dingoes and wild dogs (Thomson, 1986; Fleming et al., 1996). Dogs
are highly susceptible to poisoning with 1080 with an LD50 values of 0.07
mg/kg bodyweight which is much lower than values for cats (0.2-0.3)
(Rammell & Fleming, 1978). In New Zealand dogs are occasionally
poisoned accidentally by 1080 when scavenging on carcasses of possums
(Trichosurus vulpecula) poisoned by it or even by eating or licking cereal
baits placed for possums (Meenken & Booth, 1997). In dogs 1080 causes
severe and enduring clinical signs and it takes some time for the animal to
become comatose.
Cyanide causes rapid death in dogs and is a very useful poison for use in
dog control programmes. It is highly toxic to humans and needs to be used
with care. Strychnine is also used to kill dogs (Best et al., 1974) but has
little to recommend it. A small amount is sufficient to kill a dog but the dog
poisoned with strychnine goes into convulsions and endures a painful death.
There is little evidence on the effects of other poisons on dogs except
veterinary experience of warfarin and phosphate In New Zealand, trials are
being carried out to combine poisons with analgesics and sedatives to reduce
the pain and distress experienced by brush tail possums following poisoning.

7. CONCLUSIONS

There are many unwanted free-ranging dogs and these may be a public
nuisance and a source of zoonotic diseases, especially rabies. These dogs are
often underfed, diseased, and victim to road traffic accidents and abuse and
they produce many pups that die while very young. The desire to control
rabies and other diseases may encourage countries to control these dogs.
The mechanisms to do so (education, registration and identification, habitat
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control, de-sexing and contraception, killing, capture and euthanasia) are

well known but the political will and financial capacity to do so are often
lacking as is the public support for such programmes. The ongoing existence
of public dog pounds in most developed countries illustrate the difficulties of
effective control of free-ranging dogs and the apparent disregard of a
percentage of dog owners for the public nuisance caused by their dogs. If
there is an ongoing problem in wealthy countries then rapid changes in much
poorer countries cannot be expected. The development of a cheap, easy to
administer and long term contraceptive might reduce the production of
unwanted puppies from treated bitches but to be effective about 90% of
bitches would probably have to be treated. The quality of life of free-ranging
dogs, their capture and euthanasia are the major welfare issues for dogs
worldwide. Support by animal welfare organisations in developed countries
for veterinarians and welfare organisations in developing countries to help
control these dogs will have a significant effect on dog welfare worldwide.
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Chapter 3
BREEDS AND BREEDING

Abstract: There are several hundred breeds of dogs and they are usually categorised
according to function. Many of these dogs are now companion animals and do
not engage in what they were initially bred for. Pedigree dogs used for
breeding are registered by a kennel club. Most dog breeders have one or two
breeding animals and they try to produce puppies that meet the breed standard
for physical and behavioural characteristics. Some of the breed-standard
physical characteristics are extreme and may cause welfare problems.
Inbreeding and line-breeding have tended to increase the incidence of
hereditary diseases. Emphasis on physical characteristics may have led to
breeders paying insufficient attention to behaviour. The physical and
behavioural characteristics of some breeds make them unsuited as companion
animals. There is now a more definite effort being made to reduce the
incidence of hereditary diseases in some breeds but the costs of developing
and using diagnostic tests may make it difficult for breeders to utilise them
effectively. Genetic counselling for breeders is a major development in
veterinary science and will hopefully reduce hereditary disease while
maintaining breed characteristics. Minor changes in the physical breed
standard of some breeds could have significant effects on the welfare of
pedigree dogs.

1. INTRODUCTION

There are more than 400 breeds of dog, each developed to carry out a
particular activity. Breeds are categorised by national kennel clubs according
to original function or type, but they can also be categorised genetically.
Breeds can be divided into two major groups, ancient breeds and modern
European breeds, using genetic variation (Parker et al., 2004). The latter
breeds can be subdivided into three groups, mastiff-type dogs, collies and

55
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Belgian sheepdogs, and hunting dogs. The ancient breeds, which include the
Shar-pei, Shiba-inu, Chow Chow, Akita and Basenji also include two
gazehounds (Saluki and Afghan Hounds) and sled dogs (Siberian Husky and
Alaskan Malamute), have been around for thousands of years. Many breeds,
however, were developed to meet particular needs, especially hunting needs.
In Europe, there were two major periods of dog breed production, the
Middle Ages and the 19th Century. In the Middle Ages, hunting was a
symbol of power and the aristocracy produced different types of dogs for
different game and types of hunting. They bred Deerhounds, Wolfhounds,
Boarhounds (Clutton-Brock, 1995) and Beagles/Harriers. Later, Foxhounds
were produced as foxes became an important game animal and hunting from
horseback became common. Gun dogs were developed as shooting
gamebirds became popular and took over from netting birds. In addition,
there was a host of small dogs for hunting above and below ground (terriers,
dachshunds), sheep and cattle dogs of several types, guard dogs and a few
toy breeds.
In the 19th Century breed development became very popular and breeds
with documented pedigrees were developed (Ott, 1996). Dog shows
became popular and the first dog show was held in England in 1859 in
Newcastle upon Tyne. The Kennel Club in England was established in 1873
while the American Kennel Club was established in 1884 (Anonymous,
1998a). There was a surge in the production of different breeds of dogs
which had a local distribution were identified as breeds. Their physical and
behavioural characteristics were listed and breed books opened. Breeds were
developed through such intensive inbreeding and line-breeding that many
breeds can now be identified by their genotype (Parker et al., 2004). In the
past, the aristocracy held personal records of their dogs’ pedigrees but in the
19th Century these pedigree books became public. In the UK and Ireland,
more than 20 breeds of terrier were identified, the majority of which did the
same type of work so the different breeds were classified primarily on
physical characteristics. Some dog breeds were re-established. For instance,
the Irish Wolfhound was extinct in Ireland but was reproduced by Captain
George Graham, from a mixture of large breeds, despite there being no
wolves to kill. He began a breeding programme in 1862 and a breed standard
for the Irish Wolfhound was produced in 1885 (Anonymous, 1998a).
The origin of many breeds of dogs is unknown, but four elements
(founder animals, isolation, inbreeding, selection) are required to develop a
new breed genetically. There is an initial group of founder animals, usually
related in ancestry, type and function. This group is then isolated genetically
from other dogs and bred together to form the breed. The founder group is
usually a small group of dogs and inbreeding is needed to stabilise the
physical and behavioural characteristics of the new breed. Thereafter,
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selective breeding for specific characteristics allows the breed

characteristics to become established genetically.
The breeding of pedigree dogs is under the control of kennel clubs which
hold the description of each breed and records the pedigree of each
registered dog. When dog showing began dogs were expected to carry out
specific activities to a certain standard before they were identified as
champions. This became difficult as dog breeding became more widespread
and showing dogs more democratic. Soon, champions were identified
according to their physical characteristics and behaviour in the show ring.
This allowed refinement of the physical characteristics of each breed and
permitted breeders to move away from the original function of the breed.
This was to be expected as more and more dog sports (dog fighting, bull
baiting, badger baiting, hare coursing) became illegal or difficult to
undertake. Showing dogs, and breeding for this pursuit had a major impact
on dog ownership. Dog breeding became widespread and many people were
involved. Breeding pedigree dogs became a sport and a minor industry. To
underpin the costs of showing, many people breed from their best animals to
generate a little income. Each breed and its varieties has a set breed
standard and breeders and showers try to produce a dog as close to the ideal
as possible. A champion, valuable as a stud dog, could generate stud fees
and the pups from champion bitches were sought after.
Field trials for most breeds became impossible and only a few types of
dogs, principally gun dogs and sheep dogs, are now trialled extensively. This
has resulted in different strains of dogs being bred for showing (pedigree),
for field trialling (pedigree or non pedigree) and for work or companionship
(often non-pedigree but purebred). In the UK, this happened to the Border
Collie in the last few decades. To become a full champion, Border Collie
show dogs had to pass a field test but few collies have taken the test and
fewer have passed it and so the ‘show’ Border Collie will lose its ability to
work sheep (Willis, 1995). This may be a good thing as good working
Border Collies are extremely focussed on particular types of behaviour and
are not suited to be companion animals.
New breeds continue to be recognised by kennel clubs. Since 1990, the
American Kennel Club has registered 20 new breeds out of a total of 150
registered breeds. Breeds are also being developed. In New Zealand, two
types of dog, the Huntaway, used to drive sheep, and the Heading Dog,
which directs sheep, are types of dogs with a wide range of physical
characteristics. The New Zealand Kennel Club has suggested that the former
become registered as a breed. This suggestion dismayed many because
Huntaway exists to do a specific job and has a wide variety of physical
characteristics. It is not suited to be a companion animal, having a
predisposition to bark.
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Controlled production of pups bred according to breed standards is

necessary if dogs with known physical characteristics and behaviour are to
be available for purchase. Retention of a range of breeds to suit the
requirement of different people for work, sport and companionship is a
major outcome of the work undertaken by kennel clubs internationally.
Many working dogs are registered with kennel clubs but are never shown.
Dogs bred for specific purposes such as guide dogs need to have their
pedigrees recorded and controlled and kennel clubs remain the best way of
maintaining these records.
There are many aspects of breeding dogs for show competitions and the
process of showing itself which impact directly or indirectly on the welfare
of these animals. These include:

1. Dogs may be made into champions and bred from before they have
matured physically and behaviourally.
2. The use of artificial insemination may allow animals that have
serious physical or behavioural problems to be bred.
3. Emphasis on physical characteristics and behaviour in the show ring
does not necessarily produce dogs suited for companionship and
most pedigree dogs are now owned as pets.
4. The physical aspects of some breed standards may predispose
animals to injury or disease.
5. Inbreeding or line-breeding may increase the incidence of hereditary
diseases, particularly if the disease status of many important stud
dogs and brood bitches is unknown.
6. Selection for specific physical characteristics may be accompanied
by unwelcome behaviours or an inability to perceive or communicate
effectively.
7. Limited gene pools may not allow selection away from hereditary
problems and may increase physical, behavioural and disease
problems in a breed.
8. Breeding for types that will be modified surgically, so that tail and
ear features are ignored.

However, pedigree dog breeders and showers are usually determined to

improve and maintain the best characteristics of the breed they are involved
with. This enthusiasm, coupled with the rapidly developing field of
diagnostic genetics in veterinary science, genetic counselling, and the
increasing ease of preserving dog semen and shipping it worldwide, will
make it easier for kennel and breed clubs to develop programmes to improve
their breeds and guarantee their futures. Dog breeders are frequently
criticised but most wish only to improve their breed and there are modern
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techniques which can help them achieve their goals and thus improve the
welfare of their dogs.
In this chapter, welfare aspects of breeding programmes, physical and
behavioural characteristics, and inherited diseases will be discussed.

2. BREEDING

The promiscuity and fecundity of dogs is both a strength and a weakness.

Dogs reach puberty by 6–9 months of age and this allows them to be bred
before they are physically or behaviourally mature. The ability of many
bitches to breed twice-yearly makes it possible to produce a large number of
puppies from one bitch over a few years, and because litters can be large a
few animals, particularly stud males, can dominate a breed. A dog can
become a champion before 2 years of age, thus not allowing the true
behavioural characteristics of an animal to be seen before breeding, as many
dogs are not socially mature until 18–36 months of age (Overall, 1997).
In most countries, there are breeds with low numbers of animals. In this
situation, individual animals may be in-bred continuously as there may be no
opportunity to breed to an unrelated dog. Many less popular breeds get into a
cycle of breeding closely-related animals because the demand for the breed
is low and the number of dogs in the register is low; this is a problem in all
countries. In the USA, 150 dog breeds are listed with the American Kennel
club and in 2002, 958,503 pedigree animals, including pups, imported
animals and late registrations, were registered. The most popular breed, the
Labrador Retriever, had 154,616 new registrations but the 50 least popular
breeds had less than 515 and the 10 least popular less than 100 new
registrations (Table 1). In Australia in 2002, 14 of 188 breeds and varieties
had no puppies registered. In isolated countries such as New Zealand, with
low populations of some dog breeds, the problem may be greater as it
becomes very expensive and is economically not worthwhile to import new
bloodlines. In New Zealand in 1995, of the 169 breeds listed with the kennel
club 39 had no litters at all (Table 2).
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Table 1. The number of new registrations (pups, imported animals, late registrations) by the
American Kennel Club in 2002 of the 10 least common breeds.
Breed Nunber of registrations
German Pincher 76
Plott 72
Foxhound (American) 68
Komondorok 65
Skye Terrier 59
Finnish Spitz 52
Ibizan Hound 50
Foxhound (English) 38
Harrier 23
Otterhound 17

If it is assumed that virtually every animal has some deleterious genes

and many dogs may have up to 20 (McGreevy & Nicholas, 1999), then
inbreeding and line-breeding will increase the frequency of these genes and
novel defects will appear regularly. When breed populations are low, these
effects can be disastrous. Recent developments in the preservation of dog
semen have made the international movement of semen, and therefore
bloodlines, easier and should reduce the problem of inbreeding. However, in
reality many of the minor breeds are scarce everywhere. As an example, the
Irish Water Spaniel had 116 new registrations out of nearly a million in the
USA in 2002, 121 of 245,904 in the UK, and 12 of 66,700 in Australia in
2003. Those small numbers of puppies added to the population contrast with
the 150,000, 41,306 and 5,134 Labrador Retrievers registered in those
countries, respectively. Some breeds, like the Irish Water Spaniel may have
quite limited usefulness. It is not well suited to be an urban companion
animal as it is large, often very excitable, hairy, and may have an oily smell.
Its role as a retriever of killed and wounded waterfowl has been taken over
by the Labrador Retriever, which is much easier to maintain, and its general
bird-hunting activities can be carried out by any one of several more popular
breeds.
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Table 2. The number of litters produced by the 169 breeds registered with the New Zealand
Kennel Club in 1995.
Number of litters Number of breeds
0 39
1 6
2 17
3 7
4 5
5 4
6 6
7 5
8 4
9 6
10 2
Less than or 10 101 (60%)
11-15 13
16-20 9
21-30 13
31-40 14
41-50 4
11–50 53 (31%)
51-100 11
101-200 2
201-300 2
More than 50 15 (9%)

Although artificial breeding can be used to improve a breed through the

infusion of new bloodlines from different countries, there are problems with
out-breeding in that if the chosen male is not of high quality or is the carrier
of a hereditary disease, perhaps as an autosomal recessive trait, it can then
spread this problem through a small hitherto healthy population. The choice
of sire to be used in a small, often inbred population is extremely important
with regard to its morphology, disease status, behaviour and working ability,
as it will have a great impact on the isolated population (Swenson, 2001).
Moreover, artificial insemination can be used to allow male and female
animals, that are incapable physically or behaviourally of breeding naturally,
to reproduce. This may result in poor conception rates (Linde-Forsberg,
2001) or the production of faulty offspring. The use of artificial insemination
for animals that cannot or will not breed is an important welfare issue as it
may increase the percentage of animals of that breed with physical or
behavioural problems that render them incapable of breeding. Semen quality
may also be poor in some breeds, such as the Irish Wolfhound (Dahlbom
et al., 1995), and intrauterine artificial insemination under general
anaesthesia may be required; whether this is acceptable or not is debatable
(Linde-Forsberg, 2001).
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Table 3. New registrations of “fashionable” dogs in Australia (1986–2003) and the United
Kingdom (UK) (1994–2003).
Siberian Husky Rottweiler Dalmatian
Year Australian UK Australian UK Australian UK
1986 160 5,005 NA 1,003 NA NA
1987 137 6,378 NA 1,222 NA NA
1988 199 6,851 NA 1,124 NA NA
1989 301 7,095 NA 1,214 NA NA
1990 273 8,928 NA 1,007 NA NA
1991 449 5,965 NA 1,089 NA NA
1992 564 5,666 NA 999 NA NA
1993 618 5,935 NA 1,194 NA MA
1994 950 452 5,314 3,070 1,300 2,794
1995 1,005 576 4,659 3,597 1,472 3,120
1996 1,223 736 4,527 4,148 1,452 3,910
1997 1,182 614 2,830 4,561 1,292 3,786
1998 1,659 796 3,594 4,954 1,538 3,058
1999 1,344 739 2,430 5,306 1,018 2,679
2000 1,371 829 2,288 5,226 1,018 2,752
2001 1,149 1,038 2,111 5,587 896 2,062
2002 1,115 985 1,858 5,802 804 2,071
2003 866 1,491 1,839 6,369 767 2,253
NA = not available

As some breeds decline in popularity others become popular. In

Australia, the Siberian Husky and Rottweiler became popular in the 1990s
but are now in decline, although their numbers continue to increase in the
UK (Table 3). Another breed, the Dalmatian, became popular in the UK and
Australia in the 1990s, probably due to the movie ‘101 Dalmatians’, but is
now also in decline numerically (Table 3). Physical beauty and fashion
encourage people to select a particular breed and the fecundity of most
breeds allows the demand to be met. Breed societies with re-homing clubs
and animal shelters often retrieve dogs when they become unwanted as
adults and require re-homing. Breeds become fashionable regardless of their
suitability for being pets, but this does not seem to be influenced by the show
success of particular breeds (Herzog & Elias, 2004). Some breeds which
were once very popular appear to be in rapid decline. For example, the
Yorkshire terrier had more than 12,000 puppies registered in the UK in 1994
but only 4,073 in 2003.
The production of pedigree puppies appears to be declining in some
countries. In Australia, 95,792 puppies were registered in 1986, 89,922
in 1998, but only 66,710 in 2003. This contrasts with an apparent increase in the
overall dog population from 3.1 million in 1998 to 3.6 million in 2003. In
New Zealand, registration of pedigree puppies has declined from 11,970
in 1996 to 10,627 in 2002, while numbers of dogs have declined from 610,000
to 594,000 over the same period. In the UK, pedigree dogs make up about
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60% of the population (Anonymous, 1998b). There registration of pedigree

puppies has remained steady at 246,053 in 1994 and 245,894 in 2003 (UK
Kennel Club Data) while numbers of dogs have declined. Thus, in different
countries the number pedigree dogs may be decreasing, static or increasing.
In some breeds with low populations, the degree of inbreeding will result
in an increase in the number of animals with inherited defects. If litters are
produced infrequently and a small percentage of dogs in the population are
used for breeding, then the dangers of inbreeding are kept low. The ease of
transporting semen from country to country should reduce the problem of
inbreeding, even in breeds with low numbers. This activity should be
encouraged by national kennel clubs. In addition, in most countries it is
possible to take a bitch to be bred in another country, thus in effect
increasing the genetic variation within a breed (Swenson, 2001). An
alternative strategy for kennel clubs would be to remove breeds from their
lists if and when their numbers fall below a certain level. This would result
in breeds becoming extinct in some countries.
When the ideal dog of any breed is produced with perfect physical and
behavioural characteristics and is disease-free, there may be a desire to clone
it. The technology of cloning mammals, and especially dogs, is at an early
stage but will become easier within the next decade. The demand to clone
much loved pet dogs is also growing. There are specific welfare issues with
the cloning process itself in that many newborn cloned animals may not
survive for long.

3. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Originally, the physical characteristics of a particular breed were

determined by its function. Thus, terriers were small to go to ground while
the gazehounds were long-legged to run quickly. Individual breeds of terrier
or gazehound were produced for specific local hunting conditions. The large,
hairy Borzoi was used to hunt wolves in Russia. The Greyhound was used to
course hares and is smaller and more agile. Airedale Terriers were used
above ground and are taller than Sealyham Terriers, which were used to hunt
badgers and foxes underground. These physical characteristics may have
been extreme but the animal had to function, fit its purpose, breed naturally,
remain healthy, and be reasonably long-lived. During the initial phase of a
breed’s development and the production of a breed pedigree, specific
characteristics which distinguished that breed were identified and bred for.
Thus, many types of terriers were identified as definite breeds and were bred
for specific characteristics, although many had roughly the same functions
(Table 4) This period of production of a breed for its own sake was
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considered ‘toxic’ by Ott (1996). Some have suggested that there are too
many breeds (Prole, 1981), and that breeds, such as the terriers listed in
Table 4, with similar functions and types should be crossbred to produce
fewer breeds with much greater genetic variation.
However, breed differentiation and breeding for particular characteristics
are some of the pleasures of owning the dog as a companion animal and has
enriched the world we live in. As long as these characteristics were limited
by the function of the breed then they remained of benefit to man and
animal. However, when showing became distinct from work then
characteristics which might be a feature of the original breed type sometimes
became exaggerated, and in some have reached a stage where they would be
an impediment in the field rather than either a necessary feature or an
irrelevant breed characteristic. For example, the excessive hair cover of the
Old English Sheepdog, particularly of the face area, is never or rarely seen in
types or breeds of working sheepdogs. If dogs are not going to be used for
the purpose for which they were initially developed then it might be argued
that the physical characteristics required for that activity are no longer
needed and therefore the standard could be changed towards a more ‘normal’
morphology. The size and shape of the skull of baiting breeds, such as the
bulldogs, and the location of their eyes and nose could be relaxed to a more
dog-like, that is dingo-like, shape and position. However, the opposite has
tended to happen and breed characteristics have become exaggerated rather
than relaxed.
The breed standard for some breeds may encourage breeders to select for
characteristics that result in physical or behavioural problems. The list of
these is long and McGreevy and Nicholas (1999) identified a few. For
instance, the breed standard for the Pug recommends eyes to be very large
bold and prominent (Anonymous, 1998a) and as a result many Pugs are
presented to veterinarians with exophthalmoses and exposure keratitis. Other
physical characteristics that predispose to disease include shape of the ears
and otitis externa in some breeds of spaniels, loose skin on the head in
Basset Hounds leading to drooping eyelids, excessive skin folds and skin
resulting in dermatitis and eyelid problems in the Chinese Shar-pei, and
length of the back and back problems in Dachshunds (Priester, 1976). Some
breeds with deep chests may be predisposed to gastric torsions. Breed
standards could be adjusted to direct breeders towards physical types with
less of a predisposition towards disease. McGreevy and Nicholas (1999)
argued that some breed standards are confusing and quoted from the UK
Kennel Club standards for Shar-peis. This breed must have loose skin and a
frowning expression but the eyelids should in no way be disturbed by the
surrounding skin folds and should be free from entropion; McGreevy and
Nicholas (1999) argued that the features listed predisposed to entropion.
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Table 4. The general functions of British and Irish breeds of terriers.

Target species*
Breed Hunting Small Medium Large Fighting Stock
underground work
Airedale √ √ √
Bedlington √ √ √
Border √ √ √
Bull √
Cairn √ √ √
Dandie Dinmont √ √
Smooth-haired Fox √ √ √
Wire-haired Fox √ √ √
Glen of Imaal √ √ √
Irish √ √ √ √
Kerry Blue √ √ √ √ √
Lakeland √ √ √
Manchester √ √ √
Norfolk √ √ √
Norwich √ √ √
Parson (Jack) √ √ √
Russell
Scottish √ √ √
Sealyham √ √ √
Skye √ √ √
Soft Coated √ √ √
Wheaten
Staf fordshire bull √
Welsh √ √ √
West Highland √ √ √
White
*Small = rats; Medium = fox, badger, otter; Large = deer, large cats, pigs

Some breeds have well-known congenital defects. The Dalmatian is often

deaf; 18.4% of a sample of 1,234 Dalmatians were deaf (Wood & Lakhani,
1998) and of these 13% and 5.3% were unilaterally or bilaterally deaf,
respectively. This common problem is not mentioned in the description of
the breed in the Complete Dog Book published by the American Kennel
Club (Anonymous, 1998a). Many dogs that are merle-coloured are deaf
and/or have eye problems (Klinckmann et al., 1986). In one study of 1,679
pups arriving at a pet store, Ruble and Hird (1993) identified congenital
defects in 253 (15%) of them when 6 to 18 weeks of age. Some had more
than one defect. In their classic study of the behaviour of dog breeds, Scott
and Fuller (1965) found serious physical defects in every breed studied
although good breeding stock was used.
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In last three decades of the 20th Century, developments in veterinary

medicine and surgery allowed even more extreme physical characteristics to
be bred. Caesarean section has become almost passé and this has allowed
breed characteristics to be bred for which make normal birth more difficult.
Dystocia probably averages less than 5% in most breeds (Linde-Forsberg,
2001) but brachiocephalic breeds have a lot of problems when whelping. In
one study, caesarean section was required in 62% of Boston Terriers, 43% of
French Bulldogs and 21% of Boxers (Linde-Forsberg, 2001). The most
common cause of dystocia in the bitch was uterine inertia, and some breeds
such as the Boxer (28% dystocia) and Smooth-haired Dachshund (10%)
seemed particularly prone (Darvelid & Linde-Forsberg, 1994). The skull of
the Bulldog should be very large (Anonymous, 1998a) and a large fetal head
size may predispose bitches to dystocia. McGreevy and Nicholas (1999)
argued that many traits which are really defects have been included in breed
standards. These include the fine legs of the Miniature Poodle and Italian
Greyhound which are susceptible to fracture if these dogs jump. Defects are
not always physical; some lines of full-coloured Cocker Spaniels have had
severe aggression problems (Podberscek & Serpell, 1997).
Selection for juvenile physical characteristics, paedomorphosis, appears
to reduce the signalling ability of those breeds of dog least similar to the
wolf (Goodwin et al., 1997). These signals are used by wolves to reduce the
escalation of aggression but as dogs have a higher threshold for aggression
than wolves they may not be so important in the dog; however, the
significance of losing so many signals is unknown. In addition, many breeds
may not be able to use many of their normal signals due to selection for hair
cover and type, ear carriage and tail shape. This inability must have some
significance in dog-to-human and dog-to-dog communication, but this has
not been clarified. It was observed that cutting the hair covering the eyes of
the Puli can improve its temperament (Houpt, 1991).
Breed standards have changed over the years and now it is time to change
those that predispose animals to physical problems and disease. Although
this is not difficult and could be easily carried out, some breeders would
complain about changes in standards. Wise and sympathetic breed experts,
in conjunction with veterinary advice, should welcome breed standards that
improved the health and wellbeing of their beloved breeds.

4. INHERITED DISEASES

There are more than 370 diseases in dogs that are inherited or have a
major hereditary component (Patterson, 2000) and more are identified every
year. Many of these diseases show high prevalence in some breeds (Padgett,
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1998) but may not be seen in crossbreds because of the masking effect of
heterozygosity in modifier genes, or because of co-selection with breed type
(Brooks & Sargan, 2001). This myriad of diseases and deformities have
increased the veterinary literature and according to Ott (1996) become a
cash-cow for the pet-repair type of veterinary practice. The canine genome
has accumulated many mutations since domestication. Some have been
exploited to develop new types or breeds of dog and may or may not have
affected the health of the dog. Others are significant in that they cause
disease.
The development of breeds of dogs in the last 150 years required
inbreeding and genetic isolation. Individual, valuable champions reduced the
gene pool further by being widely used as popular sires. Many breeds had
only a few, very important animals which were used widely when the breed
was established. More recently few dogs were used as particular traits were
sought after (Brooks & Sargan, 2001). In the Netherlands during the last 30
years, only 3–5% of registered dogs were used to produce the purebred dogs
present in 1998 (Ubbink et al., 1992). This tendency to use only a small
percentage of available stock resulted in an increase of autosomal recessive
and other types of inherited diseases in purebred dogs. Selection for
particular characteristics may have even increased the prevalence of
inherited diseases (Brooks & Sargan, 2001). Inherited diseases were not
deliberately added to the dogs’ genotype but accompanied the methods of
breeding used to develop breeds and winning lines of show dogs (Ott, 1996).
There are four main modes of inheritance of disease (Table 5) and
knowing how a particular disease is inherited is fundamental to developing a
control programme for that disease in the dog. A disease is suspected of
having a genetic background if a higher than expected incidence is found in
a particular breed of dog; pedigrees can then be examined to determine
whether the pattern of disease fits one of the four modes of inheritance.
More than 200 of the inherited diseases of dogs are thought to be simple
Mendelian (monogenetic) and 70% of these are inherited from autosomal
recessive genes (Patterson, 2000). However, Oberbauer and Sampson (2001)
suspected that with some diseases an insufficient number of dogs had been
studied to allow an adequate statistical analysis and evaluation of the causal
mode.
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Table 5. General characteristics of the four modes of inheritance of diseases in dogs.

Autosomal dominant
The mutant gene is generally found as a heterozygous and not a homozygous state
One parent of affected offspring has the disease
Male and female equally affected
If one parent is heterozygous then on average 50% of offspring are affected

Autosomal recessive
Affected dogs are homozygous for the mutant gene
Both parents of affected offspring are heterozygous carriers
The condition may skip generations if a heterozygous is mated to disease-free animals
Male and female equally affected

Sex-linked recessive
Pattern of transmission characteristic (normal females, affected male offspring)
If male and female affected then all offspring affected
Affected males have no affected sons and carrier daughters
Affected males have affected relative on dam’s side but not sire’s side
On average 50% of male offspring of a heterozygous female will be affected
On average 50% of female offspring of a heterozygous female will be carriers

Polygenic
Condition erratic appearance
Both sexes affected but not necessarily equally
Both sire and dam contribute genes to affected offspring but not necessarily equally
No predictable ratios in pedigrees because number of genes involved not known

Adapted from Oberbauer & Sampson (2001)

The incidence of diseases that are transmitted through single autosomal

dominant genes is easily reduced as all animals carrying the mutation are
affected. Thus, if affected animals are identified and not bred from the
incidence will decline. However, there are a few problems with this type of
aetiology. The disease may not develop until after sexual maturity or even
very late in life and many affected animals may have been bred from and
died before the disease was diagnosed. Additionally, some diseases have
incomplete penetration and the disease may not be identified. The incidence
of these diseases may be reduced by careful examination and selection of
breeding stock, and the use of DNA-based tests as they develop (Oberbauer
& Sampson, 2001). A reduction in disease caused by polygenic transmission
is possible if animals that are severely affected by the disease are excluded
from breeding programmes and only those with no disease or minor lesions
are used. Hip dysplasia, which is a polygenic condition, is being controlled
by restricting breeding to dogs with minor lesions. In Sweden, the
prevalence of hip dysplasia decreased during a period when all dogs to be
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bred had to have a hip score if their offspring were to be registered by the
kennel club (Swenson et al., 1997).
Kennel clubs have a major role in encouraging the reduction of inherited
disease in pedigree dogs. The Swedish result in reducing hip dysplasia is a
good example. By controlling breeding through registration or restricted
registration, kennel clubs can force breeders to test their potential breeding
stock before they are mated. The types and number of tests will differ
between breeds and be influenced by severity of the problem within a breed.
Breed inspectors with a good knowledge of the disease, and the physical and
behavioural problems of a breed may be appointed to examine stock before
breeding and to issue permits to allow breeding, which may reduce disease
problems. If a kennel club keeps an open registry with the relevant data
relating to the animal’s health status available to breeders, then a breeder can
know what is available for use as breeding stock. Breeders can, with
competent help, reduce the incidence of disease in their animals quite
effectively, as shown by the virtual elimination of a storage disease problem
in Portuguese Water Dogs (Padgett, 1998).
There are many inherited diseases in dogs that are autosomal recessive in
origin. These are more difficult to control, as though animals clinically
affected can be excluded from a breeding programme it is difficult to
identify heterozygous carriers which remain as a source of the condition.
Carrier bitches may be bred only once or twice and not to a carrier dog.
Carrier stud dogs are more likely to be identified as they may be used widely
and be bred to a carrier bitch. Livestock breeders use test mating to identify
carriers but this is generally not acceptable to dog breeders. However,
Padgett (1998) recommended test mating of animals that had a high risk of
carrying the gene in question if the disease occurred before 2 years of age,
on the condition that prospective purchasers were made aware of the risks
involved.
Carriers of some diseases have been identified by biochemical tests, but
better gene-based tests to identify carriers are required for many of these
types of diseases. The development of tests based on DNA allows the
identification of pups with particular inherited diseases (van Oost, 1998).
DNA tests to identify gene mutations that may cause disease have been
developed for more than a dozen diseases (Oberbauer & Sampson, 2001)
and linkage-based DNA tests have been developed for some others. The
gene mutation responsible for the early onset form of progressive retinal
atrophy in Irish Setters has been identified and can be used in diagnosis
(Petersen-Jones, 1998). There has been considerable development in this
field of characterising inherited diseases at the DNA level, and McGreevy
and Nicholas (1999) listed 17 of them. More recently, quantitative genetics
has been used to calculate the heritability of ocular diseases in Tibetan
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Terriers (Ketteritzsch et al., 2004), and Nicholas and Thomson (2004) were
convinced that combining molecular and quantitative genetics would allow
breeders to reduce the incidence of multifactorial disorders.
Some breeds such as Greyhounds, selected for specific activities, are
relatively free of inherited defects but many other breeds have a large
number of them. Within a breed, there may be lines with particular problems
and others quite free of them (Ubbink et al., 1998a). Some breeds may have
more than 30 inherited diseases but most have perhaps 4–8 that are clinically
relevant (Brooks & Sargan, 2001). Moreover, inherited diseases can also be
identified in crossbred dogs.
The incidence of disease in some breeds is high. Copper toxicosis was
found in 46% and 34% of Bedlington Terriers in the Netherlands and the
UK, respectively (Herrtage et al., 1987; Ubbink et al., 2000). Dogs may
inherit prenatal and congenital defects, a predisposition to specific neoplasia,
or specific diseases (Brooks & Sargan, 2001). For example Kienle et al.
(1994) found that the Newfoundland, Rottweiler, Boxer and Golden
Retriever were at greater risk of having subaortic stenosis, and Padgett et al.
(1995) found that the hereditability for histiocytosis was 0.298 in Bernese
Mountain Dogs.
Many of the rare breeds appear to have fewer diseases than the popular
breeds. This may be due to these breeds receiving less veterinary attention
than more popular breeds. The incidence of any disease in a local population
of dogs is generally not known and even in well-studied diseases such as hip
dysplasia, data are only available from those animals subjected to hip
scoring. This lack of information makes it difficult for the potential
purchaser of an individual pup. Without knowledge of the incidence and its
importance in the pedigree of the individual dog, and without the help of
someone to interpret those data, all pups are bought to some extent in
ignorance.
Padgett (1998) and Brooks and Sargan (2001) compiled comprehensive
lists of inherited diseases in dogs which affect the eye; central nervous
system; neuromuscular system; cardiovascular defects; haematological
defects; renal, hepatic, dermal, enteric, respiratory, reproductive and
endocrine disorders; and lysosomal storage diseases. The lists included
breeds affected, clinical and pathological signs, and modes of inheritance.
Breur et al. (2001) listed and discussed inherited orthopaedic problems.
Kirk (1986) showed that some breeds including German Shepherd Dog,
Cocker Spaniel and English Bulldog had many inherited disorders, but
others such as the Greyhound, Pug, and Foxhound had few. Padgett (1998)
reported that 40% of Cairn Terriers, 67% of Newfoundlands, 30% of Bichon
Frises and 34% of Scottish Terriers had genetic defects and suggested that
on average about 40% of all dogs had such defects. Genetic diseases of
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Newfoundlands included; hip or elbow dysplasia, undershot or overshot bite,

osteochondritis dessicans, patellar luxation, wobbler syndrome, kinked tail;
cardiac diseases such as subaortic stenosis, patent ductus arteriosus, and
ventricular septal defect; ocular diseases such as entropion, ectropion,
everting nictitating membrane, dermoid cyst of the cornea, diamond eye, and
medial canthus pocket syndrome; allergic dermatitis, hypothyroidism,
umbilical hernia, retained testicle, bloat, allergies, megaoesophagus,
trembling, and rage syndrome (Padgett, 1998).
It is obvious that some diseases are more serious than others. Padgett
(1998) suggested that breeders should develop a hierarchy of genetic
diseases and divide them into serious and mild traits. Serious traits could
then be categorised as: (1) painful disorders (e.g. entropion, hip dysplasia),
(2) disorders that disfigure or render an animal dysfunctional (e.g. cataracts,
progressive retinal atrophy, deafness), (3) lethal disorders (e.g. malignant
histiocytosis), (4) disorders requiring treatment for life (e.g. copper toxicosis,
epilepsy), (5) disorders requiring surgery (e.g. ventricular septal defects),
and (6) disorders that are difficult to control (e.g. subaortic stenosis,
osteocondritis dessicans). He categorised mild disorders into: (7) disorders
that are easily treated (e.g. hypothyroidism), (8) disorders requiring one-off
often cosmetic surgery (e.g. inguinal hernia), and (9) disorders that prevent
an animal being used for the purpose for which it was bred (e.g. dentition
problems).
Hip dysplasia is one genetic disease that has received a lot of attention in
the last three decades. It is a complex condition controlled by the interaction
of several genes and environmental factors (Breur et al., 2001). Control
programmes for this disease have been established in many countries but
reduction in the prevalence of the disease in many populations has generally
been disappointing. A reduction has been achieved in controlled populations
such as guide dogs by combining individual data with that of related animals
(Leighton, 1997), and in Sweden thorough restricted registration (Swenson
et al., 1997). However, in the UK (Willis, 1997), USA (Kaneene et al.,
1997) and Finland (Leppanen & Saloniemi, 1999) results have been poor. It
appears that breeding animals with better-than-average hips will not
eliminate the problem and a combination of individual phenotype and that of
related animals is needed to identify animals that should be used for
breeding (Breur et al., 2001). In the longer term, genetic screening will
become available and hopefully assist in reducing the incidence of this
disease.
Information about inherited disease in different breeds of dogs is
available on several web-sites. The potential purchaser of a pup has the right
to know what could go wrong with the breed of dog he/she is interested in.
Consumer protection legislation may make the breeder of an animal liable
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for the veterinary cost and attendant mental anguish caused by the treatment
and perhaps euthanasia of a companion animal with a congenital defect
which the purchaser should have been warned about. In future, consumer
protection legislation may have more effect on the welfare of pedigree dogs
than anything else. Breeding programmes are being used to reduce the
incidence of some inherited diseases in dogs and more programmes are
being developed. Such programmes have to take into account the desire of
breeders to maintain the physical characteristics that make the breed unique
and their desire to maintain quality in their stock. Accurate pedigrees are a
basic requirement of any control programme.
Currently, the control of inherited diseases depends on four major
factors: (1) knowledge of how the disease is inherited and whether individual
dogs are affected, (2) the motivation of breeders (Padgett, 1998; Swenson,
2001), (3) the actions of organised kennel clubs, and (4) the local legislation.
While knowledge of how these diseases are inherited and diagnostic tools
continue to improve, the motivation of breeders and their ability to support
the identification of affected animals is crucial. Padgett (1998) found that
many breeders ceased breeding after a few years due to the problem with
pups they sold having inherited diseases, thus veterinary advice through
education is important for new breeders.
Genetic counselling to reduce the incidence of hereditary diseases is
becoming more important for breeders (Fowler et al., 2000). This type of
counselling is based on the breed and individual animal. Where possible, it must
allow breeders to utilise good quality stock to maintain the quality of their
bloodlines. Oberbauer and Sampson (2001) developed a programme to
follow in genetic counselling (Table 6).
National legislation may protect the consumer, that is the purchaser of a
pup, from buying defective stock, but animal welfare legislation may also
impact on the rights of the individual to breed his/her dog. In Sweden, the
law does not allow animals that can pass on inherited diseases to be used for
breeding (Swenson, 2001). This law has enhanced the power of kennel clubs
to restrict the use of dogs for breeding, and while it may be difficult to
enforce it puts pressure on dog breeders to use only animals that are, to the
best of their knowledge, not carriers of inherited diseases.
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Table 6. Genetic counselling programme for proposed mating of dogs with inheritable
diseases.

Step Strategy
1 Breeder describes goals of breeding programme
2 Identify genetic disease in the breed
3 Outline genetic and clinical tests available for that breed
4 Assemble genotypic and phenotypic data for relatives of dogs
5 Determine if heritability values are available for traits valued by breeder
6 Evaluate valuable and undesirable traits in both animals and their relatives
7 Incorporate all data to calculate outcome of mating
8 If risk of producing pups with genetic disorders outweighs chance of good stock
discuss other opportunities
9 Encourage phenotypic and genotypic tests for pups
Adapted from Oberbauer and Sampson (2001)

There are definite breed differences in health (Egenvall et al., 2000ab)

and life expectancy (Egenvall et al., 2000c). Some breeds appear to be ill
more often than others and to visit the veterinarian more frequently. In
Sweden, a number of breeds, including the Boxer, Irish Wolfhound, Great
Dane, Doberman Pincher, Giant Schnauzer, Bernese Mountain Dog,
Airedale Terrier, Rottweiler, Standard Schnauzer and Flat-coated Retriever,
were ranked as having a high morbidity (Egenvall et al., 2000a), while the
Siberian Husky, Finnish Spitz, Norwegian Buhund, Schillerstovare,
Jamthund, Hamiltonstovare, Grahund, Carelian Beardog, Smalandsstovare,
and Norbottenspets had low morbidities. In another Swedish study, life
expectancy increased in the following order: Bernese Mountain Dog, Boxer,
German Shepherd Dog, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Drever, Beagle,
mongrel and Poodle (Egenvall et al., 2000c).

5. BREEDS AND BEHAVIOUR

Only a few breeds of what are now known as lap dogs were originally
developed to be companion animals. The majority of breeds were produced
and selected to engage in some sort of work or sporting activity. Many are
still bred to work and this selection process produces an animal predisposed
to engage in particular activities. However, even when not selected for
working ability, for several generations many breeds still maintained certain
predilections. The Labrador Retriever is predisposed to retrieve and many
terriers are predisposed to kill small animals.
A large percentage of owners consider that their dog behaves
inappropriately. In one study of 1,422 dog owners, 87% identified one or
more behavioural problems with their dogs, and a mean of 4.7 problems per
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dog (Campbell, 1986b). This may be due to the owners having unrealistic
expectations (Overall, 1997) and/or the dogs cannot behave as required. That
millions of dogs are killed each year for behavioural reasons is well known.
In the selection of working dogs, those that do not perform are killed.
Moreover, killing dogs because they do not behave appropriately as
companions is probably fundamental to domestication and the development
of the dog. The characteristics being selected against remain constant, that is
aggression and timidity, but what are new are the characteristics which need
to be selected for. In their new form as companions, dogs should be selected
for a predisposition to cope with being inactive, isolated, usually living
indoors in a city and having no work to do. There are probably few breeders
selecting for dogs that are essentially inactive and that require little attention.
In the USA, about 50% of dogs are purebred (Overall, 1997), produced
by pedigree breeders. Breeders who breed animals for show characteristics
select for a temperament which is meant to represent the breed. Overall
(1997) suggested this selection may actually tend to produce greater
numbers of aggressive dogs over generations. Moreover, as many of these
breeds do not work and are now companions, this direction of behaviour
selection is spurious. Selection by breeders should be for dogs that can cope
with what companion dogs experience. Dogs can now be divided into
different categories based on the reason they were bred and their lifestyles
(Table 7). In some breeds (e.g. Labrador Retriever), there may be show lines,
working lines and companion lines, but the majority of pedigree pups are
produced for show or companion work. There are few breeds registered by a
kennel club produced solely for work.

Table 7. Categories of dogs, depending on purpose for breeding and expectations.

Expectation
Breeding Companion Showing Sport Work
Purpose
Showing XXXXX X X
Work X X X XX
Companion XX X
Haphazard X X
X = relative value and use within breeding group

Currently, the majority of dogs in Europe and North America are owned
as companion animals. The continued selection of pets for standard breed
behavioural characteristics may have severe welfare implications if these
characteristics do not suit the new role. Indeed, some breeds are unsuited to
being companion animals and whilst they may be fashionable for a short
period of time, their popularity wanes and many are re-homed. The Siberian
Husky is an example of a dog unsuited to be a companion dog. This dog is
described as independent and having a desire to roam but the understanding
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owner will find it an enjoyable companion (Anonymous, 1998a). However,

the breed society in New Zealand took a firmer stance and suggested that it
was not suited to be a companion animal. Backyard or apartment breeders
producing pedigree pups for companionship may be producing animals more
suited to the market than those breeding for showing. The former may be
producing puppies in the environment where the animal will live in the
future and may breed their bitch later in life than many show enthusiasts.
Temperament is difficult to define in terms of what to measure in
heritability studies but it is generally agreed to be heritable (Willis,
1995).The hereditability of temperament in German Shepherd Dogs, in the
USA army was 0.5 (Mackenzie et al., 1985), which suggests that it is easy to
select for. Many suggest that owners of companion dogs require a stable,
non-aggressive, non-nervous, inactive, easy-going dog (Willis, 1995) that is
quiet, obedient and has a low requirement for exercise and activity. These
characteristics can be easily selected for and are present in quite a few
breeds. However, companion dogs should be able to withstand isolation, not
bark much and be tolerant of people. Selecting for these characteristics may
not be difficult but it would require a different methodology and focus than
those practised by most pedigree breeders. Dogs would not be bred until
mature and defined in their behaviour. Temperamental characteristics would
take precedence over physical and beauty characteristics.
The existence of breed-specific behaviours was demonstrated by Scott
and Fuller (1965) and have been categorised for different breeds by Hart and
Hart (1985) and Bradshaw et al. (1996) in the USA and UK, respectively. In
the UK, breeds were categorised on aggression, reactivity and immaturity. In
addition in the American study, breeds were categorised according to
trainability but not immaturity. Trainability was not significant in the study
from the UK, and may not be relevant to urban living given the limited
expectation required of the average pet dog. The exercise requirement of
different breeds has not been quantified but breeds with high exercise
requirements are obviously not suited to environments where this is
unavailable.
In the USA and Japan, five and seven, respectively, of the 10 most
popular dog breeds are small dogs. In general their aggression (territorial,
dominance, watchdog behaviour, towards other dogs) was average, reactivity
(excessive barking, excitability, demand for attention) high, and immaturity
(playfulness, destructiveness) low (Table 8). High reactivity might be
considered unsuited to urban living but it appears to be acceptable to many
owners, at least in a small dog. The size of dog appeared to be important in
both countries: 15 and 16 of the top 20 breeds of dog were small in the USA
and Japan, respectively. In contrast in the UK, the top breeds were mostly
large dogs namely the Labrador Retriever, German Shepherd Dog, Cocker
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Spaniel, English Springer Spaniel, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Golden

Retriever, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, West Highland White Terrier,
Boxer, and Border Terrier. High reactivity is not a feature of these breeds
except for the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel (Bradshaw et al., 1996). The
German Shepherd Dog and Cocker Spaniel, are categorised as highly
aggressive and the number of these two breeds is in decline (Table 8).
Table 8. Behavioural characteristics of the 10 most popular breeds of dog in the USA in 2004
and Japan in 2002.
Breed (ranking) Aggression Reactivity Immaturity
Labrador Retriever (USA 1, Japan ) Low Average Low
Golden Retriever (USA 2, Japan 9) Low Average Low
German Shepherd Dog (USA 3) High Average Low
Beagle (USA 4) Average Average Average
Dachshund (USA 5, Japan 1) Average High Low
Yorkshire Terrier (USA 6, Japan 6) Average High Low
Boxer (USA 7) Low Average High
Poodle (Miniature) (USA 8, Japan 8) Average High Low
Chihuahua (USA 9, Japan 2) Average High Low
Shih tzu (USA 10, Japan 4) Average High Low
Corgi (Pembroke) (Japan 3) High Average Low
Papillon (Japan 7) Average High Low
Pomeranian (Japan 10) Average High Low
After Bradshaw et al., 1996; Anonymous, 1998a; American and Japanese Kennel Clubs
Data bases.

Theoretically, many breeds are unsuited to be companion animals.

Bradshaw et al. (1996) identified 11 breeds in the UK which were
categorised as highly aggressive. Interestingly these breeds have, except for
the German Shepherd Dog and Corgis, maintained their popularity (Table 9).
Toy breeds with high reactivity (excessive barking, excitability, high
demand for affection) but average or low aggression and low immaturity have
declined in the UK. Seven of the top 10 breeds in Japan and the USA are in
decline in the UK, which suggests that generalisations as to what different
societies require in their companion animals cannot easily be made.

Table 9. The number of puppies registered in 1994, 1998 and 2002 in the UK and the
classification of breeds according to behavioural characteristics.
No. puppies registered
Characteristics and breed 1994 1998 2002
HAg, AR, LI
Rottweiler 3,070 4,954 5,802
German Shepherd Dog 22,026 20,953 14,177
Doberman 2,183 2,906 2,706
Bull Terrier 1,917 2,523 2,665
HAg, AR, HI
Parson (Jack) Russell Terrier 345 589 673
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No. puppies registered

Characteristics and breed 1994 1998 2002
Corgi (Cardigan) 107 83 56
Corgi (Pembroke) 1,036 627 518
Cocker Spaniel 12,808 14,117 13,417
West Highland White Terrier 14,057 15,131 10,015
Cairn Terrier 2,831 2,297 1,664
Fox Terrier (Smooth-haired) 254 216 167
Fox Terrier (Wire-haired) 737 670 665
Border Collie 2,090 2,245 2,113
AAg, LR, LI
Bulldog (British) 2,038 2,012 1,936
Chow Chow 801 619 4,07
Great Dane 2,251 2,027 1,736
Airedale Terrier 961 1,018 1,054
AAg, HR, LI
Toy poodle 2,248 1,729 1,172
Yorkshire Terrier 12,343 8,818 4,222
Chihuahua (Long coat) 1,712 1,214 865
Chihuahua (Smooth-haired) 742 532 373
Miniature Poodle 1,298 1,114 741
Papillon 861 871 642
Miniature Dachshund (all 3) 3,938 3,670 3,164
Pekinese 1,832 1,161 720
Lhasa Apso 3,017 3,358 3,065
Pomeranian 1,242 971 664
Shiz tzu 4,466 4,252 3,113
Standard Dachshund (all 3) 780 889 760
LAg, AR, HI
English Setter 826 759 568
Irish Setter 1,579 1,443 1,225
English Springer Spaniel 11,904 12,741 12,431
Golden Retriever 14,418 14,803 10,526
Dalmatian 2,794 3,058 2,071
Labrador Retriever 29,118 35,978 35,996
Boxer 8,360 9,612 8,916
LAg, LR, LI
Basset Hound 1,158 1,161 991
Whippet 1,481 1,619 1,823
English Pointer 868 698 657
LAg, HR, LI
King Charles Spaniel 280 221 150
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel 13,772 12,702 9,984
Shetland Sheepdog 3,179 2,407 1,500
AAg, AR, AI
Samoyed 1,270 1,022 523
Standard Poodle 1,391 1,307 976
Rough Collie 3,163 2,339 1,492
Old English Sheepdog 1,505 959 620
Border Terrier 2,766 3,479 5,339
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No. puppies registered

Characteristics and breed 1994 1998 2002
Beagle 905 939 1,007
Staffordshire Bull Terrier 5,971 9,563 10,711
Scottish Terrier 1,591 1,280 982
Adapted from Bradshaw et al., 1996; UK Kennel Club Data
H = high Ag = aggression (territorial, dominance, watchdog, to other dogs)
A = average R = reactivity (excessive barking, excitability, attention demand)
L = low I = immaturity (playfulness, destructiveness, general activity)

It is important to divide the breeds that work and are also

show/companion dogs into strains for both rather than trying to suit every
need. Working Parson Jack Russell Terriers are not suited for the average
city household any more than working English Pointers are. It is possible
that strains of either could be bred to suit city life. It may be best to identify
and concentrate on those breeds most suited to urban lifestyle. This may be
what is happening as dog owners may be selecting breeds most appropriate
to their circumstances. Behaviour suited to the show ring may not be what is
required in a companion. Interestingly, some breeds or strains of some
breeds of dog have specific behavioural problems. Flank sucking is usually
found in Doberman Pinchers while spinning is seen in Bull Terriers
(Landsberg et al., 1997).
The breeding of dogs for service roles with the police, military, customs
or for guiding the blind has allowed investigation into the heritability of
characteristics necessary for success in these fields. Some behaviours like
fearfulness are highly heritable (0.4–0.6) and are very easy to breed for.
Thus, ‘fearful’ animals should not be used in breeding programmes
(Goddard & Beilharz, 1982). The heritabilities of most behaviours are
generally not so high (Schmutz & Schmutz, 1998). There are problems
defining specific behavioural and temperamental characteristics and because
of this the heritability of‘success’ has been quantified. In guide dogs the
heritability for success is about 0.44 (Goddard & Beilharz, 1982). The
heritability of temperament in military German Shepherd Dogs was 0.50
(Mackenzie et al., 1985). This means that with good selection procedures it
is easy to breed dogs with temperaments suited to living as companion
animals. This should ensure that fewer dogs would be euthanased or re-
homed due to poor behaviour

6. PREPARATION OF PUPS FOR NEW OWNERS

Breeders have a responsibility to breed healthy and well-behaved dogs

and to produce healthy animals fit for whatever purpose they are to be used.
As the majority of pups are intentionally bred for companionship, it is up to
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the breeder to manage these pups in the first 8 weeks of life before sale, in
order to maximise their likelihood of success in their new home. This
involves three major issues; rearing to maximise confidence and ability,
maintaining health, and attempting to match puppies with appropriate
owners.
Matching pups to potential owners is difficult and there is little research
on the success of matching carried out by many breeders. The behaviour of
pups in the first 8 weeks of life does not appear to be related to their future
behaviour and the use of attitude tests in pups 7 or 8 weeks of age is
probably pointless (Beaudet et al., 1994; Willson & Sundgren, 1998a). It is
probably wise to determine whether the living conditions and lifestyle of
potential owners suit the type of pup being produced. Different strains of any
breed will have particular temperaments and the breeder’s knowledge of this
is important in selecting homes for their puppies. It appears that size,
particularly the size of female pups, affects behaviour. Apparently, large
female pups have higher defence and hardness scores as adults (Wilsson &
Sundgren, 1998b). The choice of a male or female pup is important as there
are significant differences in their behaviour. Females are consistently easier
to train (Bradshaw et al., 1996). Potential purchasers of a pup should always
see the mother and preferably the father and interact with them to get an idea
of what type of dog they are purchasing. This cannot be done in pet shops or
shelters and purchasing pups under these conditions is more of a gamble.
Rearing pups to maximise their confidence entails handling them gently
on a daily basis. This can start when they are less than 14 days of age and
careful handling at this stage will enable them to cope better with stress in
the future. Pups 4 weeks of age should be exposed to different elements in
the environment. They should meet children and be handled gently by them
and meet cats and other animals. They should experience grass, concrete,
and linoleum, and be given toys to play with. Gentle restraint at that age
allows them to understand a degree of control in gentle circumstances. After
5 weeks of age, they can meet people for longer periods, maybe 30 minutes a
day, and be taken outside to toilet after eating. Noises of various types can
be introduced. Before pups go to a new home, they should be spending some
time alone each day to prepare for the isolation they may meet when they
leave the litter.
Most experts recommend that pups be re-homed or sold at about 8 weeks,
but if they are not sold, they need more and more environmental experience
between 8 and 14 weeks. It is important not to overwhelm young pups with
people and other things but it is necessary that they are properly exposed to a
wide range of environmental conditions before they leave the litter. Pups
reared in large breeding kennels or ‘puppy farms’ may not get sufficient
exposure to the different aspects of the environment to allow them to
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develop into confident adults. Similarly pups held in pet shops or shelter
cages may not be exposed to sufficient stimuli.
Maintaining health by giving anti-parasite tablets every 2 weeks,
controlling fleas, and having a suitable vaccination programme are
important. Pups should be fed appropriate foods to supplement the bitch’s
milk and then weaned onto a suitable diet.
The advice that breeders give to the purchasers of their pups is very
important and needs to be based on knowledge not tradition. Breeders’
advice has to be abreast of advances in knowledge. There are now several
quality commercial foodstuffs available for pups of different types and these
should be recommended rather than home-made foods or supplements.
Supplements to designer diets for fast-growing giant breeds may be
damaging.

7. CONCLUSIONS

The majority of people breeding pedigree dogs do so as a hobby and

generally endeavour to produce the best pups possible. It is not a financially
lucrative activity. The recognition that some breed conformation standards
may lead to physical problems and that some breeds and strains of breeds are
not suited to being companion animals is well known. The list of hereditary
diseases is lengthening and the methodologies to deal with them are new and
developing rapidly. Individual breeders usually limit their production of
pups to meet the market. On occasion a fashionable, though unsuitable,
breed has been produced to meet a surge in demand. An honest appraisal of
the suitability of a fashionable breed as a companion animal is necessary
before the problem is exacerbated and dogs are killed or relinquished to
shelters or breed-protection groups.
National kennel clubs and breed societies have a responsibility to
publicise the physical and behavioural faults of all breeds. However, kennel
clubs do not provide quality assurance for purchasers of registered pups.
They keep records of pedigrees and run show competitions. Quality
assurance is the responsibility of individual breeders. However, it is necessary
to change the breed standard of some breeds to reduce the tendency to produce
exaggerated characteristics which create health problems. The Swedish
Kennel Club has shown how a serious condition such as hip dysplasia can be
reduced by limiting registration to pups born to animals that have been
assessed. This system changes the attitude of owners and breeders and forces
them to assess their breeding stock.
There are several important questions which relate to the welfare of dogs
that need to be addressed by all who breed dogs. The number of dog
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breeders and those who show dogs is declining as problems surrounding the
production of pedigree dogs are increasing. It is important to control
hereditary health and behavioural problems. It is possible to maintain healthy
populations of different breeds of dogs, even those breeds with very small
populations, provided the breeding programme is managed correctly. It is
important that dogs are selected with characteristics suited to urban lifestyles
and for companionship. This means producing dogs with low aggression,
and average reactivity and immaturity.
The market may influence welfare issues involved with the production of
dogs for the show ring by reducing the numbers produced in several ways.
Purchasers of dogs may avoid those breeds with physical or behavioural
problems or the likelihood of suffering from one or many hereditary
diseases. Breeders may stop producing for the show ring and breed for the
companion animal market and thus avoid the different requirements for
showing. Breeders will not breed animals for which there is no market and
the consumer will influence what breeds continue to be produced. In
addition, consumer protection legislation will discourage production of
puppies from breeds with serious hereditary problems and force breeders to
change breeds or improve them.
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Chapter 4
CANINE NUTRITION AND WELFARE

Abstract: The domestic dog is a facultative carnivore with omnivorous potential if

circumstances demand. The dietary requirements of the dog are met by a
quality commercial dog food but many free-ranging dogs are not fed at all.
Poor quality dog foods may cause dietary deficiencies, some of which may be
fatal. Some commercial dog foods may not meet the behavioural requirements
of a dog. A constant diet of dry food is probably boring and dogs may benefit
from variety in their diet including household scraps, large bones and treats.
Obesity is caused by overfeeding and too little exercise and may be the most
important welfare problem of dogs in the post-industrial developed world. In
contrast undernutrition is a serious welfare problem elsewhere. In the last three
decades the development of diets for dogs of different types and at different
physiological stages, and the use of prescription diets to support medical
therapy have improved the welfare of dogs significantly. The latter have led to
exciting improvements in reversing age-related diseases and behaviours of old
dogs. Reducing food intake increases the longevity and health of dogs and
current recommendations may overestimate the energy requirements of adult
dogs. More research needs to be undertaken on the behavioural needs of dogs
in regard to the physical character of their diet.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Canidae include species that are highly carnivorous, frugivorous or

insectivorous (Ewer, 1973) but most are opportunistic, eating small
mammals, arthropods, fruit and what they are able to find by scavenging
(van Valkenburgh & Koepfli, 1993). Four canids, viz African wild dog,
dhole, wolf and the dog, especially the dingo, regularly prey on species
much larger than themselves (Meggitt, 1965; van Valkenburgh & Koepfli,
1993). These species are able to do this because they hunt in pairs or packs

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but they also have cranial and dental adaptations suited to killing and
consuming large ungulates (van Valkenburgh & Keopfli, 1993).
African wild dogs feed almost exclusively on mammalian prey that they
have killed themselves and rarely scavenge, probably to avoid dangerous
encounters with lions which predate on them (Creel & Creel, 2002). The
dhole is generally considered a pack-hunting carnivore preying on a range of
ungulates but also consuming birds, lizards, insects and vegetable matter, but
rarely carrion (Sheldon, 1992). Dhole will kill tigers and bears that compete
with them for kills. Both African wild dogs and dhole kill by running down
and often eviscerating their prey. The wolf is mainly carnivorous, preying
on large ungulates (Sheldon, 1992) and smaller prey including rodents,
lizards and even fish (Bueler, 1974). It is, however, an opportunist with a
penchant for scavenging on rubbish tips, Its diet is quite catholic and
includes vegetation, insects, carrion and fresh carcasses. In Finland, wolves
kill domestic animals including cats, dogs, horses, cows and sheep
(Pulliainen, 1975). Diet is, by necessity, influenced by availability and
ability. The availability of food is influenced by location, resident fauna,
season and other environmental factors, while ability depends on the size of
the hunting group, age, health and experience. Several wolves are required to
predate on large ungulates, whilst individuals can catch and kill small
herbivores and scavenge effectively.
In general, opportunistic feeding behaviour characterises the canids and
this is illustrated by the diet of the dingo. This includes a variety of
marsupials such as wallabies and kangaroos, and also sheep, cattle, rabbits,
rats, mice, insects, reptiles, carrion and vegetable matter (Meggitt, 1965;
Bueler, 1974; Corbett & Newsome, 1975). In Zimbabwe, free-ranging dogs
are not effective predators of large ungulates (Butler et al., 2004). In Italy
free-ranging and feral dogs did not kill livestock (Boitani et al., 1995;
Macdonald & Carr, 1995), although worldwide they frequently kill small
livestock, especially sheep. Hunting dogs are often assisted by humans in
killing wild pigs or deer, but can kill smaller game on their own. Family
dogs often kill sheep, working both as individuals and in pairs or packs.
Free-ranging dogs are mainly scavengers, feeding on waste and garbage
(Beck, 1975). They do not refrain from killing and eating pups and injured
dogs and eating the carcasses of dead dogs. Dogs will dig up a dead dog and
consume it. This is a problem when barbiturates are used for euthanasia as
consuming the carcass may cause the death of the consumer. In Europe,
coffins may have been used initially to prevent dogs from digging up and
eating the dead, and in many societies where coffins are not used, human
corpses are either cremated or buried deeply and often in a side compartment
at the base of the grave which is then filled in with some large stones to stop
dogs and other scavengers getting at the corpse.
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Welfare problems related to the feeding behaviour and nutritional

management of dogs will be discussed in this chapter. These include
scavenging per se, anorexia, pica, malnutrition, obesity and specific nutrient
deficiencies. The widespread availability of quality commercial dog foods,
including special feeds for growing puppies and prescription foods for dogs
with specific diseases, has led to a great improvement in nutrition in the last
three decades. However, there are concerns about the behavioural
consequences of these dry and concentrated diets.

2. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS

Scavenging is such an important part of dogs’ feeding repertoire that,

given the opportunity, they will turn over garbage bins and tear into rubbish
bags. This is a major social problem of stray and free-ranging dogs.
Scavenging is one of the reasons why dogs are not allowed to roam free in
most developed societies. When faced with a choice of garbage odours, dogs
prefer fresh to aged meat, and meat to vegetables (Beaver et al., 1992).
Scavenging of baits containing rabies vaccine may be the most effective way
of preventing rabies in free-ranging dogs (Meslin et al., 2000), and chicken
heads have been found to be particularly attractive bait for use in such
programmes (Kharmachi et al., 1992).
Scavenging can be lethal as the food consumed may be poisonous. Dogs
are regularly poisoned accidentally in New Zealand by feeding on possums
poisoned by sodium fluoroacetate (Meenken & Booth, 1997), but deliberate
poisoning of dogs as part of dog control programmes is performed in many
countries. Scavenging is also dangerous because of the possibility of
ingesting items such as baited fishhooks or plastic bags which have
contained meat. Veterinarians regularly remove objects, including
wooden and metal objects, needles, fishhooks and, of course, bones, from
the oesophagus of dogs. These items lodge at the thoracic inlet, at the
base of the heart or in the caudal oesophagus cranial to the diaphragm.
Perforation of the oesophagus may cause localised abscessation, pleuritis,
pyothorax or infection at other sites. Foreign bodies are usually removed
by forceps via endoscopy. It is important not to damage the oesophagus and
sometimes, the object may have to be pushed into the stomach and removed
from there. When surgery has to be performed to repair a perforated
oesophagus the prognosis is poor.
Dogs may eat materials that their owners consider unacceptable. These
include faeces (coprophagy) from dogs, cats and other species, especially
herbivores. The latter is so common in dogs that it may be considered
normal behaviour (Houpt, 1991; Voith, 1994), although others suggest a
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medical component to the behaviour (Landsberg et al., 1997). Coprophagy

occurs in well-fed dogs with no evidence of gastrointestinal disease. The
faeces of different species may be nutritionally valuable, but coprophagy in
dogs fed a balanced diet may reflect boredom with their regular diet and a
desire for a varied gastronomic experience. Dogs clean up human faeces in
many developing countries (van Heerden, 1989) and are seen eating out of
discarded nappies. However, soiled nappies were not selected by dogs given
alternatives (Beaver et al., 1992). Farm dogs eating the faeces of calves with
diarrhoea may develop infectious gastroenteritis, and eating excessive horse
manure may cause gastroenteritis. Coprophagy may be one way in which
pups ingest appropriate gastrointestinal flora. Bitches stimulate defaecation
and eat their pups’ faeces during the first few weeks of their lives. The eating
of dog faeces by other dogs is probably abnormal, but is unlikely to be
significant as the eggs of the endoparasites of dogs generally need some time
to develop into the infectious state (Soulsby, 1971).
Pica, an abnormal craving for and ingestion of non-food substances, may
have a physiological or psychological basis. Eating grass is a common
behaviour of dogs but the reason for it remains unknown. Some have
suggested that it may act as an emetic (Voith, 1994) and others that it may
have some nutritional value. Some dogs become obsessive chewers and/or
swallowers of stones, a compulsive behavioural disorder. The former results
in damaged teeth and the latter has to be treated surgically.
Dogs may become anorexic for medical or behavioural reasons. Feeding
for the dog may be a social event and the subordinate dog may not feel free
to eat in the company of its superiors for fear of causing offence and being
attacked. These subordinate animals need to be fed alone is a quiet place.
Some dogs feed only in the company of their owners because the dogs need
the security provided by their owner’s presence. Individual guard dogs may
not eat while on duty and need to be fed after work (Neville, 1997). Dogs
may also become fastidious feeders by learning that if they do not eat their
normal food they will be fed more palatable food by their owners. However,
some dogs are poor feeders for unknown reasons (Landsberg et al., 1997)
and have to be encouraged to eat by using highly palatable foods (Houpt,
1991).

3. DOG FOOD

For the greater part of the human-dog relationship, the dog has fed on
food scraps and excrement. The nutritional value of household scraps and
waste material is often marginal, as was found when domestic dingoes were
compared with wild ones (Meggitt, 1965). Many dogs are encouraged to
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stray to supplement their home diet. In the past only the dogs belonging to
wealthy people were likely to have been fed well. Urbanisation of the dog
population in industrialised nations in the 19th and 20th Centuries, coupled
with increased control of stray dogs, prevented responsible dog owners from
allowing their dogs to roam to supplement their home-based diet. This
increased pressure on owners to provide a complete diet for their dogs led to
the birth of the dog food industry. Initially, the dog food business was a side
product of the local butchery, but in the 20th Century dog food production
became industrialised and several multinational companies have emerged
that control a large percentage of the world market.
There have been major improvements in the nutrition of dogs, and
therefore their welfare, as a result of this development. Large companies can
afford to undertake research and development of products. They provide
diets especially designed for dogs of particular breeds, ages and in particular
physiological states (growing rapidly, pregnant, ageing) (Burger &
Thompson, 1994). One of the major advances in canine nutrition has been
the development of special diets to optimise feeding at different stages of
life, and to support the prevention and treatment of a range of diseases. Dog
food is available for growing pups, pups of large and giant breeds, adults of
giant breeds, adults, active dogs, and old dogs. In addition, diets are available
for dogs with a sensitive skin or stomach, obese dogs and for dental care. Diets
are available also for older dogs with cognitive dysfunction syndrome, chronic
kidney and liver disease, heart problems, urolithiasis, cancer, allergy and
gastrointestinal problems. This range of diets allows owners to choose an
appropriate and adequate diet for their dogs regardless of age and medical
condition. In contrast, poor quality pet foods produced by less
knowledgeable companies, or home-made foods may result in deficiencies in
specific minerals or vitamins, and sometimes poisoning (Worth et al., 1997).
The nutritional requirements of dogs have been defined accurately in the last
few decades and are provided for in commercial diets. These diets also
appeal to dog owners as they are highly digestible, and faecal volume is
small, solid and not too smelly.
Commercial diets may not give a dog an adequate feeding experience, as
they are either dry or if wet, have a very soft texture. There is a wide choice
of formats in dry kibble, biscuit, canned and rolled foodstuffs, and a great
variety of flavours. The food companies have identified what is most
palatable to dogs and have designed foods to meet those requirements. Dogs
prefer beef and pork to leaner meats, and chicken and lamb are preferred to
horsemeat (Houpt, 1996).
The consumption of commercially prepared dog foods has increased
dramatically in the last four decades. In the UK, in 1960 49% of households
fed commercial dog foods. This had increased to 69% of households in 1994
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(Watson, 1996). Apparently 90% of the calories fed to pets in North

America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and Northern Europe, and 30–50%
of the calories fed to pets in Latin America, the Pacific rim and the
remainder of Europe is derived from commercial pet food (Crane et al.,
2000). The quality of commercial dog food varies but quality is guaranteed if
the food meets the standards of the Association of American Feed Control
Officials (AAFCO). The increase in the feeding of commercial dog food has
improved the welfare of dogs (Watson, 1996). However, some suggest the
opposite and Lonsdale (2001) considered that commercial dog food was a
major factor in the development of oral disease in dogs, and encouraged the
feeding of natural foods. The latter include carcasses, either part or whole, of
poultry, farm animals and rodents, offal and bones. He suggested that such a
diet resulted in healthy gums and healthier dogs.
Some argue against the use of commercial dog foods because many are
cereal-based, heat-treated, and contains additives. Others suggest that dogs
are carnivores and should be fed a diet suited to this type of animal, namely,
dead rabbits or chickens, chicken wings and bones. To them the feeding of
grain based diets to dogs is abnormal. Lonsdale (1991) argues that feeding
commercial dog foods causes gingivitis and that this condition is the basis of
much of the ill-health seen in dogs today. However, meat alone is not a
balanced diet for dogs. Some aspects of these contentions are appealing, but
it is generally not feasible to feed dead animals to dogs living in an
apartment block in New York City or Tokyo. The case about gingivitis is
unproven, and while there is a widely held belief that manufactured dog
foods have deleterious effects on the health of gums and the condition of
teeth, hounds routinely fed raw carcasses had signs of periodontal disease
and a high percentage of broken teeth (Robinson & Gorrell, 1997). Dogs are
not exclusively carnivorous. They will live off a wide range of foodstuffs.
Dogs fed a dental prescription diet had significantly lower scores for
accumulation of plaque and gingival inflammation than did dogs fed a
regular dry food (Logan et al., 2000). However, dry food may have no
advantage over wet food (Harvey et al., 1996) at maintaining periodontal
health.
Although, raw-food diets are often recommended for dogs, but there have
been few attempts to evaluate these diets (Freeman & Michel, 2001) and
none to compare them with commercial dog foods in long-term feeding
trials. In one trial, three raw-food diets and two commercial foods were
compared. All five diets failed to meet the AAFCO’s standards (Freeman &
Michel, 2001), having deficiencies or excesses of nutrients that could cause
health problems if used long term. There are no long-term feeding trials to
validate the suggestion that raw-food diets may cause health problems after
prolonged use. Discussion about the effect of raw and commercial diets on
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canine health will continue until long term feeding trials provide the
answers. Raw diets often contain bones and these carry risks of intestinal
obstruction, gastrointestinal perforation and broken teeth, although the
incidence is unknown. Many people feed commercial diets plus bones.
Supporters for raw diets claim that dogs are healthier if fed these diets, but
again this is not supported by data from clinical trials. Many people feed
dietary supplements to their dogs (Pascoe, 2002) as they feel that
commercial diets are inadequate. Again, there is little evidence to support the
need for supplements.
A case against the exclusive feeding of dry commercial dog foods is that
they are boring. A dog eating dry dog food all its life has a poor repertoire
of gastronomic experiences which is probably contraindicated in an animal
that is generally omnivorous. Many dogs may engage in coprophagia and
pica because of their boring diet. Most veterinarians and dog food companies
recognise this deficiency and recommend that between 10 and 25% of the
diet can be made up of household scraps and other treats. In Europe, many
dog owners feed home-made food to their dogs, but in the UK pets receive a
large percentage of their calories as commercial pet food. Remillard et al.
(2000) found that in Italy, Germany, France and the UK, 90%, 70%, 60%
and 50%, respectively, of calories were provided to dogs from home-made
foods.
Of possible welfare significance is the introduction of highly palatable
quality diets which combined with lack of activity has led to the levels of
obesity seen in dogs today (Sloth, 1992).

4. MALNUTRITION

Malnutrition is defined as any disorder of nutrition resulting from an

inadequate or unbalanced diet. It includes not only acute starvation and
chronic undernutrition but also obesity. In dogs, the developmental
orthopaedic disease seen in giant and large-breed pups due to excess calcium
and energy intake is also malnutrition, as is thiamine deficiency due to intake
of poor quality commercial diets. The correct feeding of dogs requires diets
to suit the animal’s stage in life. Breed also influences dietary requirements,
which differ from giant to small breeds at differing stages in life. Dogs
engaged in active work or sports require diets which are different from those
suited to inactive dogs (Table 1). When the diet is not suited to the individual
animal’s stage of life and activity level it can then cause malnutrition.
Members of the holistic movement often recommend the feeding of
vegetarian, vegan or special diets to their dogs. These diets are usually made
at home. Vegetarian diets can be balanced using egg and milk products, but
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vegan diets may lack arginine, lysine, methionine, taurine, tryptophan, iron,
calcium, zinc, vitamin A and some B vitamins (Remillard et al., 2000).
Moreover, many veterinary nutritionists warn that homemade food, table
food, vegetarian and vegan, and single food diets are more likely to result in
subclinical nutritional deficiencies than are commercial diets produced for
the stage of life of the dog (Remillard et al., 2000).

Table 1. Feeding requirements for canine athletes.

Athlete Feeding requirement
Sprint High quality, digestible, high carbohydrate, low fat,
medium protein. Carbohydrate snack 30 minutes after
racing to enhance glycogen repletion
Intermediate: working dog Highly digestible, moderate carbohydrate, moderate to high
fat, moderate protein. Energy density must be high enough
to allow intake of daily energy requirements.
Feed after exercise or 4 hours before work. Snacks can be
given during work
Intermediate: in training As for working dogs, but allow 6 weeks to change over to a
working diet if the dog works seasonally
Intermediate: idle Feed as for normal adult dog
Endurance Highly digestible, high fat, low carbohydrate, moderate
protein, in an energy-dense format. Feed after, or more than
4 hours before, racing and training
Adapted from Toll & Reynolds (2000)

A physical examination will help define a dog’s nutritional status, but

knowledge of the dog’s history is important when recommending
adjustments to its diet. Most dogs in average condition should have a waist
behind the thorax when viewed from above, and a slight abdominal tuck
when viewed from the side. Of importance is bodyweight as a percentage of
expected weight for a dog of that breed or type and size. The average
bodyweight and height at withers for adult males and females of most of the
different breeds (Table 2) are available (Debraekeleer, 2000). Average
bodyweights are not available for crossbreeds. A dog’s body condition score
(BCS) will give an idea of its fat stores and, perhaps, muscle mass (Figure 1).
This is achieved by assessing subcutaneous fat, especially over the ribcage,
down the topline, at the tail base and ventrally along the abdomen. Body
condition scoring was developed in the cattle and sheep industries to assess
the body condition status of stock at important times for production, such as
before mating, and there is a close correlation between BCS and body
composition in cattle. The relationship between body composition and BCS
has not been well demonstrated in dogs, but it is used widely to complement
bodyweight in assessing nutritional status.
There are illustrated body condition scoring sheets for dogs, to facilitate
accurate and repeatable scoring. Scoring systems have either 5 or 9
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categories. A five-point BCS (Thatcher et al., 2000) is described in Figure 1.

In a clinical or shelter context, BCS can be used with relative bodyweight to
estimate an animal’s nutritional status and monitor changes if a weight
increase or reduction programme is undertaken. The relative bodyweight is
the dog’s actual weight divided by its optimum weight. A dog of normal
bodyweight should have a BCS of 3 in a 1–5 scoring range. The ribs should
be easily palpated under a light covering of fat. Pelvic bone prominences
should also be easily palpated.

Table 2. Canine bodyweight and height at withers, for various breeds of dog.
Bodyweight (kg) Height at withers (cm)
Breed Female Male Female Male
American cocker spaniel 11 12.5 34-36 36-39
Beagle 12 14 32.5 38
Belgian shepherd (all) 28 28 56-60 60-65
Border terrier 5-6.4 6-7 25 25
Boxer 24 32 53-59 56-63
Bulldog 18-23 23-25 Na Na
Bull terrier 23.5 28 52.5 55
Cav. King Charles spaniel 5 8 30 33
Chihuahua ≤2.7 ≤2.7 16 20
Dachshund (miniature, UK) 4.5 4.5 Na Na
Dachshund (miniature, USA) ≤5 ≤5 Na Na
Dachshund (standard, UK) 9 12 Na Na
Dachshund (standard, USA) 7.3 14.5 Na Na
Dalmatian 22.7 27 47.4 57.5
Doberman pinscher 29 40 60-65 60-70
Fox terrier (smooth and wire) 6.8-7.7 7-8.2 ≤39 ≤39
German shepherd dog 32 43 55-60 60-65
German short-haired pointer 20.5-27 25-32 52.5-57.5 57.5-62.5
Golden retriever 25-29.5 29.5-34 50-56 57.5-60
Irish setter 27.2 31.7 57.5-62.5 67.5
Labrador retriever 25-32 29.5-36 54-59 56-61
Lowchen 2 4 20 35
Maltese 1.8 2.7 25 25
Pekingese 3-5 3.6-6.5 Na Na
Pointer 20-29.5 25-34 57.5-65 62.5-70
Poodle (miniature) 5 5 >25 37.5
Pug 6.5 8 25 30
Rhodesian ridgeback 32 38.5 60-65 62.5-67.5
Rottweiler 40 50 55-62.5 60-67.5
Samoyed 17-25 20-30 47.5-53 53-59
Schnauzer (standard) 15 18 45-46 46-50
Shar-pei 18 25 45 50
Weimaraner 32 38 57.5-62.5 62.5-67.5
Welsh corgi (Pembroke) 10-12.7 10-13.6 25 30
West Highland terrier 7 10 25 27.5
Yorkshire terrier ≤3.5 ≤3.5 22.5 22.5
Na = not available. Adapted from Debraekeleeer (2000)
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Figure 1. Body condition scoring sheet for dogs (adapted from Thatcher et al., (2000)).

Condition Score 1: Ribs are easily seen and the tail base is obvious. All
boney structures have no covering of fat and are easily palpated. Dogs over 6
months of age have a severe abdominal tuck and an hourglass shape when
viewed from above. All boney protuberances are easily felt, with no
overlying fat.

Condition Score 2: Ribs are easily palpable, with slight fat cover. The
tail base is a raised structure, with little tissue between skin and bone. The
boney protuberances are easily felt, with minimal fat between skin and bone.
Dogs over 6 months of age have an abdominal tuck and a marked hourglass
shape if viewed from above.
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Condition Score 3: Ribs are palpable, with slight fat cover. The tail base
has a smooth contour and is thickened. The boney structures are palpable
under a thin covering of fat, and boney protuberances are palpable under a
small amount of overlying fat. Dogs over 6 months of age have a small
abdominal tuck when viewed from the side and a defined waist when viewed
from above.

Condition Score 4: The ribs are difficult to feel, with moderate fat cover.
The tail base has a moderate amount of tissue between skin and bone. The
boney structures are palpable and the prominences are covered with a layer
of fat. Dogs over 6 months of age have no abdominal tuck. When viewed
from above there is no waist and the back is thickened.
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Parkinson

Condition Score 5: The ribs are difficult to feel under a thick layer of fat.
The tail base is thickened and difficult to feel under a layer of fat. The boney
protuberances are covered with a thick layer of fat. Dogs over 6 months of
age have no abdominal tuck and a pendulous ventral bulge. When viewed
from above there is no waist and a markedly broadened back.

Dogs that are grossly overweight or underweight are obvious, but the
more subtle problems with malnutrition may not be so easily identified
unless clinical signs of disease become apparent and are investigated. These
include developmental orthopaedic disease, eclampsia, weight loss
(especially during lactation), and poor performance or diarrhoea during work
or sport. Dogs that are working hard require food with sufficient energy
density to allow for their high daily energy requirement. If they are underfed
then performance will suffer and they will lose weight rapidly (Toll,
2000abc).

4.1 Starvation

Hungry, emaciated dogs are common in many countries. These animals

may be owned or not, free-ranging or feral. Many stray animals are allowed
to wander in order to scavenge and feed themselves, but are fed a proportion
of their diet by their owners. In one study in Kenya, 95% of dogs were fed
household scraps, although only 19% were house-bound (Kitala et al.,
1993), while in Zimbabwe few dogs were fed by their owners every day
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(Brooks, 1990). In Harare, about 10% of dog owners bought dog food and
dogs were usually fed maize meal and scraps (Hill, 1985). House-bound
dogs fed household scraps may be underfed and suffer malnutrition and
might benefit from being allowed to scavenge. Feral and free-ranging dogs
often survive by scavenging from garbage cans and on dumps (Boitani et al.,
1995; Macdonald & Carr, 1995). Starvation may be acute, with virtually no
food intake over a period of days due to illness, poverty or neglect, or
chronic, with inadequate food intake over a period of time. Starvation in an
otherwise healthy dog will result in an initial loss of body fat followed by
loss of muscle. Starvation leads to immunosuppression and leaves the animal
susceptible to infections; it eventually leads to death. The point at which a
dog is undernourished is difficult to define, but lies somewhere between a
BCS of 1 and 2, although it cannot be defined clinically. This may lead to
difficulties when trying to establish whether or not a dog is being underfed.
Many athletic dogs are fed well but maintained with a very low cover of
body fat. Greyhounds have more muscle (58% of body mass), less fat and
the same amount of bone as other breeds (Gunn, 1978), while endurance
racing dogs such as huskies have probably more fat and less muscle. The
feeding of hard-working dogs is particularly important. Sheep and cattle
dogs and hunting dogs may be very active and need a high-density calorific
intake. If fed insufficiently these dogs may lose weight and not be able to
work effectively. Maintaining the balance between adequate feed intake and
optimal weight is difficult. Hard-working dogs do not need to carry excess
fat and are hindered by it.
Simple starvation occurs when dogs are deprived of sufficient food and
do not suffer concurrent disease. It usually results from neglect and is not an
uncommon reason for dogs being seized from their owners by animal
welfare personnel. Prosecutions occur generally when the dog is in an
extreme state, as this can be defined by bodyweight and BCS. In the early
stages of starvation, animals change from using a mixture of energy sources
to using primarily fatty acids. Carbohydrate metabolism is changed
profoundly during the first week of acute starvation. Dogs maintain glucose
levels during the first two days of starvation, through glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis. By Day 3, there is a reduction in metabolic rate which
continues for weeks to slow fat and muscle catabolism in an effort to survive
long-term starvation. The liver releases ketone bodies from fatty acids within
the first few days as an energy source for non-glucose-dependent tissues. Fat
becomes an important fuel source after 3 to 5 days and protein catabolism
also becomes important (Remillard et al., 2000).
During the refeeding of starved dogs, the diet should initially be
predominantly fat and protein and should change from simple to complex
ingredients (Donoghue & Kronfeld, 1994). Feeding large amounts of
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carbohydrates must be avoided during initial refeeding as an excess may

cause metabolic problems. Initially, meals should be small and offered
several times each day.

4.2 Obesity

Obesity is defined as the excess accumulation of fat, and while this is

associated with being overweight, dogs that are overweight may be suffering
from ascites. Weight can be considered normal if it is 1–9% above optimum
weight, overweight if 10–19% above optimum weight, and obese if more
than 21% above optimum weight (Burkholder & Toll, 2000). The optimum
weights of crossbreds are not available and this scale may be difficult to use
clinically (Markwell et al., 1994). Fat mass can also be used to define
obesity. Dogs in optimum condition have 15–20% of their total bodyweight
as body fat, and when it becomes >20–30% the dog can be considered obese
(Burkholder & Toll, 2000). Determining fat mass may be carried out using
morphometric measurements. The pelvic circumference is proportional to
the amount of fat in dogs and can be used with other measurements, such as
hock-to-stifle length in a formula to determine body fat (Burkholder & Toll,
2000). There are several laboratory-based methods of measuring body
composition in dogs, including densitometry, total body potassium, X-ray
absorptiometry, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging,
but these are not useful for clinical examination of obesity in dogs
(Markwell & Butterwick, 1994). However, ultrasound may be used to
measure subcutaneous fat and is a method by which obesity may be
quantified reliably (Wilkinson & McEwan, 1991).
Obesity is the most important form of malnutrition in dogs in the
developed world, and studies in the UK, USA and Europe have shown that
more than 25% of dogs are overweight or obese (Table 3). As such, obesity
is one of the major welfare issues for dogs in these countries as it has a
detrimental effect on the longevity, quality of life and health of the affected
animals. In one of the largest studies of obesity in dogs, 74% of 8,268 dogs
had an acceptable bodyweight (Edney & Smith, 1986).
A large number of diseases are associated with obesity. These include
cardiovascular, pulmonary and dermatological disorders, diabetes mellitus,
lower resistance to infectious diseases, and articulo-locomotor problems
(Sloth, 1992). Dogs found by Edney and Smith (1986) to be grossly obese
were more likely to have circulatory, articular and locomotor problems, but
there was no relationship between obesity and cutaneous, reproductive or
neoplastic conditions. Obese dogs may have reduced exercise and heat
tolerance (Sloth, 1992) which may affect the quality of life of dogs thought
to have high exercise requirements and/or living in warmer climates.
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Table 3. Incidence of overweight, obese and grossly obese dogs in different countries.
Country Number of % % % Grossly Reference
dogs Overweight Obese obese
Australia 657 25 Robertson, 2003
Austria 44 Steininger, 1981
UK 33 Anderson, 1973
UK 28 Mason, 1970
UK 30 Sibley, 1984
UK 8,268 21.4 2.9 Edney & Smith, 1986

Obesity develops when dogs are in a positive energy balance for a long
period of time. Many animals can maintain a balance between intake and
activity, and remain at, or near, their optimum weight. Some animals do not
control weight gain and this may be due to a number of factors including
genotype, de-sexing, age, activity and food type and human behaviour. De-
sexed females are twice as likely to be obese as entire females, and de-sexed
males also tend to become obese (Edney & Smith, 1986). Owners may not
realise that the manufacturer’s recommendations are guidelines to be
adjusted for each individual dog (Sloth, 1992). In an Australian study,
overweight dogs were likely to be neutered, fed snacks, fed once daily, and
living in a single-dog household. The odds of obesity increased for each year
of life and decreased for every hour of exercise weekly (Robertson, 2003).
Owners of obese dogs were more likely to have the dogs in bed with them,
and talk to them, and were more likely to spend time watching their dogs eat
than were the owners of non-obese dogs. Edney and Smith (1986) found that
certain breeds (Long-haired Dachshund, Labrador Retriever, Cairn Terrier,
Cocker Spaniel, Shetland Sheepdog, Basset Hound, Cavalier King Charles
Spaniel, and Beagle) were prone to obesity, whereas other breeds (German
Shepherd Dog, Greyhound, Yorkshire Terrier, Doberman Pincher,
Staffordshire Terrier, Whippet, Lurcher) were not. The type of diet did not
influence the incidence of obesity (Edney & Smith, 1986) but Sloth (1992)
suggested that dogs fed a home-prepared rather than a commercial diet were
more prone to obesity. Owners who were obese (Mason, 1970) and those in
older age groups were more likely to own an obese animal. Current
recommendations may overestimate the energy requirements of adult dogs
(Butterwick & Hawthorne, 1998).
Management of obesity in the dog involves modifying the behaviour of
the owners such that they manage the feeding and exercising of the dog more
effectively. Good owner compliance is essential and family agreement is
necessary if any weight-reducing programme is to work. Norris and Beaver
(1993) recommended that clients should keep a diary of the feeding
behaviour and activity level of the dog and then treat the obesity by feeding
scheduled meals in a fixed location and constantly monitor the food given
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and activity. When pen-housed dogs were placed on calorie-restricted diets,

they were initially more active around feeding time, but this was followed by
a decrease in activity. Severe calorie restriction may induce a decrease in
activity in penned dogs and thus be less productive if weight loss is required
(Crowell-Davis et al., 1995).
If a dog is 15% overweight then an initial target weight loss of 15%
should be set. This can be achieved within 12 weeks (Markwell et al., 1990).
The diet offered should be 40% of its calculated daily maintenance
requirement for its target weight (Sloth, 1992) (Table 4). The food should be
fed in several small meals if possible and a gradual increase in activity is
recommended. The patient should be weighed every 2 weeks. In a study of
controlled calorie reduction, dogs were allowed 209 kJ metabolisable energy
per kg (target weight) (0.75) per day, with a target weight 15% less than
initial weight. The dogs lost about 1% of weight per week over a 12-week
period (Markwell et al., 1994). Dogs are used as models of obesity for
research into insulin resistance (Villa et al., 1998) and hypertension (Pelat
et al., 2002) in humans.

Table 4. Energy requirements for weight reduction in dogs.

Target bodyweight (kg) Maintenance energy 40% of energy (kcal)
requirement (kcal)
5 420 170
10 705 280
15 955 380
20 1,180 470
25 1,400 560
30 1,600 640
40 1,990 795
Adapted from Sloth (1992)

4.3 Specific forms of malnutrition

Developmental orthopaedic disease includes a group of musculoskeletal

disorders in growing dogs, especially large and giant breeds. Hip dysplasia
and osteochondrosis are the two significant diseases that are influenced by
nutrition. Excess intake of calcium and energy, in conjunction with rapid
growth, are important factors in the development of these conditions. It is
important to limit food intake and growth of the susceptible breeds. Limiting
food intake had a beneficial effect on reducing hip dysplasia in Labrador
Retrievers (Kealy et al., 1992).
Thiamine deficiency is uncommon, but is one of the few uncomplicated
deficiencies seen in dogs. It may be caused by food being cooked at too high
a temperature for a prolonged period of time, or by a diet of fish. It causes
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anorexia and weakness. Poorly produced commercial diets may cause

thiamine deficiency.

5. DIET AND LONGEVITY

A restricted diet is known to increase longevity in rodents. When one

group of Labrador Retrievers were fed 25% less than a second group which
was fed ad libidum from 8 weeks to 3.25 years of age, and then fed 25% less
than the diet fed to the second group to prevent obesity, the dogs fed the
lesser amount had a median life span (when 50% of dogs died) significantly
greater (13 years) than the group fed more (11.2 years) (Kealy et al., 2002).
In addition, their maximum life span (when 90% had died) was 14 years
compared to 12.9 years for the group fed more. This difference was not
significant, but the sample numbers were small. The dogs fed less were 26%
lighter and needed treatment for osteoarthritis later (13.3 years) than did
those fed more (10.3 years). The BCS (1 emaciated - 9 severely obese) from
6 to 12 years was lower in the dogs fed less (4.6) than in those fed more
(6.7), and Kealy et al. (2002) recommended that dogs be fed to maintain a
BCS of less than 5 on a scale of 1 (emaciated) to 9 (severely obese).

6. DIET AND BEHAVIOUR

The effect of diet on the behaviour of dogs is a subject about which little
is known. Many veterinarians and dog trainers use diet in their treatment of
behavioural problems (Mugford, 1987), particularly aggression and
compulsive behaviours, but apart from individual clinical cases little has
been demonstrated in clinical trials. When dogs with dominance aggression,
territorial aggression or hyperactivity were fed a diet low in protein,only
those with territorial aggression based on fear showed a reduction in
aggression (Dodman et al., 1996). When tryptophan was added to a low
protein diet, owner-derived aggression scores in dogs with territorial or
dominance aggression were reduced (de Napoli et al., 2000). The restriction
of calorific intake decreased activity in penned dogs and may have increased
aggressive behaviour (Crowell-Davis et al., 1995). The addition of
antioxidants to diets appeared to modify age-related behavioural changes in
the dog, with a reduction in age-related house-soiling, and reversed
behaviours seen with cognitive dysfunction syndrome. The addition of a
premium diet to a programme of human interaction reduced hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal axis activity in dogs housed in a public animal shelter
(Hennessy et al., 2002).
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7. ENRICHMENT METHODS

The addition of specific types of food such as large raw bones, pigs’ ears
and treats make eating a more interesting experience, and dogs may display
food-related aggression around such materials. This suggests that these are
highly valued and indicates that perhaps having such items of food is a
behavioural need. However, when extras are fed their nutrient value must be
removed from the normal diet. Also, bones should not be fed to rapidly-
growing puppies of the large and giant breeds as this will increase their
calcium intake substantially and may lead to problems.
When an animal lives in an inadequate environment and is showing signs
of abnormal behaviour it is generally recommended that the environment be
enriched to allow the animal to engage in a wider range of activities. Making
food acquisition more difficult is a standard method of environmental
enrichment as is varying the type of food offerred. There is a range of
feeding devices available which make the dog work in some way for its
food. These include pipes or bones into which sausage or canned food is
pushed and which the dog empties by licking the food out, and double-
skinned dry food distributors that have to be moved around to get them to
drop out kibbles of food. Whether these do much for an individual dog is
unclear, but owners like to imagine the dog is working for its dinner. In
laboratory dog cages, strips of rawhide have been hung up to keep the dogs
occupied.

8. CONCLUSIONS

The nutrition of owned and valued dogs has improved over the last 50
years as enhanced knowledge of the nutrient requirement of dogs has been
used in the preparation of commercially available dog foods. The dietary
requirements of dogs at different stages of growth and ageing can be met
with specially prepared diets. These help control the incidence of disease.
Special prescription-type foods are also available for dogs with specific
disease problems. The welfare significance of feeding commercial versus
homemade diets remains unclear. Obesity and starvation are important
welfare problem for many dogs.
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Chapter 5
HEALTH AND WELFARE

Abstract: The health of dogs in wealthy, developed countries is generally excellent. The
number of veterinarians primarily interested in canine medicine and surgery is
high and continues to increase. Knowledge of the diseases of dogs and their
prevention and treatment has increased greatly in the last 40 years and
continues to grow. This advance in knowledge has allowed veterinarians to
support the extreme physical characteristics found in some dogs. It has also
allowed veterinarians to prolong the lives of dogs affected with previously
incurable diseases. Veterinary surgery is also now highly developed and
surgery such as artificial hip replacement is becoming common. Organ
transplantation will soon be normal practice. Health insurance for dogs has
enabled many clients to avail themselves of what previously would have been
prohibitively expensive treatment for their dogs. It has facilitated the
development of veterinary practice. The health of the majority of dogs living
in underdeveloped countries remains poor and infectious disease epidemics
and parasites are very common in these populations.

1. INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases of dogs

has improved dramatically in the last four decades. This has occurred due to
a change in the human-dog relationship which has seen the dog become an
important companion animal. Livestock farmers are willing to finance
disease prevention and the treatment of individual animals if it is
economically worthwhile. If treatment is too difficult or expensive and the
prognosis is guarded then it may be more economical to kill the animal
rather than treat it. The health of a companion animal is perceived
differently. The animal is of little economic value but its personal value

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makes it worthy of treatment. The amount of money that an owner will

spend on an animal will vary greatly and the major reason for poor health in
dogs in wealthy countries is now neglect and ignorance of owners rather
than a lack of veterinary knowledge.
The development of pet health insurance in many countries allows
owners to afford treatments that would have been prohibitively expensive in
the past. Where pet health insurance is common, veterinarians are able to
develop skills and obtain equipment to treat conditions which were not
treated in the past due to economic, medical or surgical constraints. This
ensures that many dogs that would have had to be killed or allowed to suffer
can be treated. To a large extent, developments in canine medicine and
surgery have followed developments in human medicine and surgery,
although dogs are often used as models for human disease and surgical
development. However, there have been developments in the area of canine
medicine. In this chapter, the positive and negative effects of veterinary
medicine and surgery on the welfare of dogs will be discussed.

2. THE VETERINARY PROFESSION

Veterinary medicine has an ancient tradition based in farriery and

herbalism. An Egyptian fresco of around 1000 BC shows a man taking a calf
from a cow, perhaps the earliest illustration of dystocia and its treatment in
an animal. Veterinary medicine has a long history in the Near and Middle
East and China (Dunlop & Williams, 1996), it is likely that Alexander the
Great had veterinarians to look after his horses and that Genghis Khan had a
cadre of veterinarians to mind the horses on their great march west.
The great cattle plagues of the 18th Century in Europe stimulated
establishment of the first veterinary school in France in 1762 (Wilkinson,
1992). In the 18th and 19th Centuries, the profession was occupied with the
health of horses and cattle, although it is probable that dogs were also
attended to. Blaine published a book on equine and canine diseases in 1800
and in 1817 a book on canine pathology was published (Dunlop & Williams,
1996). Veterinary knowledge of canine diseases continued to increase and
the development of general anaesthesia and radiology allowed surgeons like
Hobday in England to improve the diagnosis and treatment of illnesses in
dogs (Dunlop & Williams, 1996).
The demise of the horse as a military animal and its replacement as a
traction animal by steam-, petrol- and diesel-powered engines in the early
part of the 20th Century impacted heavily on the veterinary profession,
which turned its attention to farm animals to justify its existence. This
occurred especially after 1945 when the emphasis on increased food
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production allowed it to work in conjunction with agricultural science in

increasing livestock and poultry production.
In the last 50 years, the emphasis of veterinary science has changed from
livestock, horses, and working and sport dogs to a primary interest in
companion animals. In the USA prior to 1950, few veterinarians made a
living from small animal medicine, but in 1991 more than 50% of the 60,000
veterinarians in North America described themselves as predominantly small
animal veterinarians, and nearly 23,000 were exclusively so (MacKay,
1993). Recent figures from the American Veterinary Medical Association
illustrate the trend (Table 1). Predicted changes in veterinary employment
for the next decade show this trend continuing and the number of
veterinarians in the USA in small animal practice is predicted to rise from
44,667 in 2005 to 52,741 in 2015 (Table 2), despite numbers of dogs
levelling off during the last decade and the number of households with dogs
declining (Brown & Silverman, 1999). Other branches of veterinary science
are expected to remain stable during this period (Table 2).
This continuing increase in the number of small animal veterinarians will
intensify competition in the profession and may make veterinary services
more affordable (Boivin, 1998). This outcome may be necessary, as in the
USA most pet owners were willing to pay only a little over $1,000 to keep
their favourite pet from dying (Brown & Silverman, 1999).

Table 1. Membership of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and the type
of practice they engaged in over the last four decades. Personal communication with Allison
Shepherd, AVMA.
Practice 1962 1971 1980 1990 2000
Small animal 3,963 7,050 11,676 21,237 30,987
Mixed (mostly small NA NA 4,041 5,308 5,969
animal)
Total membership 23,623 25,665 25,102 38,458 50,070
NA = not available

Table 2. Predicted changes in the number and employment of veterinarians in the USA until
2015.
Employment 1997 2000 2005 2010 2015
Small animal 39,875 41,416 44,667 48,415 52,741
Large animal 11,728 11,738 11,951 12,049 12,081
Academia 5,784 5,792 5,829 5,865 5,900
Industry 1,962 2,009 2,152 2,337 2,431
Government 3,986 3,989 4,021 4,049 4,064
Total 63,351 64,944 68,620 72,715 77,317
Adapted from Brown & Silverman (1999)

This change in the direction of the veterinary profession is reflected in

the curriculum of most veterinary schools in the developed world, where
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companion animal medicine and surgery dominate years of clinical training

and the dog is the most studied species. Student demography has also
changed over the last 30 years from predominantly males with a rural
background to females from urban areas (Aitken, 1994; Miller, 1998). This
probably reflects a change in the veterinary profession from being concerned
with animal production to caring for animals. This should improve the
welfare of the dog over the next few decades, as female veterinary students
rated themselves as having higher levels of emotional empathy with animals
than male students (Paul & Podberscek, 2000). Thus they should be more
concerned about the welfare of dogs (Herzog et al., 1991). Men may be
perceived as more threatening by dogs than women (Hennesy et al., 1997;
Wells & Hepper, 1999). There has also been a change in the use of animals
during the teaching of veterinary undergraduates in the last decade. Fewer
animals, especially dogs, are used in physiological practicals. The use of
unowned dogs in surgery training when the animal is allowed to recover
from anaesthesia, has declined greatly.
The increase in the number of veterinary practitioners available for dog
owners has been accompanied by an increase in the number of veterinary
specialties available for referral consultations. In the 1960s and 1970s,
veterinarians developed interests in individual species and in particular
aspects of veterinary medicine and surgery. In the USA, this led to the
development of specialist groups, and individuals became expert in
particular areas of medicine and surgery both within and between species.
These groups developed training programmes and interested veterinarians
could then study and proceed through a series of examinations to become
registered specialists. This development spread worldwide and the Royal
College of Veterinary Surgeons in the UK and the Australian College of
Veterinary Scientists have specialist registration for individuals with
particular knowledge in specific areas, and there is also a European list of
veterinary specialists. This ongoing development of specialisations has had a
major influence on the progress of clinical knowledge and has resulted in
practices with multiple specialists providing referral services for general
practitioners. Specialists are now registered in a wide range of disciplines
(Table 3) and are found in private specialist practices and veterinary training
colleges worldwide.
Veterinarians in companion animal practice do not receive government
support and have to be financially self-sufficient. This raises issues between
time spent with patients and clients, the fees charged and a client’s ability or
willingness to pay. Veterinary fees for individual clients can be held low
only if sufficient clients use the services and each client takes up a limited
amount of time. This causes veterinarians to narrow their focus and
concentrate on the current or obvious illness, possibly ignoring the overall
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wellbeing of the animal (Pascoe, 2002). Veterinarians may not spend time
investigating the nutrition, home environment and behaviour of the animal as
the economics of practice force them into short consultation times and rapid
diagnosis (Pascoe, 2002). This niche in veterinary medicine has been filled
to some extent by those who practice complementary and alternative
medicine. They fill a requirement for a more holistic approach to the health
of animals.

Table 3. Some of the specialist areas defined by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
(RCVS) and the Australian College of Veterinary Scientists (ACVSc).
RCVS ACVSc
Anaesthesia Anaesthesia and cr itical ca re
Cardiolog y Animal behaviour
Dent istry A nimal welfare
Dermatology Canine medicin e
Diagnostic imaging Der matolo gy
Neurology Em erge ncy and cr itical care
Nutrition Nutrition
On cology Oncology
Op hth almology Radiology
Pathology Small animal medicine
Reproduction Small animal surgery
Small animal medicin e
Small animal surgery
Small animal surgery (Orthop aedics)
Small animal sur gery (Soft t issue)

The veterinary profession had widened its area of interest in the last few
decades. For instance, veterinarians now regularly advise on pet selection,
canine nutrition and behaviour, run socialisation and training classes for
young dogs, and engage in genetic counselling. Development of formal
training courses for veterinary nurses has had a major impact on the breadth
of veterinary involvement in the dog’s life and canine veterinary practice is
becoming more holistic while remaining bound to evidence-based medicine
and surgery. Of particular importance is the growing veterinary interest in
canine behavioural problems. This has led to an acceptance that anxiety is
fundamental to many of these problems and that alleviation of anxiety is
essential in their treatment (Overall, 1997). Consequently, there is a deeper
interest in how animals experience life, which is fundamental to animal
welfare (Duncan et al., 1993). There is an increased interest in the entire life
of a dog from puppy socialisation through training, to the environment that
an individual dog occupies and its lifestyle. Veterinarians and veterinary
nurses have become involved in the treatment of behavioural problems in
dogs (Chapter 10) and in the prevention of such problems (Overall, 1997). In
addition, veterinarians are the major source of advice for canine nutrition
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(Chapter 3). Practising veterinarians and their staff are well suited to educate
clients to improve the welfare of their dogs, and appear to be doing so
effectively.
Pet insurance has become common in some European countries such as
the UK and Sweden. In the latter, 50% of dogs are insured (Bonnett et al.,
1997). However, the rate of uptake of pet insurance is very low in the USA,
and in one survey 46% of people were not interested in insuring their pets at
all, while 23%, 15%, 8% and 5% were willing to pay $5, $10, $15 or $20 or
more per month for pet insurance, respectively (Brown & Silverman, 1999).
This lack of insurance may limit development in veterinary practice as dog
owners may be unable or unwilling to pay for expensive treatments.

3. VETERINARY SCIENCE

Veterinary science is an applied science concerned with examining

animal health problems and solving them. In the last 40 years, it has
undergone major development, as seen by the increase in veterinary books
and journals being published. First editions of many of the major texts in
canine medicine and surgery were published in the 1970s and they have
progressed through several editions. Canine Medicine and Therapeutics was
first published for the British Small Animal Veterinary Association in 1970
and the 4th edition, edited by N. Gorman, was published in 1998. Ettinger’s
Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine was first published in 1975 and is
now in its 5th edition. Important textbooks on the diagnosis and treatment of
canine behavioural problems have emerged more recently (Overall, 1997).
Many veterinary journals began in the 1960s and 1970s but others, such as
Veterinary Dermatology (1990) and Progress in Veterinary and Comparative
Ophthalmology (1991), are more recent in origin and reflect the growing
specialisation within the profession.
Scientific papers published in these journals have become increasingly
concerned with dogs rather than other species. In a survey of the annual
index of one journal published monthly, the Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association, entries under canine species increased from
53 in 1960 to 92 in 1970, 71 in 1980 and then decreased back to 53 in 2000,
presumably as other journals with a canine focus were created. During this
period, entries under bovine declined from 55 in 1960 to 15 in 2000. A
similar trend in canine-related papers is seen in the index of the American
Journal of Veterinary Research but in that journal, papers about cattle also
increased.
There have been numerous major developments in the last 50 years in
veterinary science, relating to the health and welfare of dogs (Table 4).
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Vaccines are now available for all the major infectious diseases, or dogs can
be treated reasonably effectively. Many of these developments depended on
using dogs as research animals. This has been costly with regard to the
welfare compromise that occurred during development and testing. Many
treatments, for example improvement in treating diabetes mellitus, have
followed advancements in human medicine. Technical developments in
canine surgery have occurred alongside similar developments in human
surgery, facilitating rapid accession of the techniques by veterinarians. Hip
replacement and complex cardiac, gastrointestinal and thoracic surgeries are
now common. Organ transplant surgery is not common in dogs yet, and
there are concerns about the welfare of donor animals. Intensive care of
seriously injured or ill animals and care after surgery have developed
significantly in the last decade. Palliative care is still in its infancy in
veterinary medicine but will develop as increasing numbers of owners
request long-term treatment for dogs with cancers and cognitive dysfunction
syndrome.

Table 4. Some major veterinary developments which have improved the welfare of dogs.
• Development of vaccines for rabies, canine distemper, infectious canine hepatitis,
leptospirosis, parvovirus disease.
• Widespread use of sulphonamides and penicillin
• Treatment for demodectic mange
• Safe anaesthetics; cheaper, safer and non-narcotic analgesics
• Safe ovariohysterectomy
• Anthelmintics for round worms
• Hip replacement surgery

The major infectious diseases of dogs include canine distemper,

infectious canine hepatitis, leptospirosis, rabies, kennel cough and
parvovirus disease. Vaccines are available for these and in most wealthy
countries the majority of dogs are vaccinated against most of these diseases.
Surveys are rarely conducted, but in Ontario more than 95% of dogs had
been vaccinated and 88% of rural and 82% of urban dogs had visited a
veterinarian in the previous year (Leslie et al., 1994). Nowadays, distemper,
leptospirosis and canine infectious hepatitis, which were common canine
diseases in most developed countries 30 years ago, are rare. There are
concerns about the effect of vaccination on the immunocompetence of
vaccinated dogs but there is little evidence to support these concerns, which
are offset by the significance and often fatal consequences of the diseases
against which the vaccines are used.
Advances in veterinary science resulting in overcoming a new problem
was illustrated when parvovirus disease emerged in the 1970s as a new
major infectious disease of dogs, particularly young dogs. Treatment
protocols were rapidly developed and a vaccine was produced within a
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couple of years. The quality of the vaccine has since improved and now
parvovirus occurs only when pups are not vaccinated against it, usually in
poorer societies and countries.
The wide range of antibiotics which are available for the treatment of
humans has been adapted for the treatment of dogs and allows more specific
targeting of different bacteria. Concerns about the veterinary use of
antibiotics influencing development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in human
medicine may result in prohibition of some antibiotics in veterinary
medicine in the future.
The majority of internal parasites of dogs are now easily controlled with
drugs. Heartworm, a parasite of great concern in dogs in many countries
can now be controlled by preventative programmes following advances
in veterinary research. Severe parasite conditions of the skin, such as demo-
dectic mange, can now be treated successfully. The availability of effective
anthelmintics from both veterinarians and supermarkets has resulted
in many dogs now being free of internal parasites which were once common-
place (Bugg et al., 1999). Likewise, the availability of effective, easy-to-
apply topical treatments for fleas has made control of this parasite easy.
Veterinarians began using general anaesthesia for dogs in the 19th
Century, and early in the 20th Century local anaesthetics became available.
There are always risks with general anaesthesia but today it is almost always
safe if administered correctly and monitored adequately. The use of
analgesics is increasing rapidly due to increased veterinary concern about
pain in animals and the development of cheap, safe and effective analgesics
(see Chapter 6).

4. VETERINARIANS AND THE HUMAN-ANIMAL

BOND

The human-animal bond is a phrase commonly used in discussing

relations between people and their pets and in some cases the human-dog
bond may be as complex as the relationship some people have with other
people (Stern, 1996). Veterinarians may underestimate the depth of the
relationship (Catanzaro, 1988) and the impact that the loss of a dog has on
their clients. However, veterinary staff and students agree that
compassionate and caring attitudes were necessary during euthanasia and
that clients had the right to be present during that procedure if they want to
and should be well informed and prepared (Martin et al., 2004). This
suggests that veterinarians are sensitive to the needs of their clients, at least
during euthanasia of their pets.
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In the past, with poorer knowledge and skills, many dogs that were
seriously injured, in pain, or sick with diseases which were difficult to treat
were subject to euthanasia to end their suffering. Now, with many advances
in surgery and medicine, many dogs are treated that would have been killed
previously. One of the major animal welfare issues in veterinary medicine is
when to treat a dog, which will suffer for some time during convalescence,
and when to humanely end its life. This decision is made by the owner, with
advice from the veterinarian. Veterinary advice is also important in
preventing dogs being surrendered to animal shelters, possibly because it
lowers the owners’ expectations of what a dog can provide and increase their
knowledge of what is normal dog behaviour. The depth of the human-dog
bond may have positive and negative effects on the welfare of the dog. It
may encourage the owner to pay for the cost of expensive treatment but may
prevent euthanasia of a terminally ill dog with a poor quality of life. The
veterinarian may gain more financially from treating an animal than from
terminating its life, and current emphasis on the human-dog bond supports
treatment as the preferred option. In some societies such as in Japan,
euthanasia is not as acceptable as it is in western cultures (Kogure &
Yamazaki, 1990). Moreover, in western cultures, urbanisation has removed
the population from the reality of livestock production, and the development
of the animal rights philosophy, has made euthanasia less acceptable to many
people. The increase in information on canine health and disease, especially
through the worldwide web, has made owners more knowledgeable and more
demanding of sophisticated treatment, as has the rise in pet health insurance.
While this may appear good for the individual dog, it might mean a life of
pain and misery rather than death. It is possible that veterinary science has
exceeded its mandate (Lascelles & Main 2002). The question of whether to
treat or kill remains pertinent. As an example should we replace the hips of a
dog with hip dysplasia or end its life humanely? If a major intent of those
concerned with animal welfare is to minimise pain and suffering then it may
be more appropriate to kill the animal rather than treat it and have it suffer
even for short periods of time.
In 1998, a survey of 478 cases of euthanasia of dogs in veterinary
practice found that the majority were for reasons of senility (60%) or
terminal illness (27%), while behavioural problems (6%), trauma (5%) and
the euthanasia of healthy animals (2%) made up the rest (Edney, 1998).
These results suggest that euthanasia is used appropriately, that is primarily
to kill old and diseased animals with poor quality of life rather than healthy
animals. Assessment of the quality of life of a dog is a subjective process
and is difficult to quantify (McMillan, 2000), but specific factors such as
feeding behaviour, response to the owner and general demeanour can be
useful indicators (Stewart, 1999).
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The pain caused by surgical intervention for ongoing disease or chronic

conditions such as some cancers, and severe trauma is significant. The
surgery may be radical and give rise to severe pain. The affected animal will
probably be hyperalgesic and resistant to analgesic therapy (Lascelles &
Main, 2002). Unless this is recognised and effectively dealt with using
effective analgesic protocols, the severe pain experienced by the dog, may
lead an owner to elect euthanasia as a preferable option.

5. COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE

THERAPIES

There is a large and developing interest in complementary and alternative

therapies for human and veterinary patients. Some veterinarians have
developed interests in homeopathy and acupuncture (Schoen, 2001) and some
colleges have specialist chapters in this broad area. However, the majority of
therapists are not trained veterinarians.
The effectiveness of alternative therapies as a means of inducing
analgesia was reviewed by Pascoe (2002). He found evidence that although
acupuncture did cause an increase in nociceptor thresholds in test animals,
the clinical evidence that it acted as an analgesic was poor. Veterinarians
who recommend nutraceuticals believe that a number are analgesic and there
is some evidence of this effect by certain dietary supplements in horses and
people. A lot more research needs to be undertaken to demonstrate the
analgesic effects of alternative and complementary treatments before they
can be recommended to relieve pain in dogs.

6. CONCLUSIONS

Practicing veterinarians in the developed world now concentrate on the

dog as the main species of interest. There have been many significant
developments in the ability to prevent and treat canine disease and in
surgery. Many of these these developments have followed improvements in
human medicine and surgery. Veterinarians may underestimate the human-
dog bond but they use euthanasia carefully and usually to relieve the
suffering of old dogs with poor quality of life. In many poor countries
veterinary care of dogs remains inadequate and dogs still suffer from the
major infectious diseases and parasites that are rare or well controlled in
wealthier countries.
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Chapter 6
PAIN IN DOGS: ITS RECOGNITION AND
ALLEVIATION

Abstract: Pain is an unpleasant but important experience. It enables an animal to identify

and respond to dangerous stimuli and to learn to avoid them in the future. Pain
is inevitable but in the domestic dog it should be prevented and controlled
whenever possible. Assessment of pain in the dog is a controversial
undertaking, comprising two major methodologies. In one method, pain is
assessed by interpreting canine behaviour using a number of scales. This
method depends on subjective human evaluation of pain and is influenced by
individual human perceptions of pain and its expression in dogs. In the other
method, the behaviours of dogs subjected to painful procedures with and
without analgesia, are monitored rigorously and compared. The behaviours
which indicate pain are identified and can then be used to assess the efficacy
of various analgesic protocols. The use of analgesics in dogs by veterinarians
is still limited but is growing as safer and cheaper analgesics become
available. Preventing and alleviating pain is an important way to improve the
welfare of dogs whn injured, after surgery, or suffering from chronic painful
diseases.

1. INTRODUCTION

Pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory or emotional experience

associated with actual or potential tissue damage (Merskey, 1979). It is a
subjective experience and solipsism, which states that the only
consciousness an individual knows is his or her own, proposes that the
assessment of pain in another human or species is impossible. It is necessary
to reject solipsism before a discussion on the measurement of pain in
animals can be undertaken. Bateson’s (1991) comment “that though

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solipsism is logically defensible, most people would treat hard-line solipsism

as an absurd stance”, is easy to accept. However, everyday solipsism is not
hard-line, it is a common factor in human interaction and is more obvious
when we try to quantify what animals experience. Indeed, quantifying pain
in humans is an elusive and complex undertaking (Richards et al., 1982).
The perception of pain and its alleviation differ markedly between
individuals (Bhargava, 1994) and are influenced by gender and physiological
states such as pregnancy and parturition (Cook, 1997; Machado et al., 1997).
Solipsism has been rejected by analogy and this stance is taken by many,
including Singer (1998), who stated “my belief that animals can feel pain is
similar to the basis of my belief that my daughter can feel pain. Animals in
pain behave in much the same manner as humans do”. Although this opinion
is questionable it is supported by morphological and physiological studies
that demonstrate similarities in the physical mechanisms necessary for pain
perception between all mammals (Broom, 2000). Thus, most people believe
that mammals feel pain but may disagree about how it is experienced. A
second act of faith is required to accept that animals experience pain in a
fashion similar to how humans experience it. This is more difficult as
individual humans have quite different experiences of pain in response to
similar stimuli. However, it is not necessary to believe that animals feel pain
as humans do, only to accept that pain is an experience that they will avoid
and which will dominate their physiology and behaviour in a similar manner
to the experience of pain in humans (Flecknell & Molony, 1997). The great
pain physiologist, Patrick Wall (1992), argued that the phrase ‘pain in
animals’ is meaningless as humans do not share identical experiences with
animals, but that when we injure an animal we should, by whatever means,
assist its return to a normal physiological state.
Today, it is widely accepted that dogs feel pain (Paul-Murphy et al.,
2004) and that physiological and behavioural responses can be used to assess
and compare the severity of the pain experienced by dogs subjected to
different physical insults with or without analgesia. This allows a
comparison to be made of the relative unpleasantness of different procedures.
Pain is an important aspect of living and its prevention and alleviation an
important aspect of animal welfare. It is useful in that it helps an animal to
identify a physically damaging situation, to escape from it, to convalesce,
and avoid it in future. Pain is an important component of an animal’s
experience of suffering. Dogs experience pain during and after injury or
surgery, and as a result of some disease states such as cancer, joint disease,
periodontal disease and various skin conditions (Taylor, 1985). The
assessment of pain and its alleviation are important elements in how we
manage dogs. The use of analgesics by veterinarians is still quite low but has
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increased substantially over the last decade as safer drugs have come on the
market. This chapter will briefly describe the physiology of pain, its
assessment and the use of analgesics in dogs.

2. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN

Pain is the perception of an unpleasant sensation caused by damaging

stimuli. The nervous pathway of pain is a three-neuron link, starting in the
periphery and projecting to the spinal cord (first-order), ascending the spinal
cord (second-order), and projecting to the brain (third-order) (Johnston,
1996). When tissues are damaged nociceptors are stimulated. Nociceptors
are part of afferent nerve fibres which respond to physical, chemical or
thermal insult. They are numerous in the skin, and internal tissues such as
periosteum, joint capsules, arterial walls, muscles and tendons. Most pain
impulses are carried in myelinated Aδ and C fibres. The former produces
sharp prickly pain and the latter slow burning pain. C fibres are associated
with visceral pain as only they are found in the viscera. The threshold of a
nociceptor must be exceeded before an impulse travels to the central nervous
system. It is similar for all animals. Chemicals such as histamine and
bradykinin, which are released by damaged cells, stimulate nociceptors, and
other chemicals, such as prostaglandins sensitise nocieptors to stimulation
(Sackman, 1991). Inflammation associated with damaged tissues stimulates
nociceptors, especially C fibres, and causes a dull aching pain.
Nociceptor afferent fibres enter the spinal cord from the dorsal root and
terminate on dorsal horn neurons. Three categories of neurons in the dorsal
horn play a role in nociception. Projection neurons relay the nociception to
the central nervous system, excitatory interneurons relay nociceptive input to
other cells, and inhibitory neurons contribute to the control of nociceptive
transmission (Sackman, 1991). The ascending neurons form two different
pathways; the ventral spinothalamic tract projects to the thalamus and the
ventral spinoreticular tract terminates on the reticular formation in the brain
stem. Neurons project from the thalamus to the cortex, where characterisation
and location of pain occur.
Tissue damage and inflammation cause pain hypersensitivity and there is
an increased response to painful stimuli (hyperalgesia). This may be
accompanied by allodynia, when pain is caused by stimuli that normally are
not painful (Muir & Woolf, 2001). A ‘soup’ of substances including contents
of damaged cells and sensitizing agents from inflammatory cells may
activate sensory nerve endings but also lowers the threshold of high-
threshold nociceptors. In addition, spinal neurons become hypersensitised
(central sensitisation) to further stimuli and there is an increase in the
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duration and size of the response to further stimuli. The intensity and
character of pain can be reduced by endogenous opioids and biogenic amines
in the spinal cord.
Pain is categorised in different ways. In one classification, there are three
major categories of pain, namely acute, cancer and chronic pain (Johnson,
1991). Acute pain can be classified as somatic or visceral. Somatic pain
arises in the superficial structures (skin, subcutaneous tissues, body wall)
and can be divided into first and second pain. First pain is the well-localised
initial sharp pain associated with tissue damage, while second pain is the dull
diffuse pain which is delayed. Visceral pain arises from thoracic and
abdominal viscera and is a feature of serosal irritation. Acute pain is
generally easy to treat. Cancer pain has a well-defined onset and is acute,
recurrent pain. Pain is considered chronic when it lasts for several months.
Its onset is poorly defined and it is often difficult to treat. In another
classification, pain is categorised as physiological or pathological (clinical)
(Taylor, 2003). Physiological pain is essential for survival. It allows
detection of potentially harmful stimuli and reflex responses to them. It
hurts, but is of short duration and sensation quickly returns to normal.
Pathological pain arises when tissue damage occurs and the injured tissues
become hypersensitive (Webb, 2003).

3. ASSESSMENT OF PAIN

Pain is assessed in animals using two methodologies (Hansen, 2003). The

first is animal-orientated and attempts to identify aspects of the animal’s
behaviour, and physiological, immunological or other responses which can
be used to identify pain, and which can be measured and used to assess the
severity of pain. The second method uses the human interpretation of
behaviour to assess the severity of pain. Both methods have strengths and
weaknesses. The former is initially difficult and expensive to undertake both
financially and ethically but allows the animal to present the relevant
responses. The latter is easier to conduct but does not ‘ask’ the animal what
it is experiencing, only what humans think it is experiencing (Holton et al.,
2001), and relies on the subjective evaluation of behaviours whose
correlation with other behavioural or physiological indicators of pain and
distress have not been confirmed (Hansen, 2003). There are additional
problems in that there are individual responses to painful stimuli and some
breeds of dogs, for example American Pit Bull Terriers, are considerably
more stoical than other breeds.
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3.1 Animal-based methods

To determine whether a particular behavioural, physiological,

immunological or other response is indicative of pain, a protocol in which
sufficient control groups and groups given effective local anaesthetic and/or
systemic analgesics before and after treatment must be developed (Mellor
et al., 2000). Control groups must include animals receiving no analgesic,
hence the high ethical cost (Flecknell & Molony, 1997), and local anaesthetic
or systemic analgesics are used to determine their effect on the responses
being monitored (Flecknell, 2000). Protocols of this complexity using dogs
are uncommon but necessary if the behavioural and physiological responses
indicative of pain are to be identified (Table 1) (Fox et al., 1994, 2000). It is
preferable if these responses are monitored concurrently or in parallel
studies, but behaviours must be identified before developing scoring systems
for pain assessment in clinical situations, and they can only be developed by
protocols such as those of Fox et al. (2000). The pain experienced by
animals similar in breed, age, gender and previous experience can be
compared using such protocols, but it may not be possible to compare
different classes of animals (Stafford & Mellor, 1993).

Table 1. Protocol to identify changes in behaviour following ovariohysterectomy plus

different combinations of halothane anaesthesia and butorphanol analgesia.
Treatment
1. Control Catheterised but not anaesthetised
2. Anaesthesia control Anaesthetised
3. Analgesia control Butorphanol given
4. Analgesia plus anaesthesia 2+3
5. Anaesthesia plus surgery 2 + Ovariohysterectomy
6. Analgesia, anaesthesia, surgery 3+5
Adapted from Fox et al. (2000)

Scientific protocols can be used to determine how an animal responds

behaviourally to different painful stimuli, identify which behaviours can be
used to identify pain, and to evaluate the severity alleviation of pain. These
protocols are of three basic types: (1) observational studies, when animals
subjected to surgery (Table 1), or injured or diseased animals are compared
with control groups and groups receiving effective analgesia; (2) pain
threshold trials, which measure the response of treated and control animals
to defined painful pressure, or thermal or electrical stimuli; and (3) choice
studies, where animals are allowed to avoid or choose painful or non-painful
treatments or to self-medicate with an analgesic to alleviate pain.
Four axioms (Lester et al., 1996) have been used to determine what overt
behaviours are useful in identifying pain. They may also be used to evaluate
the use of other parameters such as the plasma cortisol response, as indices
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of pain in any species. The axioms are that a behaviour may: (1) identify
pain, if it is seen during and after a tissue-damaging injury but not seen in
non-damaged animals; (2) identify nociception and, by inference, pain, if it
is seen during or after a tissue-damaging procedure but not when local
anaesthesia is used; (3) identify pain, if it is present after a tissue-damaging
injury but is not present when effective analgesics are used; and (4) be
injury-specific.
The first axiom is intuitive. The posture, demeanour, activity and
vocalisation of injured animals, which differ from those of their healthy
peers, are used routinely as indicators of pain. Thus, it is possible to identify
specific behaviours that occur only, or more or less frequently, after specific
injuries if the injured animals and their uninjured peers are observed and
their behaviours compared. This is fundamental to the human-based methods
of assessing pain in animals. However, these behaviours may indicate not
just pain, but irritation, dysfunction or convalescence.
In the second axiom, if a behaviour occurs during or after treatment but
does not occur when local anaesthesia is used, then that behaviour is
probably evoked by nociception elicited within or near the damaged tissue.
Different injuries may elicit unique behavioural responses because the
sensations experienced by an animal may differ when different tissues are
injured or similar tissues are damaged in different ways. The unique
behaviour evoked by specific injuries makes it difficult to use behaviour
alone to compare the pain experienced by animals subjected to different
treatments. If behaviour is to be used to compare the pain experienced by
animals, there needs to be a continuum of expression of a single behaviour in
response to different treatments (Lester et al., 1996).
Overt behaviour is the final outcome of a complex interaction between
physiological responses and psychological influences. The pain caused by a
particular injury may stimulate an animal to behave in a pain-reducing
manner, but this may conflict with the animal’s desire to remain
inconspicuous (Broom, 2000). Overt behaviour may not be the best index of
pain because of these complex influences on it, but with careful observation
behaviours indicative of pain or irritation may be observed hours, days and
weeks after injury. In dogs, the effect of analgesia on these behaviours has
not been studied enough to confirm that they are definitively pain-related,
and furthermore it may not be possible to differentiate between pain and
irritation.
Fox et al. (2000) identified 166 behaviours in bitches, subject to
ovariohysterectomy, that could be used an indices of post-operative pain; 76
of these occurred so infrequently as to be of no clinical use. Five behaviours
frequently seen associated with surgery were a decrease in cage circling
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speed, an increase in drawing up the hindlimbs, incision licking, vomiting,

and flank gazing.
Hardie et al. (1997) identified 15 behaviours and eight combinations of
wakefulness and body position that were useful to characterise post-
operative pain behaviour. Hansen (2003) described a programme in which
the behaviour of dogs was automatically measured for 24 hours after
anaesthesia, anaesthesia and ovariohysterectomy, or partial enterotomy. The
dogs had been given a placebo or the analgesic carprofen. Trained caretakers
evaluated the pain using a visual analogue scale (VAS), a four-level verbal-
rating scale, and a categorised numerical-rating scale (NRS). Some
behaviours (time spent near front of cage, speed of movement, distance
travelled), plus the pain-rating scales, could identify a ‘surgery effect’ but
not a ‘carprofen effect’. This study illustrates the weakness of using overt
behaviour per se and scales, and suggests the importance of combining
behavioural and physiological responses to painful stimuli.
Pain threshold studies, using toe-pinch callipers (Hamlin et al., 1988) or a
hand-held pin-pushing device (Lascelles et al., 1997; Slingsby et al., 2001),
have been used on dogs to examine the analgesic effects of a number of
drugs. The threshold to a mechanical stimulus changed in animals suffering
from chronic pain (Ley et al., 1989), which might be due to changes in nerve
function or nociceptive processing at a higher level (Nolan, 2000b). Sheep
with severe lameness had significantly lower thresholds to a mechanical
stimulus than sound animals, and this hyperalgesia remained for several
months. The threshold for sheep with mild footrot was not different from
that for sound sheep (Ley et al., 1995).
When given a choice, animals will probably select the less painful of two
experiences or may self-administer analgesics. The latter method has been
used to determine the painfulness of lameness in broiler chickens (Danbury
et al., 2000) and laboratory animals (Flecknell, 2000), but it has not been
used in dogs.
The physiological mechanisms of pain, including the stimulation of
nociceptors, transmission along pain pathways, and electrical and
neurotransmission activity in the somatosensory cortex, can be monitored
(Mellor et al., 2000). The physiological stress responses that are induced by
activity in the pain apparatus can also be monitored (Mellor et al., 2000).
These stress responses, particularly the plasma cortisol response, have been
used frequently in studies designed to assess the pain and distress caused by
surgery in livestock (Mellor & Stafford, 1999) but have been rarely used in
dogs (Fox et al., 1994; Hansen et al., 1997). Kyles et al. (1998) found no
difference in respiratory and heart rates, and arterial blood pressure in
bitches in the hours following an ovariohysterectomy with analgesia and
those that had analgesia alone. Heart and respiratory rates and pupil dilation
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were poor indicators of pain when compared with a NRS in dogs following
surgery (Holton et al., 1998b). However, the value of the NRS used as an
indicator of pain also remains unproven, being a subjective scale based on
the experience and feelings of the persons involved. To confirm that the
physiological parameters are ineffectual would require a study in which
there were sufficient control groups, including groups not receiving
analgesia (Table 1).
Activity of the sympathetic adrenomedullary system concerned with ‘fight-
flight’ responses may be assessed using plasma adrenaline and noradrenaline
concentrations, heart rate and blood pressure. The hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenocortical (HPA) system initiates long-lasting metabolic and anti-
inflammatory responses. Indices of HPA activity include plasma
concentrations of cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and
corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). These are useful indices because,
within certain limits, HPA activity increases in a graded way in response to
the presumed noxiousness of different experiences (Mellor & Stafford,
2000). In clinical research, the plasma cortisol response has been shown to
be a useful indicator of pain and distress in dogs (Fox et al., 1994).
Changes in these parameters provide an indication of how unpleasant an
experience is emotionally and physically. The rapid response of the
sympathetic-adrenomedullary system makes it useful during the first few
minutes after application of a painful stimulus, and the HPA axis is more
useful subsequently. The HPA system responds to a wide range of physical
and emotional experiences, both unpleasant and pleasant. If the stimuli are
obviously noxious and appropriate control groups are used, the plasma
cortisol response can be informative about the relative pain experienced by
similar animals treated differently, provided sufficient control groups are
included in the protocol.
The plasma cortisol response can vary in complexity. It may be simple,
that is rising to a peak and then returning to pre-treatment concentrations, as
is usual with castration and/or tailing of lambs (Dinniss et al., 1997), or it
may be more complex, as with amputation dehorning of calves (Sylvester
et al., 1998a,b). A plasma cortisol concentration-time curve derived from
repeat blood samples allows the magnitude and speed of change, and the
duration and pattern of the entire response, to be determined. Differences
between groups in the initial or later concentration changes, peak
concentration and time to reach it, and time of return to pre-treatment
concentrations are informative, but only if they can be related to the entire
response. In contrast, comparing plasma cortisol concentrations before
treatment with values at one or two arbitrary times afterwards provides little
valuable information and can be misleading. The plasma cortisol response
can be quantified in several ways (peak height, response duration, area under
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the cortisol curve), but no single numerical factor adequately defines the
response, and the more complex a response, the less likely it is that one
number will represent it effectively.
Thus, the plasma cortisol response has been used to assess pain but care
needs to be taken when interpreting responses at the upper extremes of the
response range, because different noxious stimuli applied simultaneously
may not have additive effects on cortisol responses. This is a ‘ceiling
effect’, in which the overall noxiousness of two painful stimuli applied
simultaneously may be underestimated as each alone would elicit a
maximum cortisol response (Molony & Kent, 1997; Molony et al., 2002;
Wilson & Stafford, 2002).
A wide variation in cortisol responses to a specific treatment is common.
It is important to distinguish between the effects of pre-treatment stressors
on different animals and animal-specific differences. Some animals show
consistently high and others consistently low responses to the same stimulus
(Petrie et al., 1996a, b). The use of cortisol as a single physiological index
allows conclusions to be drawn only about those features of the acute
response that are reflected by changes in plasma cortisol concentrations
(Mellor & Stafford, 1999, 2000). The return of plasma cortisol response to
pre-treatment concentrations does not prove that the animal is pain-free; it
merely indicates that the noxious input at that time is not sufficient to elevate
cortisol.
The plasma cortisol response in bitches following ovariohysterectomy
was sustained which suggests that the physiological and psychogenic inputs
are important for between 5 and 24 hours (Fox et al., 1994). The integrated
plasma cortisol response for 6.5 hours following treatment increased in the
following order: control, anaesthesia, analgesia, and ovariohysterectomy.
When an analgesic (oxymorphone) was given to bitches undergoing
ovariohysterectomy there was a slight decrease in the plasma cortisol
response (Hansen et al., 1997). When Fox et al. (1998) gave butorphanol
after ovariohysterectomy it reduced the plasma cortisol response
significantly, although when it was given pre-operatively it did not.

3.2 Human-based methods

The difficulties in putting together the scientific protocols for the animal
based methods described above encourage many to use anthropocentric
techniques to evaluate pain in dogs. These researchers look at the overt
behaviour of the dog and, with knowledge of what the dog had experienced,
they quantify that pain, using one of several systems. It is accepted that the
behaviour and demeanour of an animal are indicative of pain, but when an
injury or a disease incapacitates an animal physically and its normal
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functions are not easily performed, then the behaviour may reflect the degree
of incapacitation rather than pain. Again, if specific behaviours are important
for convalescence (Hart, 1991), they may be part of the recovery process
rather than be caused by pain. Incapacity may cause distress by limiting an
animal’s ability to escape from predators, but this is not pain. Behaviour
following injury may increase an animal’s chances of survival by preventing
further damage, maximising wound healing, stopping another animal from
inflicting more damage, or eliciting help from con-specifics (Molony &
Kent, 1997), but may not occur in response to pain.

Table 2. A pain assessment sheet for use in dogs.

Assessment Pain exhibited
Observe from outside cage:
Posture Rigid
Hunched or tense
Neither of these
Does the dog seem to be Restless
Comfortable
If the dog is vocalising is it Crying or whimpering
Groaning
Screaming
Not vocalising/none of these
If the dog is paying attention to its wound is it Chewing
Licking/looking/rubbing
Ignoring its wound
Open cage, call dog to come:
Does the dog seem to be Aggressive
Depressed
Disinterested
Nervous/anxious/fearful
Quiet or indifferent
Happy and content
Happy and bouncy
Get the dog to stand and sit or walk: Stiff
During this procedure did the dog seem Slow/reluctant to rise/sit
Lame
None of these
Assessment not performed
When the wound was touched did the dog Flinch
Snap
Growl or guard wound
None of these
Adapted from Holton et al. (2001)

NRS and VAS were unreliable at assessing acute pain in dogs in a

hospital setting (Holton et al., 1998a), and there was a poor correlation
between a NRS and the physiological parameters associated with pain in
dogs (Conzemius et al., 1997; Holton et al., 1998b). Lists of behaviours
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which indicate that a dog is in pain have been produced (Morton & Griffiths,
1985; Sandford et al., 1986; Dodman et al., 1992), but these have not been
validated. Other scales to assess pain in dogs have been developed
(Conzemius et al., 1997; Hellyer & Gaynor, 1998; Firth & Haldane, 1999)
but these were poorly defined. However, Holton et al. (2001) has defined
words used to describe pain in dogs and developed a scale to measure this.
He classified a set of 47 words, utilised by veterinarians to describe pain,
into nine categories (demeanour, response to people, response to food,
posture, mobility, activity, response to touch, attention to painful area,
vocalisation), plus a physiological category. These terms were further
evaluated by veterinarians and a score sheet produced to be used in the clinic
to evaluate pain in dogs (Table 2). Mathews et al. (1996) compared the
effects of three different analgesics using a subjective scale with four ranks
of behaviour (exuberant, normal, comfortable, and assumed painful) and
rated vocalisation, movement and respiratory patterns on a scale of three.
The assumed painful behaviours included crying, depressed, shaking,
thrashing, biting, reluctance to move, and splinted abdomen.
However, this score sheet has not been used in a clinical setting to see if
it is differentiate between animals receiving analgesia or not, and it has not
been compared with the physiological responses of dogs to painful stimuli.

3.3 Veterinarians in practice

In one Australian study Watson et al. (1996) found that most

veterinarians used vocalisation, response to handling, and depression as
indicators of pain in dogs (Table 3).

Table 3. Signs used by 471 veterinarians as indicators of pain in dogs.

Indicator of pain No. of veterinarians noting signs
Vocalisation 271
Response to handling or palpation 193
Depression 135
Other behavioural changes 129
Altered respiration 109
Immobility 104
Abnormal posture or function 95
Inappetence or anorexia 90
Increased heart rate 83
Muscular movements 59
Aggression 52
Restlessness 44
Adapted from Watson et al. (1996)

The behaviours listed in Tables 2 and 3, and those used in a more recent
study by Muir et al. (2004) (vocalisation, movement and interactive
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behaviours), differ from those identified by Fox et al. (2000) as being

closely related to the pain caused by ovariohysterectomy. It is known that the
pain caused by different types of surgery, or disease of different tissues
cause different behavioural responses and so it is necessary to identify the
behaviours relevant to major types of surgery and use them as indicators of
pain, rather than using a range of intuitive but perhaps irrelevant behaviours.
In rats, Roughan and Flecknell (2001) identified four of more than 100
behaviours seen after surgery that were useful as clinical indicators of pain.
This is similar to the number of behaviours identified by Fox et al. (2000) as
being useful indicators of pain in bitches after ovariohysterectomy. Thus, it
is necessary to identify the relevant behaviour in a series of behavioural
studies in dogs if we are to ensure that specific analgesics are working in the
short and longer term.
The option of monitoring a mixture of behaviours and physiological
responses (Laredo et al., 2004) and various scales (Hudson et al., 2004), by
veterinary staff or owners (Vaisanen et al., 2004), to determine if a dog is
experiencing pain remains more popular than identifying a limited number
of clinically useful behaviours determined by specific research protocols.
Defining the relevant behaviours is ethically costly and financially
expensive and tedious. An alternative is to accept that dogs experience pain
after surgery, and using the awareness of certain conditions known to cause
pain in humans, administer analgesics without monitoring for pain.

4. ANALGESICS

The identification of morphine as an analgesic was a major breakthrough

in human medicine, but until recently interest in the alleviation of pain in
dogs has concentrated on making surgery easier and safer by using general
anaesthesia or deep sedation. Post-operative analgesia was not considered.
Surgery results in acute pain, which is experienced during the procedure and
for some hours or days afterwards, and in the development of hyperalgesia
where the response to a painful stimulus is exaggerated, or allodynia when
stimuli that are normally not painful become painful. Pain management
should reduce acute pain and prevent pathological pain (Nolan, 2000a).
General anaesthesia acts to prevent the perception of pain during surgery,
but pain may be perceived immediately after the animal becomes conscious
again. Therefore anaesthesia should be combined with a longer-acting
systemic analgesic to prevent post-operative pain. Local anaesthesia is used
to prevent pain during a surgical procedure but is not commonly used in
dogs. Lignocaine, which is the common local anaesthetic drug used in
veterinary practice, is applied to nerves or the spinal cord and is metabolised
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very quickly once absorbed systemically. It is short-acting, lasting for about

45 minutes. Local anaesthetics have the disadvantage that they block motor
as well as sensory nerves, which can cause temporary paralysis.
There is now a range of systemic analgesics, mostly either opioids or
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (Table 4), and there are
many clinical indications for their use in dogs (Flecknell and Waterman-
Pearson, 2000). The analgesic effect of NSAIDs was initially considered to
be due to their peripheral anti-inflammatory actions, but some of them have
also been shown to have central nervous system effects (Chambers et al.,
1995). The list of neuromodulators with which NSAIDs interact directly or
by altering transcription is growing daily. The effectiveness of any particular
drug as an analgesic will depend on its pharmacokinetics, on the cause of
pain, and on poorly understood characteristics of the drug itself. Some
NSAIDs, notably phenylbutazone, are more anti-inflammatory than
analgesic; while others, such as carprofen, are more analgesic than anti-
inflammatory. The longer period of activity of some NSAIDs may make
them more useful in clinical practice than opioids. Pharmacokinetics varies
widely between species and extrapolation between them is problematic.
Morphine is very effective for the control of pain in dogs. Pethidine is a
useful analgesic if given intramuscularly, and methadone, oxymorphone and
buprenorphine are also useful analgesics (Dobromylskyj et al., 2000).
Veterinarians in Australia commonly use the narcotics pethidine and
buprenorphine and the NSAIDs flunixin and dipyrone in dogs (Table 4).
Some NSAIDs, such as phenylbutazone, have a very long half-life, but
aspirin has a very short one. Pethidine has a very short duration of activity
(Table 4) and its widespread use in Australia surprised Watson et al. (1996).
Some drugs are better at treating different types of pain than others. In
humans, morphine is effective against inflammatory pain but not neuropathic
pain, while tricyclic antidepressants are more useful against neuropathic pain
than inflammatory pain (Muir & Woolf, 2001). There is little information
about the use of the latter as analgesics in dogs.
In the last decade, there have been many trials investigating the
comparative analgesic effects of different drugs in dogs, both when used pre-
inter- and post-operatively (Branson et al., 1993; Nolan & Reid, 1993;
Lascelles et al., 1994; Pibarot et al., 1997; Grisneaux et al., 1999; Slingby &
Waterman-Pearson, 2001; Caulkett et al., 2003; Fowler et al., 2003). This
body of research, and its publication at veterinary conferences and in a wide
range of journals read by veterinarians in clinical practice, is stimulating and
supports the increased use of analgesics by veterinarians, as does the large
number of reviews of pain assessment and its alleviation in dogs (Potthoff &
Carithers, 1989; Johnson, 1991; Hanssen, 1994; Brock, 1995; Abeynayake,
1997; Fox, 1999; Hellyer, 1999b, 2002).
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Table 4. Drugs used as analgesics in dogs by 481 veterinarians (vets) in Australia.

Drugs No. Vets Potency* Dose Intervals
using drugs (mg/kg) (hrs)
Narcotic analgesics:
Buprenorphine 36 25 0.01–0.02 12
Butorphanol 11 5 0.4–0.6 4
Fentanyl 7 100 0.04–0.08 2
Methadone 8 1 0.2–1.0 2–6
Morphine 14 1 0.2–1.0 2–6
Pethidine 63 0.2 2–10 2
NSAIDs:
Aspirin 25
Copper indomethacine 10
Dipyrone 43
Flunixin 49
Ketoprofen 22
Paracetamol 1
Phenylbutazone 29
Piroxicam 1
Alpha-2 agonists:
Xylazine 34
* Relative to morphine
Adapted from Watson et al. (1996)

5. VETERINARIANS AND ANALGESICS

Until recently, the use of systemic analgesics in companion animal

practice has been low, but within the last twenty years veterinarians have
begun to use analgesics more commonly, especially after surgery thought to
be particularly painful. In Britain and in Canada, more than 93% and 84% of
veterinarians, respectively, used analgesics with orthopaedic surgery (Dohoo
and Dohoo, 1996; Capner et al., 1999), but only about 50% of dogs received
analgesia after ovariohysterectomy (Capner et al., 1999). Similarly, more
than 80% of veterinary respondents in an Australian study used analgesics
for what they considered painful surgical procedures and 94% used them for
acute severe trauma (Watson et al., 1996). Veterinary use of analgesics
appeared to be influenced by assessment of the painfulness of the procedure,
and they were used by 68% for thoracotomy, 60% for cruciate ligament
surgery, 53% for lateral ear resection, 34% for mastectomy, 32% for
dentistry, 29% for perineal hernia repair, and 22% for toe amputation, but
only 6% for ovariohysterectomy and 4% for castration (Watson et al., 1996).
In the late 1980s, only 40% of dogs undergoing major surgery received
analgesia in one North American veterinary teaching hospital (Hansen &
Hardie, 1993). In 1999, more than 80% of veterinarians in South Africa did
not intentionally use analgesics in dogs undergoing sterilisation (Joubert,
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2001), and in the mid-1990s in Canada, only 13% of veterinarians used

analgesia following ovariohysterectomy and 11% following castration
(Dohoo and Dohoo, 1996). A recent survey in New Zealand found that
76% and 65% of veterinarians used analgesics for dogs undergoing
ovariohysterectomy and castration, respectively (Williamson et al., 2005).
Veterinarians tended to give analgesics during or after surgery but before
anaesthetic recovery, with few waiting until recovery to see if pain
developed (Watson et al., 1996). The former is the usual approach in human
surgery also. There is some support for giving analgesics before surgery
commences, as this prevents the occurrence of painful stimuli and patients
may require less post-operative analgesia. The acute pain caused by surgery
causes an increased stress response (Fox et al., 1994) which prolongs
recovery and increases morbidity (Lascelles et al., 1994). There may also be
prolonged hyperexcitability of neurons in the spinal cord, leading to
tenderness, hyperalgesia, bouts of intense pain and reduced efficacy of
analgesics (Lascelles et al., 1994), thus supporting the use of analgesics pre-
operatively. Moreover, leaving analgesia until after surgery is the least
efficient way of using analgesics. The pain experienced by dogs following
surgery has been predicted from the human experience of different types of
surgery (Table 5). However, there have been no attempts to compare the
physiological and behavioural responses to different types of surgery in
dogs.

Table 5. Expected post-surgical pain in dogs.

Surgery Expected level of pain
Nail trim, suture removal, cast application No pain
Suturing, debridement, urinary catheterisation, dental cleaning, Minor pain
ear examination and cleaning, abscess lancing, cutaneous
foreign body removal

Ovariohysterectomy, castration, Caesarian section, cystotomy, Moderate pain

anal sacculectomy, dental extraction, cutaneous mass removal,
laceration repair

Fracture repair, cruciate ligament repair, thoractotomy, Severe pain

laminectomy, amputation, ear canal ablation, exploratory
laparotomy, ophthalmological surgery
Adapted from Johnson (1991) and Hellyer (1999).

In Canada, the presence of an animal health technician in a veterinary

practice modified attitudes towards pain and increased the likelihood of
analgesia being used, possibly due to the technican being involved in
observation of the animals and their treatment in the wards (Dohoo and
Dohoo, 1996). Female veterinarians had a similar effect (Dohoo and Dohoo,
1996; Capner et al., 1999). Veterinarians who had graduated within 10 years
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were less concerned about the side-effects of analgesics, and used analgesics
more commonly than those who graduated earlier. Of concern was the
observation by Dohoo and Dohoo (1996) that attendance at continuing
education activities within the previous 12 months increased veterinary
concern about the side-effects of opioid analgesics and reduced the usage of
analgesics.
The administration of analgesics to dogs post-operatively does not mean
that they receive effective pain relief, as there is little information
concerning effective dosage rates and the duration of effectiveness for most
analgesics (Capner et al., 1999). In addition, administering one analgesic is
unlikely to be 100% effective, and inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain and
cancer pain are best treated by a combination of analgesics that act by
different mechanisms and possibly synergistically (Muir & Woolf, 2001).
When given peri-operatively, analgesics are usually continued for a
maximum of 24–36 hours. It is likely that after some orthopaedic surgery a
dog may experience pain for longer than that, but little is actually known
about the effect of analgesia on the longer-term behaviour of dogs after
surgery. Long-lasting-depot-analgesics make the long-term use of analgesics
more feasible. The use of analgesics in research laboratories, including for
dogs where invasive surgery is practised, is now almost universally
mandatory, but, surprisingly, they are not always used (see Chapter 9).
Chronic pain is usually defined as pain present for 3–6 months, but
veterinarians usually consider a dog to be in chronic pain if it has persisted
for 3–4 weeks (Hardie, 1996). Chronic pain may cause significant changes in
the nervous system, including hyperalgesia and allodynia. Common causes
of chronic pain in the dog include osteoarthritis, degenerative disc disease
and cancer. Chronic pain is difficult to identify if the behaviour of the dog is
not altered, and may be difficult and expensive to treat. Pathological pain in
the neck and back occurs in many medical conditions in dogs and may be
difficult to diagnose (Webb, 2003).
Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease in dogs and in the UK,
owners of at least 500,000 dogs out of a population of more than 6 million
dogs have sought treatment for this disease; it is estimated 1.3 million dogs
probably suffer from it. In the USA, probably 10 million dogs suffer from
the condition at any one time and only a small number of these will be
treated (Lascelles & Main, 2002). In one study of military dogs, 20% of
those humanely killed had osteoarthritis (Moore et al., 2001). Veterinarians
use analgesics to treat the pain associated with osteoarthritis, in combination
with chondroprotective agents, weight reduction and controlled exercise
(Hardie, 1996), but many of those treated will not receive sufficient
analgesic or for an insufficient duration.
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As long ago as 1978, Yoxall recommended analgesia for dogs with

cancer, but because the signs of pain are not as obvious as in osteoarthritis,
owners and veterinarians may be slow to alleviate it. Lascelles & Main
(2002) estimated that in the USA, with a population of more than 50 million
dogs, 20–25% (8–12.5 million) might have cancer. The level of pain caused
by different cancers will vary from none to extreme pain, but this may not be
recognised in many of these animals. If recognised, treatment is available but
how beneficial it is remains unclear. Cancer pain may need to be treated
stepwise, using a NSAID initially combined with a weak and then a strong
opioid analgesic. If nerve compression due to a nerve root tumour is causing
pain then it may be necessary to use antidepressant drugs such as
amitriptyline (Hardie, 1996).
The reluctance to use analgesics, even in companion animals, is difficult
to understand, given that almost all veterinarians believe that animals feel
pain. It is curious that many clinicians will use antibiotics without being
certain that a bacterium sensitive to that antibiotic is involved in the disease,
yet they may be loath to use analgesics unless certain that the animal is in
pain. However, veterinarians are concerned about the side-effects of narcotic
and NSAID analgesics (Capner et al., 1999), but there is now a wide range
of analgesics with few side-effects to allay these concerns. In addition, many
veterinarians may be reluctant to use opioid analgesics because of the
problems with safe storage and the associated paperwork (Watson et al.,
1996; Capner et al., 1999), but cost does not seem to be an issue restricting
the use of analgesics in dogs (Capner et al., 1999).
There is an argument against using analgesics, which states that pain
causes inactivity and this promotes healing and accelerates convalescence;
30% of veterinarians surveyed thought that pain could limit a dog’s activity
after surgery and so reduce risk of suture breakdown (Capner et al.,
1999). Ther is little evidence to support this concern. From a professional
standpoint, veterinarians should be advocating the use of analgesics, where-
ver possible, as they are ethically obliged to prevent unnecessary and
unreasonable pain. Younger veterinary graduates and women in particular
award higher pain scores for ovariohysterectomy than older graduates and
men, respectively (Capner et al., 1999). This suggests that increasingly,
veterinarians will use analgesics routinely in future for almost all surgery.
In a useful review, Pascoe (2002) discussed the use of alternative that is
non-pharmacological, methods of alleviating pain in animals. There is little
published in this field, but acupuncture may relieve pain in humans.
However, gold wire or gold beads placed in predetermined acupuncture
points had no beneficial effect on dogs with hip dysplasia (Pascoe, 2002).
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6. CONCLUSIONS

The prevention and alleviation of pain is a key component in the

management of dogs, and is one of the most important ways to improve the
welfare of dogs undergoing surgery or in the treatment of chronic conditions
such as lameness. There are difficulties with the assessment of pain due to its
subjective nature, but until knowledge allows surety about the experience of
pain in any animal it is probably best for veterinarians to afford the benefit
of the doubt and use analgesics. However, there is a need to further the work
of Fox et al. (2000) and use defined protocols with sufficient control groups
to determine whether what we believe are good behaviours to monitor pain
in dogs are actually useful. Chronic pain may be a much greater problem in
dogs than acute pain. The diagnosis of chronic pain is only possible if the
animal’s behaviour changes significantly. This may not occur with many
conditions, and even if recognised treatment may be inadequate.
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 7
TRAINING METHODS

Abstract: There are more books about the training of dogs than the training of any other
species. This suggests that there is great interest in the subject and that there
are many trainers who believe their advice is valuable. Most modern textbooks
relate to the dog as a companion rather than a working animal. Indeed, there
are few books dealing with the training of dogs that work with sheep or cattle.
Most books recommend positive reinforcement as the most important training
technique. Inadequate training and a lack of control are a major causes of dogs
been abandoned, neglected and of public disquiet about canine behaviour. The
misuse of punishment and training tools such as electric training collars has a
negative effect on the welfare of dogs and may result in fearful, timid dogs
that are stressed even by the presence of their owner or handler. However,
there is not enough known about the physiological responses to different
methods of training and whether training dogs for sports such as agility is
stressful.

1. INTRODUCTION

The methods used to train and retrain dogs are described in a multitude of
books, suggesting there is a cadre of dog-orientated people interested in
these topics. This may include a large number of people who want to know
how to train their dog but do not want to attend classes, or have attended
classes and not found them useful, or who have dogs with behavioural
problems. In addition, books are available on training dogs how to engage in
particular sports or work.
The desired outcomes from training a companion dog are relatively few
and straightforward. The animal should always come when called, sit and
stay, lie quietly, understand “NO!” and “be quiet” and should walk beside

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the handler and generally ignore other people and dogs. The dog should not
be aggressive and be able to cope with being alone for long periods of time.
It should be trained to toilet outside, preferably in one place on the owner’s
property, or indoors in a toilet tray. It should not jump up on people nor bark
incessantly.
Working and sporting dogs are expected to accomplish whatever they
were bred, reared and trained to do effectively and safely. If competitive,
they should win or at least perform well. Show, agility, obedience, field trial,
and racing dogs have to be trained to behave in a manner which facilitates
their success. In competitive obedience dogs have to perform in quite a
specific manner, but many obedience classes focus on training dogs to be
under control in private and public, that is becoming good canine ‘citizens’.
Dogs were probably selected for an ability to focus on human behaviour
and are very sensitive to human body language such as pointing (Miklosi
et al., 1998; Hare & Tomasello, 1999; Soproni et al., 2001, 2002). They will
respond to humans pointing even when olfactory cues suggest that food is
not placed where the person is pointing (Szetei et al., 2003). One dog, a
9-year-old Border Collie named Rico, was shown to be very sensitive to
words and learn to associate over 200 items with spoken words. It had an
amazing ability to learn what new words meant in a single trial (Bloom,
2004; Kaminski et al., 2004). If dogs are so focussed on humans then many
of the difficulties seen with uncontrolled dogs are probably due to humans
giving the wrong signals and inadvertently encouraging inappropriate
behaviour. Thus the difficulty in training dogs to behave in a quiet and
controlled manner is probably due to humans not reinforcing such behaviour.
Dogs, regardless of breed, are very attached to humans and regard them
as a secure base (Topal et al., 1998). This should make the training of dogs
to behave appropriately easy, which it is, but many people do not know the
basics of training. In addition some people in the dog training industry may
want to make dog training sound difficult and complicated to enhance their
role. Training in dog schools may not be appropriate for some dogs and
owners, and training at home may be more effective. Dogs have to be taught
what is correct as well as what is not acceptable. As dogs are very sensitive
to our actions it is surprising there are so many dogs with behavioural
problems, and this suggests the physical and social environment which many
dogs inhabit is inadequate, that is too little to do and too little contact with
humans.
In essence, virtually all training is undertaken using different aspects of
operant and classical conditioning, to suit the animal, owner and behaviour
required. Books describe different techniques but the theories underlying
them are all essentially similar. There are different schools of thought about
dog training; one suggests that dogs should be trained with positive
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reinforcement only, and another that dogs should made ‘respect’ the handler
without any overt reinforcement. Historically, punishment and negative
reinforcement were the main methods used to train dogs but now positive
reinforcement is more popular (Hiby et al., 2004). Methods vary from
friendly methods, such as ‘clicker training’, to quite harsh methods, which
depend on positive punishment including beating and the use of electrical
shock collars, punishers that could wound and cause mental harm (Schilder
and van der Borg, 2004). Generally, pet dogs are trained using positive
reinforcement while working dogs are trained using positive reinforcement
and punishment. In this chapter, the welfare implications of training methods
and poor training will be discussed.

2. INADEQUATE TRAINING

The most important aspect of training with regard to the welfare of a dog
is the effect often inadequate training. Evidence of poor training includes
uncontrolled aggression, jumping up on people, hyperactivity, and excessive
barking. In a survey of dog owners in suburban Melbourne, the majority
(63%) of respondents stated that their dog was overexcited, jumped on
people (56%), rushed people (38%), or barked excessively (32%) (Kobelt
et al., 2003b). The majority of these dogs had received some training from
the owner but 35% had no training at all and only 20% had formal training.
This was similar to the 24% of dogs, in an American study that had formal
training (Voith et al., 1992). Large dogs were more likely to have had formal
training (Kobelt et al., 2003b). The type of training is important with regard
to the welfare of the dog during training, but the outcome is very important
as it impacts on the dog’s whole life experience.
If formal training is likely to result in more obedient and controlled dogs
then it is to be recommended. There is evidence that attendance at formal
obedience classes does not influence the occurrence of problem behaviours
(Voith et al., 1992; Voith, 1993), but this was not found in other studies by
Clark and Boyer (1993) and Jagoe and Serpell (1996). Puppy socialisation
classes appear to have short-term effects on the obedience in dogs (Seksel
et al., 1999). Obedience training undertaken by only a small proportion of
dog owners caused an improvement in relations between dog and owner
(Clark & Boyer, 1993). Many working and sporting dogs are killed despite
being well bred and having the ability to be capable workers, because they
are badly trained and do not reach their potential. These dogs are often
neglected and abused before finally being disposed of.
Dogs which are better trained are less likely to have behavioural
problems. Beaver’s (1994) analysis of surveys from veterinary clients and
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the general dog owning public showed that aggression was the most
common behavioural problem being found in 19% of dogs. However,
excessive barking (13%), begging for food (8%), jumping on furniture (6%)
or people (6%) were also significant problems, suggesting a widespread
problem with disobedience. Disobedient dogs are less likely to be taken for
walks or played with and are probably more likely to be neglected, abused,
killed or surrendered to a shelter. Poor or inadequate training and its
behavioural consequences are likely to impact seriously on the welfare of
individual dogs. Well-behaved dogs are more likely to live indoors, be
treated as family, be valued, and brought to the veterinarian and groomer,
than disobedient dogs, or those out of control. Owners are less likely to
spend time and money on dogs that defaecate indoors, jump up on visitors
and attack the neighbours.

3. TRAINING TECHNIQUES

Learning theory forms the basis of training techniques. Psychologists have

categorised learning in different ways but a common classification includes
imprinting, habituation, operant conditioning, classical conditioning, latent
learning and insight learning (Drickamer and Vessey, 1982). All these classes
of learning are important for our understanding of how a dog learns to cope
with its environment and in allowing the dog’s owner to train it as required.
The key component of training is using the different elements of operant and
classical conditioning, but it is important to develop a training programme,
be consistent, and have short happy lessons which end favourably. Fear is
contraindicated during training.

3.1 Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on the premise that the consequences of a

behaviour will determine the probability that the behaviour will or will not
be repeated. If the consequence is pleasant (reinforced) then the behaviour
will probably be repeated, but if the consequence in unpleasant (punished)
then the behaviour may not be repeated. There are four major elements to
operant conditioning; positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a specific behaviour is followed by a
pleasant experience, a reinforcer, and thus makes the behaviour more likely
to be repeated. This is the basis of all modern dog training. Reinforcers may
be primary such as food, play, petting, a toy or sex, or secondary such as
praise or a ‘clicker’. The former are of biological significance and the latter
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are associated with primary reinforcers by classical conditioning. Positive

reinforcers must be delivered immediately the behaviour occurs. A delay, of
even a few seconds, between the behaviour and the reinforcer reduces the
efficacy of the latter. During early training, the ratio of behaviour-to-
reinforcer should be 1:1, but once the relationship is learned the reinforcer
should be given occasionally. Food works best when the dog is a little
hungry but not ravenous. Some dogs do not find food to be a very good
reinforcer so a plaything might be used instead.
Negative reinforcement involves removing something unpleasant from
the environment to increase the likelilhood of the desired behaviour. Choke
chains are often used incorrectly as negative reinforcers, as are electric
training collars.
Positive punishment is when an undesirable behaviour is associated with
an unpleasant experience, a punisher, which must be appropriate and delivered
immediately. A punisher is targeted at the behaviour not the animal. Physical
punishment is not generally recommended. Verbal punishment is often
effective if delivered effectively. Saying NO in a loud voice to a young pup
may be an effective punisher. Punishers may be too strong or too weak. The
latter result in habituation, the former constitutes abuse. Excessive reliance on
punishment may result in the dog becoming fearful of the handler or owner.
Punishers are often delivered too late and the behaviour being punished is not
the target one. For example, if a dog does not come when called and is
punished when it does come then returning to the owner is being punished.
Remote punishment is often recommended for working dogs and electric
training collars are used to deliver a remote punisher. The hand should not
be used to punish a dog, as the dog may become hand shy, and punishers
should not make the dog fearful (Landsberg et al., 1997). Punishment does
not mean physical abuse. A loud noise, a growl or a yell, may be sufficient
to punish a particular behaviour. Distraction, for example throwing a tin with
stones in it or a chain near to the dog is often recommended as a punisher.
Poor use of punishment has a significant negative impact on the welfare of
the young dog. In one study of how owners attempted to stop their dog
digging, many of the methods used were punishers (Adams & Grandage,
1989). These included scolding, smacking, spraying with a water hose,
putting faeces or a mouse trap in the hole, holding the dog’s head in the hole,
putting the dog in the rubbish bin or in the hole, or putting pepper on the
dog’s nose. Few of these methods on their own will stop a dog digging, and
they miss the important element of reinforcing an alternative behaviour and
providing alternative activities, or a special digging area. The methods used
as punishers show how ignorant and desperate many people are when
dealing with their dog’s behavioural problems.
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Negative punishment occurs when an animal that is experiencing

something pleasant engages in an unacceptable behaviour and the pleasant
experience is ended immediately. For example, if a dog sitting beside the fire
in the living room growls at a cat and it is then put outside immediately.
All four elements of operant conditioning may be used in training dogs,
but emphasis should be on positive reinforcement for companion animals
and punishment should be used only when necessary. The use of
punishment appears to be common. In one survey in the UK, 66% of
respondents used vocal punishment and 12% physical punishment, while
60% used praise, 51% food, and 11% play as reinforcers; overall 20% used
reward-based methods only, 10% used punishment only, and 60% used both
(Hiby et al., 2004). In this study, respondents used different methods of
training in different situations (Table 1). There was a positive correlation
between reward-based methods and dog obedience score. Dogs were more
likely to give up something if trained using play as a reinforcer, more likely
to walk-at-heel if trained using a reward-based method, and not to chew
items if given an alternative (Hiby et al., 2004). These researchers concluded
that punishment was not suitable for everyday training because although it
could be very effective if used correctly, pet owners may not understand how
to use it properly. Lindsay (2000) in his classic texts on dog behaviour and
training, considered excessive physical punishment to be inappropriate but
suggested that punishment had a positive outcome in that it enforced social
boundaries. He felt that problems with punishment arose from a poor
understanding of its uses as a behavioural tool.
Clicker training of dogs is now very popular. The clicker is a conditioned
secondary reinforcer which has the advantages of being consistent, easier to
use than many other reinforcers, and it is not influenced by the emotional
status of the trainer as is a voice reinforcer. The clicker can also reinforce a
behaviour carried out at a distance from the trainer and is an ideal reinforcer
for shaping behaviours through gradual approximations.

Table 1. The percentage of respondents in a UK survey who used different training methods
for dogs for specific tasks.
Task Punishment Reward Various
Toilet training 12 39 45
Chewing objects 79 4 40
Stealing food/objects 84 7 10
Sit on command 75 39
Come on command 2 78
Leave object 30 63
Heel training 26 45
Adapted from Hiby et al. (2004)
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Dogs trained by harsh methods of punishment are more submissive and

likely to engage in paw lifting, snout licking and crouching, all of which may
indicate stress or distress (Schwizgebel, 1983, cited by Beerda et al., 1997).
Increased stress may have implications for immunocompetence and health.
Dogs, whose owners used shaking or hitting during training, were more
likely to be aggressive towards other dogs (Roll & Unshelm, 1997) and
might show increased anxiety and separation-related behaviours, whereas
reward-based training was associated with reduced hyperactivity (Hiby
et al., 2004).
During training, some police and army dogs developed lowered levels of
immunoglobulin A in saliva, suggesting stress or distress caused by training,
while others maintained high levels (Skandakumar et al., 1995). The latter
tended to be confident animals closely attached to their handler. Similar
responses were seen in heart rates when trainee guide dogs were walked.
Some excitable, stress-prone dogs were unable to temper large changes in
heart rate while other calmer dogs could (Vincent & Leahy, 1997). Guide
dogs are trained using operant conditioning both positive reinforcement and
positive punishment (Lloyd, 2004), which produces very useful dogs (Naderi
et al., 2001). The trainers are, however, professional, whereas most people
who train pet dogs are amateurs. This suggests that for many dogs training is
an unpleasant experience.
The suggestion that it is good for dogs to engage in agility and
obedience-type classes and competitions may not be true. Such activities
may not benefit the animal’s welfare but may be distressing during training
and competition. Not enough is known about the effects of training and
different training methods on the physiological and immunological
responses of dogs.

3.2 Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning occurs when an unconditioned stimulus and a

conditioned stimulus are paired to produce an unconditioned involuntary
response. After repeated pairing the conditioned stimulus evokes a
conditioned response. Examples are the gastrocolic reflex which can be
used to train pups to defaecate in a particular place, and when secondary
reinforcers are linked to primary reinforcers. It also occurs when dogs
develop fear responses to particular stimuli, such as a veterinary clinic.
The lack of knowledge of dog owners and some professional dog
handlers and trainers with regard to the theory of learning and its application
is an important issue with regard to the welfare of dogs. In addition, training
is ongoing so a dog’s life is a constant learning experience and therefore
it is important for the welfare of the dog that owners understand the
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fundamentals of learning and training in order to maximise the dog’s ability

to cope effectively with its environment and behave in an appropriate
manner. To condemn the use of punishment without understanding its value
and to believe that training should only be by positive reinforcement is
pointless (Cheetham, 2003) and does not allow the use of the full range of
training options.

4. TRAINING SHEEP, SPORT AND WORKING

DOGS

Sheep dogs drive sheep by barking and a bounding body movement

(Huntaways, Bearded Collies), or by using their eyes to stare at and move
them (Border Collies, Heading Dogs). In one study of training Border
Collies, Marschark and Baenninger (2002) suggested that access to sheep
was a positive reinforcer and that denying them access to sheep was
negative punishment. In training Border Collies, blocking access (negative
punishment) was much more frequently used than allowing access (positive
reinforcement). They suggested that this form of punishment was
appropriate to that type of training, but that physical abuse was not.
Exercise training for sports dogs should match the level of fitness
required. Many sports dogs are under-prepared for their expected level of
activity. Hunting dogs are particularly at risk, being held in kennels for most
of the year and then expected to work all day under tough physical
conditions. Correct training protocols for the type of exercise (Table 2) result
in dogs being able to function effectively. Poorly-trained dogs are more
susceptible to injury and their inability to work effectively may leave them
subject to abuse, neglect and being killed.
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Table 2. The type of exercise required for different types of canine activity.
Type of exercise Type of dog
Sprint Racing greyhound, whippet and terrier
Coursing gazehound
Weight pulling
Intermediate Hunting (birds, rabbits) or pursuit of game (fox, deer, wild pig)
Field trial
Tracking
Livestock work
Frisbee, agility, jogging with people
Police
Guard
Military
Customs
Border
Drug detection
Search and Rescue
Guide dog and assistance dogs
Endurance Sled dogs
Adapted from Toll & Reynolds (2000)

5. TRAINING EQUIPMENT

Choke chains, also called check chains, have a mixed reputation amongst
dog trainers. Some regard them as an excellent training tool but others regard
them as synonomous with abuse (Mugford, 1995), and their misuse has been
criticised (Mugford, 1991; Myles, 1991). When used correctly choke chains
are effective punishers, but with poor timing they are likely to mistrain the
dog and can be injurious to the neck. When used as a choke they are merely
a tool of abuse. The proper use of a choke chain is not learned easily and for
that reason they are not suited to novice dog owners. Expecting a new dog
owner to learn to use a choke chain on a young dog within an obedience
class is unrealistic (Myles, 1991).
Head collars of different types have been available since 1984. They
allow owners to control the dog’s head and thus the body. They have
dramatically improved the success rate for retraining large boisterous or
aggressive dogs and allow owners to control what were previously
uncontrollable dogs (Mugford, 1995). They are probably the greatest device
developed in the last few decades which allow owners to gain control of
dogs that otherwise might have been killed or surrendered to a shelter. When
a head collar is placed for the first time dogs object to its presence with head
shaking, pawing and leash biting (Haug et al., 2002) but this resistance
usually wears off after a few minutes. Resistance may be due to irritation or
to human control. The head and ears of dogs wearing head collars are
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usually carried lower, suggesting submission, than when wearing a neck

collar and the latter are more unruly (Ogburn et al., 1998). The responses of
dogs to four different types of head collar were similar and no one collar was
better than the other (Haug et al., 2002). Physiological responses (heart rate,
respiratory rate, pupillary dilation, adrenocorticotrophic hormone and
cortisol levels) associated with wearing a head collar were not different from
those seen when a dog was wearing a neck collar (Ogburn et al., 1998). Most
dogs rapidly habituate to a head collar and can be more effectively and
safely controlled and retrained. Head collars are easier to use than a choke
chain and many dog trainers now prefer head collars to choke chains, this is
appropriate and probably to the benefit of the dog (Overall, 1997).
Neck collars are the standard means of control for most dogs, but head
collars and chest/shoulder harnesses are also popular. Prong and pinch
collars are instruments of abuse and suggest poor training and control. Dog
training tools that use sound to punish canine behaviour have not been
investigated and so the welfare implications of these tools remain unclear but
because they work as punishers there will be some welfare impact, and how
significant this is needs to be quantified.
Excessive barking is a constant problem with dogs especially for people
living in suburban and urban households. The motivations for persistent or
irritating barking must be identified before treatment is started and usually
one or a combination of adjusted management, behavioural modification and
drugs can be used to stop the barking. However, persistent offenders may be
killed, surrendered to a shelter or be surgically de-barked. Anti-barking
collars and muzzles have been developed to treat barking by punishing it.
Anti-barking collars are used to treat persistent barking dogs. There are
three types of collar, all of which act by punishing barking using an electric
shock, a citronella spray, or an unpleasant noise. Barking triggers the collar
and activates the punisher. All three are effective but the citronella-spray
collar decreased barking in more cases than the electric-shock collar (Juarbe-
Diaz & Houpt, 1996). The citronella-spray collar was more effective in
reducing barking while travelling in a motorcar than barking stimulated by
traffic or television (Wells, 2001). It was also better at training a dog not to
engage in coprophagy than an unpleasant noise, probably because the
citronella spray is more unpleasant (Wells, 2003). It has been suggested that
the citronella spray is a ‘disruptive stimulus’ rather than a punisher but it
fits the definition of punisher in that it reduces the likelihood of barking
occurring. If the use of an odourless spray is as effective as a citronella
spray then this would be better from the animal’s perspective as the smell
of citronella makes some dogs vomit, and it is possibly effective beca-
use it is so unpleasant. Forcing a dog to smell something unpleasant is
probably worse than a minor electric shock or an unpleasant noise, given the
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sensitivity of the dog’s scenting processes. Dogs may have between 220
million and two billion olfactory neurons but humans have only 2–5 million
of them.
Punishment is most effective if immediately after the behaviour is
punished, the animal is taught a more appropriate behaviour and this is
reinforced (Overall, 1997). This is not possible with anti-barking collars.
Dogs on which anti-barking collars have been used sometimes engage in
redirected aggression and may become anxious and fearful. Punishment
alone is not the best way to treat barking and is contra-indicated and cruel
when treating barking motivated by anxiety, such as separation anxiety, or
when the barking is an obsessive behaviour. Attention-seeking barking and
territorial barking can also be treated more effectively by alternative
methods. Anti-barking collars are not necessary if the motivation for barking
is identified and dog’s owners are willing to retrain or treat their dog and/or
modify its management.
An anti-barking elasticated muzzle that allows dogs to eat and drink but
prevents barking has recently been developed (Cronin et al., 2003). It works
by making it difficult for a dog to open its mouth wide enough to bark.
When the muzzle was placed, dogs became subdued, lowered their tail and
exhibited little tail wagging and less activity than dogs without a muzzle
(Cronin et al., 2003). However, the salivary cortisol response was the same
in dogs with and without anti-barking muzzles, suggesting that wearing an
anti-barking muzzle was not a distressing experience (Cronin et al., 2003).
The ability of dogs to drink or pant while wearing the collar was not
described but might be important in hot climates.
The use of boundary fences, which depend on an electric shock to train
dog to stay away from the boundary, have significant welfare implications if
they fail to work and dogs escape and are then exposed to a number of
dangers such as road traffic accidents, misalliance and theft. In addition dogs
do run through these fences and then cannot get back.

5.1 Electric training collars

Electric training collars have been used on working and pet dogs for
more than three decades. These training devices consist of a collar that
includes a battery and electrodes which generate an electric shock which can
be triggered remotely. The shock can be modified on some collars to suit
individual dogs while others have a single strength of shock. Some collars
sound a beep before the shock is delivered. The duration of the shock varies
from 1/1,000 of a second to 30 seconds (Schilder & van der Borg, 2004),
and generally a few thousand volts are used. Electric training collars
are generally used as a positive punisher but some are used as negative
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reinforcers. Electric shock caused pronounced salivary cortisol responses in

dogs and changes in behaviour, suggesting distress (Beerda et al., 1998).
When used to train police dogs, electric collars had a long-term effect on
the behaviour of dogs compared to those that had not experienced the collar.
Dogs trained with the collar engaged in more stress-related behaviours and
had lower ear posture than those that had not experienced the collar
(Schilder & van der Borg, 2004). They were more stressed on the training
ground and in a park than control dogs. The dogs trained by electric collar
associated their handlers and getting orders with being shocked. The use of
electric training collars during training is a painful and stressful experience
and dogs learn to associate their trainer with these shocks, even outside a
training context. The way the collar was used by police handlers was
important. The shock was used when the dog did not obey the ‘let go’
command, the dog ‘heeled’ ahead of the handler, bit the ‘criminal’ at the
wrong time, or reacted too late to the ‘heel’ command (Schilder and van der
Borg, 2004). In these cases the collar was associated with the handlers’
orders. Punishing the dog for not immediately obeying the handler’s
instruction is a poor use of the training collar and will certainly have long-
term effects. Some police dog handlers that do not use shock collars use
prong collars, beatings and kicks, and choke-collar corrections, and these
were not as distressing as the use of the electric training collar (Schilder and
van der Borg, 2004).
When electric collars are used to train dogs not to attack sheep the
behaviour can be punished without an order being given (Christiansen et al.,
2001a). The dog will not associate the shock with the handler. Owners
reported no effect on the dog’s behaviour during the year following shock
training. This type of use may be less stressful and damaging (Christiansen
et al., 2001a,b), possibly due to the single behaviour being punished and the
defined circumstances in which it occurs. Indeed, use of the electric collar to
stop sheep attacks was more effective, and might be less damaging to the
dog than some of the common alternatives such as allowing sheep to attack
young dogs or using taste aversion (Hansen et al., 1997). The use of electric
training collars as a remote punisher in training working sheep dogs to stop
biting sheep is sometimes necessary. Most well-bred working dogs quickly
learn not to bite sheep when punished effectively in this way, and this may
result in improved welfare for sheep and the survival of a good working dog.
Alternative forms of punishment used by shepherds may be less effective
and more brutal.
Electric training collars have been widely condemned by many
individuals and organisations (Cheetham, 2003), but their use has also
been praised (Alderman, 2003). When used by trained operators for spe-
cific behavioural problems, their use in working dogs might be justified.
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However, at present in many countries they are probably greatly overused

(Overall, 1997) and much of their use is probably ineffective and causes
severe distress to the dogs involved.

6. DOG TRAINERS AND RETRAINERS

Good dog trainers should be able to communicate well with people, be

good listeners, identify with the problems owners have with their dog, and
be open to new ideas. If a trainer is using archaic, violent and irrational
techniques then the quality of life for the dog and its owner is compromised
(Myles, 1991). Because dog trainers are not under any form of professional
control in most countries quality probably varies between participants. Thus
finding a good trainer is important for new dog owners and for those, like
veterinarians and veterinary nurses, who advise them. A good dog trainer
can be identified by their success rate and methodology. They listen to
owners and ensure that clients understand what is going on; they use
methods that are easy for people to master quickly and owners are not
expected to master the use of choke chains. The clients of good trainers are
happy and relaxed. Good trainers are gentle with dogs and most dogs they
train show improvement within one training session and enjoy the training
process. Dogs are not threatened or forced and practical exercises for
household dogs are taught. Dogs are always on their four feet and not swung
or hung off the ground. Good trainers do not use rubber hoses, sticks, leashes
and hands to hit dogs, nor do they use pinch collars and electric training
collars (Myles, 1991).
Many people work as dog behaviourists and are employed by dog owners
to help them train and/or retrain their dog, usually to stop the dog engaging
in unwanted behaviours. The development of defined educational packages
at a degree or diploma level for people wanting to undertake this sort of
work, and national regulation of those involved, would improve the quality
of training and retraining dogs and thus the welfare of dogs.

7. CONCLUSIONS

There is an abundance of sound information available on dog training

and thus few excuses for dogs not being trained adequately, but the quality
of personnel involved in dog training and retraining is not regulated in many
countries. Little research has been conducted to investigate the stress
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experienced by companion or working dogs during training, and thus the

relative stress or distress caused by different techniques and their relative
efficiency remain unclear. The lack of adequate training results in abuse,
neglect, abandonment and death of many dogs, and miserable lives for both
owners and dogs.
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 8
THE WELFARE OF THE ATHLETES;
GREYHOUNDS AND SLED DOGS

Abstract: Greyhounds are superb canine athletes. They have few inherited diseases, a
beautiful physique and a gentle disposition. However, greyhound racing is a
physically demanding sport. There is a disparity between the number of
greyhound puppies born and those that make it to the race track. Many are
killed because they are inadequate athletes. Dogs are frequently injured and
their racing careers are often shortened by injury. Track surfaces and
topography have been adjusted to increase speed and reduce injury. Racing
dogs are valuable and are generally well managed but when they are finished
racing the majority are killed and only a few are kept for breeding. Greyhound
adoption clubs attempt to re-home dogs after they have finished racing. Sled
dogs race in tough physical conditions and many race in endurance-type races.
These dogs have to be well managed to complete these races. Sled dogs are
examined by veterinarians before, during and after racing and may be stopped
from racing if they are injured, sick or seriously stressed.

1. INTRODUCTION

The racing greyhound is a superb athlete and greyhound racing is a

physically demanding sport. Greyhounds have been selected for the physical
and behavioural characteristics required to succeed in racing. Greyhounds
can accelerate to speeds of 65 km/hr in a few seconds (Dobson et al., 1988)
and at this pace any uncontrolled change in direction or collision with
another dog can result in injury. Greyhounds are different from other dogs in
that they have higher packed cell volume (PCV), mean cell volume, and
haemoglobin concentration, and lower red blood cell (RBC) and platelet
counts, lower serum total protein and albumin concentrations (Sullivan et al.,

143
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1994; Anonymous, 1995). A PCV of 50–65% is normal in greyhounds. The

haemoglobin of greyhounds may have a higher affinity for oxygen than that
of other breeds (Sullivan et al., 1994). They have lower white blood cell
(WBC) counts. The large RBC volume of greyhounds is probably due to a
shorter lifespan of these cells in greyhounds than other dogs (Novinger et al.,
1996). Greyhounds have a large heart and a slower pulse rate than other
breeds. They are particularly sensitive to the barbiturates used in anaesthesia,
apparently because of a lower level of oxidative enzymes in the liver
(Anonymous, 1995). Heart weight and heart-to-body weight ratios are higher
in greyhounds (1.25%) than crossbred dogs (0.80%) (Schneider et al., 1964)
and this is associated with racing ability (Schoning et al., 1995).
The health and welfare of the racing greyhound has received a lot of
attention. Physiologists have focussed on the physiological changes which
occur immediately before, during and after racing. The welfare of
greyhounds is of significance to their owners and trainers but also to those
who question whether greyhound racing should continue, as it results in
serious injuries to many dogs and the killing of dogs after they finish racing.
There are other forms of dog racing, including sled racing, and terrier and
gazehound racing, but these are all minor sports compared with greyhound
racing. There are about 60 greyhound racing tracks in the USA and in 1990
about 3.5 billion dollars were wagered on dog races (Goodwin & Corral,
1996). In the USA, at each greyhound racing meet there are between 13 and
15 races each with eight dogs. In the USA, it is the 6th largest spectator sport
and is legal in 18 states (Noriega & Lin, 2002). Recently, however, there has
been a decrease in spectator attendance and the amount wagered, and the
sport may be in decline in the USA.
Sled racing is based on the use of dogs to pull sleds in North America
and Europe. It is increasing in popularity in Europe, North and South
America, Australia and New Zealand, and is now carried out even in
countries with little snow, where the sleds are wheeled. There are different
types of racing and the sled and the teams vary in size and races vary in
length. Many different breeds of dog and crossbreds are used in sled races
but traditionally husky types are preferred for marathon races across snow
and ice. The marathon races on snow in North America are of particular
concern with regard to the welfare of the dogs. In this chapter, the welfare of
greyhounds and sled dogs will be discussed.

2. GREYHOUND RACING

Greyhound racing developed from the sport of coursing greyhounds after

hares initially in open-field coursing but more recently in closed-field
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coursing. In open-field coursing, which is now banned in some countries,

two greyhounds were set to chase a hare across open countryside. This sport
can result in serious injuries to the dogs as the ground may be uneven and
they may be injured going through fences. To protect the dogs and make the
competition more even, closed-field coursing was developed. In this type of
coursing, wild hares are captured and trained to run the length of a field and
to escape through a brush fence. During a coursing match a hare is released
into the field and two greyhounds are walked up towards it. When the hare is
sighted the dogs are released and they chase the hare down the field. The
hare usually escapes and the greyhounds are judged on the way they run the
hare. Closed-field coursing is banned in some countries because of concerns
about the welfare of the hare not the dog. In closed-field coursing, the
owners do not want the hare to be caught as this adds to the likelihood of the
dogs being injured and as the winning dogs continue to race in a series of
heats during the day a kill may tire the dog and reduce its chances of
winning in future.
The development of oval race tracks and an artificial hare in the early
20th Century made greyhound racing a popular sport both for participants
and spectators. It is particularly popular in England, Ireland, the USA,
Australia and New Zealand, but also in Macau, Mexico and Indonesia
(Guccione, 1998). Tens of thousands of greyhounds are registered to race in
the USA, Ireland and Australia each year (Table 1) and there is a major trade
of greyhounds from Ireland to England and from Australia to Asian
countries.
Greyhound racing is controlled by national organisations in Ireland and
the UK. In the UK, however, many tracks, sometimes called flapper tracks,
are not controlled by the national organisation. Greyhound numbers are
decreasing in the USA (Table 2), probably as a result of the development of
other methods of gambling.

Table 1. Number of greyhound puppies born and dogs registered to race in the countries
where greyhound racing was most popular in 2001* or 2002**.
Country Puppies Number of Pups/litter Dogs Fate
born litters registered to unknown#
race
USA* Not 5,015 6 26,797 5,901
available
Ireland* Not 3,731 8 20,694 9,000
available
Australia** 18,240 3,040 6 12,875 5,365
Britain* 5,500 696 8 4,165 1,400
New Zealand** 648 108 6 531 117
# The number of puppies not accounted for by racing
Data adapted from the greyhound association web-sites for each country
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Table 2. The number of litters born, puppies born, dogs registered to race, adopted dogs, dogs
retained for breeding, dogs killed after racing and puppies killed, from 1991 to 2001 in the
USA.
Year Litters Puppies Registered Adopted Breeding Racing Puppies
born born to race Dogs killed
killed
2001 5,015 32,698 26,797 13,000 1,800 11,997 5,901
2000 5,234 34,126 26,464 13,000 2,000 11,464 7,662
1999 5,266 34,334 27,059 13,000 2,000 12,059 7,275
1998 5,034 32,822 26,036 13,000 2,000 11,036 7,686
1997 5,192 33,852 28,025 12,500 2,000 13,535 5,827
1996 5,438 35,456 28,877 12,000 2,000 13,977 6,579
1995 5,749 37,483 31,688 10,000 2,100 19,588 5,795
1994 6,232 40,633 34,746 8,500 2,200 24,046 5,887
1993 6,805 44,369 39,139 6,000 2,500 30,639 5,230
1992 7,690 50,139 38,023 3,000 2,592 32,523 12,116
1991 8,049 52,479 38,430 1,000 3,000 33,930 14,049
Data adapted from the greyhound association web-site for the USA

Racing greyhounds and show greyhounds are from different bloodlines.

Racing greyhounds have to be physically sound. In general as only successful
racing dogs are bred the breed suffers from few of the hereditary skeletal
problems which beset other breeds. They have a placid temperament and
seem to hold their excitement for training and racing. They are rarely
aggressive to humans and other dogs but may chase and kill cats and
livestock. Greyhounds that are aggressive to other greyhounds during racing
are banned from racing and are not bred from.
Veterinarians attend greyhound racing and may stop a dog from racing,
or prevent racing if conditions are bad for the greyhounds’ welfare.
However, there are problems with the independence of veterinarians. In the
USA, track veterinarians are employed by the state and are independent
(Poulter, 1996) but, in the UK, veterinarians may be employed by the track
and come under pressure if their opinions regarding the fitness of a runner or
the safety of the track differ from that of track management (Sweeney,
1996).

3. TRAINING GREYHOUNDS AND WASTAGE

The training of young greyhounds varies and three different methods are
described in Bloomberg et al. (1998). In the USA, Koerner (1998)
recommended a lot of handling and leash training when the puppy is 3–4
months of age, lure and crate training at 8 months of age, and starting
athletic work at 13–14 months, gradually moving onto the track. In Ireland,
Cuddy and Dalton (1998) recommended that breaking-in should start
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between 14 and 16 months of age, when dogs are lure and crate trained, and
athletic training begins. In Australia, Stephens (1998) recommended full
athletic work at 16 months of age. Training using live animals as lures is
forbidden and may be counterproductive, but Koerner (1998) used coyote
skin lures. The athletic training protocol will vary from dog to dog but
generally involves an increasing workload. Walking strengthens the bones
and allows remodelling to facilitate the changes that occur during sprint
training (Staaden, 1998). If dogs are trained too quickly they may be injured
and this may be a major cause of loss between weaning and racing.
The loss of puppies between birth and weaning is not documented and
the loss from weaning or ear tattooing to registration for racing is also
difficult to determine (Tables 1 and 2). However, as the number of puppies
produced in the USA decreases, the number of puppies that disappear
between birth and racing registration also decreases both in real numbers and
also as a percentage of puppies born. This suggests that the rearing and
management of young dogs has improved. The number of dogs killed for
physical or behavioural reasons during initial race training is not available. It
is likely that a small percentage will not follow the lure, not be fast enough
to qualify for racing, or get injured and be killed. Greyhounds usually race
until they are about 2.5–3.5 years of age. A few dogs will race until they are
5 or 6 years of age but these are exceptional. On retirement from racing the
majority of dogs are killed, despite having the potential to live to 10–14
years of age.

4. INJURIES SUSTAINED DURING RACING

Greyhounds sustain particular musculoskeletal system injuries during

training and racing which are not common in pet dogs (Hickman, 1975;
Prole, 1976). These include fractures of the accessory carpal, metacarpal,
metatarsal, central tarsal, fourth tarsal, and proximal, middle and distal
phalangeal bones; and instability of the proximal, middle and distal
phalangeal joints (Anderson et al., 1995a). In two surveys of greyhound
racing tracks in Florida, USA, injuries identified at the tracks were
monitored between 1984 and 1990 and again in 1990–1995 (Table 3). The
majority of injuries were to the tarsal (hock) joint but the percentage of this
injury decreased from 52.2% in the first survey to 44.3% in the second,
while the number of foot injuries (metatarsus, metacarpus) increased from
8.3% to 15.4% (Bloomberg & Dugger, 1998). These authors speculated that
this change might be due to increased banking at the turns and faster racing
surfaces making the stress forces more vertical on the bones of the foot, in
contrast to the torsion placed on the bones on flatter tracks. Thus, changing
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the design of the track and running surfaces may change the type of injuries
sustained. The change from grass to sand track has reduced injuries to toes
(Poulter, 1981), although they still remain a common injury.

Table 3. Number (and percentage) of greyhound injuries at six and 16 racing tracks in Florida,
between 1984–1990 and 1990–1995, respectively.
Six race tracks, 1984-1990 Sixteen race tracks, 1990-1995
Injury Total (%) Injury Total (%)
Tarsus 397 (52.2%) Tarsus 562 (44.3%)
Muscle 85 (11.2%) Muscle 125 (9.85%)
Foot 63 (8.3%) Metatarsus 167 (13.2%)
Toe 63 (8.3%) Toe 99 (7.8%)
Foreleg 46 (6.0%) Metacarpus 28 (2.2%)
Other 58 (7.6%) Laceration 31 (2.5%)
Cramping 10 (0.8%)
Long-bone fracture 78 (6.2%)
Carpus 63 (4.96)
Other 106 (8.4%)
Adapted from Bloomberg & Dugger (1998)

Injuries during racing are due to many factors, including speed, fitness of
the dog, length of the race, character of the track, and the weather. A
comparison of five racing tracks in the USA found that the injury rate over
the years varied from 3.4 to 5.4% that is about 4% of all races by greyhounds
resulted in injury (Sicard et al., 1999). There was no obvious seasonality to
the incidence of injuries and no correlation between injury rate and ambient
temperature or the dog’s bodyweight. The design of the track influenced the
rate of injury and one track had a significantly higher incidence of injury
than the other four. On that track speeds were the highest and the turns were
banked more to increase speed. Higher-grade races resulted in more injuries
than lower-grade, maiden and schooling races (Table 4), and in some race
lengths there were more injuries. However, the race number and dog’s
starting position (Bloomberg & Dugger, 1998) had no significant effect on
injury rate, although dogs in Starting Position 4 were most often injured and
there were many injuries at the first bend as dogs bumped each other (Sicard
et al., 1999). When the location at which the injury occurred was known it
was most often sustained at the first bend when speed was high and there
was maximum congestion. This is similar to the results of the study in
Florida, USA, where nearly half the injuries (471/830) in 5/16 mile races
occurred at the first bend and nearly a fifth (153/830) at the second bend
(Bloomberg & Dugger, 1998). Race length has a significant effect on the
rate of injuries in Florida, and 3/8 mile races had nearly twice as many
injuries as 5/16 mile races, due perhaps to the dogs having to negotiate an
extra turn (Bloomberg & Dugger, 1998).
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Table 4. Injury rate in races of different grade and length, from five racing tracks in
Wisconsin, USA.
Grade Injury rate Distance Injury rate
Grade A 5.5% 3/16-mile 7.7%
Grade B 4.9% 5/16 –mile 4.3%
Grade C 4.2% 3/8-mile 4.7%
Grade D 3.9% 7/16-mile 7.2%
Grade E 3.7%
Maiden races 2.7%
Schooling 0.9%
Adapted from Sicard et al. (1999)

Greyhounds are subjected to centrifugal, gravitational and frictional

forces when racing (Ireland, 1998). To counter these, greyhounds lean in to
the left side as they corner whilst running anti-clockwise. The dog nearest
the left side has to lean more than the dogs further out to the right, in order to
maintain its position. To reduce the centrifugal forces acting on it the
greyhound can either slow down or race on a larger radius (Ireland, 1998). If
it slows, the dogs following it will be interfered with and if it goes for a
larger radius it will run out in front of the other dogs. To reduce centrifugal
force the track can also be changed by increasing the radius of the turns and
the steepness of the banking at the turns. However, making these changes to
the track may increase the speed and then as the speed of racing increases
the injury rate may again increase (Sicard et al., 1999).
More than 90% of fractures of the central tarsal bone occur in the right
leg (Boudrieau et al., 1984a) because of the pressure placed on this joint by
counter-clockwise racing (Anderson et al., 1995b) when the burden of
micro-damage to the bone overwhelms its micro-elastic properties
(Lipscomb et al., 2001). Many greyhounds are killed or retired after
fracturing this bone. However, the prognosis for a return to racing is good
after surgical fixation, and 88% of 81 dogs in one survey returned to
successful racing (Boudrieau et al., 1984b). In one study of eight greyhounds
with fractures of this bone, all returned to racing within 12 months and
owners reported excellent results from six dogs, a good result from one, and
one dog was retired (Guilliard, 2000). Dogs with a fracture of this bone are
often not treated because of the cost involved, the long rest period, and the
assumption that the dog will not regain pace (Guilliard, 2000).
Injuries to greyhounds are common and successful treatment generally
means a return to racing. Many owners would wish for a speed equal to
those reached before injury but dogs can be reclassified in some racing
programmes and compete in lower-grade races. Many injuries can be treated
successfully if a diagnosis is made quickly, treatment is rapid, and the dogs
are allowed time to rest to recuperate. The duty of the veterinarian at official
greyhound races is to ensure the welfare of the dogs. Dogs injured on the
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track are treated if possible or the veterinarian will advise and initiate
treatment if necessary.
The common injuries of coursing greyhounds are different from those of
racing greyhounds. Injuries involving the carpus and tarsus of racing
greyhounds do not occur so frequently in coursing dogs, which appear have
more injuries involving the distal limb (Brown, 1998).

5. ADOPTION OF GREYHOUNDS

The greyhound is an ideal pet, and can live for 10–14 years. It is healthy,
short-haired and has few hereditary diseases. Those that have raced may
have some chronic injuries but these are generally not significant if the dog
is no longer racing. Greyhounds are categorised behaviourally as having low
aggression, low reactivity and low immaturity (Bradshaw et al., 1996) and
so should make friendly and inactive pets. In the past, greyhounds not
required for breeding were killed when their racing career was finished, due
to the perception that they were aggressive animals. They do have a
tendency to chase anything that runs from them so cats may be endangered
should they run away. Greyhounds can be trained not to chase cats or small
dogs.
In the last decade, more and more dogs were adopted after racing (Table
2) (Dee, 1998) and the greyhound industry worldwide has supported this
move. In the USA, about 60% of racing greyhounds were adopted
(Anonymous, 1995). These adopted dogs may retain some of the injuries
sustained during racing, such as injured toes, some degenerative joint
disease, and old injuries to the carpal and tarsal joints plus some muscle
damage. Bitches may have an enlarged clitoris due to having been given
testosterone to suppress oestrus. Adopted greyhounds lose muscle mass over
time and probably recover from the stress-related syndromes seen in some
dogs during racing. The euthanasia of many greyhounds when they
have finished racing is unpalatable to many, but if the animals are killed
painlessly and without stress, then it is not a welfare issue.

6. RACING STRESS IN GREYHOUNDS

Successful racing dogs and competing dogs work in a highly competitive

environment and when an animal fails to cope with this environment it may
become stressed. The success of racing dogs can be reduced by injury,
ageing or being worked in different or difficult circumstances. If no medical
or surgical reason for poor performance can be identified then it may be due
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to stress. Little has been published in the scientific literature on stress in

racing dogs but heavy exercise is an extreme stressor. During a 400 m race,
the temperature of a racing greyhound may rise to 42°C, its PCV to 70%, its
blood pH decline to less than 7.0, and cardiac output increase up to several
times the normal level. This gross change in the physiological status of the
greyhound would become fatal if continued (Holloway, 1998).
Immediately prior to a 704 m race, there were major physiological
changes, viz plasma volume decreased by 10% and total circulating RBCs
increased by 60% (attributed to increase in the number of cells per se), the
blood volume increased by 24% and PCV by 29%. Five minutes after the
race, the plasma volume was 20% below resting value and total RBC had
increased by 73% resulting in a 40% increase in PCV (Toll et al., 1995). The
physiological changes in the greyhound before and during exercise enhanced
blood volume and aided acid/base homeostasis, both necessary for sprinting
(Toll et al., 1995). The greyhound does not have the ability to release large
numbers of RBCs from the spleen (Rose & Bloomberg, 1989) but has an
extremely high resting haematocrit, possibly the highest of any mammal.
The length of a race influences the physiological changes which occur
within the greyhound. Plasma lactate ion concentration, potassium ion
concentration, haematocrit, and total protein increased with race length from
402 m to 503 m to 704 m (Nold et al., 1991). The increase in plasma lactate
ion concentration and the decrease in arterial pH were significantly greater
than in horses or humans exercising similarly. This severe metabolic acidosis
caused by increased plasma lactate concentrations peaked five minutes after
a 400 m race but had returned to normal after 30 minutes (Rose &
Bloomberg, 1989), demonstrating a great capacity for lactate production and
metabolism in the greyhound. Glycogen breakdown in muscle appears to be
higher in the greyhound than in racing Thoroughbred horses (Dobson et al.,
1988).
Three hours after racing 722 m, the vital signs (heart rate, respiratory
rate, temperature) and blood-gas and acid-base values in greyhounds had
returned to normal (Ilkiew et al., 1989). However, many haematological
values were still different from baseline values, with high values for WBCs
and neutrophils, and low values for PCV, total plasma protein, haemoglobin,
RBCs and lymphocytes. Plasma creatine kinase (CK) concentrations were
still high also (Ilkiew et al., 1989). The increase in numbers of WBC is a
normal stress response associated with release of cortisol (Rose &
Bloomberg, 1989).
Because the greyhound is so severely tested physically during racing,
minor stressors, either emotional or physical (Table 5), can affect the
ability of the dog to maintain physiological homeostasis, and if the animal
continues to be raced it may result in the development of physiological
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exhaustion (Holloway, 1998). During this process there will be a loss of

form, suppression of immune function, and specific stress-related syndromes
may develop. Any one of several physical or environmental factors such as
subclinical disease and parasitism, injury, poor nutrition, lack of water, poor
kennel environment and poor handling may be sufficient to cause stress.
Emotional factors may also be important and the competitive drive of most
racing dogs or excessive pre-racing excitement might be sufficient to cause
stress. Excessive training, especially in hot humid conditions, may cause
distress. There is little information on the effect of different training
schedules on the physiological responses of greyhounds to racing (Rose &
Bloomberg, 1989).
Racing greyhounds need to be fed a highly digestible, high carbohydrate,
low fat, moderate protein diet. Food has to be given more than four hours
before training or racing and they need a high carbohydrate snack 30
minutes after racing, to enhance glycogen repletion (Todd & Reynolds,
2000). Inadequate feeding may result in poor performance (Toll, 2000a) and
stress.

Table 5. Causes of stress in the competitive dog, including racing dogs.

Environmental Emotional
Overcrowding Fighting
Poor sanitation Pre-race excitement
Infections and infestations Transport
Poor nutrition Competition for food
Poor husbandry Need for exercise
Racing injuries Sexual competition
Temperature and humidity Overwork
Poorly maintained kennels and yards
Iatrogenic injury
Poor vaccination and quarantine practice
Adapted from Holloway (1998)

Poor performance in greyhounds may be related to severe stress and

affected dogs can develop dry seborrhoea and dehydration, rhabdomyolysis,
non-regenerative anaemia and a loss of body fat and muscle mass
(Holloway, 1998). Holloway (1998) proposed that two syndromes seen in
racing greyhounds, polyuria/polydipsia (also called water diabetes
syndrome) and balding thigh syndrome were stress-related. Balding thigh
syndrome, however, may result from rubbing on crates.
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7. SLED RACING

Sled racing has become popular in the last decade. In North America,
there are at least three types of sled racing, including (1) sprint racing, which
consists of three races of 5–20 miles carried out over three days; (2) long-
distance races, in which dogs race for days or weeks; and (3) stage races,
where each stage is 40–80 miles per day and there are 10–20 stages in all. A
variety of dogs are used but the usual ones are Huskies (Grandjean et al.,
1998). In Scandinavia, one to four dogs pull a small sled called a pulka,
followed by a person on skies. These pulkas are often pulled by German
Shorthaired Pointers which are very fast. In 1998, there were sled teams in
31 countries (Table 6) which shows the popularity of this sport even in
countries with little snow. In those countries, the sleds often have wheels.

Table 6. Countries which are members of the International Federation for Sled Dog Sport.
Country Members Events Races Teams
Andorra 5 1 2 4
Argentina 27 1 1 18
Australia 200 15 22 152
Austria 600 12 66 1,151
Belgium 250 6 24 480
Canada 6,200 122 321 4,591
Chile 13 1 1 8
Czech Republic 80 10 28 345
Denmark 130 16 75 460
England 550 16 52 1,084
Finland 1,000 14 37 464
France 1,600 15 69 1,744
Germany 2,400 48 284 3,161
Holland 200 6 30 481
Hungary 30 2 2 20
Ireland 3 0 0 3
Italy 400 30 137 2,390
Japan 345 7 47 1,329
Luxembourg 0 1 6 44
New Zealand 127 11 49 336
Norway 800 90 193 1,966
Russia 80 4 8 70
Scotland 120 6 24 381
Slovenia 30 1 3 25
South Africa 100 10 10 82
Spain 250 4 26 220
Sweden 5,000 89 289 3,977
Switzerland 175 9 49 671
Ukraine 5 1 1 5
United States 11,5000 330 1,097 10,525
Adapted from Grandjean (1998)
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Sled dogs trained for racing have increased PCV values and RBC counts
at rest and in response to exercise have lower heart rates and rectal
temperatures than unfit dogs (Burr et al., 1997). Dogs are trained for long-
distance races over a period of six months and their diet is adjusted
throughout this period. During training dogs have major cardiovascular
(Constable et al., 2000) and other physiological changes to allow the
extended exercise. During long distance races dog may cover 100 miles each
day for 8–12 days (Lee et al., 2004) which is associated with a very high
metabolic rate and the use of more than 12,000 kcal per day. This is
extremely strenuous activity, often in very cold conditions, and dogs may be
affected adversely by the effort.

8. THE STRESS OF SLED RACING

The stress and distress caused by sled racing will vary depending on the
type of race the dogs are involved in and the climate and terrain over which
it is run. There are specific injuries associated with racing sled dogs. These
include injuries to the pads, web or nail beds of the foot, and other types of
lameness due to a variety of injuries, especially the carpal joint and tendons
of the foreleg (Grandjean et al., 1998). Frost-bite may occur when exposed
skin and areas made hairless by chafing of booties and harness cool to 0°C.
Hypothermia occurs due to low ambient temperatures and wet conditions.
Resting dogs are more prone to hypothermia than running animals and some
breeds such as the poodles have been banned from marathon races because
of their poorly indulated coats. Sled dogs sleep in a ball to reduce heat loss.
Rectal temperatures below 37.8°C are indicative of hypothermia, and if the
core temperature dops below 35.5°C the dog is in critical condition and
needs urgent treatment (Grandjean et al., 1998). Hyperthermia occurs during
warm-weather racing.
Short-distance races using wheeled sleds in warm climatic conditions
will cause different problems than long-distance races run over ice and
snow, such as the Iditarod race in Alaska. This race is 1,771 km long, over
snow and ice tundra from Anchorage to Nome. It takes place every March
and temperatures range from –34 to +1°C (Davis et al., 2003b). Teams
usually take between 9 and 14 days to complete the race. Most participating
dogs weigh between 18 and 29 kg and are 2 to 10 years of age (Davis et al.,
2003b). Most participanting dogs are 5 to 7 years of age. It is regarded as
one of the toughest endurance races for animals and humans. Each year
about 60–70 mushers (drivers), with 16–20 dogs each, start the race. The
race is overseen by veterinarians. The dogs are examined at 27 checkpoints
and those that are injured, exhausted or require treatment are flown back to
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Anchorage (de Jong, 1992). The dogs are fed low volume and high
nutritional value diets and need two to four times maintenance to maintain
bodyweight and to race. During this race, injuries to the feet are common
and frost-bite to the prepuce, scrotum or mammary glands of recently
weaned bitches, occur.
In long-distance sled races such as the Iditarod, up to a third of the dogs
do not complete the race and the reasons cited are usually injury, fatigue,
lameness and diarrhoea, and sometimes veterinarians are concerned about
dehydration. Dehydration was not seen in finishing and non-finishing dogs
in the 1991 Iditarod race (Burr et al., 1997) and probably is not a common
disabling condition in sled dogs. The high fat diet fed to sled dogs provides
metabolic water, and dehydration may occur when the tired dog refuses to
eat because of stress or diarrhoea. If dehydration is greater than 7% the dog
is not allowed to continue racing (Grandjean et al., 1998). In a study of the
1993 Yukon Quest race, there were no indications of dehydration, significant
plasma electrolyte abnormalities or myopathy in dogs retired from the
endurance race (Hinchcliff, 1996). The sex and age of the dogs that
completed the race or were retired were similar and of the 15 dogs retired, 13
were lame, two had diarrhoea, one had fever and only one was dehydrated.
Dogs are retired by the driver after discussion with a race veterinarian and
officials. There is need for further investigation into the causes of dogs being
retired from races.
Dogs finishing the 1995 Iditarod race had lost a maximum of 9%
bodyweight over the course, but the CK levels of these dogs were not
clinically significant (Hinchcliff et al., 1998). In that study, the dogs that
had been retired before they had completed 500 miles had more clinically
significant CK levels, indicative of exercise-induced rhabdomyolysis, than
dogs retired after 638 miles or which finished. This condition is apparently
common in long-distance sled races (Grandjean, 1998) and is known to be
fatal to dogs during the first 400–500 miles of long races. Individual dogs
may be particularly susceptible to this condition during the first part of a
long race. In the 1995 race, there was no relationship between the speed with
which the race was run (finishing order) and bodyweight loss or biochemical
values of dogs (Hinchcliff et al., 1998). The weight loss was probably
insignificant as dogs were weighed about 4 hours before the race began and
had just received food and water. This indicates that dogs receive adequate
food and water to meet the demanding requirements of this race. There was
also no dehydration observed, which means that the dogs received more than
the five litres of fluid per day that they required.
Non-finishers of the 1991 Iditarod race had higher post-race CK and
aspartate transferase (AST) activities than finishing dogs, and though the
difference was not significant overall this was probably due to the great
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variation between dogs. Burr et al. (1997) suggested that the higher levels
were probably associated with muscle damage. This opinion was supported
by a post-mortem survey of dogs that died suddenly during long-distance
sled races, which found severe muscle necrosis similar to the lesions caused
by rhabdomyolysis in some dogs (Burr et al., 1997). They suggested that CK
and possibly AST could be used to monitor fatigue in long-distance sled
races. The number of non-finishers in this study was eight of a team of 17,
and three of these were lame while five were assessed as fatigued. CK
activity has high specificity (83%) and low sensitivity (32%) for muscle
damage. This means that dogs with high plasma CK activities are likely to
have muscle damage, but those with low levels may also have damage but
are false negatives (Aktas et al., 1993).
The antioxidant mechanisms of under-trained sled dogs may be
inadequate to cope with the antioxidant requirement of endurance racing
(Hinchcliff et al., 2000). Such racing uses a great deal of energy and results in
considerable release of free radicals and oxidant stress. This may result in lipid
peroxidation (Piercy et al., 2000) and muscle damage during racing, which can
be assessed by plasma CK activity. However, feeding supplements of
antioxidants, such as vitamins E and C and beta carotene, to exercising sled
dogs did not reduce exercise-induced increases in plasma CK (Piercy et al.,
2000) but may have reduced oxidative damage (Baskin et al., 2000). The
damage to muscles sustained by racing sled dogs may be due to mechanisms
other than oxidative stress (Piercy et al., 2000).
Gastric ulcers are reported to be a problem in racing sled dogs and may
be a cause of sudden death. At the end of the 2001 Iditarod race nearly half
(34/70 or 48.5%) the dogs examined had gastric lesions, which may have
been an underestimate as many dogs had food, foam or bedding in their
stomachs which could have prevented observation of lesions (Davis et al.,
2003b). This is a very high percentage of dogs with gastric lesions and Davis
et al. (2003b) speculated about their causes. Gastric ulcers may be due to a
high fat diet (70% fat), which delays stomach emptying and leads to
hyperacidity. Other possible causes include bacterial infection (Helicobacter
spp), trauma caused by cold foreign bodies or snow, cyclo-oxygenase
inhibitors, or exercise-induced visceral ischaemia and stress. Many dogs
without lesions had foreign bodies in their stomachs and drugs were unlikely
to be a cause. Exercise-induced ischaemia was unlikely to be a cause as sled
dogs maintain visceral perfusion during exercise.
Gastric ulceration is also common in human athletes undertaking
vigorous exercise and Davis et al. (2003b) concluded that the stress of
endurance racing with elevated plasma cortisol concentrations and
exogenous glucocorticoids may predispose sled dogs to gastric ulceration.
When omeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor, was given to sled dogs before
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and during the Iditarod race the severity of gastritis in the treated dogs was
reduced compared with control dogs (Davis et al., 2003a). The prophylactic
use of omeprazole may improve the welfare of sled dogs by reducing the
severity of subclinical gastric disease but further work is required to
understand fully the aetiology of this condition.
Sled dogs in races such as the Iditarod have very high metabolic rates,
with energy expenditures of 10,000 kcal per day (Hinchcliff et al., 1997a).
Tests showed that plasma thyroxine (T4), free T4 and tri-iodothionate (T3)
concentrations were decreased after prolonged sub-maximal exercise in
trained sled dogs and some dogs had levels below that seen in normal pet
dogs (Panciera et al., 2003; Evason et al., 2004). Thus, training appears to
effect thyroid gland function on middle and long distance trained sled dogs.
However, lack of training in the three months after the Iditarod race did not
change thyroid gland test results from those levels seen immediately after the
race (Lee et al., 2004). Levels of T4, free T4 and thyroid stimulating hormone
decreased significantly during the Iditarod race itself but only T4 was lower
in dogs that completed the race than those withdrawn during it (Lee et al.,
2004). It may be that thyroid hormone levels in sled dogs of the husky type
are lower than other breeds (Lee et al., 2004) but prolonged exertion
in subfreezing conditions increases metabolic rates in sled dogs (Hinch-
cliff et al., 1997a). Sled dogs are usually fed a fat-rich diet to maintain
energy balance but an inadequate energy intake could alter thyroid hormone
metabolism. The cause and significance of changes in thyroid hormone
levels in racing sled dogs need to be investigated further.
Sled dogs need to be fed at least four hours before training or racing, to
empty the bowels and prevent stress-induced diarrhoea (Reynolds, 2000).
They need a highly digestible high fat, low carbohydrate, moderate protein
diet (Toll & Reynolds, 2000) and are usually fed commercial food plus a fat
source. During intensive training, a diet with 35% dietary protein as energy
is required (Reynolds et al., 1999). Dogs in training fed 18% dietary protein
as energy sustained significantly more soft tissue injuries than dogs fed more
protein. PCVs were also higher after dogs were fed the higher protein diet
for 12 weeks.
Prolonged running is associated with decreased serum sodium and
potassium concentrations in sled dogs (Hinchcliff et al., 1997b). This is not
due to thermoregulation by sweating but may be due to a high renal solute
load mandated by the large energy intake and expenditure by these dogs
(Hinchcliff et al., 1998b). The clinical significance of these decreases is
unknown but a significantly greater proportion of 151 dogs that retired from
the 1995 Iditarod race had low sodium concentrations compared with dogs
that finished, so it might be involved in the fatigue syndrome.
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Strenuous short-term sled pulling resulted in priming and activation of

platelets and of neutrophils in Siberian Husky dogs (Moritz et al., 2003).
Activation of platelets may be preparation for the wounds which can occur
during predation but which may make dogs succeptible to thrombotic
disorders (Moritz et al., 2003). Neutrophil activation has also been reported
in human marathon runners; and while it may be useful in infectious
conditions, adverse effects are also possible. Activated neutrophils are rigid
and may lodge in small vessels and cause death of parenchymal cells and
organ failure. The significance of platelet and neutrophil activation in sled
dogs remains unclear.
The welfare of sled dogs during training and racing may be compromised
in many ways. The number of dogs that suffer fatigue during the racing
suggests that the animals are being pushed to the limit of their ability. In one
study, a sample of 261 dogs was followed during the 1995 Iditarod race and
151 of these were retired from the race after a median run of 474 miles
(Hinchcliff et al., 1998). Many of those dogs would have been retired for
fatigue, which suggests that something in the selection, training, preparation,
nutrition and/or driving of these dogs was inadequate. Sled dogs used for
endurance races such as the Iditarod race cannot be driven. Individual
animals may be injured and a dog died during the race in 1999, 2000 and
2001. There is a very high media interest in the Iditarod race and good
veterinary coverage. The race is carefully managed by experienced
personnel to ensure that the welfare of the dogs is as good as the essence of
the race allows. If roughly half the dogs are retired from this race which has
excellent management, there have to be concerns about the welfare of dogs
in races that are not so well managed, both in North America and elsewhere.

9. MANAGEMENT AND TRANSPORT OF RACING

DOGS

Some aspects of management make racing dogs especially prone to

particular problems. Internal parasites are common in racing dogs held in
large kennels because their exercise areas are often heavily contaminated
with parasite eggs and larvae. Parasite control is an important aspect of the
management of these dogs. Racing dogs spend a lot of time in the company
of dogs from other kennels and this may expose them to kennel cough, so
they have to be vaccinated against this disease.
As males and females race together it is important to suppress signs of
oestrus, otherwise male dogs lose interest in racing and may fight, and the
affected female loses form and may not recover it. Racing greyhounds have
a short racing career and owners cannot afford to have bitches out of the
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running for the duration of two oestrus periods a year. Therefore,

suppression of oestrus by pharmacological agents is common. The drugs
used may have side effects including an enlarged clitoris and changes in
temperament. However, as all dogs must be drug free on race day these
drugs cannot be given within defined periods of racing. In the UK,
testosterone and first and second generation progestogen preparations may
be used (Prole, 1996).
Racing dogs are usually transported in trailers and vans especially
designed or modified for their transport. Ventilation is important especially
if there are several dogs in one compartment and the weather is hot and
humid. The stress response of greyhounds to short-duration air transport
(2 x 35 minutes) was not different when they were held in narrow (1,220 x
813 x 384 mm) or wide (1,220 x 840 x 800 mm) pens (Leadon & Mullins,
1991), but there may be a difference depending on which hold within the
aeroplane the dogs were kept. There was great individual difference in the
responses of dogs to transport. The effect of long-distance road travel on sled
dogs going to and from races, and greyhounds being exported overland is
unknown.

10. DOPING DOGS

Greyhound and sled racing is very competitive and gambling is an

important factor especially of the former. Drugs can be used to enhance,
reduce or normalise behaviour (Table 7). Pharmacological enhancement of
racing performance may make the dog more prone to injury. Pain relief may
also make dogs prone to injury during training or racing. Doping controls are
enforced at all regulated greyhound race meets and since the mid 1990s
increasingly in sled races, especially the major events (Craig, 1998).

Table 7. The use of drugs in performance modification.

Modification Drug type
Enhancement Ergogenic aids called stimulants or ‘goers’
Reduction Depressants or suppressants called ‘stoppers’
Normalisation To stop normal physiological responses to excitement or minimise
pain and discomfort
Adapted from Gannon (1998)

11. CONCLUSIONS

Greyhound racing is an intense physical activity with attendant risks of

serious injuries. The dogs are managed well and it is necessary that they are
trained and fed correctly and healthily if they are to compete successfully.
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Their welfare is compromised principally by the injuries sustained during

training and racing. Sled dogs may have their welfare compromised during
endurance races when they are physically extended over long periods of time
and great distances. More research is needed to reduce injuries to all racing
animals and to increase the percentage of dogs completing sled races.
However, wastage is always going to be a problem in these dogs as they are
competing at a high level of physical demand.
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Chapter 9
THE DOG AS A RESEARCH ANIMAL

Abstract: The morphology and physiology of the dog makes it a useful model for
medical and dental research. The recent clarification of breed genotypes and
the existence of breed-specific diseases make the dog a particularly suitable
model for research into inherited diseases common to humans and dogs. It is
likely that more dogs will be used in biomedical research in the near future. It
is important that the welfare of dogs used in research is optimal for the dog’s
sake and also because animal models of disease work best if the subjects are
healthy and not stressed. Many dogs held in laboratories are probably
chronically stressed. Improved breeding and training programmes, and better
housing and management are required if laboratory-based dogs used in
research are to have good standards of welfare. This will require
improvements in social enrichment and physical facilities.

1. INTRODUCTION

The dog is similar to the human in some ways and this makes it an
appropriate animal for biomedical research. The dog is also a companion
animal and there is much pressure to reduce its use as a laboratory animal
and encourage researchers to improve their management (Hubrecht, 2004).
The dog may be used as a research animal inside or outside the laboratory.
Research conducted on dogs that live in their own homes is typically
clinical, nutritional or behavioural.
The dog was an important animal in early physiological and anatomical
research. In the 17th Century, Harvey used dogs to study heart movement
and Marcello Malpighi used them to investigate lung function (Gay, 1984).
Dogs were used by Sir Christopher Wren to demonstrate the intravenous
administration of drugs. Pavlov identified classical conditioning by

161
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observing the responses of laboratory dogs. The dog played a part in Banting
and Best’s research into the role of insulin in diabetes mellitus (Gay, 1984).
The use of dogs in biomedical research has always been a cause of
controversy, and in 1903 Dr William Bayliss of the University of London
won a court case against the anti-vivisectionist Stephen Coleridge who had
accused the former of cruelty to a brown dog. Research on the brown dog
had led to the discovery of secretin, a significant breakthrough in digestive
physiology. A statue of this dog was erected by those opposed to the use of
dogs in biomedical research (Jones, 2003).
Dogs are used in many branches of biomedical research. These include
physiology, toxicology, surgery, dental health, and hereditary diseases of
humans. They are also used in research on the health, nutrition and
behaviour of the dog itself. The genetic differences, between different
breeds of dog (Parker et al., 2004), make them ideal populations in which to
study the origins of genetic disease in dogs, and in turn simplify the
investigation of corresponding genetic diseases in humans (Pennisi, 2004).
Thus, the use of the dog in biomedical research is likely to increase in the
near future. In this chapter, the use of dogs in research and the significance
of living conditions on the welfare of dogs used in laboratories will be
discussed.

2. THE USE OF DOGS IN RESEARCH

Dogs are more expensive to keep than rodents and therefore their use in
scientific research is limited to those areas where they are more appropriate
than rodents. The use of dogs as research animals are detailed in scientific
publications from many fields of biological research, but dogs are used a lot in
research into pharmacology, dental health, toxicology or surgery (Table 1).
Dogs other than beagles are used in research, especially in surgical and
dental research. In an analysis of one scientific database, there was an
increase in the number of scientific publications, describing research using
Beagles. In 1983 there were 83 publications and this has grown to 237 in
1993, but the number has remained static since then (Table 1). There has
been a decrease in the number of scientific procedures performed on dogs in
the United Kingdom. In 1989, 12,625 were conducted and this dropped to
9,085 by 1992 (Hubrecht, 1995a).
Dogs are used as models for human diseases such as diabetes mellitus,
ulcerative colitis and cardiovascular disease, and for surgical research
such as open-heart surgery and organ transplantation. Dogs may also be
suitable models for other diseases, such as benign prostatic hypert-
rophy, glomerulonephritis, auto-immune haemolytic anaemia, lymphocytic
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thyroiditis, Von Willebrand’s disease, chronic pancreatitis, haemorrhagic

pancreatitis, endocarditis, diabetes mellitus, narcolepsy, hydrocephalus,
tetralogy of Fallot, idiopathic epilepsy, and neoplasia (Kohn, 1995).
However, the recent determination of genetic differences between different
breeds of dogs (Parker et al., 2004) and the recognition that individual
breeds are defined populations will accelerate the understanding of canine
diseases of genetic origin, and also be a key tool in understanding the genetic
basis of diseases which are common to dogs and humans (Pennisi, 2004).
This will likely increase the number of dogs involved in research into
inherited diseases common to dogs and humans. This will increase the range
of breeds required for research. The standards of management developed for
beagles and the knowledge gained about their requirements will need to be
reassessed to cope with other breeds.

Table 1. The number of scientific publications in which Beagles were used as research
animals, or dogs were mentioned according to a scientific database.
Area of research No. dogs used
1983 1993 2003
Beagles
Pharmacology 19 69 57
Toxicology 22 28 30
Physiology 12 28 16
Dentistry/oral health 18 27 41
Veterinary medicinea 6 40 51
Surgery 1 29 30
Cancer 5 4 4
Miscellaneous 2 2 8
Total beagles 85 237 237
Dogs 1,519 2,400 2,396b
a
Includes veterinary research into the health of laboratory beagles
b
The majority of these references are in journals of veterinary medicine and surgery

Many dogs are used for research on the health, surgery, behaviour and
nutrition of dogs per se. This work is undertaken predominantly at facilities
belonging to the major dog-food companies and veterinary colleges. Both
these types of organisations are extremely sensitive to the public demand
that dogs in research be managed under conditions where their welfare is
maintained at a very high standard. However, in the development of new
surgical techniques, even with good anaesthesia and analgesia, there may be
painful consequences. Moreover, in the development of new treatments for
specific diseases, dogs may be subjected to novel, but ineffective or less
effective treatment protocols than are available. Animals may also be bred
with particular diseases or be managed so as to become diseased in order to
test new treatment protocols, as investigations into the aetiology of disease
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often requires animals that are suffering from the disease and that have not
been treated.
Dogs are also used for research into human psychological problems and
for research into the cognitive skills of dogs themselves (Cooper et al.,
2003). The use of the dog as a model for research into human psychological
conditions such as obsessive behaviour has been promoted by some canine
behavioural specialists, as a way to increase our understanding of the
behavioural problems of dogs (Overall, 1997). This type of research may be
invasive, with resultant brain damage, infusions to the brain, and intensive
monitoring of neurotransmitter and neuronal activity being conducted. The
production of dogs with the required behavioural problems may be necessary
if such research is to be successful. This may involve breeding from
susceptible lines and then deliberately exposing the offspring to inadequate
environmental conditions in order to produce anxiety, compulsive
behaviours as required.

3. SOURCE OF LABORATORY DOGS

Dogs used in laboratory research originate from three major sources:

special breeding facilities that produce dogs for research, shelters or dog
pounds, or individual owners, breeders or traders. In some European
countries, dogs to be used in laboratories must come from registered
breeding facilities (Hubrecht, 2002). In the USA, dogs can be purchased
from a United States Department of Agriculture licensed dealer or directly
from a municipal pound (Dysko et al., 2002). Licensed breeding
establishments are monitored by designated inspectors and can be forced to
maintain high standards of management in order to remain approved.
In general, research is better if the dogs used are uniform, well reared,
healthy and from a known and well-defined source. If from a registered
breeding facility, the research laboratory can dictate how the dogs are reared
and managed prior to purchase. This is particularly important with regard to
the proper socialisation of the dogs as pups to humans, which makes adult
dogs safer and easier to handle.
Dogs may also be trained in the breeding facility, using positive
reinforcement, to sit still while simple procedures are performed on them.
These procedures might include a clinical examination, the taking of rectal
temperatures, blood and urine samples, and giving tablets and injections
intravenously, intramuscularly and subcutaneously. The dogs can be trained
to accept restraint and muzzling as required. This training early in life
reduces the stress experienced by dogs during research and adds to their
value as research animals. Dogs, reared in special breeding facilities, may
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experience institutional lives from the start and may not suffer from loss of
freedom when moved into a laboratory.
The common dog breed produced specifically for laboratory use is the
Beagle, but mongrels and Foxhounds are also used frequently (Dysko et al.,
2002). Beagles are physically and temperamentally suited for research. They
are middle-sized, thus suited for sampling purposes, but not so heavy to
make it difficult for laboratory staff to lift them onto tables and move them
around. They are short-haired and thus do not lose hair that blocks drains,
nor do they need grooming or clipping before blood sampling. They are
quiet, gentle animals suited to living in small packs, and are not particularly
aggressive. Their existence for some time as ‘the’ laboratory dog may make
it easier for handlers, technicians and research scientists to use them without
becoming too emotionally attached to them.
The health, nutrition, growth and behaviour of dogs especially produced
for laboratory work can be controlled from birth until they are moved into
the laboratory facility. The genetics of the animals can be determined and
strains of dogs well suited to laboratory work can be bred. If healthy dogs
with a good temperament are used it makes the work of the staff in a
laboratory easier and dogs are likely to be better treated as a result.
When dogs are sourced from pounds and shelters their temperament is
poorly defined and they may not be suited to long-term research projects.
There may also be problems with their health and physiological status and
they may be of an unknown age. Their previous experiences and
temperament might make them difficult or even dangerous to handle, and
this will affect the ease with which they can be handled. Thus, although
these animals may be easily obtained and be cheap, their variability could
compromise the research by either producing poor results or work that has to
be repeated. Additionally, they may be more difficult for laboratory staff to
work with. Many shelters and pounds will not allow their dogs to be used in
research and will kill surplus or unwanted dogs rather than sell them for
research.
Individual owners may surrender animals to a laboratory, and dog traders
may source dogs for a laboratory, but the same problems with regard to their
unknown previous history and heterogenicity might exist. However,
Greyhounds retired from the race track share many of the characteristics of
the ‘laboratory’ beagle, and with proper management may be suited to
laboratory work. Dogs obtained from pounds and traders are usually
mongrels or of the middle-sized breeds common to the country in which the
laboratory is sited. These commonly include German Shepherd Dogs,
Doberman Pinschers, and Labrador and Golden Retrievers (Dysko et al.,
2002). The provision, in some countries, that all dogs must come from
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approved breeders can reassure owners that if their beloved dog goes
missing it will not end up in a research laboratory.
The use of animals that are homogenous both genetically and with regard
to their experiences before they are used in research allows for the
requirement of fewer animals. Thus, the supply of dogs for research from
well-defined backgrounds is important in fulfilling one of the requirements
of the three Rs (reduce, refine, replace) formulated by Russell and Burch
(1959).

4. MANAGEMENT

The management of laboratory dogs must ensure that the animals are
healthy, well fed, trained to accept minor procedures, and that they can
behave in a generally normal manner with little abnormal behaviour.
Adequate management and facilities safeguard the welfare of the animal but
are also necessary for sound research. Inadequate management can impact
on the results of research, making it worthless (Donnelley, 1990), due to
animals being physiologically or psychologically abnormal before the
research commences. It is not difficult to ensure that animals are healthy and
adequately fed and trained appropriately, but whether they are behaving
normally is more difficult to assess.
It is possible that dogs held in cages for extended periods of time suffer
chronic stress. In an important study in the Netherlands, dogs, about six
years of age, held individually for years in cages (1.7 m2) and allowed into
an outside cage (3.6 m2) for 6 hours each day, were chronically stressed, and
had urinary cortisol to creatinine ratios significantly greater than pet dogs
and dogs held under less austere conditions (Beerda et al., 2000). In
addition, three to four year old beagle bitches held in pairs in cages (2.4 m2)
and allowed similar exercise outdoors had urinary cortisol to creatinine
ratios indicative of chronic stress. The placement of dogs in pairs rather than
as individuals appeared to have little effect on the level of chronic stress.
However, dogs housed individually with an indoor (2.1 m2) and outdoor
section (5.6 m2), and walked outside on a regular basis for 90 minutes, were
not as stressed as those mentioned above. These physiological results are
supported by behavioural observations. The six year old dogs had high levels
of paw-lifting, a behaviour found to indicate acute (Beerda et al., 1998) and
chronic (Beerda et al., 1999a) stress. The behavioural responses of the older
dogs and the beagle bitches to a slamming door suggested they experienced
more acute stress in response to this stressor than pet dogs and those walked
frequently (Beerda et al., 2000).
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The behaviour of dogs caged in laboratory facilities should be as normal

as possible. However, it is difficult to define normal behaviour (Chapter 11).
In the simplest definition for the domestic dog, normal behaviour may be
interpreted to mean the behaviour of feral dogs. This definition is not easy to
use and many owned and loved dogs are not allowed to forage, live in packs,
or reproduce. These behaviours are unacceptable for dogs used in
laboratories. It may be best to accept that normal behaviour occurs when
dogs behave in an acceptable manner and do not exhibit abnormal behaviour
such as stereotypies, abnormal aggression or atypical feeding behaviours.
However, comparative studies involving physiological and behavioural
responses, such as those of Beerda et al. (2000), are more valuable in that in
these studies the significance of an animal’s behaviour can be interpreted
more effectively than if only behaviour was monitored.

4.1 Health

Laboratory dogs often live in strictly controlled environmental

conditions. These dogs are valuable and it is important to establish health
programmes to ensure they are routinely treated for parasites, both external
and internal, and vaccinated against all the relevant infectious diseases. Sick
and injured animals should be identified and treated appropriately. Health
programmes can be easily developed both in facilities where dogs are
produced for laboratory use, and later in laboratories where dogs may come
from breeding facilities or other sources. The latter may need to be
quarantined for some time to ensure they do not infect the dogs already in
the laboratory.

4.2 Nutrition

Dogs in laboratories should be fed a high-quality food, in accordance to

their requirements, and be maintained at a correct body condition score.
Dog-producing facilities should feed brood bitches, pups and juvenile dogs
as appropriate and thus optimise growth, reproduction and rearing success.

4.3 Training

The techniques used to train dogs to be easy to handle and use in research
are common to all training programmes. Positive reinforcement is the
fundamental technique and staff engaged in rearing and training pups should
be familiar with the theory and practice of operant and classical conditioning
as they pertain to training dogs. When they are 4–14 weeks of age, pups
should be socialised to humans and other dogs, and exposed to a variety of
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environmental factors which they will encounter in the laboratory. They

should become accustomed to being on tables, to hoses, bathing, different
people, outdoor cages and grass for elimination and exercise if necessary.
Laboratory dogs need to be confident in the laboratory without being too
boisterous and active, and need to be trained to be quiet and relaxed.
Obtaining the correct balance between confidence and over-activity is
important to facilitate handling and research.

5. HOUSING

The housing for any laboratory animal has to meet the requirements for
hygiene, and ease of use, be economical in its use of space, and yet allow the
animal to live in a stress-free environment and to behave in a reasonably
normal manner and not exhibit abnormal behaviour. Animal housing must
have an appropriate temperature (18–21°C), humidity (35–70%), change of
air (8–12 per hour), and lighting (Bate, 1997). Dogs may be held in indoor
pens with or without outdoor runs. Females in oestrus should be housed
away from males. In many facilities, dogs are held alone in cages to
minimise the spread of disease and reduce problems of aggression.
Restricted physical and social conditions may result in abnormal behaviour
but the influence of individual facets of the environment on such behaviour
is poorly defined.
Dogs that do not cope with an inadequate housing environment may
become chronically stressed, as indicated by physiological indices and
behaviour (Beerda et al., 2000). They may develop stereotypic locomotory
behaviours such as circling, pacing and wall-bouncing (Hubrecht et al.,
1992; Hubrecht, 1995b. Hubrecht (2002) described one dog that engaged in
such activity to the extent that it needed three times its daily food ration.
This dog would seriously compromise any research project, but dogs with a
less obvious problem may also likely influence the validity of results.
Stereotypic behaviours usually stop when handlers enter the rooms and thus
they may be seriously underestimated and require remote monitoring for
them to be identified (Hubrecht, 2002).
Many dogs are used for long-term research, and it is important that they
live in hygienic conditions to reduce the likelihood of infection and disease.
Traditionally, animal houses are cleaned every day, and grated flooring that
allows urine and faeces to be easily hosed away are popular. However trials
have shown that dogs prefer solid flooring, and the use of small amounts of
sawdust to soak up urine makes it possible to reduce wet cleaning of pens to
once-weekly or even less if cleaning without water is used to remove faeces
and soiled sawdust (Hubrecht, 2002).
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Dogs have been companion and working animals for millennia but we
have a poor understanding of their requirements for space. This is due to the
great variety in types and sizes of dogs, and the wide range of systems under
which they have been kept. However, it is important that when we keep dogs
in cages, as in a laboratory, that the size and design of the cage be
appropriate for the number and type of dogs housed in them.
The facility design is important for the welfare of individual and groups
of dogs. The dimensions must allow for cleaning, the provision of
enrichment devices, and ease of human contact and interaction. Cages high
enough for the dog to stand on its hindlegs without touching the roof will not
necessarily allow a human to enter and interact easily with the dogs if they
require environmental enrichment or medical attention. However, dogs use
the facility much more than humans do and it must be designed to meet the
dogs’ requirements.
The space requirement of a laboratory dog such as a beagle can be
determined scientifically by monitoring the behaviour of individual dogs in
cages of different dimensions (Beerda et al., 1999a). This can be achieved by
determining how much effort a dog will expend in order to gain access to
cages of different dimensions, and by examining the effect of living in cages
of different dimensions on their physiological and immunological responses
(Beerda et al., 1999 a, b) and the health of individual dogs. The behaviour of
dogs, both as individuals and in groups, in cages of different dimensions has
been observed by several groups of researchers (Neamand et al., 1975; Hite
et al., 1977; Pettijohn et al., 1980; Campbell et al., 1988; Hubrecht et al.,
1992; Bebak & Beck, 1993).
When the size of a cage was small (0.5–3.0 m2) and increases in its size
were also small (1–1.6 m2) there was little effect on the exercise behaviour
of the dog. In addition there was no difference in the behaviour of dogs
housed individually in cages 4.13 m2 or 6.83 m2 in size (Hubrecht et al.,
1992). This suggests that either the dimensions of cages are of little
consequence to the behaviour of dogs, or that the size increases were not
great enough to modify behaviour. Indeed, in a social animal, such as the
dog, many other aspects of the environment might influence its behaviour.
Regardless, dogs in these cages spent most of the day inactive (Hubrecht
et al., 1992).
However, there are distinct advantages in having larger cages for dogs.
Deep cages allow dogs to avoid unpleasant experiences at the front of the
cage, provide space for a kennel, allow enrichment objects to be placed in
the cages, and let the dog to have a toilet area away from the feeding place
and bed. Larger cages allow for more complex environments to be
developed and permit dogs to be housed together, a feature which is
probably more important for the dog’s well-being than space. In the UK,
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minimum dimensions for laboratory dog cages are probably a compromise

between financial and management requirements, and canine needs (Table 2).
The provision of a kennel in a communal cage allows the dog to avoid its
cage mate and have a quiet place to live away from other dogs. Hubrecht
et al. (1992) found that laboratory dogs spent 35% of their time in a kennel
and he considered the kennel to be an important resource for dogs living in
groups of five animals in pens 3.66 x 1.83 m in dimension, as it allowed
them choice as to where they spent their time. A kennel for dog housed alone
also gives them choice as to where to spend time and the opportunity to get
out of sight.

Table 2. Minimum space recommendations for laboratory dogs of different body weights.
Bodyweight Minimum floor area (m2) per dog Minimum height
(kg) Housed singly Housed in groups (cm)
UK Home Office (1989)
<5 4.5 1.0 150
5–10 4.5 1.9 150
10–25 4.5 2.25 200
25–35 6.5 3.25 200
>35 8.0 4.0 200

Canadian Council on
Animal Care (1984)
12 0.75 1.5 80
15 1.2 2.0 90

Instituted of Laboratory
Animal Resources
(1996)
15 0.75
Up to 30 1.08
30 2.16

MacArthur (1987)
15–30 4.2 (may be used for two animals)

6. SOCIAL ENRICHMENT

Dogs are social animals and housing them in isolation is undesirable on

behavioural grounds. However, it may be necessary to house dogs
individually because of particular experimental protocols, the danger of
aggression, during quarantine, post-operative convalescence, or the presence
of exposed indwelling catheters.
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In laboratories, it is possible to keep dogs in groups if the facilities are

designed to allow this. It is obvious that the larger the size of the group the
more complex the social life of each animal and the more socially-enriched
their environment. However, there are difficulties and dangers regarding
large groups. It may be difficult to move animals into or back into large
groups because of aggression. This is a particular problem for dogs returning
after being used for research which may debilitate them. They may become
victims of aggression, especially if they had been high up the hierarchy
previously. As aggression may be a problem with dogs housed in groups it is
important that compatible animals are housed together and that groups of
dogs remain stable. Moving animals out of and into groups may disturb the
hierarchies which have developed, and result in aggression. Groups are best
established when the dogs are young, but if new animals have to be
introduced then it may be best to do so, on neutral ground, such as a new
cage, rather than in the cage where the group has lived previously.
Large groups may be difficult to manage during research and dogs may
have to be placed in individual cages, small groups or pairs. This may be
disruptive and cause problems. Managerially, the smaller the group the
better, and as Hubrecht (2002) found that there were no clear data indicating
what the optimum group size might be, housing dogs in pairs seems a
reasonable compromise. Regardless, dogs in pairs spent a similar proportion
of time interacting with each other as did dogs in large groups (Hubrecht,
1993). However, the pairing of dogs may be insufficient to prevent chronic
stress developing (Beerda et al., 2000) and dogs may actually need to live in
larger groups even if other elements of environmental enrichment are
possible.
Housing dogs individually resulted in abnormal behaviour (Hetts et al.,
1992; Hubrecht, 1995b) and allowing them to live in pairs or larger groups is
almost certainly an improvement. Dogs housed individually were more
likely to engage in repetitive behaviours (Hubrecht et al., 1992) than those
housed in groups. These authors speculated that dogs housed individually
spent a lot of time trying to increase sensory input and spent much time
standing on their hindlegs looking at neighbouring pens and the door. The
presence of an additional cage mate allows for social interaction and makes
the olfactory environment much more interesting. Physical isolation has
deleterious effects on the behaviour of dogs, and allowing dogs to see other
dogs might also improve their welfare. Visual contact with other dogs may
stimulate allelomimetic behaviours such as barking, but may also make life
more interesting and encourage normal behaviour (Wells & Hepper, 1998).
Dogs housed in groups spent more time walking and less time resting,
and they exhibited less repetitive behaviour than those housed singly
(Hubrecht et al., 1992). Housing dogs in groups allows for complex social
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interactions, but also guarantees a larger size of pen which may result in
greater opportunity for the energetic trotting and running noticed by
Hubrecht et al. (1992). When 12 beagles, normally caged in pairs, were
allowed to mix for one hour each weekday they appeared to enjoy the
interaction, but some male dogs developed skin and coat problems and there
was an increase in the chewing of cage furniture. Hubrecht (1993) concluded
that this method of social enrichment was of marginal value. However, the
effect of allowing dogs, usually caged as individuals, to mix with other dogs
needs further investigation.
Pairs of compatible dogs can be used in most types of research, including
toxicological and nutrition trials. The dogs can be separated for dosing and
feeding but otherwise held together. Dogs may have to be held as individuals
following surgery, but even then they should be allowed to have visual
contact with other dogs.

7. HUMAN-DOG INTERACTION

Dogs from well-run breeding facilities will be socialised with humans

during the first few months of life and will find interaction with humans a
good source of social complexity. Dogs that were given extra human contact
as pups were more approachable at 6 and 11 months of age and appeared to
seek human contact (Hubrecht, 1995b). Grooming by humans of dogs for 30
seconds each day reduced cage furniture-chewing by 90%, and the dogs
became more approachable towards their regular handlers and strangers
(Hubrecht, 1993). Regular 90-minute walks for dogs housed individually
may significantly reduce the chronic stress experienced by such dogs
(Beerda et al., 2000), but this may be due to the varied and interesting
environment the dog experiences during a walk rather than human contact.
Contact with humans may be extremely important for dogs and some
believe it may be more important than contact with other dogs (Wolfle,
1987, 1990; Fox, 1986; cited by Hubrecht, 1995). Handling by humans may
reduce blood pressure in dogs (Lynch & Gantt, 1968) and reduce their
physiological response to various stressors (Tuber et al., 1995; Hennessy
et al., 1998). However, the exact nature of the interaction appeared
important, and under some conditions petting by men increased plasma
cortisol concentrations of dogs (Hennessy et al., 1997). Gentle, soothing
speech seemed to be important in reducing or preventing a hypothalamus-
pituitary-adrenal axis response to venepuncture (Hennessy et al., 1998).
Thus, handling in itself may not be effective in reducing the stress response,
and specific types of handling may be required for dogs reared under
different conditions.
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It is probably better for laboratory dogs if the people responsible for

managing them in the research facility have knowledge of dogs outside the
facility. If the people handling research dogs have pet dogs at home they
may be more sympathetic to the research animal and be quicker to identify
when it has a problem. The attitude of people towards the animals in their
charge is important in that animals treated improperly may develop chronic
fear (Hemsworth & Coleman, 1998).
The impact of the relationship between experimental animals and humans
on the physiology and behaviour of the experimental animals may impact on
the quality of the research (Gross & Siegel, 1979; David & Balfour, 1992).
This has not been assessed in dogs but its impact may be even more
significant in dogs than other species, given the close relationship between
humans and dogs.

8. ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT DEVICES

A variety of enrichment devices have been trialled with pet and

laboratory dogs, and have been found to modify behaviour and reduce
abnormal behaviour. Enriching devices need to be safe, tough and suited to
the design of the cage. The biological significance of these devices remains
unclear, as simply changing behaviour may not in itself be significant with
regard to the biological fitness of the animals concerned. However, if more
complex behaviour results from the use of such devices then this is generally
taken to be a positive outcome. The provision of toys (chew bone, rawhide,
plastic piping) modified the behaviour of caged beagles by decreasing the
time spent inactive, but dogs with toys spent less time in social interaction
and toys had little effect on the development of stereotypic behaviours
(Hubrecht, 1993). Whether this change in behaviour reflects an improvement
in welfare is more difficult to assess. The toys were chewing toys and this
might have resulted in more covert competition between dogs. It certainly
reduced the chewing of cage furniture.
When a set of steps was introduced into a cage it increased the
complexity of the pen and added a vertical component. Dogs spent time on
top of the steps, on watch, and also time under it hiding. If the provision of
such devices does not reduce the incidence of abnormal behaviour,
particularly stereotypic behaviours, then they may not have much of an
impact on a dog’s welfare. More detailed studies of the effect of such
devices on physiological and immunological responses are required, as
whilst changing and allowing for more complex behaviours may be welcome
it may be of little biological significance. Steps or a kennel provide dogs
with a choice and some control over where they spend their time. The
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provision of such simple options is generally considered important in

improving the welfare of caged and penned dogs. Other useful enrichment
tools include odours (Wells, 2004), and the use of television or video-
projected images should be investigated, as dogs will pay attention to
moving images in various situations (Pongracz et al., 2003).

9. NOISE

Kennels are notoriously noisy, and most of the noise originates from dogs
barking but other sources of noise include doors banging, equipment, and
human conversation and laughter. In addition, noise from outside the facility,
such as traffic, may affect the animals. Dogs hear a wider range of sounds
than humans, from 0.04 kHz to 50 kHz, and also hear at much lower levels
than humans. In laboratories, sound often reached high levels of over 85
decibels and up to 125 decibels (Sales et al., 1997), which can cause stress to
humans, and presumably also to dogs as they are more sensitive to noise
than humans (Ottewill, 1968; Petersen, 1980). Much of the noise may be
made by dogs barking. A high level of barking may damage the hearing of
dogs, but, this has not been clarified. The noise in a laboratory will vary
during the day, decreasing at night and increasing towards morning (Sales
et al., 1997). Therefore, it is important to locate and design laboratories so as
to minimise noise by using sound-depressing materials, such as cavity walls,
and sound-reducing doors. Individual rooms connected by corridors may be
better than large open facilities. Dogs can also be trained to be quiet during
periods known to stimulate barking, such as before feeding.
Appropriate music for dogs and humans may improve conditions in
laboratory dog houses. Classical music apparently relaxed dogs in animal
shelters while heavy metal music increased barking, but other pop music had
no effect (Wells et al., 2002). Music may dampen out other noises and make
the environment more stable.

10. EXERCISE

Exercising kennelled dogs intuitively appears to be a worthwhile

procedure for improving the dog’s welfare, and this has led to the Congress
in the USA stipulating that minimal standards of exercise for dogs be
established (Clark et al., 1997). Increasing the size of a dog’s kennel did not
appear to increase the dog’s level of fitness (Clark et al., 1991). In an
attempt to evaluate the effect of exercise, Clark et al. (1997) monitored
behaviour, immune function and plasma cortisol concentrations in beagles
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that were caged singly and either exercised alone, with a con-specific or not
exercised at all. The exercise comprised being placed in a room for 20
minutes thrice-weekly for 12 weeks. This activity no significant effect on the
physical health of the dogs but then placing a dog in a barren room was
unlikely to stimulate much exercise in any case.
More extensive exercise, such as allowing dogs to exercise outdoors
either with other dogs or a human, has been recommended as essential for
the mental and physical health of dogs, but this has not been proven
(Loveridge, 1994; Trussel et al., 1999). Whilst outdoor exercise is attractive
from the dog’s perspective, the fear which staff in laboratories using dogs
have, of animal rights activists may make it difficult for such laboratories to
have outdoor exercise yards for their dogs. Another possible problem is that
some research institutions may move from countries with a populace
sympathetic towards dogs to countries with less sympathetic attitudes
towards them.
The design of dog facilities should allow for ease of husbandry, aim to
reduce noise, allow dogs to live in pairs or groups and to see other dogs, and
allow for as wide a variety of behaviours as possible. Dogs housed
individually or in pairs for years and not walked frequently will experience
chronic stress (Beerda et al., 2000) and to reduce such stress housing for
dogs needs to be much more dog-orientated and allow easy dog and human
contact (Loveridge, 1998). The design of facilities should allow for pens to
be joined so that large pens can be created. This might involve placing small
pop-holes between pens (Hubrecht, 2002).
Regular walking and play are recommended. Dogs experiencing chronic
stress are not good models for biomedical research of any kind, and housing
and management must either adapt to produce dogs that are not stressed or
not use them in research at all. In Australia, the National Health and Medical
Research Council (1996) recommends that dogs be taken outside to run
freely or walk on a leash for at least 30 minutes each day, even in bad
weather.

11. RE-HOMING LABORATORY DOGS

Some dogs spend a short period of time in laboratories where canine

research is infrequent and not ongoing. Dogs for this type of research may be
obtained from breeding facilities or purchased elsewhere. If the former, they
are probably not suited for re-homing as they are institutionalised and might
not easily adapt to household living and may have particular behavioural
problems, such as being difficult to house train or barking incessantly. They
may also miss the social life they had previously.
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Dogs obtained from pounds or shelters may return to where they came
from and be re-homed from there, if considered appropriate. Their
experience in a short-term experiment may actually make them more suited
for re-homing, if they have been trained and managed effectively and
sympathetically.
The majority of laboratory dogs are probably humanely killed rather than
being re-homed, and so it is extremely important to give them as rich a life
as possible as it will virtually all be spent behind bars.

12. SURGICAL RESEARCH AND ANALGESIA

The use of any animals, but especially the dog in biomedical research, is
an anathema to many people. These animals have been our companions and
helpers for thousands of years and the argument is that it is immoral to use
them for research purposes. In most countries, however, it is legal to use
dogs in research and whilst this is unlikely to change in the near future, the
legislation governing the use of dogs in research is often stricter than with
other laboratory animals. In addition, laboratories and scientists using dogs
are aware that they are particular targets for organisations against the use of
animals for research and recognise that they have to manage and use dogs at
the highest standards.

13. RESEARCH AT HOME

Much of the research targeted at the health, behaviour and welfare of

companion dogs uses dogs owned and living at home. Although this latter
type of research is carried out with the consent of the dog’s owner, it needs
to be controlled so as to ensure the owner understands what is happening and
that the animals are not harmed by the research. This research needs ethical
control similar to that used for medical research, as the owners are
equivalent to the parents of children that may be involved in clinical or
psychological research.

14. CONCLUSIONS

The work of Beerda et al. (2000) suggests that many dogs held in
laboratory cages are suffering form chronic stress, although caution was
recommended in interpreting the data. This suggestion has serious
implications for the quality of research work undertaken using such animals,
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and their welfare. In an ideal situation, laboratory dogs would be housed in

groups, with indoor and outdoor runs, have plenty of appropriate human
contact including walks outdoors, and be fed and managed appropriately.
The ongoing keeping of laboratory dogs indoors in individual cages may be
bad for science and will continue to attract criticism from animal welfare and
rights organisations. However, facilities such as those described by above
(Loveridge, 1998) may actually provide dogs with a better quality of life
than many dogs living with their owners, at least for the time before they are
used for invasive research.
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Chapter 10
DOGS IN SHELTERS

Abstract: There are unwanted dogs in all countries and their fate is a reflection of the
wealth of these countries and people’s attitudes towards animals and dogs in
particular. In most countries, there are animal shelters of some description
which take in unwanted dogs and either re-home or kill them. The number of
unwanted dogs and dogs entering shelters is decreasing in many European
countries, the USA and Japan, and possibly worldwide. The time dogs spend
in shelters and the quality of life therein impacts directly on their welfare and
may affect their subsequent behaviour if they are re-homed. Dogs are
surrendered to shelters for various reasons, many are unwanted puppies. While
shelters attempt to maximise the welfare of their inmates, many dogs are held
alone in single cages and may not receive sufficient attention due to shortages
of staff and volunteers.

1. INTRODUCTION

There are unwanted dogs in most countries and these dogs are either
ignored, killed, or or they may be captured and rehomed. Dogs that are free-
ranging, whether owned or not owned, may be caught and put in a pound or
shelter. If owned but unwanted, they may be surrendered directly by their
owner to a shelter. Shelters managed by animal welfare agencies and pounds
managed by local authorities have different philosophies with regard to how
to manage their inmates. The majority will hold dogs for a limited period of
time, usually about a week, return those claimed by their owner, attempt to
re-home those considered suitable for re-homing, and then kill the
remainder. Some shelters have no-kill policies and will hold dogs until they
are reclaimed, re-homed, are humanely killed for medical reasons, or die.

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Pounds operated by local authorities may not re-home dogs and only return
those that are claimed by their owner and kill the rest.
Animal shelters exist worldwide, and for the last 100 years or more the
animal welfare organisations that manage them have worked to educate the
public about the unacceptability of allowing unwanted pups to be born and
of the responsibilities of dog ownership. Although many claim that the
problem with unwanted dogs is growing, the number of animals sheltered by
the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) in
New York and the proportion killed has decreased and the percentage re-
homed has increased over the last century (Table 1) (Zawistowski et al.,
1998). Also in New York, the number of dogs killed in relation to the human
population has decreased. In Oregon USA, a similar pattern was found and
the number of dogs in a shelter decreased from 28,850 in 1973 to 6,665 in
1991, and the number killed decreased from 11,566 to 1,171. This was
accompanied by a decrease in numbers of dogs in a county pound from
16,000 to 6,000 over a similar period (Strand, 1993). The American Humane
Society reported a decrease by 40% in the number of animals sheltered from
1985 through to 1990 (Strand, 1993). This occurred despite the number of
dogs increasing in the USA over the last few decades. A similar pattern was
noted in Japan (Table 2) (Hart et al., 1998), and the downward trend in the
population of dogs in some European countries will almost certainly be
paralleled by a decrease in dogs entering shelters and pounds. Apparently,
some European shelters are now importing dogs from other countries to fill
their requirement for dogs of re-homing, and possibly to justify their
existence.

Table 1. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals figures for dogs received,
re-homed, or humanely killed over much of the last century in New York.
Year Dogs received % Dogs adopted % Dogs killed
1895 21,741 1.8 95.7
1896 27,587 2.4 86.6
1904 30,505 Na 93.7
1914 59,355 Na 88.0
1928 85,744 3.2 82.3
1934 65,207 6.1 93.5
1946 60,537 2.9 91.0
1954 66,043 13.6 73.7
1965 70,185 21 65.1
1974 81,627 8.8 82.7
1984 41,867 19.4 75.0
na = not available
Adapted from Zawistowski et al. (1998)

Dogs become unwanted because some people find they cannot manage
them effectively. The desire to have dogs may be encouraged by personal
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experience of the pleasures of having a dog, belief that a dog is good for
one’s health and family, desire for a working or guard dog, powerful
advertisement to promote the benefits of pet ownership, and many other
reasons. The presence of unwanted dogs has been blamed on irresponsible
owners who will not de-sex their animals, ignorant owners who believe that
it is good for a bitch to have one litter, breeders, veterinarians who charge
too much for de-sexing, the pet food industry, and pounds and shelters
(Sturla, 1993). These accusations have sometimes resulted in poor
cooperation between interested parties (MacKay, 1993).
In developed countries, the problem is basically due to individual owners
(Olson and Moulton, 1993) breeding bitches and producing unwanted pups.
This may be due to ignorance, laziness or poverty, but it cannot be blamed
on the many organisations and professionals who have encouraged
responsible ownership for decades and now provide more service, both in
training and private veterinary care, than previously. A small proportion of
the dog-owning community is probably to blame for surplus pups and this
population needs to be targeted if the problem is to be reduced further
(Murray, 1993).

Table 2. The population of dogs (millions) and the numbers impounded, killed or given to
laboratories, reclaimed or adopted, in 1984 and 1994 (Hart et al., 1998) and 2000 in Japan.
Fate
Year Impounded Reclaimed Adopted Killed (laboratory)
1984 345,136 13,714 NA 331,422a
1994 243,753 13,131 10,791 197,789 (22,042)
2000 126,570 15,004b 111,566
a
Killed or given to laboratories
b
Reclaimed and adopted
NA = not available

2. HISTORY OF SHELTERS

The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) was

established in England in 1824. Initially it was primarily concerned with the
welfare of horses but it gradually came to recognise that the welfare of dogs
was also a major issue and dog shelters were established. The British Empire
was in its heyday and the philosophy of the SPCA and the concept of animal
shelters spread thorough the empire. In the USA, the ASPCA was
established in 1866 by Henry Bergh, and again horse welfare was central to
its activities.
In the 19th Century in many cities, dog control officers attempted to
remove stray dogs from the streets to reduce the likelihood of rabies and
attacks on humans. These dogs, if unclaimed, were killed often in quite
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brutal fashion by clubbing or drowning. The SPCA became concerned about

the fate of these dogs and in some cities, such as New York, the SPCA took
over dog control from the city authorities (Zawistowski et al., 1998). In
many cities, however, municipal pounds and SPCA shelters existed side-by-
side and do so to this day worldwide.
Traditional animal welfare organisations such as the SPCA have
established and run animal shelters that generally take in unwanted dogs
surrendered by their owners, stray unowned dogs at risk of public abuse,
injured dogs, and unwanted pups. These shelters either re-home these dogs
or humanely kill them if they are unwanted or unsuitable for re-homing.
These organisations have worked for decades at trying to increase
responsible ownership, and while there have certainly been improvements
there are still too many pups produced, and many dogs still become
unwanted, and free-ranging dogs remain a nuisance (Murray, 1993). It is
important to remember that most animal welfare organisations are charities
and depend on public donations and legacies to survive. Thus, there is a
tendency amongst such organisations not to trumpet success as it might
result in lower donations for future work.
In North America and Europe, there is a plethora of private non-profit-
making shelter and animal control agencies that take in free-ranging and
unwanted dogs. In Japan, homeless and unwanted dogs are managed almost
exclusively by government animal shelters (Hart et al., 1998). Some animal
welfare organisations have ‘no-kill shelters’ but these are in the minority as
most charities cannot afford to keep dogs that are not suited for re-homing.
Dogs may be considered unsuited for re-homing because of their behaviour
or because they are of a specific breed or crossbreed. In addition, some
veterinarians now refuse to kill healthy animals and these may also be
surrendered to shelters. In some religions, killing animals is not allowed or is
disapproved of and this compounds the difficulties of managing free-ranging
and unwanted dogs.
Dog pounds are built by local authorities and managed either directly or
by private companies or welfare organisations. The function of a pound is to
provide a place where stray and unwanted dogs can be held until they are
either returned to their owner, killed or re-homed. The rules governing each
pound will differ depending on local by-laws and the philosophy of the staff.
The by-laws will be influenced by national dog control laws, animal welfare
legislation and other pertinent legislation.
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3. HOW LARGE IS THE PROBLEM?

The number of organisations involved in animal shelter work and the

number of shelters make it difficult to determine accurately the number of
animals entering shelters and their fate (Zawistowski et al., 1998). There are
about 5,000 shelters/and pounds in the USA, each housing more than 100
dogs per year, but to garner data from them is difficult. Over two million
(2,112,009) dogs entered the 1,100 shelters surveyed by Zawistowski et al.
(1998) in 1994. About half of the dogs (51%) were admitted by animal
control personnel and 27.7% were relinquished by their owners. Of these
dogs, 25.4% were adopted, 15.6% reclaimed by their owners and 56% (about
1.1 million) were killed. It is impossible to know if these shelters are
representative of others, but these figures suggest that about five 5 million
dogs are killed in shelters and pounds each year in the USA.
The estimated population of dogs in the USA varies from 44 to 55
million, depending on the methodology used (Patronek & Rowan, 1995).
These figures are based on household ownership of dogs and probably do
not include many of the unwanted pups born and surrendered to shelters
early in life, and free-ranging dogs. In 1969, Marx and Furculow (1969)
reported that 20% of the population of dogs in the USA was feral, but this
has declined significantly and Patronek and Rowan (1995) considered the
number of feral dogs in the USA to be insignificant. Thus, approximately
20% of dogs in the USA enter a shelter each year and half of these are killed.
These figures are higher than those of Patronek and Rowan (1995) who
estimated that each year, about four million dogs enter shelters and 2.4
million of them are killed. The figures quoted by Alexander and Shane
(1994) that between 12 and 20 million animals are killed each year in animal
control facilities seem extreme, despite the inclusion of cats and other species.
Lower figures are supported by findings that in 1996 in Ohio (Lord et al.,
1998), which has a population of 2.2 million dogs, over 200,000 (about
10%) dogs entered a shelter and over 128,600 were killed. Similar figures
are quoted by Arkow (1994), who found that in California, Colorado and
Iowa about 9.25% of dogs were assisted by animal control personnel
annually.
In Japan (Table 2), less than 2% of dogs entered a shelter and
the majority were killed (Hart et al., 1998). In the UK, about 100,000
dogs were re-homed by the SPCA in 2003, when the population of dogs
was about 6.2 million, that is, less than 2% of dogs. In New Zealand, with a
population of about 500,000 dogs, the SPCA received about 10,000 dogs in
2000 (that is 2% of the dog population) (Table 3) and about 45% (4,500) of
these were killed (Peter Blomkamp, RNZSPCA, New Zealand, personal
communication). In addition, municipal dog pounds probably take in at least
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the same number of dogs and kill the majority of them, thus adding probably
another 10,000 dogs to the numbers above. This would total about 4% of the
total dog population being killed in shelters and pounds, a number
significantly lower than the USA. In the Australian cities of Melbourne and
Brisbane, about 10% of the dog population was killed in shelters and pounds
(Murray, 1993). However, in Australia, as in Japan, the number of dogs
entering shelters is decreasing as is the number of dogs being killed (Table
4). None of the figures shown above includes the number of unwanted dogs
killed by veterinarians in private practice.

Table 3. The population of humans (millions) and dogs (millions), and number of dogs
(millions) entering shelters each year in Japan, USA and New Zealand.
Country Human Dogs Shelters
Japan 127 4.1 0.243
USA 296 50 4
New Zealand 4.1 0.5 0.02

Lepper et al. (2002) identified the characteristics of dogs adopted from a

shelter in California and suggested that it would be worthwhile promoting
certain other types of dogs for adoption. However, in that particular shelter
26% of the 7,720 dogs impounded were put up for adoption and only 16% of
all the dogs were adopted.
Dogs are a nuisance in many societies. In an Australian study, Murray
(1992) found that dogs were the second largest problem for municipal
management, after the collection of rates, and in Perth 20% of dogs were
allowed to roam freely (Adams & Clark, 1989). There are different
perspectives on the problem of unwanted dogs. In an Australian provincial
city, veterinarians and shelters killed the same number of dogs but the
shelters killed a greater proportion of young unwanted animals than the
veterinarians. Shelter workers saw over-breeding as a major problem, but
this was not obvious to the veterinarians in their day-to-day work (Murray &
Speare, 1995). This observation may be true for private veterinarians
worldwide, who kill numerous dogs but these are of a different demography
than those killed in shelters.
The problem of unwanted dogs is probably decreasing in wealthy
countries, but it remains a problem, and is a much greater problem in many
poorer countries, where there are insufficient finances to cope. In poorer
countries public health initiatives to reduce the number of unowned dogs are
usually short-term population-reducing programmes. Long-term support for
public education programmes and the establishment and support of shelters
in these countries are a challenge for dog lovers in the wealthy world.
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4. DOG POPULATION DYNAMICS

A population model developed by Patronek and Rowan (1995), based on

dogs in the USA, used a birth and death rate of 12% and a turnover rate of
14%, which included stray dogs returning to the population of owned dogs.
Of the dogs that died in this model (6.2 million), over a third (2.4 million)
died in shelters. The other 3.8 million dogs died in veterinary hospitals, at
home and at large. The figure of 12% appears to be acceptable for the birth
and death of dogs in the population of owned dogs in developing countries
but not in poorer countries (see Chapter 2). In 1990, Arkow (cited by Kidd
et al., 1992a) stated that the average stay of a pet in an American home was
about 2 years, which would suggest a much greater turnover than the 14%
proposed above.

Table 4. Australian SPCA figures for dogs entering shelters, re-homed or killed humanely.
Year
Fate of dogs 2002–3 1998–9
Received 64,593 72,360
Reclaimed 14,788 (22%)
Re-homed 21,469 (32%) 38,464a
Killed 24,554 (38%) 33,896
a
Reclaimed and re-homed

5. WHY ARE DOGS SURRENDERED TO ANIMAL

SHELTERS?

There are four major reasons why a dog enters a shelter or pound, viz
caught as a free-running animal, surrendered by their owner, found injured in
a public place, or seized as part of an animal welfare investigation. Although
the reason for entering a shelter/pound varies between countries, and
probably over time, the majority are caught as free-running animals (Table
5). Many of the animals surrendered are from unwanted litters of pups either
given up by the owner or collected in a public place. In individual shelters,
the reasons for entering probably remain stable over the years (Alexander &
Shane, 1994). In Las Vegas, USA, dogs acquired from breeders and pet
shops were less likely to be surrendered to a shelter than dogs acquired
elsewhere (Nasser et al., 1984), and Arkow (1985) stated that typically an
unwanted dog was acquired at no or low cost and for compassionate reasons
rather than for a specific activity.
People relinquish their dogs for a myriad of reasons, which includes
personal circumstances, the dog’s behaviour, or simply that the dog is
unwanted (Table 6). In a large American study of 12 shelters in four regions,
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the background to why 3,676 dogs and litters were surrendered was
investigated (Salman et al., 1998; New et al., 1999; Scarlett et al., 1999;
Kogan et al., 2000). The reasons, in decreasing order of importance for
surrendering dogs were, human housing issues, behaviour, human lifestyle
problems, requests for euthanasia, human expectations and preparation,
household animal population, animal health, and animal characteristics
(Salman et al., 1998).

Table 5. The reason why dogs entered animal shelters or pounds, in different countries.
Japan1 New USA3 USA4 Northern Australia6
Zealand2 Ireland5
Number 6,884 967 2,112,009 214143 18,843 20,729
Year 1994 1999– 1994 1996 1990 2001–2
2001
Caught as 61% 30%a 51% 66% 54% 84%
stray
Relinquished 22% 63% 27.7% 32% 27% 15%
Cruelty 1%
Injured 4%
For 19%
euthanasia
Other 13% 7% 22% 1% 1%
a
Data from SPCA (municipal pounds usually take in stray dogs)
1
Hart et al. (1998)
2
Phipps (2003)
3
Zawistowski et al. (1998)
4
Lord et al. (1998)
5
Wells and Hepper (1992)
6
Marston et al. (2004)

Scarlett et al. (1999) analysed the reasons why people from 520
households relinquished 554 dogs (Table 6). These reasons, in descending
order of importance were; no time for pet, personal problems, allergies, pet-
child conflict, and a new baby, and also included divorce, travelling,
unwanted gift, and owner deceased. Of interest is the observation that dogs
came into and went out of more than 50% of those households during the
previous year, suggesting poor stability in the human-animal relationships.
More than half (59%) of these dogs were acquired at no cost. Males and
females were equally likely to surrender a dog, but people 25–39 years of
age were over-represented among those who surrendered a dog because of
moving house (New et al., 1999).
In that large study, equal numbers of male and female dogs were
surrendered, about 43% of which were neutered, 68% were mixed breed, and
27% were ‘outside’ dogs. The dogs were sourced from, in descending order
of importance, friends, shelters, breeders, strangers, or found as strays, and
46% had been owned for less than a year (Salman et al., 1998). When dogs
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were surrendered for a behavioural problem, the problems, in descending

order of occurrence were; bites, aggressive towards people, escapes,
destructive inside, destructive outside, disobedient, problem between new
pet and other pets, aggressive towards animals, soils house, and vocalises too
much (Salman et al., 2000). One half of dogs surrendered for a behavioural
reason had been acquired from a shelter, most lived with the owner for less
than 3 months, 58% lived in households with another dog or cat, and for
51% another dog had been added to the household in the previous year.
Living in a multi-animal household with regular additions increased the
chances of being surrendered for behavioural reasons, and there was a short
period of time to deal with any problems that developed (Salman et al.,
2000). In the Netherlands, aggression and separation anxiety were the most
common reasons why dogs were surrendered or returned to animal shelters
(van der Borg et al., 1991).
It is easy to think badly of people who surrender their dog to a shelter and
that their decisions to do so are trivial (DiGiacomo et al., 1998), but this is
not the case for many. In a series of interviews with people who had
relinquished dogs, those authors found that all had delayed surrendering their
animal for some time as they balanced their concepts of what would happen
at the shelter with their circumstances. Procrastination, and failed attempts at
resolving the problem made by poorly-informed owners were common
observations. The authors concluded that most relinquishment cases were
more complex than the recording of one or two reasons would imply. Blame
displacement mechanisms were used by many owners to cope with the
possibility that the surrendered animal would be killed (Frommer & Arluke,
1999).
People bringing animals to shelters for re-homing or euthanasia are doing
what shelters would recommend. However, many of the reasons why
animals are relinquished could be either prevented or treated with proper
advice, and perhaps people should additionally regard shelters as a source of
information and advice (DiGiacomo et al., 1998). Indeed, Murray (1993)
suggested that animal shelters may encourage irresponsible pet ownership by
providing a convenient place for people to obtain pets and then to relinquish
them when it suited.
The major risk factors associated with being relinquished to a shelter for
a dog (Patronek et al., 1996) were; being sexually intact, obtained at no cost
(but not as a gift), older at acquisition, being young, spending much time in a
crate or yard, owners recognising that caring for the dog was harder work
than they had thought, lack of veterinary care, lack of attendance at training
classes, and inappropriate elimination. Reaching new and at-risk owners and
helping them reduce the likelihood of surrendering their dog is important.
Increasing the percentage of animals de-sexed, encouraging veterinary care
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and advice, and attendance at training classes are all important. The majority
of surplus dogs are usually unwanted pups produced by uncontrolled mating,
and this remains a major problem worldwide. In many cities, there are
increasing opportunities to attend dog training classes and there are more
veterinarians involved in private companion animal health practice, so these
risk factors should become less of a problem. However, underlying them
may be the reality that caring for a dog takes time and costs money, and both
these factors can only be appreciated through constant education and advice
from everyone involved with dogs.

Table 6. The reasons why people relinquished their dogs to a shelter.

USA1 USA2 USA3 NZ4
Number of dogs in 269 53 2,045 967
study
Unwanted litter 36% 5% 25.5%
Unwanted animal 39% 13.9%
Animal ill 4% 8%
Owner moving/landlord 8% 19% 30% 8.9%
Financial problems 2% 21% 7.9%
Euthanasia 18%
Inappropriate behaviour 9% 30% 47% 6.5%
Owner ill 9% 27%a
Other 7% 12% 5%b 6.9%
14%c
7%d
Stray 30.4%
a
Human health and personal issues
b
Animal characteristics, not medical or behavioural
c
Human preparation or expectations
d
Household pet population
1
Alexander and Shane (1994)
2
Miller et al. (1996)
3
Scarlett et al. (1999)
4
Phipps (2003)

6. COPING WITH LIFE IN A SHELTER

The retention of dogs in shelters and pounds for long periods of time may
have negative effects on their behaviour. On average, dogs were held for up
to 85 days in a shelter in the Czech Republic (Nemcova & Novak, 2003), but
for about two weeks in two Californian shelters (Clevenger & Kass, 2003).
However, after five days of being held in barren cages, dogs appeared to get
used to the facilities and ate their food quicker, and became relaxed in the
company of a stranger, although their response to a novel object did not
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change. Responses in the cage were the same for stray (free-ranging) dogs
and dogs surrendered by their owners (Wells & Hepper, 1992).
Many dogs in shelters are held alone in barren cages (Tuber et al., 1999)
in isolation, for quarantine and safety reasons. If they could see another dog
through the gate of their own cage they spent time at the front of the cage,
which may have improved their welfare (Wells & Hepper, 1998). There are
no physiological data to support this, but it is intuitive. In Germany, about
half of all shelters keep dogs in groups although there is a great fear of
aggression. However, the majority of confrontations are settled by ritual
without aggression, and dogs housed in groups had a closer relationship with
humans than those housed alone (Mertens & Unshelm, 1996). Dogs that
were housed individually were more likely to show stereotypes and other
behavioural problems than those housed in groups. Behavioural problems
are common in dogs adopted from (Voith & Borchelt, 1996) and surrendered
to animal shelters, or caught as strays (Patronek et al., 1996). More than half
(53%) of the owners of dogs that had been housed in groups in a shelter were
content four weeks after adoption, whereas 88% of those who had dogs that
were housed individually complained of problems (Mertens & Unshelm,
1996).
The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal responses of dogs in shelters reflect
their behaviour. Plasma cortisol levels were high during the first three days
(Hennessy et al., 1997) and declined to a baseline by Day 9 (Hennessy et al.,
2001), while levels during Days 4 to 9 were intermediate (Hennessy et al.,
1997). Levels during the first few days were nearly three times greater than
for dogs in their own home, which suggests that that time in a shelter is
stressful. This is not surprising, as it is known that exposure to novel or
restrictive conditions elevates plasma cortisol levels (Tuber et al., 1995).
Interacting with a human for 20 minutes of petting did not affect cortisol
levels (Hennessy et al., 1998), but those dogs petted by a female had lower
plasma cortisol levels than those petted by a male (Hennessy et al., 1997).
This effect was later shown to be due to the difference in petting technique,
as in a follow-up study there was no difference when males and females
petted dogs in a similar fashion (Hennessy et al., 1998), although the
behaviour of the dogs during petting was slightly different. The dogs yawned
more and spent more time with their head up in a relaxed posture when
petted by women than men. Thus, minor differences in the way dogs are
handled appear to affect the HPA response, suggesting that dogs are
particularly sensitive to how humans touch them. Dogs that pass through
shelters are prone to separation anxiety (McCrave, 1991), and Hennessy
et al. (1997) suggested that the experience might make dogs more sensitive
to separation anxiety after re-homing. This may be due to the breakdown of the
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relationship with the previous owner and an overly close attachment to the
new one (OFarrell, 1992; Askew, 1996).
Human interaction and basic training can make it easier for dogs to live
in shelters and to accommodate the change to their new home. Tuber et al.
(1999) described a programme to meet these goals. The programme included
having the dog spend time each day in a ‘living room’ in the shelter, 20
minutes of human contact with firm gentle stroking, and training the dog to
accept confinement in a cage, to sit when someone approached its cage, and
on the approach of potential adopters, and to offer classes for new owners on
how to train their dog.
Most animal shelter personnel consider that the animals’ best interests are
paramount, but there is little evidence in the literature as to how animals are
actually managed in shelters, with regard to health, nutrition and housing.
Because shelters continually take in dogs with unknown medical and
vaccination histories, there is the constant danger of canine parvovirus
disease, kennel cough and canine infectious hepatitis (Pratelli et al., 2001).
Internal parasites such as hookworm need constant veterinary care if they
are to be controlled, especially in shelters where dogs are housed in groups
(Kornas et al., 2002; Svobodova, 2003), and in young dogs (Le Nobel et al.,
2004). In one survey of shelters and pounds in Ohio, USA, Lord et al.
(1998) found that 45% dewormed and 43% vaccinated their animals, 22%
undertook testing for heartworm, and 56% had a de-sexing policy.
Personnel working in shelters are often volunteers with limited
knowledge of the training and management of dogs (Rusch, 1999) and this
makes staff management difficult. In addition there may be a large turnover
of personnel with the attendant difficulties of maintaining an educated and
knowledgeable workforce. This may impact on the wellbeing of dogs in
shelters. Staff working in shelters may be stressed due to working with
unwanted dogs and being involved with euthanasia, which may impact on
how they manage animals. Shelter staff reported less stress than those
working with homeless humans (Ferrari et al., 1999) and used blame
displacement strategies to deal with their guilt concerning euthanasia
(Frommer & Arluke, 1999)

7. WHAT DETERMINES WHETHER A DOG IS RE-

HOMED OR NOT?

The factors which determine whether a dog is put up for adoption or not
vary depending on the philosophy of the shelter or pound and their
management processes. Shelters which have a no-kill policy will attempt to
re-home virtually all animals. Most shelters will identify those dogs that are
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easy to re-home because of looks, breed, size, age and behaviour; those that
may be more difficult to re-home and may need some training or medical
attention; and those that are difficult to re-home. Some shelters may have a
policy which does not allow some dogs to be re-homed on principle or
because they fear what might happen to the dog or its new owners. Pit bull
terrier-type dogs are often not re-homed for these reasons (Lepper et al.,
2002). Dogs difficult to re-home might include breeds or types that the
shelter knows it will have difficulty in re-homing, or very young pups that
have not been with their mother for long or have not been socialised well.
Some research has been conducted over the past decade on the selection
of dogs for re-homing. There is evidence that good pre-selection practices
and post-re-homing education of the new owner may reduce the incidence of
behavioural problems experienced by the new owners.
It is important to determine what factors make a dog attractive to a
potential owner as limited space in most shelters may force them to kill dogs
without putting them up for adoption (Posage et al., 1998). Mixed-breed
dogs were 1.8 times more likely to be killed than purebred dogs, and the
chances of euthanasia increased with age (Patronek et al., 1995). Breed did
not make any difference in that study, but Posage et al. (1998) found that
terrier, hound, toy and non-sporting breeds were more likely to be adopted.
Lepper et al. (2002) found that breed was important to potential owners and
purebred dogs were more likely to be adopted. Additionally, small size, a
history of being indoor dogs and having a gold, grey or white coat colour
were good predictors of being adopted. The likelihood of being adopted
decreased with age. Brindle coloured dogs, and black dogs, were not
popular,but red merle and tricolour dogs were.
The behaviour of a dog in its cage influenced whether or not it would be
adopted (Wells & Hepper, 2000a). Dogs that were alert, quiet and at the
front of the cage were more attractive to potential owners (Wells & Hepper,
1992, 2000a). Placing the dog’s bed at the front of the pen, hanging a toy
there, or increased human contact with the dog all increased the likelihood of
a dog been adopted (Wells & Hepper, 2000a). Placing dogs in cages where
they could see other dogs through the gate might also encourage them to stay
at the front of the cage and thereby be more attractive (Wells & Hepper,
1998).
Dogs categorised as stray rather than unwanted were less attractive to
potential owners (Wells & Hepper, 1992), and this was expected as stray
dogs were more likely to show behavioural problems (especially a tendency
to stray), when adopted than dogs which had been surrendered. However,
Lepper et al. (2002) found that strays were more popular than dogs
relinquished for behavioural reasons, or old and sick dogs, but less popular
than dogs relinquished because of financial or home-moving reasons.
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As all shelters fear re-homing dogs that then become dangerous to

people, they attempt to identify such dogs before re-homing. In addition, all
shelters want to maximise the likelihood of success of adoption and so
attempt to identify those dogs most likely to succeed in their new home (van
der Borg et al., 1991) and not have behavioural problems such that they are
returned to the shelter. A set of tests developed by van der Borg et al. (1991)
predicted the likelihood of behavioural problems occurring in the new home.
The tests had better predictive value (predict absence of behavioural
problem) and sensitivity (correctly predict occurrence of behavioural
problem) than the opinion of staff (Netto et al., 1990). The tests were good at
predicting leash pulling, aggression towards adult humans and dogs,
disobedience and separation anxiety, but poor at predicting car-related
problems (van der Borg et al., 1991). The major problem with these tests is
the time it takes to conduct them, so it is important that the tests be
abbreviated but not lose their efficacy.
Aggression was a major reason for dogs being returned to shelters (Wells
& Hepper, 2000b). A series of tests developed by Netto and Planta (1997)
was found to be useful in assessing the aggressive tendencies of dogs. These
tests were developed for use in breeding programmes but could be used, or
modified and then used, in shelters.
An attempt by Hennessy et al. (2001) to correlate the behaviour of dogs in
an animal shelter to their behaviour after adoption was not as successful as
that of van der Borg et al. (1991), but different behavioural tests were used.
The former found that pups that were quite fearless and had low plasma
cortisol levels were more likely to have behavioural problems after adoption.
Shelters attempt to determine if the potential owner is likely to be a good
owner and would keep the animal. The age and expectations of owners were
important factors in determining whether an adoption would be successful
(Kidd et al., 1992a). An important factor in whether an adoption succeeds or
not, is the new owner. Reasons why adoption from an animal shelter was
unsuccessful included the new owner’s ignorance about the (1) behaviour to
be expected from a dog, (2) methods of training a dog, (3) time required to
take care of a dog, (4) expense involved in owning a dog, and (5) parents
with unreasonable expectations that a dog would teach their children to be
loving, emotionally sensitive and responsible beings (Kidd et al., 1992b). A
higher percentage of men than women, first-time owners than previous
owners of pets, and parents than non-parents, rejected the pet they had
adopted from a shelter (Kidd et al., 1992a)
Few people (4/41) (9.8%) who had recently acquired a new dog and were
clients of a veterinarian rejected the new dog, when compared with the 20%
of people who rejected a pet adopted from a shelter (Kidd et al., 1992b). Of
the four dogs rejected in that study, one was vicious, one could not be
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controlled by the wife, and two did not adapt to pets already in the house.
These dogs were retained for about 6 months whereas those from a shelter
were returned within 2 months. Veterinary clients had lower expectations of
the dog than adopters from a shelter.
Shelters have different policies with regard to who they are willing to
give dogs to (Balcom & Arluke, 2001). Closed policies are those which look
for reasons not to allow adoption while open policies are less critical of
potential owners and accept that a person seeking a pet will obtain one from
a shelter or another source (Balcom & Arluke, 2001). The degree of
preparation and planning for the dog by the new owner did not appear to
influence the likelihood of a dog being relinquished (Patronek et al., 1996),
suggesting it may not be worthwhile for the shelter to invest too much time
ensuring that the situation is optimal for the dog.
Irvine (2003) compared the way institutions dealing with unwanted pets
portrayed them and the need for a commitment for the animal’s lifetime.
Such organisations may strive to help people keep their animals when the
owners actually want to have troublesome animals removed from their
home. Efforts to gain public support for help in dealing with unwanted pets
often ignore the reality of the problem being dealt with.

8. HOW SUCCESSFUL IS RE-HOMING?

The success of re-homing dogs from shelters is important (Table 7) and it

is important to understand the reasons for success and failure of re-homing.
In the Netherlands, the proportion of dogs returned to SPCA shelters
increased from 19% in 1983 to 50% in 1991 (van der Borg et al., 1991). In
an American study, 18% of first-time adopted dogs were returned to the
shelter (Patronek et al., 1995). Following-up an adopted dog can be difficult
as it may not be possible to contact the people who adopted the animal,
especially as many people who adopt animals are young and may be
transient (Phipps, 2003). In a study of a group of dogs de-sexed early in life,
Howe et al. (2001) managed to contact the owners of 269 (22%) of 1,215
dogs. In New Zealand, Phipps (2003) contacted 103 (2.9%) of 354 persons
who had adopted dogs within the previous 24 months. In Northern Ireland,
556 (37%) of 1,547 people who had purchased a dog from a shelter in the
previous four weeks, responded to a survey by Wells and Hepper (2000b). In
contrast, Kidd et al. (1992) contacted 343 of 392 people 6 months after they
had adopted a pet.
The majority (68%) of the 556 respondents to a postal survey by Wells
and Hepper (2000b) reported that their adopted dog had shown undesirable
behaviour within four weeks of adoption. Common behaviours were
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fearfulness and overactivity, shown by 53% and 37% of the respondents’

dogs, respectively. Male dogs were more likely to show aggression towards
other dogs, have sexual problems and to stray than females, but the latter
were more likely to be fearful. Pups showed fewer behavioural problems
than juvenile or adult dogs. Dogs with behavioural problems were more
likely to be returned to the shelter especially if they were aggressive towards
humans, or exhibited separation anxiety (van der Borg et al., 1991).

Table 7. The fate of re-homing dogs.

USA1 USA2 USA3 N Ireland4 New Australia6
Zealand5
Number 269 1,229 556 100 4,405
Dog not still in 12%
home
Returned to 13% 13% 12% 6% 10% 7%
shelter
Given away 6%
Died 3%
Ran away >1%
1
Howe et al. (2001)
2
Posage et al. (1998)
3
Alexander and Shane (1994)
4
Wells and Hepper (2000b)
5
Phipps (2003)
6
Marston et al. (2004)

Data available on what number of, and why, dogs are returned to shelters
suggest ways and means of reducing the problem. Whether the problem with
ownership is greater for dogs obtained from a shelter than from other sources
is unclear, and it is not possible to compare these data with dogs bought or
obtained from either pet shops or breeders as the data for the latter two
sources of dogs are not available.
Factors which determine success of re-homing include matching the
correct dog with the correct owner and then supporting the owner through
the first few months of ownership. The latter is seldom possible, due to the
staffing situation at many shelters. However, owners obtaining advice from a
breeder, groomer, trainer, friend or neighbour was associated with an
increased risk of relinquishment (Patronek et al., 1996) in contrast to those
seeking advice from a veterinarian. This may be related to the financial
situation of the new owner. In one shelter, all potential owners were obliged
to visit a private veterinarian within 10 days and compliance was greater
than 96% (Patronek et al., 1995).
Adopting out animals without ensuring the new owner has the financial
ability to care for the dog may be a mistake. Thus, establishing how much
they are able to spend on a dog may be sound information required for
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deciding whether adoption is worthwhile. De-sexing and training dogs that

are likely to be re-homed may increase the success of adoption, as may
having the new owner revisit the shelter after one week with their new dogs,
for advice and help. The new home must also be appropriate in that it should
not allow dogs to escape, especially those caught as strays.
Thus, it is important to identify dogs that are likely to be adopted and to
ensure they are healthy and unlikely to engage in behaviours that will make
them impossible to keep. It is also important that new owners know how
much effort is required to keep a dog, a dog’s normal behaviour, and how to
train a dog, and that they do not to have unrealistic expectations.

9. EARLY NEUTERING

The problem of unwanted pups and the difficulties of getting new owners
of adopted dogs to neuter their animals encouraged re-homing agencies to
start neutering animals before they were re-homed. This resulted in pups
being castrated or spayed often at 8–16 weeks of age, a practice which
started in the 1980s. In 1993, the American Veterinary Medical Association
approved the practice in an effort to stem the overpopulation problem of
dogs and cats. The practice has stimulated controversy and there is ongoing
debate as to whether early neutering is acceptable with regard to the future
health of the animals concerned.
In the USA, 70% of re-homed dogs and cats were not de-sexed despite
contracts and encouragement from adoption agencies (Lieberman, 1988),
and one state has made it mandatory that all animals from adopting agencies
be neutered (Crenshaw & Carter, 1995). In Texas, USA, and Melbourne,
Australia, fewer than 30% and 23%, respectively, of dogs in shelters were
de-sexed (Mahlow, 1999; Marston et al., 2004). In one shelter, 53% of new
owners did not get their dog neutered, and 43% of female and only 33% of
male dogs were de-sexed (Alexander & Shane, 1994). This may be an
international problem with only a small percentage of dogs being de-sexed
after being adopted from a shelter. Only 10/248 (4%) of respondents in a
survey by Wells and Hepper (2000a), who had adopted dogs from a shelter
in Northern Ireland, had their male dog castrated, and 86.7% of respondents
with a bitch did not know if it had been spayed. However, this may not be
representative of the total population. In one survey, the majority (63%) of
1,335 dogs were neutered, and only 3.4% of 968 households reported that
their bitch had a litter in the previous year, 66% of which were planned
(Patronek et al., 1997). De-sexing appeared to increase the likelihood of an
animal being adopted, and 73% and 71% of de-sexed dogs were adopted at
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two shelters in comparison to 36% and 45% of intact animals, respectively

(Clevenger & Kass, 2003)
The castration of young male pups does not appear to have any long-term
negative health effects. However, early neutering of females may lead to an
increased risk of urinary incontinence and juvenile vaginitis, or result in an
infantile vulva. There are two types of urinary incontinence, congenital and
acquired. The congenital form resolves spontaneously in around 50% of
bitches after their first heat although some bitches develop incontinence after
their first heat. About 10% of neutered bitches developed urinary
incontinence compared with 2% of intact bitches. Bitches neutered before
their first heat were more likely to develop incontinence than those neutered
after it (Thrusfield et al., 1998). Professor Peter Holt, in a letter to the
Veterinary Record (Holt, 2000), cautioned against the early neutering of a
bitch pup that had signs of juvenile vaginitis, an infantile vulva, urinary
incontinence, or was of a breed predisposed to urethral sphincter mechanism
incompetence. These breeds include Old English Sheepdogs and Doberman
Pinchers (Holt & Thrusfield, 1993). Holt (2000) observed that juvenile
vaginitis and infantile vulvas resolved after the first heat. Caution such as
that ascribed to Holt with regard to early neutering has been regularly
supported (Jagoe & Serpell, 1988; Swift, 2000), but the case for early
neutering of dogs has also been strongly supported by other veterinarians
(Lieberman, 1988; Theran, 1993; Land, 2000; Anonymous, 2001c).
In a series of short-term studies, there were no differences in skeletal,
physical or behavioural development between male and female pups
neutered at seven weeks or seven months of age, 15 months after neutering
(Salmeri et al., 1991). Those findings have been supported by others
(Crenshaw & Carter, 1995; Stubbs & Bloomberg, 1995). However, there
was a delay in closure of the growth plate in pups neutered at seven weeks of
age (Salmeri et al., 1991), but the significance of this remains unclear
(DeVile, 1998). In one long-term study, there were no differences in
behavioural problems or in problems associated with any body system four
years after either pre- or post-pubertal neutering of male and female dogs
(Howe et al., 2001). However, some are of the opinion that dogs that have
been neutered before puberty have persistent juvenile behaviours than those
neutered later (Lieberman, 1988). This has been supported by Sivacolundhu
(1997), who found that pups neutered before five months of age were more
likely to destroy things, bark or howl when separated from their owner, had
shorter attention spans, and exhibited anxiety-based urination and
defaecation. The possibility that early neutering has long-term effects on
behaviour has been questioned by Hart (1987).
Surgical difficulties initially felt to be associated with early neutering
have been overcome and many shelters now routinely have pups neutered at
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eight weeks of age, before re-homing. This practice has been recommended
as a major step forward in reducing the production of unwanted pups, but
data are not available to support this theory.
Being sexually intact was a major reason for surrendering dogs to a
shelter in the first place but McCormick (1999) argued that de-sexing is a
mutilation like tail docking or ear cropping. The counter arguments are that
de-sexing prevents the production of unwanted pups and reduces the
likelihood of pyometra, testicular and mammary cancers, and unwanted
behaviours. In male dogs, castration reduced roaming, fighting or mounting
(Hopkins et al., 1976; Maarschalkerweerd et al., 1997; Neilson et al., 1997),
but the presence of testosterone in intact dogs appeared to slow down
cognitive impairment as the dog aged (Hart, 2001). Moreover, bitches may
become more aggressive after spaying and develop an indiscriminate
appetite (OFarrell & Peachey, 1990). In some countries such as Sweden, a
small percentage of dogs are de-sexed but there appears to be no major
problem with unwanted pups. Unwanted pups are produced by dogs
belonging to a small proportion of dog owners, and these people should be
targeted in dog control programmes. There are social and personal reasons
for not having one’s dog de-sexed, but responsible owners will not allow
their dogs to produce unwanted pups. Owners who resist de-sexing their
dogs may argue that intact dogs may have a much more interesting social
existence and that this outweighs the possible production of unwanted pups.
Responsible ownership does not equate with de-sexing but with controlled
breeding.

10. CONCLUSIONS

In many countries, the problem of unwanted dogs and pups is declining

despite the increase in numbers of dogs. The media, movies (Beethoven, K-9,
Turner and Hooch) and television shows (The Simpsons) support the non-
relinquishment of dogs to shelters and pounds (Rajecki et al., 2000), and
concepts of responsible ownership are now probably widespread. This may
be due to the work of animal welfare organisations, but increasingly
restrictive legislation may be the driving force behind reduced numbers of
stray and unwanted dogs. Dog-related legislation continues to become more
restrictive and this is likely to further reduce the problem of stray and
unwanted dogs and allow local authorities to focus more on the small
percentage of irresponsible owners and deal with them accordingly.
The management of dogs in shelters and pounds is probably improving as
our knowledge of dogs’ requirements grows and attention focusses on how
to maximise the success of adoption. Nevertheless, many unwanted dogs still
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enter shelters and pounds and are killed. The establishment and development
of shelters in poorer countries is one of the most important ways that the
unwanted dogs of the world can be managed, with attention paid to their
welfare and the re-homing of suitable animals. However, this would require
a substantial input from dog welfare organisations in wealthy countries and
their supporters. Meanwhile, those working in canine welfare in poorer
countries continue to work often under appalling conditions to care for
unwanted dogs and to kill those that cannot be re-homed.
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Chapter 11
BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS

Abstract: There are difficulties in defining the normal behaviour of dogs because of the
different breeds, the difference between the behaviour of domestic dogs and
the wolf, and the variance between the environments in which feral dogs and
owned dogs live. Many dogs display behaviours which are normal but
unacceptable to humans and restricting these behaviours limits the dog’s
ability to behave normally and express its normal repertoire of behaviours.
Restriction may lead to abnormal behaviours that may be anxiety-based. There
are genetic and ontogenic elements in the aetiology of abnormal behaviours.
Abnormal behaviours may indicate that the management or environment of the
individual dog, which expresses them, are inadequate. Some abnormal
behaviours, such as continuous circling, may impact on the physical well-
being of the affected dog. Providing an adequate enriched environment for a
dog to stop engaging in these abnormal behaviours may be impossible. Thus,
dogs may be put on lifelong medication to help them cope with the damage
caused by an inadequate environment.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is regularly stated that behavioural problems are the major reason for
dogs being killed in the USA (Overall, 1997). The veracity of this statement
depends on how the word ‘problem’ is defined. The normal behaviour of
juvenile dogs can make them less attractive than an 8–12 week-old pup, and
this may lead to young dogs being killed by the owner, surrendered to a
shelter, or to euthanasia by a private veterinarian. Many young dogs are
killed because of their behaviour but if a dog attains maturity its chances of
surviving to an old age are generally good. Many of the normal behaviours
of the dog are very attractive to people and explain why dogs are such

199
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popular companions. Its social nature, playfulness and apparent love of

family are attractive attributes. However, other normal behaviours make it
less desirable as a companion and neighbour. Dogs are often very active
and destructive; they scavenge, eat faeces, may defaecate freely and
anywhere, they bark and bite, are sexually promiscuous and are predatory.
The owner has to clean up after them on the street and control them in
public. These unacceptable, though normal, behaviours and the owners’
social responsibilities may lead to a dog being killed.
Some behaviours are abnormal and individual dogs who exhibit these
may become dangerous to humans or self-destructive. These behaviours may
be related to underlying anxiety, the aetiology of which may be complex,
combining genetic, ontogenic and environmental factors. Treatment of these
behaviours may be complicated and difficult for some owners and the dog
may be killed or placed on lifelong medication. Behaviours are categorised
as normal and acceptable, normal but unacceptable, or abnormal (Table 1).
The acceptability of a behaviour may be defined by the owners, their
neighbours, or society through public disapproval or legislation.

Table 1. The acceptability or not of different categories of behaviour

Behaviour Category Acceptablea Unacceptable
Barking Normal Owner Neighbour, society

Promiscuity Normal Owner, neighbour,

society

Scavenging Normal Owner Society

Defaecation in public Normal Owner Owner, society

Territorial aggression Normal Owner, neighbour Owner, neighbour,

society

Dominance aggression Normal Owner

Tail chasing Abnormal Owner

a
May vary according to specific conditions

The behaviour of a dog is important for its welfare because normal but
unacceptable behaviour may result in the dog being abused, ignored, given
away or killed. Abnormal behaviours presumed to be caused by anxiety,
such as separation anxiety, are welfare concerns and result in a poor quality
of life for the affected animals. There are a number of excellent textbooks on
the aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of behavioural problems in dogs
(Overall, 1997; Landsberg et al., 1997; Lindsay, 2001). The impact of
behaviour on the welfare of dogs will be discussed in this chapter.
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2. NORMAL BEHAVIOUR

A fundamental tenet of animal welfare advocates that an animal should

have the freedom to engage in normal behaviour but it is difficult to definite
normal behaviour. If defined as the behaviour of the progenitor species, then
few if any animals under human management engage in normal behaviour.
Indeed the owned dog is not allowed, by law and by animal welfare
proponents, to engage in many normal-behaviours (Table 1). The dog has
been defined as an abnormal wolf, behaving in a perpetually juvenile
manner.
The normal behaviour of the dog might best be defined as that of wild or
feral dogs such as the dingo. These animals live in small groups, pairs or as
individuals as appropriate to their environment; they dig dens, hunt and
scavenge, fight over territory, breed annually, defaecate freely and bark or
howl as necessary. Free-living dogs in cities and rural areas worldwide
behave similarly although they may breed more frequently. Many of these
behaviours are permitted in rural and urban communities in the developing
world but virtually none are acceptable in post-industrial wealthy, urban
societies. Thus, by this definition, dogs are not allowed to behave normally
in those societies where their welfare is considered the most. Indeed, many
of the basic social communication techniques of dogs, such as smelling the
perineal region or licking the lips of humans, are also unacceptable.
In addition to basic canine behaviours, there are breed-specific
behaviours. Many breeds of dogs were selected over centuries to engage in
particular activities and have a predisposition to these. Terriers are
predisposed to hunt and kill small prey, and for those terriers still used and
bred for this, such as the Jack Russell, hunting and killing is normal
behaviour. Border Collies are bred to work sheep and will gather anything
that moves, including humans. Both these breeds frequently engage in
unacceptable behaviours, such as predating on cats and snapping at ankles,
respectively. In many breeds, there are working strains and dogs from these
are predisposed to engage in whatever work they were bred to do. When
they cannot engage in such work, these animals are deprived of opportunities
to engage in activities that are important to them.
An alternative definition of normal behaviour may simply be not
engaging in abnormal behaviour. This is an inadequate definition, as many
animals in what are agreed to be inadequate conditions do not engage in
abnormal behaviours. Many sows in dry stalls and layer hens in battery
cages do not engage in abnormal behaviours. Many dogs live in quite
restrictive conditions but do not exhibit abnormal behaviours even when
they cannot engage in some important normal behaviours.
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A more acceptable definition of normal behaviour may be behaviour

considered appropriate to the environment and acceptable to society. This
allows humans to keep animals under a range of conditions appropriate to
their own living conditions, and to use animals in ways acceptable to their
society. This anthropocentric definition is also inadequate but probably the
one used inadvertently by legislators there being no no simple alternative.
The majority of owned dogs living in houses and apartments learn to
behave in an acceptable manner. But this does not mean that they are living
adequate lives, only that they are living acceptable lives to their owners,
their neighbours and the human society that allows them to exist. It may be
impossible in such restrictive conditions for a dog to behave in a reasonably
normal manner. This may be one reason why behavioural problems became
more pronounced in the 1960s and 1970s when dogs moved off the street, often
indoors into relative isolation, within smaller family units and with less time
being spent with them.
Human expectations of dogs may be greater than dogs are able to
provide. The emphasis in the media and scientific literature for the last three
decades of how beneficial dogs are for children and for one’s health and
social life, and the desire of canine industries to promote pet ownership has
encouraged dog ownership. The early work of Friedmann et al. (1980) was
inadequately interpreted and overemphasised the health benefits of pet
ownership. This may have led to many dogs being purchased as health
enhancers. In the developed world, numbers of dogs increased in the 1980s
and 1990s, perhaps in some degree as a response to the emphasis on dogs
being a useful assistant with parenting and as a social lubricant. However, it
was not often recognised how limited our ability to provide dogs with their
behavioural requirements is. Dogs were obtained but not allowed to be dogs.
Many dogs were surrendered to shelters when people refused to take
responsibility for their animals or when they accepted that they could not
provide what the animal required.
As the dog is a juvenile wolf it may need more social interaction than an
adult wolf. Therefore, dogs may need more than one human or another dog
for company. Indeed they may need to be in a pack situation, as wolf
puppies and juveniles are in a litter, and receive a great deal of social contact
throughout life. Many working dogs on large farms, Foxhounds, Beagles,
and gundogs on large estates, live together in packs. Dogs living in groups in
shelters may be more successful as pets after re-homing than those housed
alone.
If dogs are not allowed to engage in normal behaviours and live in
complex social environments then their welfare may be compromised. The
importance of activities such as agility and obedience competitions may be
that they allow dogs to be in large packs with complex social interactions,
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rather than the agility exercises per se. If the social and physical lives of
dogs are inadequate then the question to be asked is should we allow dogs to
live in these conditions at all or must we modify the dog’s behavioural needs
to those which we are able to provide with limited facilities. There may
already be a public response to this question in those wealthy societies where
the numbers of dogs is declining. People may have come to accept that they
cannot provide what dogs need within their present lifestyles.
If the environment does not allow dogs to behave normally then some
will engage in abnormal behaviour. These animals may have a genetic
predisposition towards an inability to cope, and their experience as a young
animal may be an important factor in the aetiology of the abnormal
behaviour. The behavioural needs of the dog need to be defined but at
present there is little evidence to show what these needs are. There have
been no trials using demand curves trials to compare how dogs value
essentials like different foods, social environments of different complexities,
or different activities.
The pioneering work of Scott and Fuller (1965) defined four stages in the
development of the young pup. The critical period, called the socialisation
period, from 3 to 14 weeks of age, was a time when pups could cope with a
wide range of novel environmental experiences and accept them in future as
being of little significance. In the 1970s and 1980s, many owners identified
that their dogs engaged in inappropriate behaviour and it was regularly
suggested that this was due to the individual dog being isolated during the
socialisation period, as recommended by veterinarians concerned about
canine parvovirus disease. Owners complained about having disobedient
dogs and dogs that were difficult to handle for grooming or medicating
(Seksel et al., 1999). To counter this, puppy socialisation classes were
established in many countries to increase the social experience of pups in a
safe environment and to educate owners about the care and training of their
dogs.
Socialisation classes had little effect on the social responses of pups six
months after the classes were attended (Seksel et al., 1999). Ward (2003)
quantified the experiences of pups in New Zealand and found that they were
exposed to many different people and environments during the weeks after
purchase and within the socialisation period. This might explain the lack of
effect of socialisation classes described by Seksel (1999). If this is the case,
then poor socialisation may not be a significant factor in the aetiology of
many behavioural problems and other factors must be considered, including
breed-specific behaviour, and the environment, including the owners’ dog
management ability, their behaviour and lifestyle.
Individual dog owners may misinterpret or ignore what their dogs are
communicating, and may not know the motivation for a particular behaviour.
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This may influence how the dog behaves and how it is treated. A lack of
understanding of simple communication signs can lead to the inadvertent
reinforcement of undesirable behaviours and the punishment of desirable
activities.

3. BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS

Many problem behaviours are normal behaviours but some are abnormal
or pathological, either due to quantitative or qualitative differences from
normal behaviour. Behavioural problems of dogs are obviously a serious
concern to dog owners and veterinarians. In the last three decades, a plethora
of books about dog training and behavioural problems of dogs have been
published, so there is obviously a market for these texts and keen interest in
the topic.
In the 1960s, many dog books related to sport and working dogs and their
training. This changed in the 1970s, with more emphasis on training the pet
dog and treating behavioural problems. The initial significant interest by the
veterinary profession in the behavioural problems of dogs can be dated to the
publication of the excellent text by Hart and Hart (1985b), titled “Canine
and Feline Behavioural Therapy”. This has been followed by several major
texts in the last two decades, which discuss the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of behavioural problems of dogs. This may reflect a growing
problem, but behavioural problems in companion dogs certainly existed

Table 2. Reports of behavioural problems with dogs.

Behaviour No. dogs % Complaints
Aggression 1,069 19
Excessive barking/vocalisation 741 13
Destructive chewing 628 11
Digging 501 9
Begging for food 471 8
House soiling 428 7
Jumping on furniture 361 6
Jumping on people 350 6
Running away 333 6
Fear especially of loud noises 301 5
Disobedience 171 3
Hyperactivity/excitement 171 3
Timidity 90 2
Stealing food or items 55 1
Destructive 34 1
Unacceptable eating habits 31 1
Eating faeces 13 0.2
Adapted from Beaver (1994)
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before these texts were written. However, there may have been less interest
in them by professionals and treatments were probably crude. Dog trainers
working with working animals may use techniques that are not suited to
companion animals.
In surveys, the majority of dog owners reported that their dog engaged in
some unacceptable behaviours. In suburban Melbourne, Australia, 65% of
owners stated that their dog had a behavioural problem (Kobelt, 2004),
and in the USA 87% of dog-owning veterinary clients claimed the
same (Campbell, 1986b). Beaver (1994) reviewed the literature on owners’
complaints about canine behaviour, from nine reports totalling 4,487 people
surveyed in Australia, North America and the UK. Results indicated that the
most common problem was aggression, followed by barking, chewing and
digging (Table 2). The common forms of aggression were identified as
territorial and owner protection. When clinical cases were reviewed from the
literature and from Beaver’s own clinical records, the major problem
remained aggression (Table 3), but the aggression was mainly dominance
and fear-biting aggression. In addition, the other behavioural problems were
quite different from those identified by surveying owners (Table 2).

Table 3. Major types of behavioural problems diagnosed in behavioural clinics.

Behaviour No. diagnoses % Cases
Aggression 1,083 63
House soiling 143 8
Destructive chewing 97 6
Fear/phobias 75 4
Hyperexcitability 48 3
Separation anxiety 34 2
Submissive behaviour 42 2
Excessive barking/vocalisation 32 2
Abnormal eating 20 1
Medical based problems 14 1
Others 130 8
Adapted from Beaver (1994)

Behavioural problems have been categorised by Overall (1997) into work-

related, stress and anxiety, and those having a physiological basis. They are
important in relation to the welfare of the dog because they may reflect an
unpleasant state of existence, which we may name as anxiety or fear. The
behaviour itself may reflect an abnormal mental state or it result in the animal
being managed in a way that affects its welfare. Pathological behaviours, such
as those due to excessive anxiety, and stereotypical behaviours reflect an
abnormal mental state and dogs engaging in such behaviours are probably
suffering some form of distress.
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Behavioural problems are significant with regard to the welfare of dogs

in that they may; impact on the physical and/or psychological well-being of
the animal, be the product of an inadequate environment, reflect incorrect
matching of the animal and environment, cause the human-dog relationship
to deteriorate, increase the likelihood of the dog being abused or killed,
affect the social mileau in which dogs live, and make it more difficult for the
dog’s owner and the owners of other dogs to exercise their dogs off the
leash.

4. FEAR AND ANXIETY

Fear is a primary emotion, which is useful for determining a response to a

potentially dangerous stimulus. Fear may be acute or chronic but in all cases
it is, by definition, unpleasant. A dog may be exposed to many potentially
dangerous stimuli in its lifetime but it should learn to identify those that are
dangerous and those that are not. Behaviour in response to fear is an
adaptive response which allows for defensive reactions to promote survival.
Fear becomes a significant welfare issue when the behavioural response is
elicited by non-dangerous stimuli and it becomes excessively intense or
overly long, or when the owner’s response is inappropriate, for example,
punishing submission urination. If fear occurs frequently, becomes chronic
or leads to phobia or anxiety, then it is a welfare problem for the affected
animal. This may affect the dog’s health and alter or exaggerate its
physiological responses to common environmental stimuli. An acute fearful
response to a potential danger is not generally very significant as the
response is usually brief and the dog can avoid the danger by moving away
or freezing. Fear responses can decrease with gradual exposure to the
stimulus by desensitization. Fear can be graded from normal to abnormal,
with the degree proportional to the perception of the danger. A sudden
profound all-or-nothing abnormal response that results in extreme behaviour
is called a phobia (Overall, 1997). Phobias are excessive fears that are
disproportionate to the danger of the stimulus that causes them (McCobb
et al., 2001).
Phobias develop quickly and do not decrease with repeated exposure to
the stimulus. When a dog responds in an excessively fearful manner to a
common and non-dangerous stimulus such as a man in uniform, then the
animal’s welfare may be compromised significantly. When this behavioural
response prompts attention from its owner then it is reinforced and likely to
increase, but if the behaviour is punished then the fear also increases
(Landsberg et al., 1997). Common stimuli that evoke extreme fearful
responses or phobias in dogs include some types of people (men, men in
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uniforms, children), noise (gunfire, fireworks, thunderstorms) and particular

places (veterinary clinics). Fearful responses to children or other people are
common and easily treated by desensitization and counterconditioning.
The exaggerated fear response can result in direct injury to the dog as it
frantically tries to escape from the stimulus through windows or doors, or
rushes into the street. It can also have long-term physiological effects,
though there is little research into this in dogs. In other species, chronic fear
caused by poor human-animal interactions affects health and productivity
(Hemsworth & Coleman, 1998) and there is no reason to doubt that chronic
fear caused by poor owner-dog relationships cause health problems in dogs.
Noise phobias and panic attacks to loud or sudden noises are reasonably
common, but such attacks have even occurred in response to birdsong
(Aronson, 1999). These can be treated by medication and desensitisation
and/or counter-conditioning. As some of these stimuli are seasonal,
preventative pre-medication may be used to prevent panic attacks, but
treatment to eliminate the response is better. In one survey, 40% of dogs
suffering from thunderstorm phobia were under one year of age when they
first showed signs, and dogs from animal shelters or rescue organisations
were over-represented (McCobb et al., 2001). Dogs with thunderstorm
phobia showed physical signs such as panting, shaking, salivation, loss of
bladder and bowel control, and dilated pupils, and many sought human
companionship, became destructive, vocalised, self-mutilated or hid
(McCobb et al., 2001; Crowell-Davis et al., 2003). These dogs experienced
extreme fear and often incurred injuries. Treatment is not always successful,
although the use of a combination of drugs (clomipramine and alprazolam)
plus behavioural modification resulted in an improvement in 30/32 dogs in
one study by Crowell-Davis et al. (2003). A dog appeasement pheromone
reduced the behavioural response of dogs to fireworks (Mills et al., 2003;
Sheppard & Mills, 2003) and may be useful in the treatment of other
phobias.
Anxiety is defined as the apprehensive anticipation of future danger
(Overall, 1997), with increased vigilance, tension and often hyperactivity.
Separation anxiety is defined as distress associated with separation from a
preferred companion. It is diagnosed in 20–40% of dogs referred to animal
behavioural practices in North America (Voith and Borchelt, 1996; Simpson,
2000), and it has been estimated that at least 14% of dogs presented at a
veterinary clinic in the USA show signs of it (Overall et al., 2001). Dogs
with noise or thunderstorm phobias are also likely to have separation anxiety
(Overall et al., 2001). In dogs, the common signs of separation anxiety are
destruction, excessive vocalisation, inappropriate elimination or self
mutilation when the preferred person leaves the dog. This usually happens at
home but can also happen in the car or elsewhere. Behaviours suggestive of
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separation anxiety are commonly identified by people surrendering dogs to

animal shelters (Miller et al., 1996). Dogs from animal shelters, found
abandoned or adopted from veterinary hospitals tended to be more likely to
suffer from separation anxiety than dogs obtained from breeders, friends or
pet shops (Flannigan & Dodman, 2001). Dogs suffering from separation
anxiety were very attached to their owner, followed their owner closely,
engaged in excessive greeting and showed anxiety on a departure cue. Of
importance, dogs from a home with a single adult (Flannigan & Dodman,
2001) were 2.5 times more likely to suffer from separation anxiety than dogs
from homes with many people; sexually intact animals were three times less
likely to be affected than de-sexed animals. Spoiling dogs, such as allowing
them on the bed, or the presence of other dogs in the home, was not
associated with separation anxiety (Voith et al., 1992), but owners of dogs
with the condition were more likely to punish verbally than physically and
their dogs were less well trained and not willing to lie on command
(Takeuchi et al., 2001). Dogs that had been obedience-trained were less
likely have separation anxiety than those not trained (Clark & Boyer, 1993).
When fear and anxiety become significant behavioural problems in dogs
there is probably a malfunctioning of the central nervous system.
Psychotrophic drugs are commonly used in the initial treatment of these
problems.
Dogs whose emotional, psychological and physical needs are met may be
less likely to develop the overdependence underlying separation anxiety
(Schwartz, 2003). These needs have not been defined and they probably
differ between dogs. However, they most likely include social interaction,
psychological stimulation and exercise. It may be that in a one-adult
household it is difficult to meet the social requirements of individual dogs,
particularly if the person spends much time away from the dog.
Ppsychological stimulation in the non-working dog is probably based on
complex social interactions rather than any other activity, and the fact that
sexually intact dogs are much less likely to develop separation anxiety
supports this premise. However, some dogs probably respond more intensely
to particular stimuli. This hyper-reactivity may be pathological and an overt
set of behaviours associated with a neurochemical dysfunction associated
with anxiety (Overall et al., 2001).
Dogs with separation anxiety are treated by establishing defined periods
of dog-owner interaction, pre-departure exercise, enriching the dog’s life
physically and psychologically, and desensitising it to departure cues
(Landsberg et al., 1997; Overall, 1997), but drugs, especially tricyclic
antidepressants, are often used as part of the therapy (Seksel & Lindemann,
2001). Drugs may have to be used for a prolonged period of time to
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overcome the problem. Prevention should target on enhancing the lives of

susceptible dogs.

5. COMPULSIVE DISORDERS

In dogs, there is a group of behaviours, considered abnormal, which are

usually classified as compulsive disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders,
or stereotypic behaviours (Luescher et al., 1991; Landsberg et al., 1997;
Overall, 1997; Luescher, 2003). These have been categorised into five types
(Table 4), based on the nature of the presenting sign (Luescher, 2003). The
cause of these behaviours is poorly defined but genotype, experience,
medical problems, conditioning and stress caused by inadequate
environmental conditions have all been considered important. Particular
breeds appear prone to specific compulsive disorders. Flank-sucking is most
frequently seen in Doberman Pinchers, circling in Bull Terriers, and tail-
chasing in German Shepherd Dogs. Acral lick granulomas are most
commonly seen after an injury to a leg. Dogs may engage in these
behaviours because they have elicited attention from their owner. While
genotype, experience and conditioning are important in the aetiology of
compulsive disorders, it is thought by some that they are conflict behaviours
caused by environmentally-induced conflict, frustration or stress (Luescher,
2003). Idiopathic aggression where the aggression is unprovoked and
uncontrolled may be a compulsive disorder.
The development of compulsive disorders is probably a complex
interaction encompassing many factors. In pigs and horses, the environment
has been identified as a major factor in the development of stereotypic
behaviours. Enhancing social contact and changing feed type reduced
stereotypic behaviour in horses (Cooper & McGreevy, 2002), as did
increasing feed volume in pigs (Terlouw & Lawrence, 1993). Specific
environmental factors have not been identified as being important in the
development of compulsive disorders in dogs, although Scottish Terriers,
when isolated as pups, developed whirling behaviour (Thompson et al.,
1956). Luescher (2003) suggested that any environmental factor resulting in
frustration, for example no exercise off the property, conflict behavioiur
such as inconsistent interaction between owner and dog, or stress such as
that caused by other stressful behaviours, could contribute to a compulsive
behaviour. However, the physiological responses of dogs with compulsive
behaviours is poorly understood. As these experiences listed above are
common, it could be expected that compulsive disorders would also be
common, and they are probably under-diagnosed. Problem behaviours such
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as persistent barking or digging might be compulsive disorders but may not

be diagnosed as such.

Table 4. Categories of compulsive behaviours, based on presenting signs.

Behaviour Signs
Locomotion Circling, tail-chasing, chasing light reflections, jumping in place,
pacing

Oral Leg- or foot-chewing, self-licking, air- or nose-licking, flank-sucking,

polydipsia, polyphagia, pica, snapping in the air,
scratching/chewing/licking objects

Aggression Self-directed aggression such as growling at or biting the rear end,

hindlegs or tail; attacking food bowl or other inanimate object;
possibly unpredictable aggression towards humans

Vocalisation Rhythmic barking or whining, persistent howling

Hallucinatory Staring at shadows, chasing light reflections, startling

Adapted from Luescher (2003)

Compulsive disorders are almost certainly indicative of poor welfare,

both in their aetiology and in the fact that they may interfere with normal
behaviour. They may be self-destructive. Treatment is difficult as it
combines environmental and behavioural modification with drugs.
Environmental modification involves making owner-dog interactions more
consistent and giving the dog more exercise and work. Environmental
changes alone do not usually overcome the problem and the long-term
administration of tricyclic antidepressants, such as clomipramine (Hewson
and Luescher, 1998; Seksel & Lindeman, 2001), is required (Overall, 1997).
The prognosis for complete recovery is influenced by the duration of the
problem, but lifelong drug therapy is not uncommon (Overall, 1997;
Luescher, 2003).
The severity of compulsive disorders and its intractable nature suggests
that something truly abnormal is happening in both the breeding and the
management of some dogs. It is likely that the environmental inadequacy
underlies the problem in dogs is social in origin. It may be that affected dogs
have little to do, no work, little significant social interaction with other dogs,
little exploration, and inadequate interactions with their owners. The
development of compulsive disorders is indicative of many dogs leading
poor, miserable lives, despite being cared for by their owners, and may
suggest that the lives of many pet dogs are inadequate.
The degree to which the welfare of individual animals with a compulsive
disorder is compromised is unknown and will presumably be influenced by
the developmental stage of the disorder and the type of disorder. Some
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behaviours may be signs of a psychopathology (Duncan et al., 1993).

Individual dogs may be stressed while engaging in the behaviour but for
others it may be a coping mechanism (Duncan et al., 1993), to deal with an
inadequate environment. Mason (1991) compared a stereotypy to a scar in
that it tells us something about the past. The existence of a compulsive
disorder suggests that the environment in which the dog lived was
inadequate and that its welfare was probably inadequate at some time.
The proportion of dogs with compulsive disorders is unknown and
difficult to estimate but it is probably under-diagnosed. The risk factors and
background to individual compulsive disorders need to be clarified for us to
understand what exactly is deficient in the environment.

6. AGGRESSION

Aggression in dogs has been classified in several ways. A functional

classification of aggression includes fear, dominance, territorial, play,
protective, idiopathic, possessive, redirected, food-related, inter-dog,
maternal and predatory (Overall, 1997). In all forms of aggression, the
aggressive dog can be injured as can the victim, be it human, canine or other
species. Aggression is significant for the welfare of dogs in that it may result
in dogs being killed (Reisner et al., 1994; Galac & Knol, 1997) rather than
treated, and prevention of its development increases a dog’s chance of
survival. In one German state during 1990, 34 dogs were shot by police after
the dogs endangered, injured or “lethally injured humans”. The dogs
included 16 German Shepherd Dogs, five Pit Bull Terriers, three Boxers,
two Rottweilers and two Bernese Mountain Dogs (Roll & Unshelm, 1997).
In addition, the public belief, or the reality, that dog attacks have become a
significant public health issue influences national and local politicians whose
usual response is to make dog ownership more difficult and dog control in
public more strenuous. Legislation may state that dogs have to be on a leash
at all times in public places and never allowed to run free, or that certain
breeds be muzzled at all times in public, be neutered and even killed. In the
UK, the Dangerous Dog Act of 1991 did not seem to reduce the number of
dog bites to humans over the following 2 years, and even tighter dog control
legislation was proposed (Klassen et al., 1996). In the Netherlands,
behavioural testing for aggression was suggested as one way breeders might
reduce aggressive tendencies in their dogs (Netto & Planta, 1997).
In many forms of aggression the dog protects itself (fear), its territory
(territorial), or something or someone of value (protective, possessive), food,
or pups (maternal). The fear involved in self-protection may not be
significant in that it may be temporary rather than chronic. However, some
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forms of dominance aggression may be caused by ongoing anxiety about the

dogs own position in the hierarchy and constant attempts to define its status
(Overall, 1997). This type of aggression is likely to have long-term effects
on the dog’s well-being, in addition to the danger of the dog being dispensed
with by owners unable to cope with the problem. Most emphasis on canine
aggression has focussed on aggression towards humans (Langley, 1992;
Poberscek & Blackshaw, 1993; Sacks & Lockwood, 1996; Stafford, 1996).
In the UK, the incidence of dominance aggression may be decreasing, as the
Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors report for 2000 (Anonymous,
2001b) suggested it had decreased from 10% to 5% of their consultancy
from 1996 to 2000. However, fear-related aggression towards other dogs had
increased from 6% in 1996 to 14% in 2000. This type of aggression does not
make the television news, but is significant from a dog welfare perspective,
as both victim and aggressor may suffer. In an Australian survey, 36% and
48% of 105 respondents admitted that their dogs had bitten people or fought
with dogs, respectively (Adams & Clark, 1989), and aggression towards
other dogs was common in dogs purchased at a shelter (Wells & Hepper,
2000b). Dog-to-dog aggression can be categorised as fear, territorial,
dominance, protective, possessive, food-related, maternal, play, redirected or
even predatorial. It may occur within the home or in public (Landsberg
et al., 1997; Overall, 1997).
In one German study, dogs that were victims of aggression in public
places by other dogs were usually walked by women (Roll & Unshelm,
1997). Most of the dog fights occurred when both dogs, aggressor and
victim, were off the leash, but 14% of aggressors and 35% of victims were
on the leash when a fight occurred. The aggressive dogs were usually owned
by men, typically 30–39 years of age, who often had the dog for security
reasons. Canine victims of dog attacks may become fearful and aggressive
towards all dogs or dogs of a particular type. Much of the discussion about
Pit Bull Terriers has ignored their predisposition to attack other dogs
(Bandow, 1996), but this makes them unsuited to most environments where
people and dogs live together. Most forms of dog-to-dog aggression are
normal, but unacceptable. These forms of aggression by themselves may not
be a particularly significant factor in the welfare of either dog involved, as it
is normal behaviour and injuries are usually moderate rather than severe, but
the response of humans to such aggression may cause significant restriction
in the lifestyle of either the aggressor or victim, and this may have a more
significant impact on the dog’s welfare than the aggression itself.
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7. CONCLUSIONS

The normal behaviour of the dog may be unacceptable to its owner

and/or society and may result in the dog being killed. However, such normal
behaviour is unlikely to be damaging to the dog directly, and the welfare
significance is the human response to it. An inability to engage in normal
behaviour may result in the development of abnormal behaviours and these
may be caused by chronic anxiety. Anxiety-based disorders have a
physiological mechanism, but many are caused or exaggerated by different
aspects of the dog’s management. The apparently increased prevalence of
behavioural problems in dogs in the late 20th Century may or may not be a
real increase. If it was, it was probably amplified by changes in the dog’s
lifestyle in order to accommodate societal requirements and those of owners.
The new lifestyle of dogs may be inadequate for a social, exploratory animal
now confined indoors, isolated from other dogs and often given limited
exercise either on a leash or free-running. Many aspects of modern urban
living do not allow for the behavioural needs of the dog.
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Chapter 12
THE PET DOG

Abstract: In Europe and North America, the majority of dogs are kept as companion
animals. It is assumed that dogs owned as pets have a better welfare than
working dogs or dogs used in research. However, the welfare of these pet
animals will vary depending on the attitude, dog handling ability, economic
status, and lifestyle of their owners, and the physical environment they inhabit.
People might provide physically for their companion animals but may not
provide them with an environment that is sufficiently complex mentally and
socially. Many dogs live alone for the greater part of their lives and this may
cause anxiety. The close relationship between humans and companion animals
can result in greater expectations on behalf of the owner than the dog can
provide, and disappointment may result in the dog being ignored, abandoned,
or abused. Dogs are often given as presents to people who do not want them.
Dogs may be fashion statements or used for support by people with inadequate
social lives or paranoia. Dogs living in back yards may be isolated and
ignored. However many pet dogs live good lives with their human
companions.

1. INTRODUCTION

The majority of dogs living in Europe, North America and Oceania as

pets are now often classified as companion animals. This category of animal
includes cats, small mammals (rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs), sometimes
horses and some birds. However, the dog and cat are the leading companion
animals and this status has led to major improvements in the welfare of the
dog as it has become a close companion and family member. The ratio of
dogs to humans varies widely in the developed world (Table 1); the USA,
Australia and France have the most dogs, and Germany and Japan the least.

215
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The favoured dogs in Japan are small breeds while in the UK 43% of dogs
are large or giant-sized breeds. The major improvements in canine welfare
are principally physical in that their nutrition, physical environment and
health have all improved dramatically in the last few decades. However, the
question remains as to whether their psychological well-being has also
improved.

Table 1. Human populations and the ratio of dogs to humans (adapted from Marsh, 1994).
Country Human population Dogs/100 people
(millions)
Australia 17.4 18
Belgium/Luxembourg 10.4 13
Canada 25.9 12
Denmark 5.1 13
Europe (average) 11
France 56.3 18
Germany 79.3 6
Ireland 3.5 14
Italy 57.9 9
Japan 122.1 6
Netherlands 14.9 9
Portugal 10.4 13
Spain 39.0 10
United Kingdom 57.4 13
United States of America 252.1 21

It is often assumed that dogs owned as companion animals have better

welfare than those used as working animals, athletes or in research. This
may not be the case, as the value, management and treatment of a pet dog
will vary depending on the attitude of owners and their ability to provide for
the dog. There have been few efforts to assess the welfare of dogs living as
companions with humans, and it may be difficult to do so because of the
wide variation of circumstances under which dogs share homes with humans
(Hubrecht, 1995a). The physical conditions under which pet dogs live
probably vary more than that experienced by working, athletic or research
dogs. Some pet dogs live indoors in an apartment or house virtually all the
time, others in the back yard, others outdoors and indoors, while others are
allowed to stray. Recently, Kobelt (2004) attempted to assess the
physiological status of dogs living in back yards in Melbourne, and Beerda
et al. (2000) compared the physiology and behaviour of owned dogs and
laboratory dogs in the Netherlands. The results of these two studies suggest
that there may be welfare problems with pet dogs living in two quite
different environments.
The keeping of dogs as companion animals varies with the demography
of the household. Families with school-aged children were more likely to
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have pets, including dogs, than families with infants, or older couples whose
children have left home (Albert & Bulcroft, 1987, 1988). Large families
were more likely to have dogs. In families with children, emotional
attachment to the dog was lower than that felt by people living alone or
couples without children. In childless families, dogs and people interacted
more than in families with children. Thus, depending on circumstances the
family dog may get a lot or very little attention and be of high or low value.
Owners living in close physical contact with their dogs may become more
and more attached to them.
Many surveys suggest that owners consider the dog to be a family
member, but what does this really mean? In many of those surveys, this
stance was expected as it is the socially correct answer; besides how else
should a companion animal be categorised? Being a family member does not
necessarily mean much and more effective determinants of attachments
might be the amount of non-working time people spend with their dog, and
the percentage of income and nursing time they would spend on the dog if it
became ill. These determinants are rarely assessed, but in the USA and
Australia only about 66% of respondents of a questionnaire took their dogs
for a walk (Slater et al., 1995; Kobelt, 2004), and in the USA few were
willing to take out pet health insurance or pay more than $1,000 for
veterinary fees.
The majority of pet dogs live in single-dog homes. In UK, 77% of
households with dogs had one dog and the rest had two or more
(Anonymous, 1998b), figures similar to those in suburban Melbourne
(Kobelt et al., 2003b). Social deprivation is considered a more significant
deprivation for laboratory dogs than spatial limitation (Hetts et al., 1992). If,
as in many families both partners work, then the pet dog may live a socially-
deprived life. Dogs in families with children were less likely to be over-
excited, engage in inappropriate elimination, chew and escape than dogs in
childless families (Kobelt, 2004). This may be due to owners with children
being more effective at dog training and control, but it suggests that the dog
has a more exciting social life with children coming home from school and
spending quality fun time with them. Dogs may be beneficial for children,
but children are probably even better for dogs and the larger the family the
fewer behavioural problems dogs have (Campbell, 1986a).
Although rural families are more likely to own dogs, many dogs live in
cities with limited access to areas where they can exercise off the lead. There
are examples of societies with small populations of dogs living in large
cities. Tokyo has about 12 million people, and dogs are regularly seen being
walked on its streets. But, one rarely sees dog faeces, and dogs generally
ignore passersby and appear well-behaved. These dogs may never run free
off their owner’s properties; they appear to always be on a leash. Is this
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acceptable or do dogs need to run free and engage in all those other outdoor
activities people associate with the animal? In this chapter, aspects of the
welfare of pet dogs will be discussed.

2. THE PET DOG AND ITS OWNER

In evaluating his life, the prince in Guiseppe di Lampedusa’s (1958)

novel. The Leopard considered that the ownership of a number of dogs had
been a significantly positive aspect of his life. “Yes, much on the credit side
came from … the dogs; Fufi, the fat pug of his childhood, the impetuous
poodle Tom, confidante and friend, Speedy’s gentle eyes, Bendico’s
delicious nonsense, the caressing paws of Pop, the pointer at the moment
searching for him under bushes and garden chairs and never to see him
again”. This is the experience of many people. However, another perspective
on dogs is shown below in Beaver’s (1997) analysis of dog ownership in the
USA. Dogs are focussed on human behaviour (Hare & Tomasello, 1999;
Naderi et al., 2001; Hare et al., 2002), are attached to humans (Prato-Previde
et al., 2003), seemingly solicit help from their owner (Topal et al., 1998),
and apparently have learned to communicate with humans by barking
(Douglas, 2004) and via specific play mechanisms (Rooney & Bradshaw,
2002). This human focus may be common to other domestic animals such as
cattle and pigs but has not yet been investigated in those species. However,
such a focus suggests the possibility that dogs need and benefit from human
contact (Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003) and interaction. Beaver’s (1997)
observations in the USA suggest that the human response to this need is
inadequate. In the USA, each year, 1–3 million people are bitten by dogs; 1
in 200 people are bitten by 1 in 20 dogs; 500,000 people require medical
attention because of dog bites; almost 50% of children are bitten before they
are 18 years of age; 10–15 people die each year because of dog attacks; more
than $1 billion is spent on dog-related liability claims each year; 20–25% of
the population of dogs is surrendered each year to shelters because of
behavioural problems; euthanasia is the leading cause of death among
companion animals; and animal issues generate more input to legislators
than almost any other social issue.
People usually report that they have a dog for companionship (Table 2),
but for what other reason would one have an animal that does nothing all
day? As a companion, dogs may help relieve stress and have a positive effect
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on the physical and psychological health of their owners (Hart, 1995). In

some countries, the majority of people have dogs primarily for reasons other
than for companionship. In the UK and USA, 58% and 70%, respectively,
owned a dog primarily for companionship, but in Taiwan it was 41%, less
tha n the percentage (47%) that had a dog for guard work (Hsu et al., 2003).

Table 2. Reasons for owning a pet.

Reason Importance Totala
Very important Important Not important
Companionship 156 93 17 671
Love and affection 149 98 15 658
For the children 106 74 63 528
Someone to greet me 76 101 75 505
Property protection 60 96 95 467
Someone to care for 41 95 114 427
Beauty of animal 43 86 115 416
Sport, e.g. hunting 5 11 222 259
Show value 1 6 234 247
a
Total score when weighted 1, 2 and 3 for not important, important and very important,
respectively
Adapted from Leslie et al. (1994)

Many people have dogs for their children, and families with school age
children were more likely to have dogs than families with preschoolers or
without children (Leslie et al., 1994). Kidd and Kidd (1989, 1990) reported
that women were more attached to dogs than men, childless couples more
attached than parents, and that 25% of parents expected their pet to teach
their children responsibility. Kidd et al. (1992a) found that parents expected
their pet to keep their children busy; dogs were expected to be companions,
confidantes and sources of emotional support. People who did not have dogs
cited housing difficulties as a major reason (Selby et al., 1980), but the
bother caused by having pets and wanting to travel were also important
(Table 3). Families with no children or with small children may travel more
than those with school-aged children which probably impacts on pet
ownership (Leslie et al., 1994). In one study of pre-adolescents, Davis
(1987) found that families acquired a pet because of a ‘pet deficit’, that is the
need for a pet to make their environment feel complete. This filling of a
deficit may not bode well for the welfare of the dog as it is not being
obtained for a definite reason, only to fill an apparent need.
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Table 3. Reasons for not owning a pet.

Reason Importance Totala
Very important Important Not important
A problem when I go away 50 37 19 243
Not enough time 36 28 36 200
Poor housing for pet 39 16 49 198
Location dangerous for pets 26 25 47 175
Pets not allowed 28 7 68 166
Family allergy problem 19 15 61 148
Dislike animals 17 6 74 137
Too expensive 4 30 63 135
Zoonoses 9 21 62 131
a
Total score when weighted 1, 2 and 3 for not important, important and very important,
respectively
Adapted from Leslie et al. ( 1994).

In Ontario, families with preschoolers and urban dwellers were less likely
to have pets than families with older children or rural dwellers, all of which
may be good for the welfare of the dog. There, socio-economic status had no
effect on pet ownership (Leslie et al., 1994) but in New Zealand, lower
household employment reduced the likelihood of dog ownership (Fifield &
Forsyth, 1999). There is little evidence that higher incomes result in the
family pet being better off with regard to its welfare and in the Netherlands
the higher the income the more likely the dog was to have behavioural
problems (Endenburg & Knol, 1994). Higher incomes should allow more
money to be available for veterinary care and food, but more time may be
available for the dog in families where there are unemployed people.
Overall, dogs living in single adult, childless households tended to have the
lowest incidence of behavioural problems, whereas problem-free dogs were
more common in household with three or more children (Campbell, 1986a),
which may reflect children keeping the dog happy and busy (Millot et al.,
1988).
The widely-published evidence that dogs are beneficial for a human’s
health and social life (Hart, 1995) may have led to an increase in the
ownership of dogs during the 1980s and 1990s. Likewise the widely-
heralded value of dogs for children (Paul & Serpell, 1996) may have
encouraged parents to obtain dogs for their children without considering the
requirements of the animal. In several studies, dogs sourced from shelters
‘for the children’ were frequently returned (Kidd et al., 1992a; Phipps,
2003), suggesting that adopters had not thought through the consequences of
adoption and the limited ability of dogs to assist them rear their children! In
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addition, children are regularly bitten by the family dog. However,

preventing such bites by fostering relationships between children and dogs
based on mutual deference, respect and communication (Love & Overall,
2001) will improve the welfare of the family dog by making it into a much-
loved companion.
Dogs are now being recommended, indirectly, to fill a void in peoples’
lives. The evidence that dogs are beneficial for the psychological, social and
physical health of people could be used to promote the ownership of dogs by
people living alone, anti-social or shy people, or for people who are afraid.
People who have dogs and who benefit from their company may be different
from those who choose not to have them. Widespread publication of the
advantages of dogs for people may result in dogs being acquired by people
who will not benefit from their companionship, resulting in dogs in homes
where they are not really wanted. More worrying is the purchase of dogs to
protect people. This may result in the dog becoming dominant and
dangerous to owners who may have poor self esteem.
Although seldom identified in surveys, dogs of particular breeds may be
acquired because they are fashionable. The popularity of the Siberian Husky
in the 1990s is a good example, but this breed may be inappropriate as a pet.
Dalmatians became popular after the movie 101 Dalmatians, Border Collies
after Babe, and apparently Akitas made the headlines during the OJ
Simpsom trial in the USA (Inserro, 1997). A specific breed may go out of
style quickly. Individual dogs of breeds that become unfashionable or are
inappropriate may be lucky and get re-homed through breed recovery clubs
or shelters, but many will be killed.
There is controversy as to whether human attitudes and behaviour
influence the incidence of behavioural problems in dogs. O’Farrell (1997)
found evidence of an association between dominance aggression in the dog
and emotional anthropomorphic involvement with the dog, but Voith et al.
(1992) did not find this. It is intuitive that in a close relationship between
human and dog that the behaviour of one will influence that of the other.
Dog ownership changes the behaviour of owners and it is likely that an
owner’s behaviour will influence a dog’s behaviour. The question is whether
increased intimacy in the human-dog relationship has negative effects on the
welfare of the dog. If human attitudes increase dominance aggression, over-
excitement, and unacceptable activities such as mounting people or
inanimate objects, destruction if left alone, excessive attention seeking
or biting people, as demonstrated by O’Farrell (1995, 1997), then anxious or
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overly anthropomorphic owners may have a negative effect on their dog’s

welfare. This also suggests that people who are not so anxious or overly
anthropomorphic about their dogs do not tend to have dogs with behavioural
problems. Thus, the people who may feel most concerned about their dog’s
welfare are not necessarily the most fit to have one.
The failure of the human-dog relationship has received much attention in
the last few decades, especially with regards to the surrender of dogs to
animal shelters and the return of dogs re-homed from such shelters. The
owner’s perception and tolerance are extremely important in whether dogs
are kept or are dispensed with (Ledger, 1997). Ledger (1999) suggested that
mismatching can be avoided if the dog’s behavioural and physical
characteristics are those considered desirable by the potential new owners.
This supports the concept that the closer the dog’s behaviour is to the
owner’s ideal the more attached the owner is to the dog (Serpell, 1996). The
reason for obtaining a dog may be of great importance in whether a dog
remains or is discarded. As shown in Table 2, there are some poignant
reasons (someone/something to give me love and affection and to greet me)
for acquiring a dog. For some people this may mean some inadequacy in
their human relationships, and loneliness. Owning a dog to herd sheep and
owning a dog to provide love and affection are quite different. Dogs will, of
course, appear to provide affection, but is it correct to expect them to provide
it and, indeed, little else? In Table 2, there is no indication that people own
dogs in order to provide the dog with an active and exciting life; the reasons
are all egoistic, that is what I want a dog to do for me. Although most
owners state that companionship is the major reason for having a dog, in one
study almost a third of owners had not played or spent time interacting with
their dogs in the previous week (Case, 1987) so there appear to be marked
differences between what people say when surveyed and what they actually
do. This lack of attention is of concern, as human interaction with dogs can
reduce stress and probably give pleasure in the latter (Hennessy et al., 1998;
Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003). Of interest is the suggestion by Hennessy et al.
(1998) that dogs in shelters are extremely sensitive to small differences in
the quality of style of human interaction, based on the observation that these
dogs had a lower plasma cortisol response when petted by women than men.
Wilbur (1976, cited by O’Farrell, 1997) interviewed 350 dog owners and
by cluster analysis identified five classes of dog owner: ‘companion’ owners
(27%), who considered the dog to be a family member; ‘enthusiastic’ owners
(17%), who enjoyed their dogs but were not closely involved with them;
‘worried’ owners (24%), who were attached but often worried about their
dog’s behaviour; ‘valued object’ owners (19%), who regarded the dog as a
possession and had no emotional attachment; and ‘dissatisfied’ owners
(19%), who regarded the dog as a nuisance. If these figures are still pertinent
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and if human anxiety influences canine behaviour, then the welfare of a large
percentage of dogs is of concern.
Ignorance and lack of experience of owners may also impact on the
incidence of behavioural problems in dogs, especially with first-time owners
(Jagoe & Serpell, 1996). However, it may be that first-time owners report
problems because they have greater expectations of the dog and less
knowledge of what to expect. Lack of tolerance, of normal dog behaviour
and physical features (hair loss, smell) appears to be a significant factor in
abandonment.
There is a need for more information on the detail of human-dog
interactions in the home and whether dogs actually are afforded much
attention at all. Play is considered an essential component of the dog-human
relationship, and dogs are one of the few mammals that engage with other
species in play. The motivation in dogs to play with humans is not reduced
by playing with other dogs, and dog-dog play is different from dog-human
play (Rooney et al., 2000). This suggests that dog-human play is important
for dogs regardless of the opportunity to play with other dogs. The outcome
of tug games had no effect on the dominance element in dog-human
relationships (Rooney & Bradshaw, 2002), but if play signals were absent or
misinterpreted by dogs then potentially dominant dogs might use games to
assert themselves (Rooney et al., 2002).

3. REARING PUPS

Dogs are obtained from many sources. In Ontario, 44% of dogs in rural
communities came from friends and family, 40% of urban dogs came from
breeders, while 8% and 11% of rural and urban dogs, respectively, came
from shelters (Leslie et al., 1994). Another source of dogs includes pet
shops. People who chose a pet for themselves were more likely to bond
closely with it than to a pet given as a present (Kogan & Viney, 1998). Pet
shops and shelters are not ideal places to rear pups and prepare them for life
in the average family. They pups may be confined, and be unable to go to the
toilet except in the small cage, which later may make them more difficult to
house-train. They may not be exposed to a wide variety of environments
they will encounter later in life. Puppy farms produce pups for the pet
market and the size of the market determines the likelihood of such farms
developing. Puppy farms are not bad for the welfare of pups per se, but if
there are too many pups and too few people to mind them then their
socialisation and physical health will be compromised.
It is frequently stated that the experience of pups influences their future
ability to cope (Serpell & Jagoe, 1995), and that inadequate exposure during
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puppyhood to a wide variety of environments may result in dogs that are

fearful and anxious. Apparently, pups that did not experience particular
stimuli during their socialisation period (from 4 to 14 weeks) were more
likely to develop a fear response to them as adults (Appleby et al., 2002).
However, little is actually known about the relationship between the
experiences during puppyhood and the development of behavioural
problems during adulthood.
Handling neonatal pups, one to two weeks of age, for a few minutes each
day and exposing them to mild environmental stressors, such as movement
and temperature changes apparently improves learning ability and reduces
emotional reactivity later in life. Landsberg et al. (1997), Overall (1997) and
Lindsay (2000a) recommended exposing pups to a wide variety of
environments. However, a study by Ward (2003) found that most pups in
New Zealand were exposed to a large number of people, dogs and
environments during this period without any special effort on behalf of their
owners. Seksel (1999) found that the attendance at puppy socialisation
classes did not lead to any change in the dog’s later responses to novel,
social or handling stimuli. This suggests that the majority of pups are
exposed to sufficient variation in their environment so as to be able to cope
in the future. However, pups adopted from a shelter were more likely to be
retained in their adoptive home if they attended socialisation classes
(Duxbury et al., 2003). This suggests that pups from shelters do not have the
broad environmental experience that those from other sources do, and
suggests that shelter staff need to do more to ‘socialise’ their pups before
adoption. It is recommended to breeders that they handle and expose their
pups to a wide range of experiences before sale.
Pups that experienced a non-domestic maternal environment and a lack
of urban experience between 3 and 6 months of age were more likely to be
aggesssive towards unfamiliar people (Appleby et al., 2002). This implies
that the experience of pups during the first 6 months of life, before and after
weaning, is important in developing confident and safe behaviour.
It is now generally recommended that pups be weaned at 7–8 weeks and,
if possible, be sold or re-homed at this time. Weaning a pup earlier than 7
weeks may be detrimental to its development as it needs time to socialise
with other dogs. Overall (1997) stated that 6 weeks was too early to separate
a pup from its litter, due to profound behavioural responses at this time
(Elliot & Scott, 1961), and because it caused recidivistic changes in the
pup’s behavioural development. Many puppies enter new homes at 7–8
weeks of age, but even if they remain with the breeder for longer periods this
is not detrimental, if the pups experience a wide variety of environmental
conditions, perhaps travel by car and meet a range of people, especially
children.
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Puppy socialisation classes have positive effects in educating owners

about training their dogs, and initiating training of the pup (Seksel et al.,
1999), and may have some positive effects on adult dog behaviour (Ward,
2003) and retention of pups (Duxbury et al., 2003). The latter may be due to
better education of owners rather than any change in the pup’s behaviour
per se.

4. INDOORS AND ISOLATED

Most companion dogs live as single dogs with one or more people. Many
of them live indoors or outside in a back yard. Generally, pet dogs are
inactive (Kobelt, 2004) and they are not doing what their breed was
originally produced for. Many spend the majority of their lives alone except
for some brief attention in the morning or evening from their owners. The
owner may leave for work at 0700 or 0800 hours and return at 1800 hours
and the dog, which is primarily a diurnal animal, is alone for the time when
it is normally most active. This enforced isolation and inactivity must have
negative effects on the welfare of some dogs. This aspect of the companion
dog’s life is poorly investigated, but the frequency with which owners
complain of their dog behaving inappropriately suggests that there are many
problems with dogs which may be associated with this isolation.
Dogs have been selected to focus on human behaviour. They probably
need to interact with other dogs and humans. Dogs benefit from close
interactions with their owners, and it results in an increase in plasma
dopamine concentrations and other biochemical indicators of pleasure, and
reduced stress (Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003). Dogs left alone for most of the
day may be more likely to develop anxiety problems than those living in the
company of either other animals or people. In laboratories, dogs penned with
another dog were similar physiologically to those penned alone suggesting
that dogs may need to live in larger groups and perhaps to range and explore
like owned but free-roaming dogs.
The quality of life of many loved, single dogs bred to be active and
working, but restricted and isolated is definitely inadequate, as is the life of
many that are not loved but simply owned. The social pressures which have
resulted in dogs being moved indoors from the streets, and the demise of the
latch-key dog, may have been an improvement in our relationship with dogs
but may not have improved the dog’s life that was subsequently limited to
being indoors or in a back yard. The pressure to own one dog and the limited
space to own more may have had serious implications on the welfare of the
family dog. It is certain that many owned dogs do not live as fortunate a life
as that of research dogs described by Loveridge (1998). It is widely accepted
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that caging dogs alone results in under-stimulation and the development of

behavioural problems. The diagnosis of behavioural problems in many
owned dogs living inside or outdoors in a back yard suggests that they are
living dull, uninteresting lives.
The common advice given to new dog owners is to keep their dog active,
engage it in obedience or agility, walk it frequently, and interact with it in a
manner that keeps the dog busy physically and mentally. These
recommendations are not possible for many people and whether obedience,
especially competitive obedience, or competitive agility, is actually
beneficial for dogs is debatable. However, giving a dog a substantial walk
had noticeably positive effects on dogs held as individuals in laboratory
cages (Beerda et al., 2000), and this suggests that the experience of being
brought for a walk is a major method of reducing stress in laboratory dogs,
and probably pet dogs also. In that study, owned dogs housed during
working hours in outdoor kennels and laboratory dogs held alone but given a
90-minute walk regularly were surprisingly similar physiologically and
behaviourally, suggesting that the lives of many owned dogs are similar to
those of laboratory dogs. The authors suggested the results be interpreted
with caution, but the similarity between the two groups of dogs is disquieting
and should stimulate more research into the physiological status of owned
dogs that spend much time alone.
Many working dogs live in groups, and this allows them a social life
independent of their owners. Their physical life may be harsh, but watching
a working dog at work suggests they are enjoying the activity. The welfare
of the single dog depends on the willingness of the owner to spend as much
quality time with the dog as possible. There are limits to the time available
for many owners but these limitations can be countered in several ways,
including taking the dog to work, using a dog-minding organisation similar
to child-care, or dog-walkers. Nevertheless, the little time humans spend
with their single dog is probably the most limiting factor on the welfare of
the companion dog. The Blue Cross animal welfare charity in the UK
reported that increasingly people relinquish their dogs for re-homing because
they do not have enough time. In 2001, 26% of people who gave up their
dogs for re-homing did so because they were out all day and had no time for
the animal (Anonymous, 2003c).
The physical welfare of pet dogs has certainly improved,in recent times,
but the psychological welfare of many may have worsened. It may be that
there is no space for dogs in many modern urban societies, and trying to
make the latter suited for dogs may result in failure. It may be necessary to
modify the dog to be an inactive, non-aggressive, quiet animal, a living
plaything for humans. Genetic manipulation and cloning will allow for a
better understanding of the genetics of behaviour and these scientific
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developments may allow for rapid changes in the temperament of dogs to be

used as pets. There are of course, welfare problems with cloning, including
the health of newborn puppies.
In suburban Melbourne, a study of dogs kept in back yards found that
31% of them were walked once a week or less and of the dogs that were
walked a little over half of them had time off the leash (Kobelt et al., 2003b).
In the USA, 29% of respondents walked their dog once or twice a week
(Slater et al., 1995), and 65% of dogs were allowed off the leash (Table 4).
Respondents of surveys such as these may be more dog-orientated than non-
responding owners, thus the data on exercising dogs may suggest that on
average dogs are exercised more than they really are. Walking a dog on a
lead may limit the amount of smelling a dog is allowed, and this appears to
be one of the things that dogs enjoy while being walked. Many dogs are
permitted very little time to explore the smell at the lamp posts and other
vertical surfaces they encounter during their daily walk.

Table 4. The amount and type exercise dogs were allowed in Texas, USA.
Activity Response Percentage of owners
Play with dog during week Never 19
<1 10
1-2 20
4-6 6
>6 45
Leash walks during week <1 9
1-2 20
3-7 54
>7 17
Off-leash walks during week <1 20
1-2 16
3-7 40
>7 24
Reason for walk Urinate, defaecate 11
Exercise 80
Shows 9
Retrieving/playing with disc 62
Adapted from Slater et al. (1995)

In the UK, dog behavioural problems are seasonal, with an increase in

canine aggression during the summer months and December, possibly due to
increased contact with people during holiday periods. Aggression in the
home peaked during winter, which may be due to increased confinement
indoors. Separation anxiety peaked in January, May and August, after
holidays when owners spent lots of time with their dogs. Fear and phobias
peaked in November with bonfire night (Association of Pet Behavour
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Counsellors, 1995). This suggests that exercise is seasonal and that during
the winter, dogs may be exercised less than during summer.
It is thought that dogs need exercise, but if so how much do they need?
The requirements will vary from breed to breed and from dog to dog and be
influenced by age, health and temperament. Generalisations about dogs and
exercise are probably futile. Exercise is an important factor to reduce
obesity, but walking on the leash might not be of much benefit. The
provision of dog parks in cities, where dogs can be allowed off the leash, is
one way of allowing exercise to dogs living in cities. However, in a legal
assessment of dog parks, Hannah (2002) suggested that dogs using such
parks should have proof of health to prevent the spread of disease, and rules
should govern the removal of faeces. There is a danger that unless properly
sited and fenced, these parks may be a nuisance to non-dog owners using
adjacent areas when dogs wander off their designated areas. Fighting may
also be a problem, but is not as common as might be suspected. There is
need for research into the use of dog parks and the behaviour of dogs using
these areas.
The shift of dogs from living outside to living indoors may cause
problems for dogs. A dog living outside is inadvertently automatically
treated as a subordinate animal, but when it is moved indoors its perception
of its own status may change and it may be elevated in the social hierarchy.
The majority of dogs are obviously able to accommodate this change in
living conditions, but some may find it difficult to remain subordinate when
treated as being important.
There are specific dangers for the dog in the home, including toxic
chemicals, windows and verandahs. The Blue Cross reported that in the UK
household accidents were the second most common reason for pups being
presented for veterinary treatment. Especially dangerous were falls from
balconies/windows, scalds and burns, cleaning products, swallowing objects,
heavy objects falling, chemicals in garages, bin-raiding, people (shutting
doors, walking on or dropping pups), and electrical wires (Anonymous,
2003a). A smoke detector with a low battery warning device that bleeped or
chirped made one dog so anxious, that it destroyed a room before damaging
an exterior door and escaping (Nash & Watson, 1994). However, the risk of
failure of retrieving dogs during evacuation programmes following
earthquakes, fires and flooding were greater in families where the dog was
kept outdoors all the time (Heath et al., 2001). In addition tethering dogs
outdoors may cause problems. Tethered dogs may be more aggressive than
dog in kennels and runs and dogs may be strangled if they accidentally hang
themselves up on a chain.
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5. NEUTERING

Surgical de-sexing is recommended for pet dogs not intended to be used

for breeding. However, a standard recommendation for good welfare is that
animals should be allowed to engage in normal behaviour. Mating or
competing for mating rights is normal behaviour and de-sexing prevents this.
The prevention of these behaviours is considered significant by some, but
when balanced against the misery experienced by unwanted pups de-sexing
is generally thought to be of little consequence. Vasectomy or tubal ligation
would allow sexual activity without the danger of producing unwanted pups.
De-sexing also reduces the occurrence of undesirable sexual behaviour such
as hypersexuality directed towards humans (Maarschalkerweerd et al., 1997)
and there are other health benefits from de-sexing male and female dogs.
The Blue Cross reported that a much smaller percentage of dogs surrendered
to their shelters for re-homing were unwanted pups from accidental litters
compared with 10 years ago, suggesting that the emphasis on neutering has
been successful (Anonymous, 2003c).
The pain caused by de-sexing can be reduced significantly by the use of
analgesics (see Chapter 6), but pharmacological and physical means of
preventing pregnancy or triggering abortion are also available. Interestingly,
in Sweden a small percentage of dogs are de-sexed and yet unwanted dogs
are not a particularly great problem. Responsible management of dogs
prevents most unwanted pregnancies and a small percentage of irresponsible
owners cause most of the problems (Murray, 1993)

6. TRANSPORT AND BOARDING KENNELS

Dogs are transported everywhere and in many different ways. Many dogs
are transported in the passenger seat of cars, in the back of station wagons,
or on the back of open trucks. There are obvious dangers when a dog travels
in the front passenger seat of a car, as it may interfere with the driver and
distract his/her attention, or become a flying mass if the car stops suddenly.
Safety-belts are now available for dogs and are recommended for all dogs
travelling in passenger seats. Dogs in the back of a station wagon should
probably be tied there or held in a cage. Some countries outlaw transporting
dogs in the trunk (boot) of cars, and where these are tightly sealed an animal
could suffocate. In general dogs should be tied onto the back of pick-ups
using a short lead secured to the centre of the cab. Farm dogs often work off
pick-ups and four-wheel motorcycles. They should not be tied on when
working as they can then jump off when required to work livestock.
Individual working or sporting dogs may travel in boxes attached to the back
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of a car or underneath a truck for transporting livestock. International

shipment of dogs is usually by air and not a major welfare problem.
However, the importation of dogs into rabies-free countries usually results in
them spending months in quarantine kennels, and this may become a welfare
problem depending on the management of the facilities and the possibility of
separation anxiety.
One of the significant experiences of pet dogs is spending time in
boarding kennels. Many pet dogs live in single-dog homes and then are
expected to spend days or weeks in noisy, often crowded kennels. There is
little documented evidence on the effects of boarding, but dogs often lose
weight and develop diarrhoea while boarding and return home looking
stressed and weakened. The observation of such developments often makes
people unwilling to send their dogs to boarding kennels.
The urinary cortisol:creatinine ratios of Labrador Retrievers moved from
home into a military kennel increased significantly initially and then
declined over the following 10 days. In dogs that had been habituated to
kennels previously the ratio returned to pre-kennel levels by 10 days, but
dogs with no previous experience of kennels had ratios that were still
significantly higher than pre-kennel values at 10 days and even 10 weeks
after entering kennels (Gaines et al., 2003). The dogs with high ratios were
ranked as having lower training ability than those with low ratios. As many
companion dogs are placed in kennels for spells of 7–14 days and are not
trained to them beforehand, they probably suffer from stress similar to that
seen in the Labrador Retrievers described above.

7. DOG ABUSE

As dogs become companions the human-dog relationship changes. Good

working dogs are valuable animals, and while they may be abused this is
financially counter-productive and foolish. However, companion dogs
become part of the family and as such may be exposed to all the positive and
negative events that close relationships entail. In many families, there are
tensions and these can be expressed in a range of ways. At one extreme there
is physical violence and the companion animal may be physically abused.
However, even in families where physical abuse does not occur but there are
tensions, and dogs may respond to them by developing diarrhoea, gastric
upsets and seizures (Cain, 1983).
Pet abuse is not uncommon and non-accidental injuries, including sexual
injuries and deliberate injury to gain attention, have been described in the
UK by Munro and Thrusfield (2001a,b,c,d), from data gained in a survey of
veterinarians. Almost all (91%) of the 404 veterinarians who responded
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accepted that animal abuse occurred but only 48% had identified it. Most of
the abused animals were less than 2 years of age and Staffordshire Bull
Terriers and mongrels were particularly at risk, while Labrador Retrievers
were under-represented.
Veterinarians become suspicious of abuse when the medical history is
inconsistent with the injuries, or there is lack of a history. The type of injury
and the occurrence of repetitive injuries or multiple problems in the same
household are also causes of concern. The behaviour of the dog or the owner
were also important features in identifying battered pets (Munro &
Thrusfield, 2001a). Many injuries were skeletal, involving fractured ribs or
limbs.
In a survey of animal abuse in the UK, 6% of 448 cases were considered
to be examples of sexual abuse. The 21 cases involving dogs (Table 5)
included a range of injuries that are similar to those identified in human
victims of sexual abuse (Munro & Thrusfield, 2001c).

Table 5. Injuries sustained by dogs (n = 21) suspected as being the subjects of sexual abuse.
Case No.
Case No Injury
1 Vaginal injuries, wife saw husband having sex with dog
2 Lodger pleaded guilty to having sex with dog, no injuries seen
3 Vaginal trauma, haemorrhage, possibly ‘raped’ by human
4 Refractory vaginitis, suggested cause was human ‘interference’
5 No lesions, wife suspected husband ‘interfered’ with bitch
6 Gross vaginal lesions
7 Haemorrhage from vagina, knife wound deep in vagina
8 Knitting needle penetrated uterine/cervical wall
9 Tear in uterus rostral to cervix, scarring through cervix
10 Candle found in vagina
11 Multiple haemorrhages around vulva and internally
12 Piece of broom handle in vagina
13 Piece of stick in vagina
14 Broomstick in rectum
15 Mucosa around anus damaged
16 Anal ring dilated and man seen abusing dog
17 Cord tied around base of penis
18 Elastic band placed around scrotum
19 Evidence of ligature around scrotum – child admitted to placing elastic band
20 Dog castrated and left bleeding – not claimed
21 Large pararectal wound
Adapted from Munro and Thrusfield (2001c)

The injuring of dogs to gain personal attention sometimes called

Munchausen syndrome by proxy was identified in 9/448 suspected non-
accidental injuries and seven of these involved dogs (Table 6) (Munro &
Thrusfield, 2001d). This syndrome is suspected when physical injuries are
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intentionally produced or invented by the owner who denies causing them

and the injuries diminish when the animal is removed from the owner.
Owners with this problem often engage in attention-seeking behaviour, the
clinical signs and symptoms of which are often quite abnormal; there may be
serial deaths of pets, regular incidents over a number of years, a regular
change of veterinarian, and children of the owner may also be frequently
brought to a doctor for treatment. Although there were few cases identified
in this survey, it may be more common than suspected. However, these are
complex cases involving the dog’s welfare and the owner’s mental health.
Client confidentiality may limit initial investigation by the veterinarian.

Table 6. Seven suspected cases of Munchausen by proxy syndrome in dogs.

Case No Incident(s)
1. Veterinarian called out three times in one day by owner who was insistent that the
neighbour had poisoned the dog. Dog recovered in hospital. Owner convicted for
attempted poisoning of his child and evidence that he had poisoned other pets
2. Owner treated dog for haematuria, lameness, and otitis externa, but veterinarian
found it difficult to diagnose problem. Dog reported fitting, very abnormal
electrolytes, sent to referral centre and died
3. Client had broken legs of previous dogs. Known to police but could not prosecute
as constantly changed veterinarian
4. Series of incidents over the years led to suspicion of syndrome
5. Eight to 12 pets died in unexplained circumstances, e.g. after nail-clipping.
Attention-seeking behaviour of owner led to suspicion of syndrome
6. Veterinarian positive owner had poisoned dog. Dog died and owner triumphant
but did not allow post mortem
7. Puppy with head injuries. Veterinarian requested to call to see other puppies, all
with crushed skulls. Owner admitted injuring puppies
Adapted from Munro & Thrusfield (2001d)

There is evidence that violence in the home against children or other

adults may be accompanied by violence towards animals, and a statistically
significant relationship between child and pet abuse in the same household
has been shown (De Viney et al., 1983). In the USA, families suspected of
child abuse often had more pets than other families living in the same area,
but they also had a large turnover of pets with few more than 2 years of age
(Anonymous, 2001b). Many people who abuse pets have poor social skills
and may be involved in other anti-social crimes such as arson. They often
have been abused themselves. Apparently in the USA, 70% of people who
abuse animals will commit a violent crime as adults and 95% of these will be
male.
In the UK, the Royal Society for the Protection of Cruelty to Animals
noted an increase in violence towards animals in 2002, and there were 57
prison sentences for this compared to 46 in 2001. This could indicate a real
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increase in violence or improved reporting by the general public and harsher

sentencing by the judiciary (Anonymous, 2003b).

8. HOARDING DOGS

The human interest in animals, particularly pet animals, can become

extreme and one expression of this is the pathological collecting or hoarding
of animals (Patronek, 1999). Many people collect animals or birds but are
careful to provide for them. When the collector is unable to care for their
animals they can be classed as a pathological hoarder. Compulsive hoarding
of inanimate objects is a recognised psychiatric problem but the hoarding of
animals is uncommon.
In the USA, the Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium defines an
animal hoarder as one who has accumulated a large number of animals
which overwhelms the person’s ability to provide even minimal nutrition,
sanitation, and veterinary care. Hoarders fail to acknowledge the
deteriorating condition on the animals, even disease, starvation and death,
and filthy household environment and severe overcrowding. They also do
not recognise the negative effect of the collection on their health and the
well-being of other household members (Kuehn, 2002).
The welfare of dogs owned by hoarders may be compromised. People
who have worked with animal welfare organisations often deal with animal
hoarders and describe cats or dogs living in appalling conditions. In one
American study of 54 separate incidents of hoarding, Patronek (1999) found
that hoarders tended to be elderly, solitary females who collected one or two
species. Repeat offending was common. Dogs were involved in 60% of the
cases documented, and animals were found in poor condition or dead in 80%
of cases. The houses lived in by hoarders were usually cluttered with
rubbish, and animal faeces and urine were found everywhere, often on the
owner’s bed (Table 7).

Table 7. Sanitary rating of animal hoarders’ residences (n = 54).

Rating Condition of household Number
1 Reasonably clean and tidy 3/54
2 Moderately cluttered, with some garbage but no urine or faeces present 8/54
in living or food preparation areas
3 Heavily cluttered with garbage. Unsanitary living and food preparation 4/54
areas. Odour. Urine and faeces in animal cages
4 Heavily cluttered with garbage. Unsanitary living and food preparation 12/54
areas. Strong odour. Fresh faeces or urine in human living quarters
5 Filthy environment, with profuse faeces and urine in living areas 22/54
6 Unknown 5/54
Adapted from Patronek (1999)
 234 KEVIN J. STAFFORD
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Hoarders justify their behaviour as a love of the animals, and a fear,

probably justified, that the animals would be killed if taken to a shelter.They
are concerned that no-one else would care for the animals (Patronek, 1999).
Although hoarders are usually poor people there are cases of professional
people also engaging in hoarding (Kuehn, 2002).

9. GRIEF AT EUTHANASIA

Euthanasia of pet dogs occurs under three defined circumstances:

unwanted dogs at shelters, healthy dogs killed at the behest of their owners,
and old dogs ill killed because their quality of life has deteriorated greatly.
The euthanasia of a beloved but ill and ageing dog is always sad, but one of
the good things about veterinary medicine is that an animal need not be
allowed to suffer unnecessarily.
However, more dog owners are now unwilling to have a pet dog killed
even when its quality of life is seriously compromised. This may be due to
the owner viewing the animal as a child and being willing to make a greater
effort and spend more money on keeping it alive (Anonymous, 2004). This
may be to the detriment of the animal’s welfare. Owners may also be less
willing to accept the opinion of a veterinarian and may have greater
expectations of veterinary geriatric medicine than is commonly available. It
is a difficult situation as the principal concern of the veterinarian must be the
dog’s welfare. A greater percentage of dogs now live to old age and
therefore are subjected to the diseases and conditions of ageing such as
cancers, cognitive dysfunction and cardiovascular disease. Such long-term
relationships may make it more difficult for owners to have their dog killed,
and this is supported by the demand for treatment for cognitive dysfunction
and for a diet that slows or reverses this development.
In contrast, a healthy well-behaved dog may be presented for euthanasia.
This may be due to the collapse of the human-dog bond or it never having
developed. Financial difficulties, or family changes (birth, divorce,
bereavement) and lifestyle may precipitate the decision to kill the animal
(Anonymous, 2004). Well-behaved healthy dogs may be re-homed, but this
depends on the willingness of the owner to allow it to happen.
The elevation of the dog to a family member changes the attitude of the
owner towards the dog if it becomes seriously ill or is severely injured.
Previously, because veterinary medicine was incapable or unwilling to treat
severely injured animals, they were either subject to euthanasia or treated
inadequately and left to malinger and often die. Today, with adequate
insurance cover, good veterinary medicine and changed expectations of
veterinary care and a dog’s longevity and health, owners may expect that
 THE PET DOG 235
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their dog (family member) can be cured regardless of the process and the
pain involved.

10. CONCLUSIONS

There is much about the welfare of pet dogs which is unknown. The
survival to adulthood of pups bred to be pets has not been quantified, nor has
the proportion of dogs which die or are killed at various stages of their
juvenile lives. That dog numbers are decreasing in some European countries
suggests that some owners have decided that they cannot provide the pet dog
with what it needs socially and physically. It is ironic that as our knowledge
of canine health and nutrition is expanding, an inability to provide what dogs
need in other ways may be recognised as a significant deterrent to dog
ownership. Although we have not defined exactly what it is a dog requires
socially or physically of its environment, many people recognise that they
cannot supply a dog with an adequate environment given their modern, busy
and mobile lifestyles.
Maintaining a human-dog relationship and providing for the dog may be
as difficult for some as maintaining a human-human relationship. The
observation that many dogs in large cities are never let off the lead but are
constantly restricted, and that such is the future for many dogs in large cities
supports the contention that dogs are an anachronism in modern urban
societies, both from the dog’s perspective and society’s. Dogs living in
restricted households may be experiencing chronic stress like dogs in
laboratory cages.
The anthropocentric concept that people should own dogs because dog
ownership is beneficial for humans, without the corollary that the life of a
dog as a pet might not be good for the dog, has not been investigated
sufficiently. The description of a dog’s life in suburban Melbourne by
Kobelt (2004) is disturbing. Those dogs lived in back gardens but had
nothing to do and were essentially inactive. Dogs living indoors have
probably similarly dull lives.
VetBooks.ir

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 274 KEVIN J. STAFFORD
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VetBooks.ir

INDEX

A attitudes · 42, 108, 125, 175, 179, 221

abuse · 16, 53, 133, 136-138, 142, 182,

B
230-232
adoption · 143, 150, 184, 189, 190-193,
barbiturates · 46, 49, 84, 144
195, 197, 221, 224
barking · 8, 10, 20, 28, 33, 41, 75, 76, 78,
adoption of greyhounds · 150
131, 132, 136, 138, 139, 171, 174,
aggression · 7, 8, 19, 39, 41, 45, 52, 66,
175, 200, 204, 205, 210, 218
74-76, 78, 81, 99, 100, 121, 131, 139,
behaviour · 1, 5, 7-10, 18, 19, 21, 22, 28,
150, 167, 168, 170, 171, 187, 189,
29, 33, 39, 42, 43, 55, 57, 58, 61, 65,
192, 194, 200, 204, 205, 209-212, 221,
73-75, 78, 79, 84-86, 97, 99, 100, 105,
227
109, 111, 112, 114-117, 119-122, 126,
agility · 12, 21, 23, 28, 129, 130, 135,
128-130, 132-134, 138-140, 159,
137, 202, 226
162-169, 171, 173, 174, 176, 179, 182,
Alpha-2 agonists ·124
185, 188, 189, 191-193, 195, 196,
alternative therapies · 110
199-206, 209-213, 216, 218, 221-226,
anaesthetics · 47, 49, 107, 108, 123
228, 229, 231, 232, 234
analgesia · 25, 27, 51, 110-112, 115-117,
behaviour problems · 85
119, 121, 122, 124-127, 163, 176
boarding kennels · 229, 230
analgesics · 52, 53, 107, 108, 111, 112,
body condition score · 90, 167
115-117, 121-128, 229
bomb detection · 17
anti-barking collars · 138, 139
breed characteristics · 55, 64, 66
anxiety · 10, 105, 135, 139, 164, 187,
breeding · 11, 16, 19, 24, 29, 34, 40, 41,
189, 192, 194, 196, 199, 200, 205-208,
52, 55-61, 63-65, 67-69, 71-75, 78, 79,
212, 213, 215, 223, 225, 227, 230
80, 81, 143, 146, 150, 161, 164, 167,
assessment of pain · 111, 112, 114, 128
172, 175, 181, 184, 192, 197, 210, 229
athletes · 90, 143, 156, 216
breeds and behaviour · 73

275
 276 INDEX
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domestication · 1, 2, 4-8, 12, 28, 29, 38,

67, 74
dominance · 75, 78, 99, 200, 205, 211,
C
212, 221, 223
doping · 159
castration · 51, 52, 118, 124, 125, 196,
draft · 16
197
cattle · 19, 20, 28, 52, 56, 84, 90, 95, 102,
106, 129, 218 E
choke chain · 13, 133, 137, 138, 141
classical conditioning · 130, 132, 135, ear cropping · 1, 24, 197
161, 167 education · 31, 35, 40, 42, 43, 45, 53, 72,
clicker training · 131, 134 126, 184, 188, 191, 225
companion · 1, 10, 11, 23, 28, 29, 33, 37, electric training collars · 129, 133, 139,
55, 57, 60, 64, 72-76, 78, 80, 81, 101, 140, 141
103, 104, 124, 127, 129, 134, 141, electrocution · 48
161, 169, 176, 188, 200, 204, 207, enrichment · 100, 161, 169-174
215-218, 221, 222, 225, 226, 230 enrichment devices · 169, 173
complementary therapies · 110 environmental enrichment · 100, 169,
compulsive disorders · 209, 210, 211 171, 173
control · 9, 10, 16, 27, 31-36, 40-45, euthanasia · 18, 41-43, 45, 47-49, 54, 72,
49-53, 57, 67, 69, 71, 72, 79, 81, 85, 84, 108-110, 150, 186-188, 190, 191,
87, 88, 97, 100, 108, 113, 115, 118, 199, 218, 234
119, 123, 128-130, 132, 137, 138, 140, exercise · 11, 14, 18, 36, 75, 83, 90, 96,
141, 157, 158, 173, 176, 181-183, 197, 97, 126, 136, 137, 151, 152, 154-158,
200, 207, 211, 217 166, 168, 169, 174, 175, 206, 208-210,
coping with shelter life · 118 213, 217, 227, 228
coprophagia · 89
cortisol · 115, 117-119, 138-140, 151,
156, 166, 172, 174, 189, 192, 222, 230
F
fashionable dogs · 62, 74, 80, 221
D fear · 29, 32, 37, 86, 99, 132, 135, 173,
175, 189, 191, 192, 204-208, 211, 224,
defaecation · 86, 196, 200 227, 234
dehydration · 152, 155 feeding behaviour problems · 85
de-sexing · 31, 35, 41-45, 49, 50, 52, 54, field trials · 23, 57
97, 181, 190, 195, 197, 229 fighting · 1, 12, 20, 21, 24, 25, 29, 57, 64,
dew claw · 1, 24, 27 65, 152, 197, 228
dingo · 3, 6, 8-10, 64, 83, 84, 201 firearms · 48, 52
disease inheritance · 67, 68 food · 2, 6, 8, 14, 16, 31, 32, 40-44, 51,
dog food · 83, 85, 87-89, 95, 100 83-90, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100, 102, 121,
dog shows · 56 130, 132-134, 152, 155-157, 163, 167,
dog trainers · 99, 137, 138, 141, 204 168, 181, 188, 204, 210, 211, 220, 233
 INDEX 277
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free-living dogs ·31, 201 I

free-ranging dogs · 2, 8-10, 31-33, 35-45,
49, 51-53, 83-85, 95, 182, 183 iditarod · 154-158
immunocontraception · 50, 51
indoors · 10, 11, 50, 74, 130, 132, 177,
G
202, 213, 216, 225, 227, 228, 235
inherited diseases · 59, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72,
gastric ulcers · 156
143, 161, 163
genetic counselling · 55, 58, 72, 73, 105
injuries · 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25, 36,
greyhound adoption · 143
116, 144, 145, 147-150, 152, 154, 155,
greyhound racing · 21, 143-147, 159
157, 159, 207, 212, 230-232
greyhound wastage · 21, 146, 160
isolated · 5, 10, 11, 18, 56, 59, 61, 74,
greyhounds · 21, 70, 95, 143-152, 158,
203, 209, 213, 215, 225
159, 165
grief · 234
guide dogs · 1, 7, 22, 58, 71, 78, 135
J

H jumping · 131, 132, 204, 210

head collars · 137, 138

health · 1, 2, 11-14, 18, 20, 22, 23, 29, K
31-36, 41, 44, 49, 50, 66, 67, 69, 73,
79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 88, 96, 101, 102, kennel club · 24, 55, 57-59, 63, 69, 72,
105, 106, 109, 125, 135, 144, 162, 74, 80
163, 165, 167, 169, 175, 176, 181, killing · 31, 35, 37, 40-42, 44-46, 49-51,
184, 186, 188, 190, 195, 196, 202, 53, 54, 74, 84, 144, 182, 201
206, 207, 211, 216-218, 220, 221, 223,
227-229, 232-235
hereditary diseases · 55, 58, 72, 80, 81,
L
150, 162
laboratory · 23, 96, 100, 117, 161-170,
hip dysplasia · 23, 68-71, 80, 98, 109, 127
173-176, 181, 216, 217, 226, 235
hoarding · 233, 234
laboratory dogs · 23, 162, 164, 166-168,
house soiling · 204, 205
170, 173, 175-177, 216, 217, 226
house training · 175
landmines · 12, 17
housing laboratory dogs · 161, 168, 170,
legislation · 10, 11, 31, 34, 40-43, 71, 72,
171, 175, 183, 186
81, 176, 182, 197, 200, 211
HPA · 118, 189
leishmaniasis · 34, 36
human-animal bond · 108
livestock · 1, 2, 10, 17, 19, 20, 32, 33, 37,
human-dog interactions · 223
40, 50, 52, 69, 84, 101, 103, 109, 117,
hunting · 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17,
137, 146, 229
27, 38, 56, 60, 63-65, 84, 95, 136, 137,
longevity · 1, 12, 29, 50, 83, 96, 99, 234
201, 219
 278 INDEX
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M P
malnutrition · 6, 39, 85, 89, 94-96, 98
pain · 21, 25, 27, 32, 36, 46, 49, 51-53,
management of laboratory dogs · 166
108-123, 125-128, 159, 229, 235
military · 1, 12, 16-18, 78, 102, 126, 137,
pet dogs · 12, 24, 28, 37, 63, 131, 135,
230
139, 147, 157, 166, 173, 210, 215-218,
misalliance · 139
225, 226, 229, 230, 234, 235
models for human disease · 102, 162
pet ownership · 181, 187, 202, 219, 220
mortality · 17, 32, 34, 38-40, 50
phobias · 205-207, 227
Munchausen syndrome · 231
physical characteristics · 6, 29, 55-58,
63- 66, 72, 101, 222
N physiology of pain · 113
pica · 85, 86, 89, 210
negative punishment · 132, 134, 136
plasma cortisol · 115, 117-119, 156, 172,
negative reinforcement · 131-133
174, 189, 192, 222
neutering · 195, 196, 229
plasma cortisol · 189
noise · 133, 138, 174, 175, 207
poisons · 53
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents ·
police · 1, 12, 16, 19, 33, 78, 135, 137,
118, 123
140, 211, 232
normal behaviour · 85, 167, 171, 195,
population · 5, 6, 11, 31-36, 38-45, 49-52,
199, 201, 202, 204, 210, 212, 213, 229
60-63, 70, 87, 109, 126, 127, 180, 181,
nuisance · 33, 34, 36, 41, 42, 53, 182,
183-186, 188, 195, 216, 218
184, 222, 228
population dynamics · 50, 185
nutrition · 2, 23, 31, 43, 83, 85, 87, 89,
positive punishment · 131-133, 135
98, 100, 105, 152, 158, 162, 163, 165,
positive reinforcement · 12, 129, 130,
167, 172, 190, 216, 233, 235
132-136, 164, 167
post-surgical pain · 125
O predation · 8, 38, 39, 158
promiscuity · 10, 59, 200
obesity · 50, 83, 85, 89, 96-100, 228
punishment · 129, 131-136, 139, 140, 204
operant conditioning · 132, 134, 135
puppy socialisation classes · 131, 203,
opioids · 114, 123
224, 225
ovariectomy · 50
ovariohysterectomy · 50, 107, 115-117,
119, 122, 124, 125, 127 Q
ownership · 10, 11, 33, 34, 36, 41, 43, 57,
180-183, 187, 194, 197, 202, 211, quality of life · 32, 54, 96, 109, 110, 141,
218-221, 235 177, 179, 200, 225, 234
 INDEX 279
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R socialisation · 105, 131, 164, 203, 223,

224, 225
space · 14, 38, 168-170, 191, 225, 226
rabies · 11, 25, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 41, 42,
SPCA · 40, 181-183, 185, 186, 193
44, 45, 51, 53, 85, 107, 181, 230
starvation · 38, 40, 42, 89, 94, 95, 100,
racing · 1, 12, 21, 90, 95, 130, 137, 143,
233
144-160
steps · 173
racing injuries · 152
stray dogs · 36, 44, 87, 181, 185, 186, 191
racing stress · 150
stress · 1, 6, 12, 13, 18, 23, 28, 29, 50, 79,
rearing pups · 79, 223
117, 125, 135, 140, 141, 147, 150-152,
registration · 31, 35, 41-43, 45, 53, 62, 69,
154-157, 159, 164, 166, 168, 171, 172,
71, 80, 104, 147
174, 175, 176, 190, 205, 209, 218,
re-homing · 62, 175, 176, 179, 180, 182,
222, 225, 226, 230, 235
187, 189, 191-195, 197, 198, 202, 226,
submission · 7, 138, 206
229
surrender of dogs · 222
reinforcement · 12, 129, 131-136, 164,
167, 204
religion · 45 T
relinquish · 185, 187, 226
reproduction control · 51 tail chasing · 200
research · 12, 23, 25, 29, 37, 49, 79, 83, tail docking · 1, 24, 25, 27, 197
87, 98, 106-108, 110, 118, 122, 123, territorial aggression · 99, 200
126, 141, 160-168, 171-173, 175, 176, timidity · 74, 204
191, 207, 215, 216, 225, 226, 228, 233 toys · 79, 173
training · 1, 12, 13, 16, 19, 20-22, 28, 29,
S 50, 90, 104, 105, 129-141, 146, 147,
152, 154, 157-161, 164, 167, 181, 187,
scavenging · 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 32, 33, 53, 190-192, 195, 203, 204, 217, 225, 230
83-85, 95, 200
search and rescue · 12, 16, 18, 137
separation anxiety · 139, 187, 189, 192,
U
194, 200, 205, 207, 208, 227, 230
unacceptable behaviour · 134, 200, 201,
service dogs · 16
205
sexual abuse · 231
unwanted dogs · 40-42, 165, 179, 180,
sheep dogs · 13, 19, 57, 136, 140
181, 182, 184, 190, 197, 229, 234
shelters · 40, 42, 47, 49, 62, 79, 80, 109,
164, 165, 174, 176, 179-197, 202, 207,
208, 218, 220-224, 229, 234 V
show dogs · 57, 67, 81
showing · 1, 12, 23, 24, 57, 58, 64, 74, 75, vaccination · 34, 35, 42, 80, 107, 152, 190
81, 100 veterinarians · 21, 24, 31, 46, 49, 50, 52,
sled dogs · 7, 21, 56, 137, 143, 144, 54, 65, 85, 89, 99, 101-105, 107, 108,
154-160 110-112, 121, 123-128, 141, 143, 146,
sled racing · 12, 144, 153, 154, 159 154, 155, 181, 182, 184, 188, 196,
social enrichment · 161, 170. 172 203, 204, 230, 231
 280 INDEX
VetBooks.ir

veterinarians and analgesics · 124 wolf · 1-8, 28, 37-39, 66, 83, 84, 199,
veterinary profession · 102, 103, 105, 204 201, 202
veterinary science · 55, 58, 103, 106, 107, working · 1, 2, 12, 13, 15-17, 19, 20, 22,
109 26, 27, 29, 32, 41, 57, 58, 61, 64, 73,
visceral larval migrans · 34, 36 74, 78, 84, 90, 94, 95, 100, 103, 122,
visual analogue scales · 117 129, 130, 131, 133, 136, 139, 140,
141, 169, 181, 190, 198, 201, 202,
W 204, 208, 215-217, 225, 226, 229, 230

walks · 132, 172, 177, 227

weight · 17, 18, 90, 91, 94-98, 126, 137, Z
144, 155, 230
wild dogs · 6, 8, 32, 33, 39, 43-45, 52, 53, 84 zoonoses · 31, 32, 37, 200