REVIEW ON MAJOR TRANS BOUNDARY ANIMAL DISEASES: GENERAL

DISTRIBUTION, ECONOMIC IMPACTS AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE

BY
GETACHEW ADAMU (5th YEAR)

ADVISOR
DR. ZERIHUN ASSEFA

“A SEMINAR PAPER PRESENTED FOR THE COURSE: SENIOR SEMINAR ON

ANIMAL HEALTH(Vetm5223)”

SEPTEMBER, 2021
BISHOFTU, ETHIOPIA
Table of Contents
CONTENTS PAGES
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS............................................................................................................................ii
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS......................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................................iv
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................v
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1
2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF TADs.............................................................................................3
3. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ON TADs..........................................................................................6
4. DISTRIBUTION OF TADS..........................................................................................................7
4.1. Factors Influencing Global Distribution of TADs.................................................................7
4.2. Distribution of FMD...................................................................................................................8
4.2.1. Global Distribution of FMD......................................................................................................8
4.2.2. Distribution of FMD In Ethiopia.............................................................................................10
4.2. Distribution of PPR.............................................................................................................11
4.3.1. Distribution of PPR In the World.............................................................................................11
4.3.2. Distribution of PPR In Ethiopia...............................................................................................13
5. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TADs...............................................................................................15
5.1. Impact of TADs on Production............................................................................................16
5.2. Impact of TADs on International Trades............................................................................16
5.3. Financial Cost for Controlling TADs..................................................................................17
6. PUBLIC HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF TADs.............19
6.1. Public Health Importance of TADs.....................................................................................19
6.2. Environmental and Social Importance of TADs.................................................................19
6.3. Food Security.......................................................................................................................20
7. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF TADs...............................................................................21
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................................23
9. REFERENCES............................................................................................................................24

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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to praise the almighty God, for his guidance and kindness in my life
according to his will.

Secondly, I would like to express my grateful thank to my advisor Dr. Zerihun Assefa for his
professional advice, kind cooperation with intellectual guidance and devotion of time throughout
preparation of this seminar paper.

My heartfelt appreciation and gratitude also goes to my Family for their advice, kindness and
financial support throughout my academic life.

My last appreciation goes to my neighborhood those who inspired me to move forward.

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LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

AHS African Horse Sickness

CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
CFSPH Center for Food Security and Public Health
CSF Classical Swine Fever
ECTAD Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases
ETB Ethiopian Birr
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
FMD Foot and Mouth Disease
GIS Geographic Information System
LID Livestock in Poverty-Focused Development
LSD Lumpy Skin Disease
MENA Middle East and North Africa
MOARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
NVI National Veterinary Institute
OIE World Organization for Animal Health
PPR Peste Des Petits Ruminants
RP Rinder Pest
RRLs Regional Reference Laboratories
RVF Rift Valley fever
SAT South African Territories
SPS Sanitary Phytosanitary
TADs Transboundary Animal Diseases
USD United States Dollar
WRLFMD World Reference Laboratory for Foot and Mouth Disease

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Distribution of foot-and-mouth disease virus pools, 2011 – 2013……………………9

Figure 2: The figure shows the spatial distribution of FMD serotypes identified (2014-2017) in
regional states of Ethiopia………………………………………………………………………..11

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of Peste des petits ruminants. Based on data available up to
2014………………………………………………………………………………………………13

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SUMMARY

Transboundary diseases are highly contagious and have the potential to spread immediately
throughout regions, regardless of country borders, resulting in major socioeconomic effects.
They are a serious concern because of their ability to spread over an entire region, harm trading
partners and commerce, undermine consumer confidence, and emerge in other nations, all of
which can have severe economic and livelihood effects. Disease introduction will continue to be
a significant concern to the livestock sector and the trade of animals and animal products, as well
as farmer livelihoods, food security, and public health, as globalization enhances the
interconnectedness of nations, economies, and industries. In the last two to three decades, the
world has been facing serious economic losses to livestock farmers from major outbreaks of
TADs, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), classical swine fever, Rinder pest, pest des petites
ruminants, contagious bovine pleura pneumonia and rift valley fever. The economic impacts of
transboundary animal diseases can be complex and go beyond the immediate impact on the
directly affected agricultural producers. The economic impacts of the transboundary animal
diseases can be complex and go beyond the immediate impact on the directly affected
agricultural producers. Transboundary Animal Diseases in agriculture and public health,
constitute a serious limitation to export living animals and their products, as well for
international trade. In Ethiopia, due to major TADs the livestock subsector’s contribution to the
economy and foreign currency earnings in particular, is very low as per the country expectation
and potential of the sectors. In response to the destructive effects of TADs, different management
strategies need to be implemented. General TADs combating strategies include prevention, early
warning, early detection and early control. Establishing regional biosecurity arrangement with
capacity for early disease warning system for surveillance, monitoring and diagnosis of emerging
disease threats and ensuring appropriate preparedness and response capacity to foot and mouth
disease (FMD) and Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) needs to be developed for controls to be
effective.

Keywords: control, distribution, economic impact, FMD, PPR, transboundary animal disease

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1. INTRODUCTION

Transboundary Animal Diseases (TADs) are defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations as “epidemic diseases which are highly contagious or transmissible and
have the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national boarders, causing serious socio-
economic and possibly public health consequences.” (FAO, 2019).

Due to rapid globalization, including increased international trade in domestic and wild animals
and animal products, the expansion of the human population, global climate change, changes in
agricultural production systems, and microbiological adaptation, TADs are easily transmitted
from one country to another. TADs have a number of distinguishing characteristics, including an
abrupt, acute, or quick onset (FAO, 2008). Transboundary diseases are major issue because they
can spread across an entire region, have an impact on trading partners and commerce, consumer
confidence, and arise in other countries, all of which can have disastrous economic and
livelihood consequences (Sein, 1998). They also have a significant impact on the national
economy due to high rates of morbidity and mortality in susceptible animal populations, the
costs of control or eradication programs, and restrictions on international trade (Perry et al.,
2003).

All transboundary animal diseases have the potential to kill animals and cause significant losses
in productivity, though the severity of the disease varies depending on factors such as the
animal's species and breed, age, diet, and disease agent (Otte et al., 2004). TADs impose far-
reaching challenges for agricultural scientists in developing countries nations on the crucial need
to improve animal production and health technologies in order to provide food security, poverty
reduction, and economic prosperity (Negesso et al., 2016).

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an important livestock disease impacting mainly intensive
production systems. Listed as a notifiable disease by the World Organization for Animal Health
(OIE), FMD is therefore an important transboundary animal disease with consequences on
international trade.

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With a few exceptions, FMD outbreaks have historically been observed in most areas of the
world where significant livestock productions occur. Since the beginning of the 20th century,
FMD has been of considerable concern to many countries (Brown, 1992).

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is also one of the major animal diseases listed as notifiable and
economically important transboundary viral disease of sheep and goats associated with high
morbidity and mortality (Balamurugan et al., 2014). PPR is one of the principal constraints to
small ruminant production in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. With its associated high
morbidity and mortality, PPRV constitutes one of the major obstacles to national economy and
subsistence farming; mortality from infection reaching 50–80% in a naive population (Kitching,
1988).

Therefore, the objective of this seminar is to review the general distribution, economic impact
and public health importance of the major transboundary animal diseases with special emphasis
on foot and mouth disease (FMD) and Peste des petits ruminants (PPR).

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2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF TADs

Transboundary diseases are highly contagious and have the potential to spread quickly
throughout the region, regardless of country borders, resulting in major socioeconomic effects
(Otte et al., 2004). Disease introduction will continue to be a major concern to the livestock
industry as globalization enhances the interconnectedness of nations, economies, and industries
(Beltran-alcrudo et al., 2019).

Foot and Mouth Disease

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) also known as Aphtous fever, is a major global animal health
problem (Hirsh et al., 2004). Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease
of cloven-hoofed animals and is one of the most economically important diseases of livestock
(Hughes et al., 2002).

Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a virus of the family Picornaviridae, genus
Aphthovirus, which includes seven immunologically distinct serotypes: A, O, C, SAT1, SAT2,
SAT3, and Asia1, which do not confer cross-immunity. Although some FMD virus serotypes are
more variable than others, there are more than 60 strains in total. Parts of Asia, Africa, the
Middle East, and South America are endemic to the disease. Serotypes O and A are broadly
dispersed, whereas SAT serotypes occur mainly in Africa, and Asia1 is exclusively found in Asia
at the moment (CFSPH, 2015).

The virus infects cloven-hooved animals, including cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and certain wildlife
species (Jamal, 2013). The morbidity rate in outbreaks of FMD in susceptible animals can
rapidly approach 100% but some strains are limited in their infectivity to particular species.
However, the case fatality is generally very low, about 2% in adults and 20% in young stock
(Radostits et al., 2007). The FMDV transmission is via direct or indirect contact, through several
different routes (Alexandersen et al., 2005). The virus is transmitted most commonly and
efficiently via airborne or aerosol spread, especially when animals are in close contact (Paton et
al., 2018).

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Animals can also become infected via breaks in the skin or mucosa (Grubman et al., 2004). In
addition, contact with fomites poses a transmission risk, and a variety of bodily fluids (including
semen, urine, and feces) can harbor the virus. Furthermore, milk or other animal products can
transmit the virus, which has severe implications for trade; international trade bans can result in
economic hardship for countries where the virus is enzootic (Paton et al., 2018).

FMD is characterized by fever, profuse salivation, vesicles in the mouth and on the feet and a
drastic reduction in milk production; sudden death in young stock may occur (Radostits et al.,
2006). Because of the highly contagious nature of the virus and severity of economic impacts
associated with the disease, FMD is the most important disease limiting the trade of animals and
animal products throughout the world (Arzt et al., 2011).

The FMD virus has been eradicated from some regions, including Western Europe and North
America, but unless firm precautions are in place, FMD can be readily reintroduced into disease
free regions/countries, mainly via illegal trade of animals and animal products (OIE, 2014).

Peste des Petits Ruminants

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious, devastating viral disease of
domestic and wild ruminants, primarily affecting goats and sheep (Njeumi et al., 2020). Peste
des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is a single stranded-RNA morbillivirus, of the family
Paramyxoviridae, that is closely related to other members of the genus such as rinderpest,
measles, and canine distemper. Peste des petits ruminants virus is easily transmitted by direct
contact with secretions and excretions from infected animals or contact with fomites (Idoga et
al., 2020). While the main entry route remains respiratory (Nour et al., 2020). Clinical signs
include inappetence, emaciation, depression, fever, diarrhea, nasal and ocular discharge,
pneumonia and erosive and necrotic stomatitis (Giato et al., 2012).

Among the infectious transboundary animal diseases, Pest des petits ruminants (PPR) has
become a much more important disease because it causes heavy economic losses. Furthermore,
the morbidity and mortality rates are high (Radostits et al., 2000). When introduced to a naive

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population, morbidity and mortality can reach almost 100%, causing a major shock to livestock
keeper livelihoods and to small ruminant trade. In enzootic areas, morbidity and mortality vary
between 10–100% (Torsson et al., 2016).

Peste des petits ruminants is currently targeted for global eradication by 2030 by the PPR Global
Eradication Programme. Factors that favored the eradication of Rinderpest such as one serotype,
availability of a safe vaccine that confers long immunity, simple diagnostics, short infectious
period, close contact required for transmission, no known significant wildlife reservoir or carrier
state, and short virus survival in the environment, also apply for PPR (Njeumi, et al., 2020).
Table 1. General overview of major transboundary animal diseases (Clemmons et al., 2021)
Disease Causative agent Species affected Symptoms
Fever, vesicles on the feet,
Foot and mouth Cloven-hooved tongue, snout, muzzle,
Foot and mouth disease virus animals mammary glands,
disease (Aphthovirus) genital mucosa, inappetence,
lameness
African swine fever African swine fever Domestic and Sudden death, shock,
virus (Asfivirus) wild suids hemorrhagic fever,
pulmonary edema,
depression, anorexia
African horse African horse Equids; primarily Horses—acute (pulmonary)
sickness sickness virus horses and chronic (cardiac) with
(Orbivirus) high morbidity and mortality
Rift Valley fever Rift Valley fever Ruminants Abortion, fever, lympha -
virus (Phlebovirus) denopathy and inappetence;
nasal discharge, and bloody
diarrhea
Contagious bovine Mycoplasma Domestic and Fever, inappetence,
pleuropneumonia mycoides subsp. wild large depression, labored breathing,
Mycoides ruminants; coughing, nasal discharge,
primarily cattle salivation

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Peste des petites Peste des petits Domestic and Inappetence, emaciation,
ruminants ruminants virus wild ruminants depression, fever, diarrhea,
(PPRV) nasal and ocular discharge,
pneumonia and erosive and
necrotic stomatitis

3. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ON TADs

Due to the emergence and re-emergence of various animal diseases, the annual growth of meat
products decreased 2% in the late 1990s (Morgan and Prakash, 2006). In the last two to three
decades, the world has been facing serious economic losses to livestock farmers from major
outbreaks of TADs, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), in Europe, classical swine fever in
the Caribbean and Europe(1996–2002), render pest (RP) in Africa in the 1980s, pest des petites
ruminants in India and Bangladesh, contagious bovine pleura pneumonia in Eastern and
Southern Africa (late 1990s), as well as Rift Valley fever in the Arabian Peninsula (2000)
(Balkhy et al., 2003). As examples of economic impact, the 1997 classical swine fever (CSF)
epidemic in the Netherlands led to the destruction of 10 million pigs and an estimated cost of
$2.3 billion US dollars (Meuwissen MP et al., 1999). The same year, foot and mouth disease
(FMD) led to the destruction of Taiwan’s pig industry (OIE, 2018). An even bigger economic
impact was seen in the 2001 outbreak of foot and mouth disease virus (FMD) in the United
Kingdom, which led to costs exceeding £3.1 billion ($4.4 billion) to the agriculture and food
chain sectors alone (Thompson D, et al., 2001).

The World Bank has estimated that zoonotic disease outbreaks in the past 10 years have cost
worldwide more than $US200 billion due to loss of trade, tourism and tax revenues (Okello et
al., 2011).

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4. DISTRIBUTION OF TADS

4.1. Factors Influencing Global Distribution of TADs

The most important factor that contribute for the spread of TADs is the movement of potentially
infected livestock and meat and other animal products. Rinderpest was introduced to Ethiopia in
1887, when Italians imported infected cattle into the country from India (MOARD, 2009).
Similarly, SAT-1 FMD virus was introduced to Ethiopia from Sudan along the border with
Surma woreda in Bench Maji zone, southern Ethiopia (Legesse et al., 2012). Trade and travel
have been instruments for disease spread. Entry of live diseased animals and contaminated
animal products, importation of contaminated biological products such as vaccines or germplasm
or via entry of infected people (in case of zoonotic diseases) are common ways of spreading of
trans-boundary diseases to a new geographical location FAO (2008). Even migration of animals
and birds, or natural spreading by insect vectors or wind currents, could also spread diseases
across geographical border (FAO and OIE, 2004); Seine, 1998). With the ongoing process of
globalization, the increasing movement, both formal and informal, of animals and their products
poses a growing risk for animal populations to become exposed to TAD pathogens (Zhou et al.,
2018).

Now, changing climate across the globe is adding to the misery. Climate change is creating new
ecological platform for the entry and establishment of diseases from one geographical region to
another. Several new transboundary diseases emerge, and old diseases reemerge, exhibiting
increased chances for unexpected spread to new regions, often over great distances (FAO, 2008).
Global warming trends may change rainfall and weather patterns in a number of regions,
affecting particularly the global distribution of insect vectors (Akalu, 2017).

Ecological interface is another factor that contribute to the spread of TADS. As new species
come into contact with one another for a variety of reasons (such as tourism and human
migration, ecological disruption, shows, trade, introduction of new genetic material, and keeping
wild species in captivity), potential pathogens from one species may move into another, with
subsequent disease and dissemination in the new host population. (Griot et al., 2003).

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In some regions of the world, tropical rain forests and other wilderness areas are being converted
to livestock farming. This places human communities and their farm animals into close contact
with a completely new range of infectious agents and vectors which may have previously only
circulated in wild life reservoirs and which may be completely unknown. Some of these agents
may be transmittable to humans and/or livestock, in which they may spread very rapidly being
new, fully susceptible hosts (Akalu, 2017).

4.2. Distribution of FMD

4.2.1. Global Distribution of FMD

Foot and mouth disease affects all cloven-footed animals and is endemic in Asia, Africa, South
America and parts of Europe, North America, Central America and Australia are currently free
of the recorded disease (Pugh et al., 2002). There are seven recognized serotypes of FMD (O, A,
C, Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2, SAT 3), which differ in distribution across the world. Serotype A and
O have the widest distribution, occurring in Africa, Asia and South America. However, Asia has
its own unique serotype, Asia 1, first detected in samples collected in India in 1951 through 1952
(Dhanda et al., 1957) and Pakistan in 1954 (Brooksby et al., 1957). Notably, serotype C was last
detected in Kenya and Brazil in 2004 (San- gula et al., 2011).

Endemic areas have been described in six geographical FMDV pools that share similar viruses.
(Rweyemamu et al., 2008; Paton et al., 2009). The FMDV pools include pool 1 in East Asia (O,
A and Asia 1), pool 2 in Central Asia (O, A and Asia 1), pool 3 in Europe and South Asia (O, A
and Asia 1), pool 4 in Southern, Eastern and Horn of Africa (A, O, SAT 1, 2 and 3), pool 5 in
Western Africa (O, A, SAT 1 and 2), and pool 6 in Southern Africa (SAT 1, 2 and 3) (Paton et
al., 2009). Serotypes O, A, and the South African Territories (SAT) FMDVs are endemic in
Africa; serotype O is the most widely distributed in eastern and western Africa, whereas SAT
viruses are mostly found in sub-Saharan Africa. (Tekleghiorghis et al., 2014). Northern Africa is
a bridge for FMDV exchange between Africa (pools 4, 5, 6) and western Asia (pool 3)
(WRLFMD, 2012).

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Most countries in the eastern Africa are endemic for serotypes A, O, SAT1 and SAT2. Two
geographical clusters have been described within this area namely the Horn of Africa and the
area of the Great Lakes (Di Nardo et al., 2011). The area of the Great Lakes includes northern
areas in Tanzania and Zambia, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda and Burundi. FMDV/O/EA-2, the
dominant virus in this area, was responsible for large outbreaks in 2008–2009 in Uganda.
(Kasambula et al., 2012). FMDV O/ EA-2 was also responsible for almost all recent FMDV O
outbreaks in this area, including Tanzania. In Kenya, O/EA-4 and O/EA-1 were found in 2009
and 2010, and O/EA-2 and O/EA-4 in 2010 and 2011. (Balinda et al., 2010; Kasanga et al.,
2014; Wekesa et al., 2015).

The area of the Horn of Africa includes Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia. O/EA-3 is predominant
lineage in this area. Ethiopia has reported EA-2 and EA-4 topotypes circulating in 2008–2014
(Negusssie et al., 2011). In 2009, Somalia reported O/EA-3 viruses related to sequences isolated
from Yemen in 2003–2009 (Di Nardo et al., 2011). Other Serotypes (A, SAT1 ,2 and 3) from
eastern Africa have been isolated. SAT1 and 2 FMDVs were found in eastern Africa during
2007–2014. SAT1. (Legesse et al., 2013). Serotype SAT3 virus was isolated from a healthy calf
in Uganda, different from any FMDV SAT3 characterized before (Dhikusooka et al., 2015).

Figure 1: Distribution of foot-and-mouth disease virus pools, 2011 – 2013 (EuFMD, 2014).

xiv
4.2.2. Distribution of FMD In Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a well-established endemic disease since its
detection in 1957 for the first time (Gulima, 2011).

Among the known FMD serotypes, four serotypes (A, O, SAT 1 and SAT 2) are maintained
endemically in Ethiopia. According to published articles on FMD, serotypes A and O are the
most common serotypes that cause major economic losses in the country. (Jemberu et al., 2016).
Serotypes A, O, C, SAT2, have been identified and characterized by the National Animal health
research center at Sebeta and the world reference laboratory for FMD (WRLFMD) at UK in the
years 1969-1994 on samples submitted by Sholla disease investigation laboratory, but from the
record of outbreak investigation in cattle by NVI between 1982-2000, three serotype O, A and
SAT2 FMD were identified. As shown in figure 2 serotypes O, A, C, SAT1 and SAT2 were
identified in Ethiopia. The last reported outbreak due to serotype C FMDV in Ethiopia was
during 2005 and so serotype C viruses may no longer exist outside of laboratories. The
predominant serotypes recently reported were FMDV serotype O (34.2%), followed by serotype
A (17.1%), serotype SAT1 (4.9%) and serotype SAT 2 (2.4%) (Desissa et al., 2014).

In Ethiopia, although its level of prevalence may have significant variations across the different
farming systems and agroecological zones of the country, FMD is endemic and known for its
wider distribution. The records of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(MOARD) from 1997 to 2006 showed that FMD outbreak occurred everywhere throughout the
country with highest incidence in the central part (Ayelet et al., 2009). Studies in the country
reported FMD in different animal species with different prevalence levels. For example, in cattle
they reported FMD prevalence that ranges from 1.4 to 53.6% at animal level and up to 61% at
herd level (Wagari, 2016) in domestic small ruminants 4 to 11%, and in ungulate wildlife 30%
(Sahle, 2004). The seroprevalence of FMD among Borana pastoral cattle in 2008 was reported to
be 24.6% (Mekonen et al., 2011).

xv
Another study that covered broader areas of the country showed seropositivity of 44.2% with
1.6% and 8.9% mortality and case fatality rates (Negussie et al., 2011).

Figure 2: The figure shows the spatial distribution of FMD serotypes identified (2014-2017) in
regional states of Ethiopia (Daniel, 2018).

4.2. Distribution of PPR

4.3.1. Distribution of PPR In the World

PPRV has a widespread distribution spanning West and Central Africa, Arabia, the Middle East
and southern Asia as shown below in figure 3 (Nanda et al., 1996; Shaila et al., 1996). The virus
has been identified as the cause of several serious epidemics in small ruminant populations over
the last three decades and, since 1993, the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East and major parts of
the Indian subcontinent have reported major outbreaks and the virus is now considered endemic
across this region (Dhar et al., 2002).

Historically, African isolates of PPRV were numbered lineage I–III according to the proposed
spread of the virus from West Africa to East Africa. (Couacy-Hymann et al., 2002). The current
molecular characterization of PPRV virus isolates divides them into four genetically distinct

xvi
lineages: lineage I being represented mainly by Western African isolates from the 1970s and
recent isolates from Central Africa; lineage II by West African isolates from the Ivory Coast,
Guinea and Burkina Faso; lineage III by isolates from Eastern Africa, the Sudan, Yemen and
Oman; lineage IV includes all viruses isolated from recent outbreaks across the Arabian
Peninsula, the Middle East, southern Asia and recently across several African territories. (Dhar et
al., 2002; Ozkul et al., 2002).

Recent reports of PPRV in areas close to European borders have increased its profile and has put
a threat of spread into the developed world has greatly renewed interest in the virus. (Ozkul et
al., 2002). Indeed, there have been numerous reports of PPRV in Turkey having now also been
reported in Western Turkey, Bursa province (Yesilbag et al., 2005) and Mugla and Aydin
provinces (Toplu, 2004) in the Aegean district. The Moroccan outbreak and the potential
existence of as yet unidentified foci of PPRV infection across other territories in northern Africa
also increases the threat of movement of infected animals into southern Europe (Minet et al.,
2009. By April 2002 an outbreak with a case mortality rate of 100 % was reported in sheep and
goats (Housawi et al., 2004) in Arabian Peninsula. On the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula,
lineage IV virus has been detected in a game reserve in the United Arab Emirates (Kinne et al.,
2010) as well as in Qatar (2010). PPRV infection has been recognized in several countries
bordering the south-western region of China, including India, Nepal (2009), Bangladesh (2000
and 2009), Pakistan (2004 and 2009) and Afghanistan. All recent virus strains detected in south-
west Asia and the Middle East belong to lineage IV (Wang et al., 2009).

PPRV is currently believed to be endemic across much of West Africa. Reference Laboratories
(RRLs) has confirmed the presence of the either antibodies to the virus or the detection of viral
nucleic acid in samples from Burkina Faso (2008), Ghana (2010), Nigeria (2007) and Senegal
(2010). PPRV strains from both lineages I and II are currently circulating across West Africa (El-
Yuguda et al., 2010). During 2008, local veterinary services reported 257 outbreaks across 36 of
Morocco’s 61 provinces. Despite low mortality and morbidity rates this outbreak was of great
significance due to commercial trade between Morocco and both Algeria and Spain (Khalafalla
et al., 2010).

xvii
PPRV is endemic across the majority of east African countries with genetic typing of the virus in
1996 determining a virus circulating in Ethiopia as belonging to lineage III. More recently,
confirmation of endemicity of PPRV across East Africa has been shown through the detection of
antibodies to PPRV in Kenya (1999 and 2009) and Uganda (2005 and 2007). Lineage IV viruses
have also been isolated from the Sudan in 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2009 (Khalafalla et al., 2010).

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of Peste des petits ruminants. Based on data available up to 2014
(Jones et al., 2016).

4.3.2. Distribution of PPR In Ethiopia

PPR was clinically suspected for the first time in Ethiopia in 1977 in a goat herd in the Afar
region, East of the country (Pegram, 1981).

The first published account of PPR in Ethiopia is from 1994 and described an outbreak in goats
in the capital city, Addis Ababa. PPRV was isolated from this outbreak at IEMVT, Maisons-
Alfort, France, and shown to belong to lineage III (Roeder et al., 1994).

xviii
In 2016, the full genome of another PPRV isolate from the intestine of a goat suffering from
severe clinical disease during an outbreak in 2010 was characterized and shown to belong to
lineage IV, indicating that viruses from two lineages have been present at different times in the
country (Muniraju et al., 2016).

However, two more recent studies on samples from Ethiopia from 2011, 2014 and 2017 only
detected lineage IV PPRVs, suggesting that the lineage III viruses may have been replaced by
lineage IV viruses (Alemu et al., 2019).

There were important differences in the prevalence across regions, with the Oromia region
showing the lowest prevalence (1.7%) and the Somali region the highest (21.3%). The
prevalence at wereda level estimates ranged from 0% for Guba in Benishangul region or Ab Ala
in Afar region to 52.5% for Dolo Odo in Somali region. The higher prevalence levels seem to be
mainly those in areas of low altitudes where pastoral management systems prevail over sedentary
ones (Waret-Szkuta et al., 2008).

Abraham et al. (2005) reported the overall seroprevalence of 9% in goats and 13% in sheep in
different parts of Ethiopia (Abraham et al., 2005).

Based on the reported morbidity and mortality of the infection and the size and structure of the
small ruminant sector it is likely that PPR became one of the most economically important
livestock diseases in Ethiopia (Gopilo, 2005).

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5. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TADs

The economic impacts of transboundary animal diseases can be complex and go beyond the
immediate impact on the directly affected agricultural producers. In specific cases, the actual
economic impact will vary depending on factors such as the type of transboundary animal
disease, but the complexity of the effects often makes the precise measuring of the economic
impacts very difficult (Otte et al., 2004).

In the last two to three decades, the world has been facing serious economic losses to livestock
farmers from major outbreaks of TADs, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), in Europe,
classical swine fever in the Caribbean and Europe (1996–2002), render pest (RP) in Africa in the
1980s, pest des petites ruminants in India and Bangladesh, contagious bovine pleura pneumonia
in Eastern and Southern Africa (late 1990s), as well as Rift Valley fever in the Arabian Peninsula
(2000) (Balkhy et al., 2003). The 1993 Food and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreak in Italy cost
was estimated at $US 120 million. Similarly, FMD diagnosed in Taiwan on 1997 costs
approximately $US 15 billion. The outbreak of FMD in China produced a decrease of $US 1600
to 234 million on 1996-1997 in their international market. Average expected annual losses due to
FMD epidemics in the Netherlands were also calculated on approximately US$15 million
(Cartín-rojas, 2012).

Ethiopia is a resourceful country bestowed with the largest livestock resource in the Africa
continent (FAOSTAT (2007)) with the potential to export substantial numbers of live animals
and their products. Livestock is central to the Ethiopian economy, contributing for 20% ofthe
GDP, supporting the livelihoods of 70% of the population and generating about 11% of annual
export earnings (SPS-LMM, 2010). However, the livestock subsector’s contribution to the
economy and foreign currency earnings in particular, is very low as per the country expectation
and potential of the sectors. Some of the major factors contributing to the poor performance of
the livestock subsector include the prevalence of highly contagious trans-boundary animal
diseases (TADs) such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), Peste des petits ruminants (PPR),

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lumpy skin disease (LSD) and contagious bovine pleura pneumonia (CBPP) (GebreMariam et
al., 2010).

5.1. Impact of TADs on Production

TADs effect on livestock productivity includes reduced feed intake, changes in digestion and
metabolism, increased morbidity and mortality and decreased rates of reproduction, weight gain,
reduced draught power and manure and milk production. These have aggregate effects that limit
economically important herd management decisions regarding animal selection and optimal
longevity. Many TADs have mortality rate 50-90% in susceptible animals (Seine et al., 1998).

The TADs like FMD disease are also associated with abortion and mortality in calves in acute
cases and “chronic FMD” cases showing heat intolerance, reduced fertility (Dabasa et al., 2021).
FMD also causes lower rates of live weight gain in growing animals due to reduced feed intake
and reduction in reproductive capacity by increased abortion rates of up to 10% in animals
infected during pregnancy; the disease also causes up to 6% mortality in calves (Rufael et al.,
2006). Heavy losses occur in small scale mixed farming system when outbreaks affect draft oxen
during the planting season. It causes considerable losses of milk yield and weight gain among
dairy and fattening stock (Sileshi et al., 2006). The impact of PPR on small ruminant
productivity includes mortality, loss of milk, meat, fibers, and hides, weight loss, impaired
growth, and abortion. The mean annual global loss from PPR mortality has been estimated at
US$1.5 billion, ranging from US$0.8 billion to US$2.7 billion (Mariner et al., 2016).

5.2. Impact of TADs on International Trades

Direct impact of Transboundary Animal Diseases in agriculture and public health, constitute a
serious limitation to export living animals and their products, as well for international trade.
These diseases are not only one of the largest sources of non-tariff barriers to international trade.
But also, they affect the dynamism and fluidity of the agronomic input markets, either by
creating higher costs of production in industries directly dependent on these inputs, or generating
commercial levies to the export country on certain animal products as a direct consequence of a

xxi
disease epidemic, generating an increase in the complexity of the patterns of consumption and
access to competitive global markets (Vandeputte et al., 2011). These diseases continue to hinder
international trade in live animals and their products seriously in an era of globalization. Public
concern is growing regarding the rapid transboundary spread of animal diseases through animals
and animal products have forced importing countries to apply strict measures so that animals and
their products exported should meet international sanitary phytosanitary (SPS) requirements
(GebreMariam et al., 2010). In 2001 the severity and visibility of the FMD pandemic that
affected major meat markets led to countries around the globe closing their borders to at least
one-quarter of world beef trade and nearly 40% of global pork exports. These were imposed
firstly to meat products originating in the countries of the EU and, later on, to those from
Argentina, Uruguay, and parts of Brazil (FAO, 2002).

FMD is a potential threat to Ethiopia’s live animal export trade to Middle East and North Africa
(MENA) which accounts for about 140 thousand heads, 23.9 million USD. The total annual
(2011) economic loss due to bulls rejection from international market was estimated to be
3,322,269 USD which is equivalent to 56,345,682.24 ETB. (Dabasa et al., 2021). Similarly, the
Egyptian trade ban of animal and animal products, in 2005/2006, caused Ethiopia a loss of more
than 14 million $US (Leforban, 2005).

5.3. Financial Cost for Controlling TADs

Indirect losses from transboundary animal diseases are often less recognized than the obvious
effects of clinical disease but may be equally or more important in their overall economic impact.
Disease control has costs including vaccine purchase, vaccine delivery, disease surveillance,
laboratory diagnosis and testing, quarantine and movement management, expensive antibiotic
treatment (Tambi et al., 2006).

Movement restrictions and local quarantines mean the closure of livestock markets and reduced
or no opportunities for sale of live animals and possibly meat and other products. In addition to
the measurable economic impact on a national economy the inability to sell one steer or some
sheep or goats can bring severe hardship to a pastoral family with no other income of sources of

xxii
support (Holleman et al., 2002). For example, the direct cost for controlling FMD in Taipei
China in 1997-1998 was estimated at approximately US$400 million, while the indirect cost was
about US$1.6 billion per year (Yang et al., 1999). These costs are enormous with an estimated
2.35 billion doses of FMD vaccine administered in the world every year. Even if a country is
FMD free there are ongoing costs due to efforts to prevent disease introduction, including import
controls and sometimes vaccination. In addition, maintaining FMD early detection and control
capability, including vaccine banks, is costly (Hamond, 2011).

It is estimated that the total programme cost for eradication of PPR is US$3.08 billion (Jones et
al., 2016).

xxiii
6. PUBLIC HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF TADs

6.1. Public Health Importance of TADs

Nearly 75% of infectious human diseases had their origins in animals. TADs also have an
important effect on public health (Anand and Hanson, 2006). The spread of these transboundary
diseases has been aided by industrialization and economic prosperity. As a result, several
variables influence the transmission of infectious animal diseases, including human-animal
interaction, contact between wild and domestic animals, and human-animal contact (Wentholt et
al., 2012).

The majority of the transboundary animal diseases however do not cause epidemics in humans
although occasionally humans can become infected. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus has
been isolated from around 40 people worldwide following a mild course of disease. In 1977/78, a
major epidemic of RVF occurred in Egypt with an estimated 200,000 human cases of disease and
about 600 deaths. It is believed that up to half a million people became infected with RVF during
the 1997/98 epidemic in eastern Africa, of which some 500 may have died from the
haemorrhagic form of the disease (Otte et al., 2004).

Zoonotic disease outbreaks, including foot and mouth disease (FMD), have resulted in a
significant increase in the visibility of both the potential public health consequences of disease
outbreaks as well as the disruption of international commerce with resulting significant
repercussions on economies (Evans, 2006).

6.2. Environmental and Social Importance of TADs

Animal diseases directly affect the size and composition of animal populations and thus
indirectly have impacts on the environment. Use of pesticides in an effort to control disease
vectors, both introduced and indigenous, can lead to serious health effects in developed and
developing countries (Otte et al., 2004).

xxiv
The impact on livelihoods is exemplified by the African swine fever (ASF) epidemic in the
Caribbean island of Hispaniola in 1978, which was controlled by swine depopulation throughout
the entire island and had a particularly severe effect on Haiti's already precarious rural
population. (Morilla et al., 2002).

For producers who have spent their entire lives with a working routine of tending to their
animals, the depopulation of premises as part of the disease control activities can put them in to
situations like mentally and emotionally scarred and without a sense of purpose. Typical
sacrifices, which can have social impacts, include loss of ability to fund for education and the
withdrawal of children from studies; the ceasing of attending social, community or cultural
activities leading to isolation; the decision of the next generation of producers to leave the
agricultural sector (Evans, 2006).

6.3. Food Security

Livestock contributes directly to the livelihoods and food security of around a billion people by
affecting their diet, wealth and health (Robinson et al., 2014). An increase in population is a
major challenge for world food security. United Nations projections show that the world
population could reach 9.15 billion by 2050 and indicate that global agricultural production in
2050 will be 60% higher than in the years 2005–2007, raising the concern of how this increase
can be achieved sustainably. According to these projections meat production, for instance, will
increase from 258 million tons in 2005–2007 to a total of 455 million tons in 2050 (Alexandratos
et al., 2012).

Transboundary animal diseases have significant and considerable impact on human welfare in
developing countries. Particularly in pastoral societies, livestock contribute directly or indirectly
to food security and nutrition a source of protein, micronutrients, animal power and tradable
assets (FAO, 2002). Thus, it is very important to create public policies focused to assure
countries’ food security (especially in developing nations) to avoid negative economic impacts
caused by TADs, especially on the more susceptible social stratus (Okello et al., 2011). In
relative terms, livestock and fish are more important to the incomes of the very poor in the world

xxv
than to the income of any other group. Income from milk, meat, eggs and fish is critical to food
security of the poor in most of the world (LID, 1999).

7. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF TADs

Considering the destructive effects of TADs, different countries implement various TADs
management strategies (Thomson, 2009). General TADs combating strategies include
prevention, early warning, early detection and early control. Cross boundary cooperation in
disease surveillance, diagnosis, epidemiology and containment plays key role in addressing this
menace (Basagoudanavar et al., 2013; CSA, 2015).

The FAO Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) Animal Health develops strategies for
intervention and improved management. It operates to monitor and give early warning and
ultimately to prevent animal diseases. The Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal
Diseases (ECTAD) is FAO’s corporate center for the planning and delivery of veterinary
assistance to FAO member countries responding to the threat of transboundary animal health
crises. Accordingly, various strategies need to be implemented to prevent and control
transboundary diseases regionally and internationally (Islam, 2016).

Countries should establish regional biosecurity arrangement with capacity for early disease
warning system for surveillance, monitoring and diagnosis of emerging disease threats
(Domenech et al., 2006); Ensuring appropriate preparedness and response capacity to any
emerging disease. Keeping in view that emerging infectious diseases are a constant threat, it is
necessary to have early disease detection capacity and then implement a timely response
(Hitchcock et al., 2007);

Strong border control is very important. This includes preventing incidence of transboundary
diseases and disease transmitting vectors; Minimizing the movement of animals across the
borders and prompt practice of quarantine protocol. Geographic information system (GIS) and
remote sensing could be utilized as early warning systems and, in the surveillance, and control of
infectious diseases (Martin et al., 2007).

xxvi
Reducing man-made disasters that have adverse implications on climate contributes for the
management of emerging and remerging transboundary diseases. Global warming and climate
change either due to natural or anthropogenic influences are likely to predispose the animal
population to newer infections (FAO, 2008).

Undertaking animal breeding strategies to create disease resistant gene pools. Enhancing host
genetic resistance to disease by selective breeding of resistant animals is a smart strategy to
improve natural immunity of animals to counter invading infections (Gibson et al., 2005).

Strong government policies are important to enhance agricultural/animal research and training,
and technology development. In addition, more funds need to be allocated for this purpose to
build goal-oriented research programs in combating TADs. Since TADs are a concern globally,
cumulative effort is needed at international level to minimize cross border transmissions
(Hitchcock et al., 2007).

Diseases at the wildlife–livestock interface must become the focus for surveillance of TADs and
interrupting the human-livestock-wildlife transmission of infections is essential (Siembieda et
al., 2011).

xxvii
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Transboundary diseases are becoming ever more important since it can spread throughout an
entire region, impact trading partners and commerce, tourism, consumer confidence, and occur in
distant countries, with devastating economic and livelihood consequences. With the globalization
of trade and the increasing movements of people, these major crises will continue to menace the
global animal and human populations. Transboundary animal diseases are challenging disease to
dealing with, due to absence of driven oriented research, absence of vaccination programs, lack
of farmers awareness about those disease and inadequate regulatory standards for safe
international trade of livestock and livestock products. This will continue until we have a better
understanding of the diseases and their causative agents, better control measures available, and
better strategies for implementing control measures that rely on community buy in at the local
level. In Ethiopia, the Livestock sub-sector’s contribution to the economy and foreign currency
earnings in particular, is very low as per the country expectation and potential of the sectors.
Some of the major factors contributing to the poor performance of the livestock sub-sector
include the prevalence of highly contagious trans-boundary animal diseases. Foot and mouth
disease (FMD) and Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) are among the most important
transboundary animal diseases that are posing a major threat in different area of the country
thereby causing substantial economic losses through morbidity, mortality and restriction of
international trade.

Based on above conclusive remarks the following recommendations are forwarded:

 Strategies to improve veterinary service delivery by field staff and laboratories should be
designed.
 In the medium to long term, health facilities and laboratories need to be better equipped
and the number of veterinary staff in the public and private sectors should be increased.
 Rapid detection and early response are important for the control of TADs at source and
national level.
 Government policies to develop agricultural/animal research and training, and technology
development should be strengthened.

xxviii
  Movement of animals from region to region should be controlled and quarantine should
also be established.

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