man-made disasters

Man-made disasters are disasters resulting from man-made hazards (threats having an element
of human intent, negligence, or error; or involving a failure of a man-made system), as opposed
to natural disasters resulting from natural hazards. Man-made hazards or disasters are sometimes
referred to as anthropogenic.

Contents
 1 Sociological hazards
o 1.1 Crime
 1.1.1 Arson
o 1.2 Civil disorder
o 1.3 Terrorism
o 1.4 War
 2 Technological hazards
o 2.1 Industrial hazards
o 2.2 Structural collapse
o 2.3 Power outage
o 2.4 Fire
o 2.5 Hazardous materials
 2.5.1 Radiation contamination
 2.5.2 CBRNs
o 2.6 Transportation
 2.6.1 Aviation
 2.6.2 Rail
 2.6.3 Road
 2.6.4 Space
 3 Costs
 4 References

sociological hazards
Crime

Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such
as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a conviction. Individual human societies may each
define crime and crimes differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of
the law counts as a crime; for example: breaches of contract and of other private law may rank as
"offenses" or as "infractions". Modern societies generally regard crimes as offenses against the
public or the state, distinguished from torts (offenses against private parties that can give rise to a
civil cause of action).

In context, not all crimes provide man-made hazards.

Arson

A building damaged by arson.

Arson is the criminal intent of setting a fire with intent to cause damage. The definition of arson
was originally limited to setting fire to buildings, but was later expanded to include other objects,
such as bridges, vehicles, and private property. Arson is the greatest cause of fires in data
repositories. Sometimes, human-induced fires can be accidental: failing machinery such as a
kitchen stove is a major cause of accidental fires.[1]

Civil disorder

Civil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe forms of
disturbance. Although civil disorder does not necessarily escalate to a disaster in all cases, the
event may escalate into general chaos. Rioting has many causes, from antipathy over low
minimum wages to racial segregation. Examples of well-known civil disorders and riots are the
Poll Tax Riots in the United Kingdom in 1990; the 1992 Los Angeles riots in which 53 people
died; the 2008 Greek riots after a 15-year-old boy was fatally shot by police; and the 2010 Thai
political protests in Bangkok during which 91 people died.

Terrorism
Terrorism is a controversial term with varied definitions. One definition means a violent action
targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or threatened use of violence for the
purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the
second definition, the targets of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government
officials, military personnel, or people serving the interests of governments.

Definitions of terrorism may also vary geographically. Australia, in the Security Legislation
Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002, defines terrorism as "an action to advance a political,
religious or ideological cause and with the intention of coercing the government or intimidating
the public", while the United States Department of State operationally describes it as
"premeditated, politically-motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by
subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience".[2]

War

War is conflict between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted
by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted
great suffering on humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and
police action. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and disaster planning.

technological hazards
Industrial hazards

Industrial disasters occur in a commercial context, such as mining accidents. They often have an
environmental impact. The Bhopal disaster is the world's worst industrial disaster to date, and the
Chernobyl disaster is regarded the worst nuclear accident in history. Hazards may have longer-
term and more dispersed effects, such as dioxin and DDT poisoning.

Structural collapse
Structural collapses are often caused by engineering failures. Bridge failures may be caused in
several ways, such as under-design (as in the Tay Bridge disaster), by corrosion attack (such as
in the Silver Bridge collapse), or by aerodynamic flutter of the deck (as in Galloping Gertie, the
original Tacoma Narrows Bridge). Failure of dams was not infrequent during the Victorian era,
such as the Dale Dyke dam failure in Sheffield, England in the 1860s, causing the Great
Sheffield Flood. Other failures include balcony collapses or building collapses such as that of the
World Trade Center.

Power outage

A power outage is an interruption of normal sources of electrical power. Short-term power

Electromagnetic pulses and voltage spikes from whatever cause can also damage electricity
infrastructure and electrical devices.

Recent notable power outages include the 2005 Java–Bali Blackout which affected 100 million
people and the 2009 Brazil and Paraguay blackout which affected 60 million people.

Fire
Bush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally started by lightning, but also by human
negligence or arson. They can burn thousands of square kilometers. If a fire intensifies enough to
produce its own winds and "weather", it will form into a firestorm. A good example of a mine
fire is the one near Centralia, Pennsylvania. Started in 1962, it ruined the town and continues to
burn today. Some of the biggest city-related fires are The Great Chicago Fire, The Peshtigo Fire
(both of 1871) and the Great Fire of London in 1666.

Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial cause, can be aggravated by
inadequate emergency preparedness. Such hazards as a lack of accessible emergency exits,
poorly marked escape routes, or improperly maintained fire extinguishers or sprinkler systems
may result in many more deaths and injuries than might occur with such protections.

Hazardous materials

Radiation contamination

When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment systems are otherwise
compromised, airborne radioactive particles (nuclear fallout) can scatter and irradiate large areas.
Not only is it deadly, but it also has a long-term effect on the next generation for those who are
contaminated. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of the
affected area could be unsafe for human habitation. During World War II, United States troops
dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As a result, the
radiation fallout contaminated the cities' water supplies, food sources, and half of the populations
of each city were stricken with disease. The Soviet republics of Ukraine and Belarus are part of a
scenario like this after a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant suffered a meltdown in
1986. To this day, several small towns and the city of Chernobyl remain abandoned and
uninhabitable due to fallout. In the 1970s, a similar threat scared millions of Americans when a
failure occurred at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania. The incident was
fortunately resolved, and the area retained little contamination.

A number of military accidents involving nuclear weapons have also resulted in radioactive
contamination, for example the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash and the 1968 Thule Air Base B-52
crash.

CBRNs

CBRN is a catch-all initialism for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear. The term is
used to describe a non-conventional terror threat that, if used by a nation, would be considered
use of a weapon of mass destruction. This term is used primarily in the United Kingdom.
Planning for the possibility of a CBRN event may be appropriate for certain high-risk or high-
value facilities and governments. Examples include Saddam Hussein's Halabja poison gas attack,
the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway and the preceding test runs in Matsumoto, Japan 100
kilometers outside of Tokyo,[3] and Lord Amherst giving smallpox laden blankets to Native
Americans.[4]

Transportation

Aviation

The ditching of US Airways Flight 1549 was a well-publicised incident in which all on board
survived

An aviation incident is an occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an
aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operations, passengers, or pilots. The category
of the vehicle can range from a helicopter, an airliner, or a space shuttle. The world's worst
airliner disaster is the Tenerife crash of 1977, when miscommunications between and amongst
air traffic control and an aircrew caused two fully-laden jets to collide on the runway, killing 583
people.

Rail
A railroad disaster is an occurrence associated with the operation of a passenger train which
results in substantial loss of life. Usually accidents with freight (goods) trains are not considered
disasters, unless they cause substantial loss of life or property. One of the more devastating rail
disasters occurred in 2004 in Sri Lanka when 1,700 people died in the Queen of the Sea train
disaster. Other notable rail disasters are the 1989 Ufa accident in Russia which killed 574, and
the 1917 Modane train accident in France which killed 540.

Road

Traffic collisions are the leading cause of death, and road-based pollution creates a substantial
health hazard, especially in major conurbations. The greenhouse effect of road transport is a
significant fraction of the anthropogenic warming effect, and the rapid consumption of fossil fuel
accelerates the Hubbard peak.

Space

Space travel presents significant hazards, mostly to the direct participants (astronauts or
cosmonauts and ground support personnel), but also carry the potential of disaster to the public at
large. Accidents related to space travel have killed 22 astronauts and cosmonauts, and a larger
number of people on the ground.

Accidents can occur on the ground during launch, preparation, or training, or in flight, due to
equipment malfunction or the naturally hostile environment of space itself. An additional risk is
posed by (unmanned) low-orbiting satellites whose orbits eventually decay due to friction with
the extremely thin atmosphere. If they are large enough, massive pieces can fall to the Earth
before burning up, with the potential to do damage.

The worst space disaster to date occurred on February 15, 1996 in Sichuan, China, when a Long
March 3B rocket, carrying the Intelsat 708 telecommunications satellite, suffered a guidance
system failure two seconds after liftoff and crashed into a nearby village. The Chinese
government officially reported six deaths and 57 injuries, but some U.S. estimates run as high as
200 deaths.

The second worst disaster was the Nedelin catastrophe which occurred in the Soviet Union on
October 24, 1960, when an R-16 intercontinental ballistic missile exploded on the launch pad,
killing around 120 (best estimate) military ground support personnel. The Soviet government
refused to acknowledge the incident until 1989, then claiming only 78 deaths.

One of the worst manned space accidents involved the Space Shuttle Challenger which
disintegrated in 1986, claiming all seven lives on board. The shuttle disintegrated 73 seconds
after taking off from the launch pad in Cape Canaveral, Florida.

Another example is the Space Shuttle Columbia, which disintegrated during a landing attempt
over Texas in 2003, with a loss of all seven astronauts on board. The debris field extended from
New Mexico to Mississippi.

Costs
Some man-made disasters have been particularly notable for the high costs associated with
responding to and recovering from them, including:

 Chernobyl disaster, 1986: $15 billion estimated cost of direct loss. It is estimated that the
damages could accumulate to €235 billion for Ukraine and €201 billion for Belarus in the
thirty years following the accident;
 Three Mile Island, 1979: $1 billion;
 September 11 attacks, 2001: $20.7 billion;
 Exxon Valdez oil spill, 1989: The clean-up of oil spill cost an estimated $2.5 billion;
recovery for settlements, $1.1 billion; and the economical loss (fisheries, tourism, etc)
suffered due to the damage to the Alaskan ecosystem was estimated at $2.8 billion;
 AZF chemical plant explosion, 2001: €1.8 billion[5]
 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, 2010: Between $60 and $100 billion[6].

The costs of disasters varies considerably depending on a range of factors, such as the
geographical location where they occur. When a disaster occurs in a densely-populated area in a
wealthy country, the financial damage might be huge, but when a comparable disaster occurs in a
densely-populated area in a poorer country, the actual financial damage might relatively small, in
part due to a lack of insurance. For example, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
(although obviously not man-made) with a death toll of over 230,000 people, cost a 'mere' $15
billion[7], whereas the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in which 11 people died, the damages were
six-fold.

References
1. ^ [1]
2. ^ http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm70/7052/7052.pdf
3. ^ http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1995_rpt/aum/part05.htm
4. ^ http://www.nativeweb.org/pages/legal/amherst/lord_jeff.html
5. ^ http://www.foeeurope.org/activities/Nuclear/pdf/2007/Face_your_demons.pdf
6. ^ http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-BCK-Cohen-DHCosts.pdf
7. ^ http://sschonhardt.com/2011/03/24/costs-beyond-measure