GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN

ANCIENT TIMES

Overview
For thousand years ago, mankind had assumed that the world
around them, the Sun, the Moon and the Stars, were Gods and
spirits. Believing they were recording messages from their Gods,
ancient civilization such as the Babylonians, had gathered great
catalogues of astronomical data. The detailed astronomical
calendar from Babylon records the rising and falling of the
Life & Works of
constellations and the gods they represented. This knowledge and Pre-Socratic
study of the heavens have been slowly spreading across the Philosophers
ancient world until it reached the Greek colonies on the coast
Miletus-in modern day is known as Turkey. There’s a chattering
change occurred. The Greeks took this astronomical knowledge Life & Works of
and transformed it; they took the Gods out of heavens and Socrates, Plato &
replaced them with reason. Gradually the Greeks begin to say, Aristotle
these are not persons, these are things. There’s an orderly world
which the human mind can actually capture; it is subject to our
understanding. These Greeks began to calculate and predict the Inventions in
movement of the moon and stars through mathematics and logic Ancient Times
rather than using gods and spirits to explain everything. It was then
the birth of ancient Greek Science.
Impact of
Objectives Ancient
Technology to
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to Society

➡ describe how the pre-socratic philosophers viewed the origin

of everything in the universe,
Self-assessment
➡ explain the philosophy and theory formulated by Socrates, Test
Plato and Aristotle about the natural world,

➡ learn how the inventions of the ancient Greeks works, and

➡ discuss the impact of ancient technology in the Greeks’

society, then and now.

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Lecture Notes
The Greeks began to calculate and predict the movement of the moon and stars through
mathematics and logic rather than using gods and spirits to explain everything. It was then
the birth of ancient Greek Science. The ancient Greek science is about the attempts to explain
and understand the natural world, which would include how things are made of, how the
world began if it did began or if it all has always been here.

Pre-Socratic Philosophers humans originated from a single

substance, which could be water, air, or an
The views of the rst thinkers of antiquity,
unlimited substance called “apeiron.” They
also known as the pre-Socratic
attempted to extract all possible
philosophers from Miletus, opened new
conclusions from the observation of nature
paths for the study of nature using human
by using mainly their logic. They
logic. They emerged the rational thoughts
pioneered the unifying approach for the
from the con nes of mythology. The pre-
physical world, assuming one element as
Socratic philosophers mostly investigated
the basis for everything in the Universe.
natural phenomena. They believed that

Thales
Miletus
624-546 BC
Founder of Ionian school
Theoretician of geometry
Stated that the origin of all matter (arché) is water.
Also believed that the Earth rests on water.
First predicted the solar eclipse before it happened (May 28, 585 BC).

Thales, the rst Greek philosopher and was the title given by Greek tradition to
father of Western philosophy, was born in seven wise ancient Greek men who were
the city of Miletus, an ancient Greek Ionian philosophers, statesmen and law-givers.
city on the western coast of Asia Minor in The Seven Sages are known for their
today’s Turkey. His father was Examyes and practical wisdom which "consisted of short
his mother was Cleobuline. According to and memorable pronouncement”. For
some sources, Thales was married and had example, Thales said “To bring surety
a son named Cybisthus but according to brings ruin." This saying was interpreted
others, he never married and adopted his by Diogenes Laertius (biographer of
nephew Cybisthus. He died at the age of ancient Greeks philosophers) as “Beware
78.He was recognized as one of the Seven of committing yourself to false opinion” or
Sages of Greece; Seven Sages of Greece “Beware of false certainty”.

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Thales main contribution lies in trying to (rule #2) form by itself; it can evaporate
provide scienti c explanation behind even no one
worldly phenomenon that had been heat up the
previously explained by mythological water. For
beliefs. His biggest questions about the instance, if you
universe were “ What is the universe made let a glass of
of”? and “ What is the arché of water to stand
everything”? According to him, the on top of the
following are the rules in nding arché; table for quite
some time, you
1. It has to explain existence. This will notice that
means to say that an arche can the level of water
explain why anything exists and had decreases; this is
to have a cause and ground for its evident that Thales believed that water
existence, water can can change form by itself.
change its form
2. It has to explain change. In other by itself. Furthermore, water can freeze or
words, an arché had to be a cause of condensate by itself, too, which also shows
change, that water has the capacity to change its
form by itself. Therefore, we could say that
anything in the universe that change into
3. It had to explain motion. This means
solid, liquid or gas is made of water.
that an arché can explain the change
in place of things, and
Since water can move by itself, just like in a
river, and it can cause motion as well-
4. It has to explain life. Life of things
stones, pebbles, fallen leaves or even
had to be explained by arché.
boats can be displaced by water in a river-

And Thales believed that the “arche” of

everything is water; arché means origin.
Thales believed that life begins from and
requires water. But why water? Simply
because water can explain existence (rule
#1). Since everything in the universe come
in the form of solid, liquid, and gas and
water occurs naturally in all these forms
(ice-solid; water-liquid; mist-gaseous),
then a stone (solid) contains water that’s then water can explain the change in
why it exists. Likewise, rain (liquid) exists position of objects in the universe; hence,
because it is made of water; and, there is water is the origin or arché of everything
fog (gaseous) after the rain because fog because water can cause/explain motion
also is made and contains water. In (rule #3) of things that move even without
addition, Thales believed that arché is external force applied on it. In other
water because water can explain change words, the owing water in a river made

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the river to exist in the universe; hence, if believed that when Poseidon (the god of
water is not owing or moving by itself in a the sea) strike his trident on the ground it
river, then the river will not exist at all. Did triggered earthquakes. In contrast to this
you get it? If you have any question for belief, Thales explained, more rationally,
clari cation, just send your queries through that because the earth is oating in an
email or text/private messaging. expanse of water, earthquakes occurs
when the water becomes turbulent.
Based from Thales’ belief that for a
substance to become an arché, it has to
explain life (rule #4). Such idea can explain
the existence of living things like plants,
and animals including human beings; that
is, they were originated and made from
water that’s why they exist in the universe.
Thales believed that the Earth is a flat disc that floats
Remember that plants need water to grow
in water.
and stay alive. Similarly, animals need fresh
water for their bodies to function. Actually,
Thales is also acclaimed for having
water is vital in the regulation of body
predicted an eclipse of the sun that
temperature, nutrient uptake, removing
occurred on 28 May 585 B.C.E. During this
wastes, body weight, and health. Losing
time, the soldiers of Lydia, now Turkey, and
one tenth of the body’s water can results in
Medes (ancient Iranian people) were
death as the body will shut down. In other
engaged in battle when the sky suddenly
turned dark and the entire battle eld and
the surrounding countryside were
plunged into darkness. The men on both
sides of the front line were frightened and
surprised. They stood in shock during the
duration of the eclipse, which lasted only a
few minutes. When the moon moved from
in front of the Sun and the daylight
returned to the land, the scared soldiers
Living things were originated from water and require threw down their weapons and declared
water to stay alive, according to the idea of Thales
about arche .

words, life does not exists without water;

eventually, things that did not exist has no
water at all. Again, Thales believed that
arché is water because it can explain
existence, change, motion and life.

The ancient people attributed the divine

fury behind earthquakes where they The eclipse of the sun predicted by Thales on May 28
585 BCE ended the war between the Lydians and
Medes.
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an end to the war. A cease re between However, what is certain is that the
them soon followed. The accuracy of celestial event was frightening and
Thales’ prediction of the eclipse will astonishing enough to end years of
remain a subject for debate because did ghting between the Lydians and the
not have the scienti c instruments needed Medes. 
to calculate an eclipse, accurately.

Anaximander
Miletus
610 - 546 BC
Rejected Thale’s claim that this arché is water.

Believed that arché is unlimited, boundless, in nite and non-

perceptible substance.

Claimed that the origin of everything in the universe is a mixture

of two pairs of opposites-apeiron.

First cartographer.

Anaximander was born in 610 BC in the global representation of the known world
Ancient Greek city of Miletus (now in to increase knowledge for himself and his
Turkey). His father’s name was Praxiades. peers. 
His mother’s name is not known. Little is
known about his early life but it is believed Anaximander believed that the inhabited
that he was a student of the Greek portion of the Earth was at and it was
philosopher Thales of Miletus. made up of
the top face
Anaximander contributed to the of a cylinder
development of early geography and where the
cartography-the science of drawing maps. diameter is
In fact, he was credited in designing the three times
rst published map. It is believed that the height
Anaximander created this map for a of cylinder.
The idea of Anaximander about the
several reasons. One of which was to He also shape of the Earth.
improve navigation between the colonies stated that
of Miletus and other colonies around the the Earth’s
Mediterranean and Black seas. Another position was not supported by anything
reason was to show the known world to and it simply remained in place because it
other colonies in an attempt to make them was equidistant from all other things.
want to join the Ionian city-states. And
lastly, Anaximander wanted to show a

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In addition to the structure of the Earth the vent or opening was. The different
itself, Anaximander was also interested in phases of the moon and eclipses were a
the structure of the cosmos, the origin of result of the vents closing.
the world and evolution. He believed that
Anaximander rejected the idea of Thales
the sun, moon and stars were not objects
that arché is water and believed that the
but hollow rings lled with re, which is
source or origin (arché) of everything is
covered with thick and dark clouds. In the
apeiron, which means boundless or
cosmological model he proposed, the
unlimited. According to his theory, the
rings were hidden from view except
apeiron is unde ned and ever moving. It
through vents or holes and stars were
also gave the idea that apeiron is a mixture
the light of this re that could be seen
of two opposites like warm and cold, and
through the openings. This model could
moist and dry. Relative to these opposites,
also explain the phases of the Moon; its
Anaximander posits the following picture:
phase depended on how wide or narrow
The Unbounded (apeiron) moves with
eternal motion (because it is alive,
remember Thales’ principle about life
and motion). As the Unbounded moves,
something separate from it and from
this something, in turn, hot and cold
separate off. Hot becomes re, which
then form the sun and other heavenly
bodies. Cold becomes dark mist which
Anaximander’s model of the Universe. The Sun, the then forms earth and air, both of which
Moon and each of the stars is actually a transparent originally moist but are dried off by re.
ring – or hoop – made of air. Each ring is filled with
fire which we can only see when the hole in that
particular ring passes over us.

Anaximenes
Miletus
585-528 BC

Considered that air was the origin of everything in the

universe and the earth is a broad at disc oating on the
circumambient air.

Explained that thunder and lightning result from wind

breaking out of clouds.

Distinguished clearly between  planets and stars.

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Almost nothing is known of Anaximenes’ meant that air would become thinner; the
life except, as noted, that he was the son most rare ed alteration of air would be
of Eurystratos of Miletus and re. In condensation, Anaximenes meant
contemporary and a student of that air would become more concentrated,
Anaximander. The events of his life may be becoming water and then eventually solid
unknown but the effects of his theory on materials like stone. It's not exactly clear
air as arché of everything in the universe how this process occurred, but we know
were wide-reaching. Differing from Thales, that Anaximenes thought air was
who claimed water was the source of all constantly in motion, and somehow this
things, or Anaximander, who cited 'the motion resulted in rarefaction or
boundless in nite’, Anaximenes believed condensation.
air was the arché, meaning that air is an
Remember the rules in nding arché
eternal, original substance from which the
according to Thales? That is, arché can
physical universe was formed. We may ask,
explain existence, change, motion and life.
'But why air?' Well, Anaximenes used
Let’s nd out whether air could be an
scienti c reasoning to observe that living
arché. As mentioned earlier, Anaximenes
things needed to breathe air in order to
explained that air became other physical
survive. Therefore, Anaximenes concluded
things by rarefaction and condensation;
that air must be the original source of life
and eventually when air is rare ed it turns
and all physical things.
to re and when condensed it turns to
According to wind, wind to cloud, cloud to water, water
Anaximenes, to earth and earth to stone. So, this is
air became evident that because these physical things
other have air, they exist; moreover, air is
physical capable to change through rarefaction
things by and condensation. Furthermore, in
altering its
state and
texture
through a
Air as an arché become other process
physical things by rarefaction or called
condensation
rarefaction or
condensation.
Using these contrary processes of
rarefaction and condensation, Anaximenes
explained how air is part of a series of
changes. Fire turns to air, air to wind, wind
Air differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or
to cloud, cloud to water, water to earth and
density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while
earth to stone. Matter can travel this path when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud,
by being condensed, or the reverse path when still more condensed it becomes water, then
from stones to re by being successively earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these
more rare ed. In rarefaction, Anaximenes

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rarefaction, particles move farther apart thunder and lightning result from wind
from each other while closer during the
condensation process; therefore air is
moving. Lastly, air was comparable to soul
and, just as one's breath gave an
individual life, so air, Anaximenes claimed,
gave life to all observable phenomena.

According to Anaximenes, the earth is a

broad disk, oating on a cushion of air. air.
The sun and stars, he held, were formed
by the same processes of condensation breaking out of clouds, rainbows are the
and rarefaction, and the aming nature of result of the rays of sun falling on clouds,
these bodies is merely due to the velocity earthquakes are caused by the cracking of
of their motions. He also used his earth when it dries out after being
principles to account for various natural moistened by rains. He gives an essentially
phenomena such as the following; correct account of hail as frozen rainwater.

Heraclitus
Ephesus Believed that re gave rise to all
things and everything is in ux.
535 - 475 BC

Most enigmatic among the pre- Considered the human soul to

Socratics and known as be composed of re and water—
the "Weeping Philosopher” re being the noble part and
water the ignoble.

Heraclitus was the son of Herakon, a by a general contempt for mankind which
descendant of Androclus, the founder of a coupled with the obscure nature of his
great Ionian dynasty of that period, which works earned him the nickname the
ruled the region. Born into an aristocratic “Weeping Philosopher” or Mournful
family, he described himself as self-taught Thinker”. He was also known to his
and was ruthless in his criticism of his contemporaries as the “dark” philosopher,
predecessors and contemporary thinkers so-called because his writings were so
and philosophers. He was a loner who dif cult to understand.
suffered from melancholia for a period of
He believed in the universal ux, i.e.
time, which prevented him from
everything is constantly changing, and in
completing several of his works. As a
unity of opposites as suggested by his
youngster, he used to play knucklebones
saying such as, “The way up and the way
with other youths in a temple and
down are one and the same. Living and
considered kingship duties a burden. He
dead, waking and sleeping, young and
abdicated the throne in favor of his
old, are the same.” These things are the
brother. His personality was characterized
“same” in that they are all subject to

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change, arise from one change to vanish having constantly shifting water that the
into another and all things, constantly, are river exists as a river rather than a pond or
in ux and are, in that regard, the same. a lake. Similarly, the universe remains
Heraclitus saw change as the only constant harmoniously stable even as the elements
in the world. within undergo constant transformation,
and it is only by virtue of these constant
He is often quoted as saying that
changes that our universe exists in the way
“one cannot step twice into the same
that it does.
river”. This statement is an analogy for his
belief that everything is constantly Heraclitus noted that society is similar to a
changing. What he was really suggesting river in that it constantly changes. This is
is that rivers can stay the same over also true of interpersonal relationships as
time even though the waters in it change. these change based on the history
This idea, that the water and life within a between two people. Just as no two
river are always changing, even if the river situations are exactly the same, each
looks the same, can be applied to life in situation is different based on what
general. People are never the same, happened before. Heraclitus wants others
changing in some way from our day-to-day to know that each interaction one has in
experiences, and same with society.  society has implications for the future.

This statement from the Greek According to Heraclitus, re was the most
philosopher Heraclitus means that the basic element and
world constantly changes and that no two all other elements
situations are exactly the same. Just as originated from re,
water ows in a river, one cannot touch the thus, it is re that
exact same water twice when one steps gave rise to all
into a river. The water one touched things. But why did
previously will be downstream while one Heraclitus believed
steps in water from up the stream. This that re is the origin
water may or may not have been touched of all things in the
by someone else. This is not to say that the universe? Actually,
river insofar as it is a river has changed. It Heraclitus used
is the elements that make up the river that many analogies and word pictures to
have shifted. In fact, it is only by virtue of explain his views and he does not mean to
say that all things literally come from re.
Instead, this world order, much like re, is
constantly changing, transforming
eternally. He sees the universe as being
involved in a continual change. Everything
is born by the death of something else
like, ame in a re. "For soul’s (identi ed
for re) death is the birth of water, for
water’s death is the birth of earth, from
Heraclitus said, “We can never step in the same river
twice.” earth water is born , from water is soul”.

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Parmenides
Elea
515-450 BC

Believed that change is impossible. According to him, everything

that exist is permanent, ungenerated and indestructible.

Coming-into-existence or ceasing-to-exist are likewise impossible,

according to him.

Heraclitus found change itself to be the that the arché is what the Miletians (Thales,
only thing that was permanent. Now Anaximander, Anaximenes) thought it was.
comes Parmenides — a turning point in the This also make it unthinkable to speak of
history of western philosophy - for he time because the only way we even
denies the reality of change. For understand what time is has to do with
Parmenides, change is impossible. The how things move and change. So,
idea of change is incoherent. And it is not whatever is has always been and and will
the only surprising conclusion Parmenides always be never changing, never
draws; he also holds that there is no improving, never deteriorating but always
coming into existence, or ceasing to exist. perfect and complete.
According to Parmenides, everything that
But what about everything that I see and
exists is permanent, ungenerated,
that is moving, what is that? All of that is an
indestructible, and unchanging.
illusion; nothing you see or hear is really
He argued as follows:  what is out there. Imagine trying to see
something that is not there to be seen. It is
Whatever is, is
impossible. We cannot see what is not
Whatever is, must be there to be seen, so why should we be
What is not, is not able to refer to what is not there to be
What is not ,cannot exist. referred to? If something does not exist, in
other words, we cannot think about it and
As a philosopher, Parmenides think only
we cannot speak about it.
about what is, not what is not. What is
cannot be destroyed nor cannot come into The "no-longer" and the "not-yet" are
existence; because if something comes therefore variants of "what-is-not", and so
into existence, where did it comes from? the past and future do not exist either.
And if is destroyed, where does it go? Then, change is impossible.
Nowhere; this new particle of arché that
just came into being, it came into being What is cannot
from nothing, truly nothing. How can that move or grow or
generate something? That is impossible. shrink and it
cannot change
Therefore, what is cannot move or grow
because what is
or shrink and it cannot change. All of these is alway perfect
things are impossible if you really believe and complete.

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Focus Question #5: If you agree with Heraclitus’ idea that “everything is constantly
changing” and “in unity of opposites”, prove it by means of pictures (at least 3 or 4) w/
caption. Each picture should compliment the other. Go to Google Classroom for further
instructions.

Anaxagoras
Ionia
500-428 BC
Explained the scienti c reasons behind natural phenomena such as
eclipses, rainbows and meteors.

Stated that the moon re ects the sun’s light.

Claimed that the sun was a mass of red-hot metal. 

Believed that there are mountains on the surface of the moon and that
it was inhabited.

Like other Pre-Socratic philosophers of his (a) There is no becoming and no passing-
time, Anaxagoras chose to interpret the away. In other words, these fundamental
world through a lens of science, substances have always existed. Nothing
observation, and logic instead of through can be created from nothing and likewise,
traditional Greek mythology. And because nothing out of existence. For example,
of this rejection of traditional Greek when people die, they do not truly cease to
mythology, Anaxagoras was convicted of exist. Instead, the fundamental substances
atheism (not believing in the existence of that composed them simply separate.
gods) and exiled from Athens in the 430s.
(b) Everything is in everything. This
The Pre-Socratic philosophers observed principle means that all of these
that the world is made up of very diverse fundamental substances are inseparable.
objects, and they all attempted to develop Therefore, we can never nd one of these
theories that explained this diversity. fundamental substances in its purity; all of
Anaxagoras theorized that there are the other fundamental substances are
numerous (perhaps in nite) fundamental, always present. For example, a dog is made
physical substances that combine in unique up of the exact same fundamental
ways to construct this diversity we see. substances as both a human and a chair. It's
These fundamental substances act like just that the ratio of these fundamental
ingredients that were combined in certain substances differs in each object or being.
ratios to produce different things (like trees, This is an odd concept, so consider this
furniture, ball, etc.) or beings (like human, analogy: smear together red, green, blue,
animals) on Earth. Anaxagoras insisted on a and yellow paint. Once you smear these
few main principles when it comes to these colors together, you can never truly
fundamental substances: separate them again. The colors literally
seem to be in one another.

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(c) The principle of predominance states

that a thing's appearance is determined by
whatever fundamental substance(s)
dominate that thing's makeup. To go back
to our smeared paint example, if you add
more green paint, what you see may look
totally green to you because the green
predominates over the other colors. But
remember that remnants of the other
colors will always be there, even if they are
in nitesimally small, because, after all,
Anaxagoras explained the scientific reason behind
nothing can go out of existence.
natural phenomena such as solar eclipse.

Anaxagoras also gave a number of novel

scienti c accounts of natural phenomena. Furthermore, he believed that the moon
He produced a correct explanation for has dwelling places, hills and ravines. 
eclipses and described the sun as a
When he was about 33, a meteorite big
brightly glowing rock larger than the
enough to ll a wagon landed in broad
Peloponnese (the mountainous southern
daylight near the town of Aegispotami.
peninsula of Greece)  and the stars were
Anaxagoras claimed that it had come from
other suns lying at such a distance that they
the Sun. To him, there was no dif culty in
appeared to give out no heat. He also put
thinking about the Sun and Moon as
forward the theory that the rainbow is a
sizable, physical objects rather than as
re ection of the sun in the clouds.
deities.

Empedocles
Italy
495-435 BC
Believed that the world is composed of the four primary elements, Earth,
water, wind and re.

Claimed that the world came into being and is maintained by the mixing
of the four primary elements as they come together and are separated by
the processes of Love and Strife.

Empedocles lived 2500 years ago, soon was also Empedocles, kept racehorses. His
after the dawn of scienti c thought in father, Meton, was an Olympic Champion.
Ancient Greece. He was born in Acragas,
on the island of Sicily, which was then part He was a vegetarian because he believed
of Ancient Greece. Acragas was a human souls could inhabit animals’ bodies,
magni cent city, culturally and nancially so it would be murderous and even
rich. Empedocles’ family was well-known cannibalistic to kill and eat any animal. This
and wealthy. His grandfather, whose name was a typical Pythagorean belief.

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Empedocles probably could not square the elements. Moreover, in Empedocles’

idea of a single element world with his own thought, these four elements interact
observations, and therefore he increased continually under the in uence of Love and
the number of Strife. The power of Love, for instance,
elements. He functions rst by bringing together “like”
described air, together with “like,” (earth to earth, re to
re, water, re, e.g.), but also integrate the four
and earth as: elements one to another, creating a
homogeneous compound of organic unity.
“the fourfold root of all things.”
Strife, on the other hand, is seen as a force
He believed everything in the universe was of differentiation and repulsion for the
made of four elements, including living elements, one that creates great diversity in
organisms. These are able to create all nature. This is really what we mean by the
things, including all living creatures, by statement that the Universe (humanity as
being ‘mixed’ in different combinations and well) is “dynamic” (think plate tectonics,
proportions. Each of the elements however, volcanism, impact events, etc.) – nature
retains its own characteristics in the seems to be both “ xed” in the sense that
mixture, and each is eternal and matter is neither created nor destroyed, yet
unchanging. Of the four elements, always in ux by forces molding and
although Empedocles stresses their shaping the reality we perceive. It is not
equality of powers, re is also granted a that the universe itself undergoes any
special role both in its hardening effect on fundamental change, but that the forces of
mixtures of the other elements and also as Love and Strife, with their constant
the fundamental principle of living things. bringing-together and forcing-apart, create
He also believed all matter, whether alive or what we see as “change” over time. Here is
not, was conscious. Empedocles’ four a chart roughly depicting Empedocles’
elements came to be known as the view:
Aristotelian Elements.

Rather mystically, he believed matter was

held together by a fundamental force of
the universe he described as Love (a force
of attraction and combination) and pushed
apart by another force – Strife (a force of
repulsion and separation). For Empedocles,
it is the forces of Love and Strife that make
the universe so dynamic. As a result, life is
dynamic, eventually, life is joyful to Concept Map of Empedocles’ Cosmic Cycle
contemplate. based on Love and Strife. 

Empedocles explained the natural change

as the result of the combination,
separation, and regrouping of the four

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

The Big Three Of Greek Philosophy:

Socrates, Plato, And Aristotle

Because of the excellent education they Plato, and Aristotle were different from
received and the freedom they had to each other in some of their ideas, they did
develop and share their own ideas, the have some important things in common.
Athenians produced some of the greatest First, all three of them knew that virtue is
thinkers in all of human history. Among very important. They recognized that
these thinkers are three men, Socrates, without virtue a person can never be
Plato, and Aristotle, whose ideas have completely happy and ful lled. All three of
in uenced nearly everyone since then. All them were also very curious about people
three of these men were and about the world around them. The
philosophers. They use reason to search for ideas of these three men continue to
the truth about important things like human in uence us in many ways even today.
life, God, and nature. Although Socrates,

Socrates
Athens
470-399 BC
Well known for wandering around the agora and marketplace of Athens
and ask people about what they believe.

Remembered more for how he taught than for what he taught (Socratic
Method).

He was put on trial on 399 BC and was accused of corrupting youth

and disbelieving in the gods.

Socrates was born and lived nearly his contribution to philosophy is the Socratic
entire life in Athens. His father Method. The method is de ned as a form
Sophroniscus was a stonemason and his of inquiry and discussion between
mother, Phaenarete, was a midwife. His individuals, based on asking and answering
family apparently had the moderate wealth questions to illuminate ideas. This method
required to launch Socrates’ career as a is performed by asking question after
hoplite (foot soldier). Socrates married question with the purpose of seeking to
Xanthippe, a younger woman, who bore expose contradictions in one’s thoughts,
him three sons: Lamprocles, Sophroniscus guiding him/her to arrive at a solid,
and Menexenus. He had little to do with his defensible conclusion. The principle
sons' upbringing and expressed far more underlying the Socratic Method is that
interest in the intellectual development of humans learn through the use of reasoning
Athens' other young boys. and logic; ultimately nding holes in their
own theories and then patching them up. In
Socrates is often credited as one of the the Socratic Method (or reasoning
founders of Western philosophy. His largest method), Socrates asked questions to his

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fellow Athenians in a reasoning, which Athenian law allowed a convicted citizen to

driven the audience to think through a propose an alternative punishment to the
problem to a logical conclusion. one called for by the prosecution and the
Sometimes the answer seemed so obvious, jury would decide. Instead of proposing he
it made Socrates' opponents look foolish. be exiled,
For this, his Socratic Method was admired Socrates
by some and condemned by others. suggested he be
honored by the
city for his
contribution to
their
enlightenment
and be paid for Socrates was sentenced to
his services. The death by drinking poison.
jury was not
amused and
sentenced him to death by drinking a
mixture of poison hemlock.

Socrates sought to expose contradictions in the

Before Socrates' execution, friends offered
students’ thoughts and ideas to then guide them to
solid, tenable conclusions.
to bribe the guards and rescue him so he
could ee into exile. He declined, stating
In 399 B.C., Socrates was accused of he wasn't afraid of death, felt he would be
corrupting the youth of Athens and of no better off if in exile and said he was still
impiety, or heresy. He chose to defend a loyal citizen of Athens, willing to abide by
himself in court. Rather than present its laws, even the ones that condemned
himself as wrongly accused, Socrates him to death. 
declared he ful lled an important role as a
gad y, one who provides an important Plato described Socrates' execution in
service to his community by continually his Phaedo dialogue: Socrates drank the
questioning and challenging the existing hemlock mixture without hesitation.
state of affairs and its protectors. The jury Numbness slowly crept into his body until it
was not swayed by Socrates' defense and reached his heart. Shortly before his nal
convicted him by a vote of 280 to 221. breath, Socrates described his death as a
Possibly the argumentative tone of his release of the soul from the body.
defense contributed to the verdict and he
made things worse during the deliberation
over his punishment. 

Focus Question #6: Have you experienced the Socratic Method of learning in your previous
years in school? Tell me something about it in 5 sentences only. Send it to me thru text/
private messaging or via e-mail. Do not forget to include your name, section and class
schedule

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Plato
Athens
428-348 BC
Founded the rst university in the western civilization called The
Academy where he taught about Socrates and Socrates ideas.

Famous in his Theory of Forms where it asserts that the physical world is
not really the 'real' world; instead, ultimate reality exists beyond our
physical world. 

Plato’s parents came from the Greek observation. The world that we perceive
aristocracy. His father, Ariston, descended through the mind, seems to be permanent
from the kings of Athens and Messenia. His and unchanging. Which world perceived is
mother, Perictione, is said to be related to more real? Why are we seen two different
the 6th century B.C.E. Greek statesman worlds? To nd a solution to these
Solon. He did have a number of siblings, problems, Plato split the world into two;
however: three brothers, Glaucon, (1) the physical realm, and
Antiphon, and Adeimantus of Collytus, and
(2) the transcendent or spiritual realm
one sister, Potone. His father died when he
was young, and his mother remarried with
her uncle Pyrilampes. Plato did not have The physical realm is the material stuff we
children, and it is assumed based on see and interact with on a daily basis; this
textual evidence that he never married. realm is changing and imperfect. It is the
material world, perceived through the
senses, that is imitation of the forms. The
Plato founded The Academy, an academic
spiritual realm, however, exists beyond the
program that many consider to be the rst
physical realm. Plato calls this spiritual
Western university, Plato was a student of
realm the Realm of Forms (also called the
Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. He’s
Realm of Ideas or Realm of Ideals). This
known for being the founder of the
particular world is invulnerable to the pains
Academy in Athens, the rst institution of
and changes of the material world; it is
higher learning in the Western world,
perfect and unchanging.
where he stressed the importance of
science and mathematics. Because of this,
he became known as the “maker of Let's consider a speci c example. Think of a
mathematicians.” square. Now draw a picture of a square on
a piece of paper. I will also draw a picture
of a square on a piece of paper. Our
Plato’s contributions to philosophy is the
pictures are likely a bit imperfect; maybe
Theory of Forms (Ideas). This theory states
our lines aren't exactly straight, or our
that the physical world is not really the 'real'
angles aren't exactly 90 degrees. In
world; instead, ultimate reality exists
addition, your picture and my picture are
beyond our physical world. The world we
likely a little different in sizes, colors, etc. To
perceive through our senses seems to be
put it in Plato's terms, our pictures of
always changing, which is obviously a clear

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

squares reside in the physical realm. According to Plato, The Forms are the
Despite their imperfections and differences essences of various objects; these are the
there's something about our pictures that qualities that an object must have to be
unites them. So what exactly is it that considered that type of object. For
makes both of our pictures squares? The example, there are countless chairs in the
“it” that makes our pictures squares is the world but the form of “chairness” (the
Form of Square. You and I share a similar qualities that make a chair what is or the
concept or ideal of what 'square' is, even essence of what it means to be a chair) is at
though our pictures of squares turned out the core of all chairs.
slightly different. To put it in Plato's terms,
the concept and ideal of Square resides in Plato's Theory of Forms asserts that the
the Realm of Forms and is, therefore, physical realm is only a shadow, or image,
perfect, abstract, and unchanging. Plato of the true reality of the Realm of Forms. He
would say that this Form of Square is more held that the world of Forms is
real than our physical drawings of a square. transcendent to our own world, the world
of substances, which is the essential basis
So what are these Forms, according to of reality. Because the Forms exist
Plato? The Forms are abstract, perfect, independently of time and space, they can
unchanging concepts or ideals that go be said to exist only as ideas in people's
beyond time and space; they exist in the minds. The Forms are objective "blueprints"
Realm of Forms. Even though the Forms are for perfection. They are considered perfect
abstract, that doesn't mean they are not themselves because they are unchanging. 
real. In fact, the Forms are more “real” than
any individual physical objects. So,
concepts like Redness, Roundness, Beauty,
Justice, or Goodness are Forms (and thus
they are commonly capitalized). Individual
objects like a red book, a round ball, a
beautiful girl, a just action, or a good
person reside in the physical realm and are The physical world we perceive through senses seems to
simply different examples of the Forms. be always changing, while the spiritual world that we
perceive through the mind, seems to be permanent and
unchanging.

Aristotle
Athens
384-322 BC
Believed that the one thing that all people want is happiness.

Believed that the two fundamental kinds of motion are natural motion
and violent motion. The apparent movement of celestial objects is a
natural motion, whereas lifting an object is a violent motion.

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Aristotle was a student of Plato and at be judged as praiseworthy or blameworthy

seventeen, he joined Plato’s Academy in if they are voluntary.
Athens and remained there until the age of
thirty-seven. During this period Aristotle Aristotle is known for his study of politics
acquired his encyclopedic knowledge of and government as well as his ideas on
the philosophical tradition, which he draws ethics. In many ways, he didn't separate
on extensively in his works. In 335, Aristotle these areas of study. He believed that the
founded his own school, the Lyceum, in role of government and politics was to
Athens, where he spent most of the rest of create a society where individuals could
his life studying, teaching and writing. One live happy lives and realize their full
of his most important study of personal potential. In that way, the science of politics
morality and the ends of human life is the and governance, from Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics. Though it is written perspective, was to allow citizens to be
for more than 2,000 years ago, it offers the happy by letting them search for their truth
modern reader many valuable insights into and behave in ways consistent with that
human needs and conduct, and has been a truth.
widely-read and in uential book.
Aristotle had a lifelong interest in the study
In his work, Aristotle starts with the claim of nature. He investigated a variety of
that happiness is dependent on virtue. He different topics, ranging from general
describes virtue as a disposition, rather issues like motion, causation, place and
than an activity. The individual needs to be time, to systematic explorations and
naturally a ‘virtuous’ person, rather than just explanations of natural phenomena across
acting accordingly. different kinds of natural entities. His ideas
and writings about motion were important
But then, what is “virtuous”?
because of the following reasons; (1) They
Aristotle de nes virtue as the average, or in uenced scienti c thought for almost two
“mean”, between excess and de ciency. centuries. (2) They provide a "common
For example, a man should not be a sense" framework that most people would
coward nor rash. He shouldn’t be wasteful, agree "make sense. Aristotle categorized
nor stingy. He shouldn’t be described as motions as either natural motions
boorish nor acting as a buffoon. The or violent motions. Any motion that an
pattern is quick to reveal itself. Basically, he object does naturally, without being forced,
says, the idea of virtue is ''all things in was classi ed by Aristotle as a natural
moderation.'' Humans should enjoy motion. Examples of natural motions
existence, but not be sel sh. They should include;
avoid pain and displeasure, but not expect
• A book lying at rest on a table
a life completely void of them. By striving to
naturally remains at rest.
live this virtuous life of moderation, human
beings can nd happiness and, therefore, • When an object is dropped, it will fall
be ethical. Virtuous action, then, is always on the ground, naturally.
the result of successful practical reasoning.
Aristotle clari es that one’s actions can only • Smoke rises naturally.

Can you think of any other example?

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

However, any motion that requires a force Furthermore, Aristotle theorized the
is a violent motion. Examples of violent following about motion based on his
motion include; observation but not on experiment;

• Pushing a book along a table. • heavy objects fall faster than lighter
ones.
• Lifting a book.
• objects in the heavens (the celestial
Basically, Aristotle's view of motion is that
sphere) move in circular motion,
"it requires a force to make an object move
without any external force compelling
in an unnatural" manner. Anyway, if you
them to do so.
push a book, it moves and when you stop
pushing it, the book stops from moving • objects on Earth (the terrestrial
(but of course, it will not stop at the instant, sphere) move in straight lines,
it will slows down at rst before coming to a unless forced to move in a circular
stop). motion.

After all, if you push a book, it moves. Aristotle’s theory of motion was accepted
When you stop pushing, the book stops for about 2,000 years until Galileo Galilei
moving. (Not right away, of course, but, contradicted his ideas. Galileo did not
unless you push it, it gradually slows to a believed that an object , such as ball, came
stop.) To keep a bicycle moving (on level to a rest because it desired to be in its
ground) you have to keep pedaling. To natural state of motion. And if that is the
keep a car moving, you have to keep the case, the ball might roll on forever. Galileo
engine pushing it. explained that an object only stops from
moving because an external force such
To most people, this is a very reasonable friction causes it to stop. He also imposed
and "common sense" notion. There are the theory of inertia, which states that the
only two problems with this idea : (1) It inertia of an object will maintain its state of
doesn't work, and (2) It isn't logical. motion; eventually, the greater is the inertia
of an object, the greater is its tendency to
change its state of motion. In other words, a
basketball will come to a stop rst before a
tennis ball
(when they
started
rolling from
the same
point)
because
Basketball has greater inertia than
basketball
tennis ball.
has greater
Galileo Galilei rejected Aristotle’s theory of motion; inertia than
Galileo used the inertia of an object to explain why the tennis ball. Actually inertia is
an object stop moving. proportional to the mass of an object.

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Ancient Greeks’ Technology

During the 5th century BC, ancient Greek bodies. It also provided information about
technology developed, leading to the the location of the sun, planets and some
invention of the rotary mills, screw, water of the stars. It was used in the past by
pump, gear, water organ, water clock, the astronomers, astrologers, and navigators,
torsion catapult and the use of steam to mainly for;
operate machines and toys. The
• locating and predicting the positions
foundation, for the use of water resources,
of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars,
in the modern world, was laid by the Greek
civilization. Many of these inventions • determining local time given local
occurred late in the Greek period, often latitude and vice versa, and
inspired by the need to improve weapons,
tactics in war and for everyday life. Their • for triangulation, and surveying.
technology reveals a lot about
Astrolabe was actually an analog calculator,
contemporary society. For the Greeks,
that measures the altitude of stars and
science and technology were not intended
planets above the horizon, capable of
for mass-production and marketing. Apart
working out several different kinds of
from a few exceptions scienti c research
problems in spherical astronomy.
was rarely intended for practical
applications, and never for selling them.
Nobody would have thought to claim Astrolabes have been traced to the 6th
intellectual property rights on his century, and they appear to have come into
inventions or to produce them in factories. wide use from the early Middle Ages in
Anyway the notion of factory did not even Europe and the Islamic world. By about the
exist and at the time, a workshop having mid-15th century, astrolabes were adopted
about forty workers was already a big by mariners and used in celestial
III. Technology y in everyday life
business. Greeks did not take repetitive navigation. By far, this has been one of the
manufacturing in high esteem, and did they valuable 3.1contributions
Lifting mademachinery
ifting and building by Greece in
really need machines, since slaves and the The
eld of astronomy.
Greeks had a large range of advanced technologies to build their monuments. The
kinds of cranes, pulleys, winches and capstan hoists, block and tackle systems which
metics were easily available. Some of their stones with minimal effort, lifting tongs and lewis for a safe and easy handling.
handling Archimed
winch using a gearbox with which he moved the heaviest loads using only one hand. hand Th
inventions are enumerated below; Overhead Crane
built piers (below) was(515 BC)clever.
particularly

Astrolabe An ancient overhead cra

This crane was mounted o

The astrolabe is platform. Capstan winches
it forward or backward and
one of the The stone was grabbed on
lifted, tilted to the other sid
signi cant dropped off. For building a
crane was moved forward
ancient Greece handling the next one. Two
be used together to build p
inventions. It is then the space between bo
in.
an instrument
used to make
astronomical A mechanical device invented by the
measurements like altitudes of celestial ancient Greeks that is
3.2 Hydraulic designed to lift heavy
technolog
technology

The Greeks had water mills but used also special type wi
turbine, well suited for fast flows of small rivers. They
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and pipes like today), but much more, they developed a
pumping systems for domestic needs or irrigation.

The Archimedes screw pump is well known, others use

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

objects off the ground.,This crane was wearing, however, it was not strong enough
mounted on a mobile platform. Capstan to breach forti cations.
winches allowed to tilt it forward or
backward and to lift the load. The stone Water Mill (3rd Century BC)
was grabbed on one side, lifted, tilted to
the other side, and dropped off. For
building a pier, the crane was moved
forward before handling the next one. Two
cranes could be used together to build
parallel walls, then the space between both
was lled in.

Over time, builders relied on these device

to make the temples and other impressive
buildings, many of which are still standing
today.  Water-powered mill used for grinding
grain, rolling and hammering. Because of it,
Catapult (399 BC) mankind was suddenly able to turn simple
grains, such as wheat and rice, into an
important staple food. 

Analog Computer (150 BC)

It was invented by Dionysius the Elder of

Syracuse for forcefully propelling stones,
spears or other projectiles; use mainly as a
military weapon since ancient times. This The Antikythera Mechanism had several
weapon was basically large bows made of dials and clock faces, each which served a
wood, horn, and animal sinew. different function for determining and
forecasting important astronomical and
When a soldier discharged the trigger, calendar events, and even eclipses. This
heavy projectiles would be launched forth mechanism was used to predict the
as far as 328 feet (100 meters). This could position of the planets and stars in the sky
beat any ancient armor the opponent was depending on the calendar month. A main

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

gear would move to represent the calendar earliest paper maps that were used for
year, and would, in turn, move many navigation, and to depict certain areas of
separate smaller gears to represent the the Earth. Anaximander was the rst of the
motions of the planets, sun, and moon. ancient Greeks to draw a map of the known
world, and, as such, he is considered to be
Cartography (600 BC) one of the rst cartographers. The ancient
Greek maps are important to the history of
Cartography cartography because they often showed
is the Greece as being at the center of the world
study and and surrounded by an ocean. Other early
practice of Greek maps show the world as divided into
making two continents—Asia and Europe. These
maps. Ancient ideas came largely out of Homer’s works as
Greeks created the well as other early Greek literature.

Focus Question #7: Search for the other inventions of the ancient Greeks and choose one
from these inventions; then look for the counterpart of such invention in the modern days.
Find a picture of both the ancient invention and the innovation of such invention in the
modern days; briefly describe each. Go to your Google Classroom and submit your work, in
PDF, by first clicking the question posted in your classwork.

Impact of Technology in the Greek’s Ultimately, technology has positively

Society affected human life from antiquity until now
by solving problems associated with
During the growth of the ancient everyday life, and making it easier for
civilizations, ancient technology was the different tasks to be completed.
result from advances in engineering in Technology has made it easier to farm,
ancient times. These advances in the more feasible to build cities, and more
history of technology stimulated societies convenient to travel, among many other
to adapt new ways of living and things, effectively linking together all
governance. countries on earth, helping to create
globalization, and making it easier for
Ancient Greece in uenced some of our economies to grow and for companies to
modern-day technology, and formed many do business. Virtually every facet of human
amazing ideas which were ahead of their life can be carried out in an easier, more
time. The ancient Greeks also made effective, and quicker fashion via
massive naval and travel ships and created technological solutions, resulting in less
many ingenious weapons and employed problems in one way, and more problems
several ingenuitive war tactics. They were in another.
also able to keep track the movement of
the Sun, Moon, planets and stars

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Self Assessment #2: The result of this test will reveal how much you understand the
lesson and will be recorded as part of your performance. Go to your Google
Classroom; click the link to redirect you in the Google Form to answer this test. Say
aloud your promise of honesty (below) before taking the quiz.

In taking this quiz, I (your name) understand that I may not work with anyone else,
including conferring with others (student, or anyone else); exchanging information,
answer or ideas; or in aiding or being aided by others in the completion of this test.
I understand that failure to follow this rules is considered cheating, and may subject
me to a significant reduction in my grade at the discretion of the professor. I certify
that I have personally prepared the answers to this test in accordance with the
above stated rules.

1. What purpose did ancient Greek philosophy serve? (A) To explain religion. (B) To study
medicine. (C) To create maps. (D) To explain the world around them.

2. This philosopher was the teacher of Alexander the Great and the author of the
Nicomachean Ethics. (A) Plato (B) Socrates (C) Aristotle (D) Phytagoras

3. What was the Socratic method? (A) A variable and solution technique (B) A question and
answer technique (C) An experiment and solution technique (D) A test and and question
technique

4. Why was Socrates sentenced to death? (A) He tried to overthrow the government. (B) He
was corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens. (C) He stole silver from the treasury.
(D) He protested democracy.

5. Which Greek philosopher theorized that solar eclipses were caused by the passage of the
moon between the sun and the earth (which was correct)? (A) Anaxagoras (B) Plato
(C) Empedocles (D) Anaximenes

6. What is the correct order of teachers? (A) Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great
(B) Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Alexander the Great (C) Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Alexander
the Great (D) Aristotle, Alexander the Great, Plato, Socrates

7. This philosopher is recognized for breaking from the use of mythology to explain the
world and the universe, and instead explaining natural objects and phenomena by
theories and hypotheses. (A) Thales of Miletus (B) Anaximenes (C) Anaximander
(D) Empedocles

8. Which of these is true of the Presocratics? (A) They used the gods of Olympus to explain
earthquakes. (B) They believed Zeus governed over all. (C) They sought rational reasons
for natural phenomena. (D) They relied on ancient myth to handle everyday problems.

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 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

9. Which of the following statements about Plato’s Theory of Forms is INCORRECT?

(A) Everything in the physical realm is an imitation of ideals. (B) Everything in the Realm of
Ideals is perfect and changing. (C) Ultimate reality exists beyond our physical world.
(D) Concepts like Redness, Roundness, Beauty, Justice, or Goodness are Forms (and thus
they are commonly capitalized).

10. The clock-like mechanism invented by ancient Greeks, called Antikythera Mechanism, had
several dials and clock faces, each which served a different functions. This mechanism can
be used for the following purposes except _____. (A) determining and forecasting
important astronomical events such as eclipses (B) predicting the position of the planets
and stars in the sky (C) determining the time of the day. (D) charting the moment of the
sun, planets and moons

Project #2: Two-minute Video

Choose one (1) of the ancient Greek philosophers (mentioned in this module) and make a
short (2-min) video about his life, works and achievements. Include voice over and caption
for a better understanding of the content of the video.

Your work will be graded using the rubrics as shown below.

VIdeo Presentation Rubric

Criteria 2 points 3 points 4 points 5 points

The presentation The presentation was The presentation The presentation

was dif cult to not easy to follow. was easy to was very easy to
Organization follow due to follow. follow.
disorganization
of the utterances.

Most of the Most information Most information All information

information was presented in the presented in the presented in in
Accuracy of
inaccurate or not video was clear, but video was clear, the video was
information
clear. was not usually accurate and clear, accurate
accurate. thorough. and thorough.

The student did The student clearly The student The student
not show an understood most seemed to clearly
adequate aspects of the topic understand the understood the
Understanding understanding of and presented his/her main points of topic in-depth
of topic the topic. information with ease. the topic and and presented
presented those his/her
with ease information
convincingly.

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