Vol. 10(1), pp.

1-13, January, 2019

DOI: 10.5897/JPGE2018.0300
Article Number: D049C7059749
ISSN: 2I41-2677
Copyright ©2019 Journal of Petroleum and Gas
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/JPGE Engineering

Full Length Research Paper

Analysis of shaly sand reservoir rocks in the eastern

Niger Delta Basin using geophysical well logs
Fozao K. F.1,2*, Djieto-Lordon A. E.1, Ali E. A. A.1, Agying C. M.1, Ndeh D. M.3
and Zebaze Djuka M. K.1
1
Petroleum Research Group, University of Buea, P. O. Box 063, Buea, Cameroon.
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering, School of Engineering (NAHPI), University of Bamenda, Bamenda, Cameroon.
3
Arab Center for Engineering Studies (ACES)-Abu Dhabi, Industrial City of Abu Dhabi (ICAD) 1, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Received 7 October, 2018; Accepted 29 November, 2018

Shales in the reservoir causes complications for the petrophysicist because they generally are
conductive and mask the high resistance characteristic of hydrocarbons. Data from a suite of well logs
were used to estimate the effect of reservoir shaliness on petrophysical parameters of some reservoir
rocks of the eastern Niger Delta Basin. The log section was digitized using Neuralog software.
Delineation of the productive clean and dirty formations, as well as mapping of the fluid contents of the
possible reservoir zones was carried out using Interactive Petrophysics software. Fifteen shaly sand
bodies were identified. It was observed that, shale correction leads to a significant change in
petrophysical parameters. The results obtained indicate that, the Simandoux and Indonesian models
used for the study are both suitable for water saturation, and hydrocarbon saturation analysis in shaly
sands of this part of the Basin. The porosity results for the Indonesian and Simandoux models gave,
respectively 0.14-0.23 and 0.22-0.28, while the hydrocarbon saturation results are 0.650-0.908 and 0.650-
0.911 with permeabilities values of 1487.442-8881.697 mD and 1568.532-7451.592 mD for uncorrected
and corrected permeability, respectively. Thomas-Stieber model shows that shale distribution in sands
of the eastern Niger Delta Basin is mainly structural with few of disperse and laminar ones.

Key words: Reservoir rock, Shaly sands, petrophysical parameters, well logs, models.

INTRODUCTION

The present local and global increase in demand for Iyayi, 2007). On the contrary, most reservoir
energy has placed both pressure and greater challenge hydrocarbons reside in the pore spaces or open fractures
to increase energy supply. Most of this energy is derived of sedimentary rocks like sandstones. To produce them,
from hydrocarbon resources. In an oil prone area like the detailed geological, petrophysical knowledge and data
Niger Delta, even though hydrocarbons are within the are needed to guide the placement of the well paths (Stat
subsurface, they cannot impulsively gush to the surface Oil Research Group, 2003). This can consequently help
when penetrated by a production well (Aigbedion and to optimize hydrocarbon recovery, and to improve

*Corresponding author. E-mail: kfozao@gmail.com. Tel: +237 675 397 789.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
2 J. Petroleum Gas Eng.

Figure 1. Map of Nigeria, showing the study area.

Source: modified after Agyingi et al. (2013).

predictions of reservoir performance. proportion of shale, the physical properties of shale, and
The Niger Delta region is known for its proficiency in the way it is distributed in the host layer (Toby, 2005).
hydrocarbon production among the sedimentary basins in The prominent identity of the Niger Delta in Nigeria and
Nigeria. Three major stratigraphic units have been in the world at large with respect to its hydrocarbon
recognized in the Niger Delta oil and natural gas reserves, calls for proper exploration and petrophysical
province, namely Akata, Agbada and Benin Formations characterization, especially of the shaly sands which
(Short and Stauble, 1967). Petroleum in the Niger Delta have been the subject of few research works in the past
is produced from sandstones and unconsolidated sands years. The main objective of this work is to use selected
predominantly in the Agbada Formation. Reservoir rocks shaly sand analysis models to quantify the influence of
are of Eocene to Pliocene in age, and are often stacked, shaliness on the petrophysical parameters of a
ranging in thickness from less than 15 to 45 m thickness productive formation. Petrophysical characterization
(Evamy et al., 1978). The primary source rock is the using the considered shaly sand analysis models will
upper Akata Formation, the marine-shale facies of the enable a better evaluation of the reservoir quality and
delta, with possible contribution from interbedded marine potential of the studied field in this part of the Basin.
shale of the lowermost Agbada Formation. The Niger Reservoir zones that could have been lost will be
Delta province contains only one identified petroleum identified. This will equally give a better understanding of
system (Kulke, 1995) referred to as Tertiary Niger Delta the reservoirs of the area, and increase the certainty in
(Akata-Agbada) Petroleum System. the quantity of recoverable hydrocarbons in the basin.
The concept of shale differs from one discipline to
another. To a reservoir engineer, shale can generally be
characterized as low permeability formation. In most Geological setting
reservoirs, there exist a certain volume of shall, thus
leading to unclean sandstone. Such reservoir rocks are The Niger Delta is situated at the apex of the Gulf of
termed shaly sands. Shale can be distributed across a Guinea on the west coast of Africa (Hamada, 1999;
reservoir sand body as a combination of different modes: Doust, 1990) and on Nigeria‟s South-South geopolitical
laminar, structural or dispersed sahe (Maeland, 2014). zone, in a rift triple junction related to the opening of the
Shales can cause complications for the petrophysicist south Atlantic in the late Jurassic to the Cretaceous.
because they are generally conductive and may therefore According to Nwachukwu and Chukwura (1986), the
mask the high resistance characteristic of hydrocarbons. Niger Delta is located in West Africa between latitude 3°
Using Archie‟s equation in shaly sands results in very and 6° N and longitude 5° and 8°E (Figure 1).
high water saturation values and may lead to potential The Niger Delta is located geologically within 6 major
hydrocarbon bearing zones being missed. The way geologic features: Gulf of Guinea, West African shield,
shaliness affects log responses depends on the Benin hinge line, Anambra basin, Abakaliki fold belt, and
 Fozao et al. 3

the Calabar shield (Doust and Omatsola, 1990). (5)

where ϕdsh and ϕnsh are the corresponding porosity values in

adjacent shales.
METHODOLOGY
The following procedures were used to calculate the effective
porosity ϕe:
This work focuses on the interpretation of a composite geophysical
well log section, obtained in a well in one of the offshore oil fields of
1) If ϕnc>ϕdc, there is no gas crossover, then, effective porosity is
the Niger Delta Basin (Figure 1), to delineate productive formations,
calculated using Equation 6.
as well as evaluating the influence of shaliness on formation
petrophysical parameters. Three main tracks of this log section
⁄ (6)
(lithology track, resistivity track, and the neutron and density
porosity tracks) were analyzed.
2) If, ϕnc < ϕdc, there is gas crossover, then effective porosity is
The various lithologies through the log profile were deduced
calculated using Equation 7:
using the gamma ray log. This was achieved by setting a shale
baseline and sand base line. Any deflection that touches the shale
base line is that of a clean shale formation and any deflection on * + (7)
the sand line, is that of a clean sand formation. Intermediary
deflections were considered as deflections of complex lithology
formations. where ϕe is the numerical value of effective porosity after a cross
According to Schlumberger (1989), gas or light hydrocarbons plot of ϕdc and ϕnc.
cause the apparent porosity from the density log to increase The Archie equation (Equation 8), Simandoux (1963) model
(resulting from a decrease in bulk density), and the porosity from (Equation 9) and the Indonesian model (Poupon and Leveaux,
the neutron log to decrease. 1971) (Equation 10), were used to calculate water saturation (Sw)
The log section was digitized using Neuralog software. The and to estimate the shale effect on water saturation. The
software that was used to delineate the productive clean and dirty Simandoux and Indonesian models were used to correct for the
formations, as well as mapping the fluid contents, was Interactive presence of shale and its effects on water saturation as opposed to
Petrophysics software. The behavior of the gamma ray log in the Archie equation which is used for clean sands neglecting the
different lithologies as modelled by Paul (2018), was from the deep presence of shale and its effects on the water saturation.
and shallow resistivity logs (Dual Laterolog) of track 5, and
confirmed by the porosity logs of track 9 in the log profile. A cross √ (8)
over between the density and neutron log readings indicates the
presence of gas as confirmed by the high resistivity reading of gas
in the resistivity log. The presence of a liquid is observed when two where Rw = resistivity of the formation water; Rt = true formation
log readings come together or merge or do not cross over at all. resistivity; F = formation factor= a/ϕm. a= 1 for shale and 0.62 for
The resistivity log (Schlumberger, 1972) is then used to confirm sand, m= 2 for shale and 2.15 for sand, and n= 2.
whether it is oil or water.
The flow chart showing the sequence of procedures is illustrtated
[√ ( ) ] (9)
in the Appendix (Figure A). The following formulas were used for
the calculation of petrophysical parameters:
where C = 0.40 for sand and 0.45 for carbonate; Vsh = lowest of the
The gamma ray index, IGR was calculated using Equation 1 (Asquith various shale indicators; Rt = deep resistivity (corrected for
and Gibson, 1982). invasion); Rsh = deep resistivity reading in adjacent shale; ϕₑ =
effective porosity.
(1)

In this equation, GRmax, GRmin and GRlog, correspond to the [ ] (10)

√ √ √
maximum, minimum, and log read values of the gamma ray. The
Larionov equation (Larionov, 1969) for shale volume (Vsh)
calculation in Tertiary rocks was then used to derive the shale The permeability was calculated using Equation 11 (Tixier, 1949).
volume (Equation 2).
K =a * + (11)
(2)

To calculate the neutron, density and effective porosities, the where Swirr is the irreducible water saturation, a = 10000, b =
following formulas were used. The density porosity ( was 5.0625, and c = 2 from Schlumberger Chart K3; Ф (non-corrected
calculated using Equation 3. and corrected porosity) (Schlumberger, 1997, 2009).
The hydrocarbon saturation was calculated using Equation 12.
(3) Sh = 1 -Sw (12)

where ρma = 2.65 g/cc, ρw =1 g/cc, ρsh = 2.66 g/cc, ρg = 0.6 g/cc, ρoil (13)
= 0.8 g/cc, and ϕ= apparent porosity; ρma= matrix density; ρb= bulk
density; ρf=fluid density. where D = 0.02 to 0.1 from (Buckles, 1965).
The neutron porosity (ϕn) was read directly from the neutron log. In the absence of core data, the Thomas-Stieber model (Moradi
To correct for shale effects on porosity, the corrected neutron (ϕnc) et al., 2016; Thomas and Stieber, 1975; Dejtrakulwong et al., 2009)
and density (ϕdc) porosities were derived using Equations 4 and 5. was used to establish the clay/shale distribution (dispersed, laminar
and structural) within the zones of interest in the study area as
(4) illustrated in Figure 2.
4 J. Petroleum Gas Eng.

Figure 2. Thomas-Stieber model.

Source: Moradi et al. (2016), Thomas and Stieber (1975), and Dejtrakulwong et al. (2009).

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION of Short and Stauble (1967).

The lithological log section shows an intercalation of
The results from Interactive Petrophysics were exported thin sand and shale beds, as well as medium thick sands
as input into the Microsoft Excel sheet, and various plots and shales, with thick to very thick shale formations
of the petrophysical parameters, against volume of shale bellow the depth of 7526.44 ft (2294.059 m) (Figure 3a-
were made. The goal of this approach is to clearly c). The reservoirs are mainly saturated with natural gas
illustrate the changes in the values of the petrophysical and water, as proven by the high resistivity readings, ϕnc
parameters calculated, after shale corrections were and ϕdc values, the neutron-density cross separations and
made, and the variation of these parameters with the Sh and Sw values. The reservoirs with gas contents,
changes in the shale volume. are characterized by high resistivity values (deep
resistivity).

Fluid content and lithology deduction

Effects of reservoir shaliness on porosity
After using the outlined methods, twenty eight potential
reservoirs were identified, fifteen of which are shaly The influence of reservoir shaliness on effective porosity
sands (grey bed colors) (Figure 3a-c) and with shale was determined using Equations 6 and 7 for effective
volumes ranging from 10.77 to 25.09% and thirteen clean porosity calculations. Obtained values were plotted
sands (yellow bed colors) (Figure 3a-c), with shale against shale volume (Figure 4a and b). From Figure 4a,
volumes ranging from 3.42 to 10.05% (Figure 3a-c). The it can be seen that as the amount of shale (Vsh) changes
log section runs from a depth of 5764.44 to 8195.44 ft from a minimum value of 3.42 to 25.09% with a mean of
(1757 to 2498.97 m), with the maximum reservoir 12.62%, the uncorrected effective porosity (ϕe) changes
thickness of 75 ft (22.86 m) recorded for bed 64 with a from 21.99 to 29.34% with a mean of 24.98%, and the
depth of 6982.94 to 7057.94 ft (2128.4 to 2151.3 m), and corrected ϕe changes from 22.25 to 28.32% with a mean
minimum reservoir thickness of 12.25 ft (3.73 m) value of 25.42% (Figure 4b).
recorded for bed 80 with a depth of 8007.94 to 8028.94 ft From the log interpretation and calculations made, the
(2440.8 to 2447.2 m), as indicated. These alternating general trend of porosity (effective porosity), the
sand and shale units correspond to the Agbada Formation uncorrected effective porosity shows an increase with
 Fozao et al. 5

a
6 J. Petroleum Gas Eng.

b
 Fozao et al. 7

Figure 3. (a-c) Lithology and fluid modelling by well log interpretation, from 5764.44 to
8195.44 ft of depth through the log profile.
8 J. Petroleum Gas Eng.

a b

Figure 4. (a) Shale effect on uncorrected effective (ϕe) porosity, (b) Shale effect on corrected effective (ϕe)
porosity.

Figure 5. Influence of shale on water saturation.

increase in shale volumes (Figure 4a) with a positive Effect of reservoir shaliness on fluid (water and
2
regression coefficient (R ) of 0.61. The high values of ϕe, hydrocarbon) saturation
signify that the presence of shale in sandstone reservoirs,
overestimates the porosity, that is, it causes the logging The influence of reservoir shaliness on water saturation
tool to read higher porosities than are the porosities was determined using Equations 8, 9 and 10, for
available for storage and circulation. computing the Archie, Simandoux, and Indonesian water
The corrected effective porosity shows a small increase saturations, respectively (Sw-Arch, Sw-Sim and Sw-Ind),
with an increase in shale volumes (Figure 4b) with a after which obtained values wereplotted against shale
2
positive regression coefficient (R ) of 0.179 which is volume (Figure 5). From Figure 5, it can be seen that as
negligible. This shows that the more the shale volume, the amount of shale (Vsh) changes, the Archie water
the higher the uncertainty of actual porosity of the saturation changes from 0.100 to 0.420 with a mean of
reservoir, which will affect the reservoir productivity 0.170, the Indonesian water saturation changes from
potential. 0.092 to 0.350 with a mean of 0.160, and the Simandoux
 Fozao et al. 9

Figure 6. Influence of shale on hydrocarbon saturation.

water saturation changes from 0.089 to 0.340 with a Shale distribution

mean value of 0.140.
The results show hydrocarbon saturations of the 0.580 The distribution of shale is mainly structural with few
to 0.900 with a mean of 0.830 for Archie; 0.650 to 0.908 dispersed and laminated shales (Figure 8)
with a mean of 0.840 for Indonesian, and 0.650 to 0.911
with a mean value of 0.840 for Simandoux (Figure 6).
Results of hydrocarbon saturation (S h), show a DISCUSSION
decreasing but relatively constant trend with increasing
shale volume for all the three models: Archie model (S h- The interpretation of shaly-sands log data has long been
Arch,), Indonesian (Sh-Ind) and Simandoux model (Sh- a challenge. As a result, there are more than 30 shaly-
Sim) (Figure 6). However, the values of hydrocarbon sand interpretation models, which have been developed
saturation increase simultaneously from Archie, to in the last 50 years. Interpretation difficulties arise
Indonesian, and then to Simandoux model at a given whenever the portions of clay minerals in a shaly-sand
values of shale volume (Figure 6). formation are high (Adeoti et al., 2015). This study
employed 3 of those models, namely; complex lithology
model for porosity correction, and the Indonesian, and
Effect of reservoir shaliness on permeability Simandoux models for shale corrections of formation
water saturation.
The influence of reservoir shaliness on permeability was According to Bijan et al. (2010), an economical
determined using Equation 11 for computing the reservoir has cut off values of k = 1.0 mD for lower cut off
permeabilities. Values for Ф were substituted in Equation value, φ= 10-12.5% for lower cut off value, Sw = 50-60%
11 to obtain the estimated permeabilities corrected for for upper cut off value, and Vsh = 27- 50% for upper cut
shale and shale-non-corrected permeabilities, respectively off value. Results of this work after correction show,
(K-C and K-NC). Obtained values were plotted against effective porosities ranging averagely from 22.25 to
shale volume (Figure 7). From Figure 7, it can be seen 28.32%, which according to Ulasi et al. (2012), are very
that as the amount of shale (Vsh) changes, the shale non- good values. Permeability ranges from 1487.442 to
corrected permeability changes from 1487.442 to 8881.697 mD, Vsh values ranges from 3.42 to 25.09%,
8881.697 mD with a mean of 3660.76 mD; the shale and Sw values range from 8 to 34%, thus pointing to
corrected permeability changes from 1568.532 to economic reservoir, if proper cost effective exploration
7451.592 mD with a mean of 3900.466 mD. and exploitation techniques are applied.
10 J. Petroleum Gas Eng.

Figure 7. Influence of shale on permeability.

Figure 8. Thomas-Stieber model (modified from Moradi et al., 2016). Shale distributiom from a neutron
porosity-density porosity cross plot. Most of the points plot in the zone labeled “S” which corresponds to
structural shale. However, with few dispersed and laminated shales. Some few points are subjected to
„gas effect‟. Where A = dispersed + laminated, B = laminated + Structural, D = dispersed, L = laminated
and S = structural.
 Fozao et al. 11

Porosity trends developed for clean rocks, and it does not account for the
extra conductivity caused by the clay present in shaly
Results of this work show an increase in effective sands. Therefore, Archie‟s equation would not provide
porosity (uncorrected), with increase shale volume. This accurate water saturation in shaly sands.
increase in porosity with increase in shale volume, can be Using Archie‟s equation in shaly sands results in very
accounted for by the fact that shales has its own porosity, high water saturation, thus the Simandoux and
and add to the sand porosity in the reservoir. This result Indonesian model were used in this work to correct for
does not agree with that of Adeoti et al. (2015), which the high water saturation values. The log derived
shows a decrease in effective porosity against increase in formation water saturation shows decreasing values from
shale volume, but agrees with the results obtained by Archie‟s model to Indonesian model, and then to
Alao et al. (2013), which reiterated that effective porosity Simandoux model. From the results, the Simandoux
after shale correction is lower than the log derived model also shows higher values of hydrocarbon
porosity. According to Kurniawan (2002), clay minerals saturation. These results agree with that of Adeoti et al.
can cause the log-derived porosity values to be too high (2015), which concluded that, the Simandoux and
because of the limitation of density tool calibration Indonesian models provide favorable petrophysical
whenever clay minerals are present; and because the parameters indicating higher hydrocarbon potential than
high concentration of hydrogen ion in clays translate to a Archie model. This implies that the Simandoux and
higher calculated porosity in neutron log tools. This thus Indonesian model could be valuable tools in shaly sand
could account for the reason why effective porosities environments.
(shale corrected porosities), are lower than the effective
porosities derived from the logs.
The values for effective porosity obtained in this work, Shale distribution
range averagely from 22.25 to 28.32%, and are very
high. These results agree with conclusions made by Using the Thomas-Stieber model, the distribution of shale
Selley and Morrill (1983) and Egeh et al. (2001) which appears to be mainly structural with few dispersed and
concluded that, almost all reservoirs have porosity in a laminated shales. Some few points are subjected to „gas
range of 5 to 30%. effect‟. The presence of structural shales increases the
porosity of the reservoirs with increase in shale volume.
In fact, structural shale are present as grains within the
Permeability sand, which are similar to the findings of Thomas and
Steiber (1975) and Mæland (2014) where the effective
In a large number of studies on oil drilling, the existence porosity in shaly sand are greater compared to those in
of a positive correlation between permeability and clean sand.
porosity is identified (Nelson, 1994; Ehrenberg et al.,
2006). The effect of shale on porosity is directly
proportional to shale effect on permeability. Because of Conclusion
the intrinsic low permeability of shales, their presence in
the reservoir reduce the connectivity between pores. It can be concluded that shales in a reservoir formation is
Thus, an increase in shale volume reduces permeability like scales in the human observation. In fact, shales can
in a reservoir. cause complications in interpretation for the petrophysicist
because of their general conductivity and low
permeability. As a result, the high resistance
Fluid saturation characteristics of hydrocarbons may be masked, leading
to potential hydrocarbon zones being missed out.
During water saturation interpretation, difficulties arise After proper log analysis and interpretation, 28 potential
whenever the portions of clay minerals in a shaly-sand reservoir zones (with 15 shaly and 13 clean) were
formation are high. These clay minerals contribute to an identified. The stratigraphic unit from where the log data
increase of the overall conductivity. In large quantities, was derived is mainly composed of an intercalation of
their conductivity becomes as important as the shales and sandstones corresponding to the Agbada
conductivity of the formation water (Kurniawan, 2002). An Formation of Short and Stauble (1967). Utility and
increase in formation conductivity due to the presence of analysis of the shaly sand correction methods, point to
shale in a reservoir reduces the formation true the conclusion that the complex lithology model is
resistivities (Rt) and thus causes the derived water suitable for shale corrections of the reservoir porosity and
saturations (Sw) to be seemingly higher, since water permeability in the Niger delta, while the Simandoux and
saturation and formation true resistivity have inverse Indonesian models are both suitable for shale corrections
relations. of fluid saturations.
According to Alao et al. (2013), Archie‟s equation was Generally, results of this work indicate that the effective
12 J. Petroleum Gas Eng.

porosity and saturation of formation water increases with Moradi S, Moeini M, Ghassem Al-Askari MK, Mahvelati EH (2016).
Determination of Shale Volume and Distribution Patterns and
increase in shale volume while, hydrocarbon saturation,
Effective Porosity from Well Log Data Based On Cross-Plot Approach
and permeability decrease with increase in shale volume. for A Shaly Carbonate Gas Reservoir. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and
Environmental Science 44:042002 http://doi:10.1088/1755-
1315/44/4/042002.
Nelson PH (1994). Permeability-Porosity Relationships in sedimentary
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
rocks. The Log Analyst 35:38-62.
Nwachukwu JI, Chukwurah PI (1986). Organic matter of Agbada
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. Formation, Niger Delta, Nigeria. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin 70:48-55.
Paul G (2018). Formation evaluation. Unpublished petrophysics Msc
course Notes, University of Aberdeen, UK.,
REFERENCES
https://www.scribd.com/doc/110298097/Petrophysics-P-glover-1,
(Accessed 08-06-2018).
Adeoti L, Ojo AA, Olatinsu OB, Fasakin OO, Adesanya OY (2015).
Poupon A, Leveaux J (1971). Evaluation of Water Saturation in Shaly
Comparative Analysis Of Hydrocarbon Potential In Shaly Sand
Formations, Trans. SPWLA 12th Annual Logging Symposium pp. 1-2.
Reservoirs Using Archie And Simandoux Models: A Case Study Of
Selley RC, Morrill DC (1983). The Reservoir, International human
“X” Field, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science 17:15-29.
resources development corporation, USA.
Agyingi CM, Agagu OK, Fozao KF, Njoh OA, Ngalla N (2013).
Schlumberger (1972). Log Interpretation, Volume I-Principles. 1972
Depositional patterns and hydrocarbon occurrence in middle to upper
Edition, Schlumberger limited, 277 Park Avenue, New York, NY.
Miocene strata in part of the western Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria.
10017, pp. 43-58.
Journal of African Earth Sciences 80:21-30.
Schlumberger (1989). Log Interpretation, Principles and Applications.
Aigbedion JA, Iyayi SE (2007). Formation evaluation of Oshioka field,
Seventh printing. March 1998 © Schlumberger 1991, Schlumberger
using geophysical well logs, Middle-east Journal of Scientific
Wire line &Testing 225 Schlumberger Drive Sugar Land, Texas,
Research 2:107-110.
77478.
Alao PA, Ata AI, Nwoke CE (2013). Subsurface and Petrophysical
Schlumberger (1997). Log Interpretation Charts, Chart K 3, 1997
Studies of Shaly-Sand Reservoir Targets in Apete Field, Niger Delta,
Edition, Schlumberger wireline and Testing, P.O. Box 2175, Houston,
ISRN Geophysics, Article ID 102450.
Texas 77252-2175, pp. 4-39.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/102450.
Schlumberger (2009). Log Interpretation Charts, 2009 Edition. 225
Asquith G, Gibson C (1982). Basic Well Log Analysis and for
Schlumberger Drive, Sugar Land, Texas 77478, pp. 268-270.
Geologists. AAPG, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Short KC, Stauble AJ (1967). Outline of Geology of Niger Delta.
Bijan M, Mehdi N, Hadi S, Yaser M (2010). Optimization of reservoir
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51:761-799.
cut-off determination: a case study in SW Iran. Petroleum
Simandoux P (1963). Dielectric Measurements in Porous Media and
Geoscience 17:355-363.
Application to Shaly Formation, Revue del‟Institut Francais du
Buckles RS (1965). Correlating and averaging connate water saturation
Petrole, Supplementary Issue, pp. 193-215, (Translated text in
data. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 9(1):42-52.
SPWLA Reprint Volume Shaly Sand, July 1982).
Dejtrakulwong P, Mukerji T, Mavko G (2009). Investigating Thomas-
Stat Oil Research Group (2003). Geological Reservoir Characterization.
Stieber model for property estimation of thin-bedded shaly-sand
Research and Technology Memoir 4.
reservoirs, SEG Houston 2009 International Exposition and Annual
Thomas EC, Stieber SJ (1975). The distribution of shale in sandstones
Meeting, http://library.seg.org/
and its effect upon porosity: 16th Annual Logging Symposium,
Doust H (1990). Petroleum geology of the Niger Delta. Geological
SPWLA, Paper T.
Society, London, Special Publications 50:365-365.
Tixier MP (1949). Evaluation of permeability from electric log resistivity
Doust H, Omatsola E (1990). Niger delta, in Divergent/Passive Margin
gradients. The Oil and Gas Journal 16:113-133.
Basins, J. D. Edwards and P. A. Santogrossi, Eds., AAPG memoire,
Toby D (2005). Well Logging and Formation Evaluation, Elsevier, Gulf
Tulsa. 48:239-248.
Professional Publishing, USA.
Egeh EU, Okereke CS, Olagundoye OO (2001). Porosity and
Ulasi I, Onyekuru O, Iwuagwu CJ (2012). Petrophysical Evaluation of
compaction trend in Okan field (Western Niger Delta) based on well
Uzek Well using Well Log and Core Data, Offshore Depobelt, Niger
log data. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 7:91-96.
Delta, Nigeria. Advances in Applied Science Research 3:1-26.
Ehrenberg SN, Eberli GP, Keramati M, Moallemi A (2006). Porosity-
permeability relationships in interlayered limestone dolostone
reservoirs. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin
90:91-114.
Evamy DD, Haremboure J, Kamerling P, Knaap WA, Molloy FA,
Rowlands PH (1978). Hydrocarbon habitat of Tertiary Niger Delta.
AAPG Bulletin 62:1-39.
Hamada GM (1999). An Integrated Approach to Determine Shale
Volume and Hydrocarbon Potential in Shaly Sand, Proceedings of
the SPWLA held in Houston, Texas, May-June, 1-25.
Kulke H (1995). Regional Petroleum Geology of the World. Part II:
Africa, America, Australia and Antarctica: Berlin, Gebruder
Borntraeger. pp. 143-172.
Kurniawan T (2002). Evaluation of the Hydrocarbon Potential in Low-
Salinity Shaly Sand. Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Louisiana,
Unpublished Ph.D thesis.
Larionov VV (1969). Borehole Radiometry, National Electric Drag
Racing Association, Moscow, Soviet Union.
Mæland AO (2014). Shaly Sand Petrophysics and its Impact on Full
Field Reservoir Simulation Norwegian, Master Thesis Department of
Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics, University of
Science and Technology.
 Fozao et al. 13

Appendix

Log section digitization: Neurolog software

Delineation of clean and shaly sands, and mapping of

fluid contents: Interactive Petrophysics software

Volume of shale: Equations 1 and 2

Density porosity: Equation 3

Neutron porosity: from the log

Influence of shale on Density porosity, ϕdc: Equation 4

Influence of shale on Neutron porosity, ϕnc: Equation 5

Effective porosity: Yes No Effective porosity:

ϕnc>ϕdc
Equation 6 Equation 7

Water saturation from different models: Permeability determination:

- Archie equation for clean reservoirs (Equation 8) - Irreducible water saturation: Equation 13
- Simandoux model for shaly sand (Equation 9) - Permeability: Equation 11
- Indonesian model for shaly sand (Equation 10)

Hydrocarbon saturation: Equation 12

Figure A. The flow chart showing the sequence of procedures.