Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Public Works Department

Traffic Engineering

Intersection Design and Control

Dr. Dalia Said,

Associate Professor, Highway and Traffic Engineering
Civil Engineering Department,
Cairo University,
dalia_said@yahoo.com

– An intersection is an area shared by two or more roads

– Main function is to allow the change of route directions
– It is an area of decision for all drivers and thus requires
additional effort and is a more complicated area for drivers
– Intersections normally perform at levels below those of the rest
of the street or highway and thus control the quality of traffic
flow , and is a source of congestion in urban areas

Intersection Control and Signal Design

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Types of Intersections

• Intersections can be classified as:

– At-grade: all roads intersect at the same level:
• Conventional
• Roundabouts

– Grade-separated without ramps: uninterrupted cross-flow of

traffic at different levels (over or underpass with no access)
– Grade-separated with ramps ( freeway interchanges)

Intersection Control and Signal Design

At-Grade Intersections
– May be three-leg (T or Y), four-leg, or multi-leg

T-intersection
Four-leg intersection

Multi-leg
intersection

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

General Concepts of Traffic Control

– The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to

drivers, and thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring the
orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways
– Control can be achieved by using traffic signals, signs, or
markings that regulate, guide, warn, and/or channel traffic
– A traffic control device must:
• Fulfill a need
• Command attention
• Convey a clear simple meaning
• Command the respect of road users
• Give adequate time for proper response

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Conflict Points at Intersections

– Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different

directions interfere with each other
– Three types of conflicts:
•
•
•
– The number of possible conflict points at any intersection
depends on:
•
•
•

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

– Example: conflict points at a four-leg intersection

● Crossing =
■ Diverge =
 Merge =
Total =
Intersection Control and Signal Design

Types of Intersection Control

– The primary objective of a traffic control system at an intersection

is to reduce the number of conflict points
– The choice of one method for traffic control at the intersection
depends on many factors:
• Vehicle volume
• Turning movements
• Pedestrian volume
• School crossing
• Accident experience
• Delay (Interruptions of Traffic Flow)
• Other considerations
– Conditions for the different types of traffic control devices are
given in the MUTCD
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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Types of Intersection Control

1. Yield Signs:
– Drivers on approaches with yield signs are required to slow down and yield the
right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection
2. Stop Signs:
– Approaching vehicles are required to stop before entering the intersection

3. Intersection Channelization:
– Used to separate turn lanes from through lanes
– Solid lines or raised barriers guide traffic within a lane so that vehicles can
safely negotiate a complex intersection
– Raised islands can also provide a refuge for pedestrians

4. Traffic Signals:
– Traffic signals are used to assign the use of the intersection to different traffic
streams at different times, and thus eliminate many conflicts
– Efficient operation of a traffic signal requires proper timing of the different
colour indications

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Step 1: Determine Phasing at Intersection

– Definitions:
• Phase (signal phase):
– Part of a cycle allocated to a stream of traffic, or a combination of two or more streams of
traffic, having the right of way simultaneously during one or more intervals.
– Most basic is two phases.

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Phase A Phase B

Green Yellow Red Red Green Yellow

Cycle Length
Interval

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Phase (signal phase):

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Step 2: Determine Critical Lane Groups at Intersection

– Definitions (cont’d):

• Lane Group:
• Consists of one or more lanes on an intersection approach having the
same green phase.
• Movements made simultaneously from the same lane are treated as lane
group.
• Exclusive turn lanes are treated as a separate lane group.
• Judgement used for shared lanes.

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

– Typical Lane Groups for Analysis

Source: Highway
Capacity Manual
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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Step 2: Determine Critical Lane Groups at Intersection

– Definitions (cont’d):

• Critical lane group: the lane group that requires the longest green time in a

phase. The critical lane group determines the required green time that is
allocated to that phase.

• It is the lane group with the highest traffic intensity (q/S)

• q= peak hour volume (veh/h)

• S= saturation flow (veh/h)

• Yi = qij/Sj = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows

for all traffic streams using phase i

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

– Definitions (cont’d):
• Peak-hour factor (PHF): a measure of variability of demand during the peak hour,
and is equal to the ratio of the volume during the peak hour to the maximum rate of
flow during a given period within the peak hour (smallest time period is 15 min.)

15 min 15 min 15 min 15 min

100 veh. 200 veh. 150 veh. 300 veh.

V = 100 + 200 + 150 + 300 = 750 veh/h

q = 300  4 = 1200 veh/h
PHF = 750/1200 = 0.625

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

– Definitions (cont’d):
1 2
Signal design is based on through traffic movements and passenger cars. Therefore,
we need conversion factors for vehicles other than passenger cars and movements
other than through vehicles.

• Passenger car equivalent (PCE): a factor to convert straight-through volumes of

buses and trucks to straight-through volumes of passenger cars (1.6–2.5 for
intersections)
• Turning movement factors: factors to convert turning vehicles to equivalent
straight-through vehicles (1.4–1.6 for left-turning vehicles and 1.0–1.4 for right-
turning vehicles)

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Step 3: Determine Cycle Length

– Definitions (cont’d):
• Cycle (cycle length):
– a cycle is made up of individual phases.
– The time in seconds required for one complete colour sequence of signal indication
(G+Y+R) is a cycle.

• Interval:
– any part of the cycle length during which signal indications do not change

Green Yellow Red

Cycle Length
Interval

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Rate of discharge of vehicles at an intersection:

Saturation flow

Rate of discharge
Lost Lost
time time
Effective green
Time

Green Yellow Red

• At the beginning of the green interval, some time is lost before the vehicles start moving
• The rate of discharge then increases to a maximum (saturation flow, S)
• The rate of discharge then falls to zero when the yellow signal changes to red
• The effective green is less than the sum of the green and yellow; the difference is
considered lost time
Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Webster Method
– Cycle Length:

• Co = optimum cycle length (s)

• L = total lost time per cycle (s)

• Yi = qij/Sj = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows

for all traffic streams using phase i

•  = number of phases

• qij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase i

• sj = saturation flow on lane j

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

– Total lost time is given as:

• R : All-red interval: the display time of a red indication for all approaches

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Step 4: Allocate Effective Green Time per Phase

– Total effective green time per cycle is:

– The total effective green time is distributed among the different phases in
proportion to their Y values:

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

– The actual green time is obtained as:

gai = gei +ℓi – yi

ℓi = lost time for phase i

gai = actual green time for phase i
yi = yellow time for phase i
gei = effective green time for phase i

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections

Step 5: Calculate Yellow Interval ( ) and all red interval

– The objectives of the yellow indication

after the green are:
• To alert motorists to the fact that the X0 W L
green time is about to change to red
• To allow vehicles already in the
Cannot
intersection to cross it
stop
– A bad choice of yellow interval may Cannot
lead to the creation of a dilemma zone: go
• An area in which vehicles can neither Xc
stop safely before the intersection nor
clear it without speeding before the red Dilemma zone
signal comes on
– Therefore, the yellow interval must
guarantee that an approaching vehicle
can either:
• Stop safely, or
• Proceed through the intersection
without speeding
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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Yellow Interval
– At the minimum yellow interval required to eliminate the dilemma zone (ymin):

0 =

• For vehicles to just clear the intersection:

W L

Xc = u0 ymin – (W + L)
Xc

u0 ymin
– u0 = speed limit on the approach (m/s)
– W = width of intersection (m)
– L = length of vehicle (m)

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Yellow Interval

• For vehicles to stop before the intersection:

X0

– t = perception-reaction time (s)

– a = rate of braking deceleration (m/s2)

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

Yellow Interval
• For vehicles to stop before the intersection:

– t = perception-reaction time (s)

– a = rate of braking deceleration (m/s2) X0

• Therefore,

• and

• If the effect of grade is added:

– G = grade of the approach

– g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Intersection Control and Signal Design

Yellow Interval

0 =

• Therefore,

• and

• If the effect of grade is added:

– G = grade of the approach

– g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

– Note:
• For safety considerations, the yellow interval should not be less than 3 s
• To encourage motorists’ respect for the yellow interval, it should not be greater than 5 s
• If a longer yellow interval is required, use the maximum yellow interval and add an all-red
interval
•Example:
Determine the minimum yellow interval at a flat intersection whose width is 12 m if the
maximum allowable speed on the approach roads is 50 km/h. Assume average length of
vehicle is 6.0 m, comfortable deceleration rate is 0.27g, and perception-reaction time is
1.0 sec

Intersection Control and Signal Design

Summary of Signal Design

1. Determine the phasing to use

2. Determine critical lane groups
3. Calculate cycle length
4. Allocate effective green time
5. Calculate yellow and all red intervals

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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

•Example
The following figure shows peak-hour
volumes for a major intersection on an
expressway. Using the Webster method,
determine suitable signal timing for the N

109
intersection using a four-phase system

75
25
and the additional data given in the
figure. Use a yellow interval of 3 s and 321
assume the total lost time is 3.5 s per 321
phase. Additional information: 128
222
– PHF = 0.95
464
– Left-turn factor = 1.4
464
– PCE for buses and trucks = 1.6
– Truck percentages:
• 4% for the west approach

352
100
206
• 0% for the other approaches
– Saturation flow rate = 2000 pc/h for
all lanes
– Assume the given phasing system

Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D

Intersection Control and Signal Design

– First, convert mixed volumes to N

115
79
37

equivalent straight-through passenger

cars
– Example: EB (West Approach) through 338
338
traffic 189
355
• DHV =
499
• q= veh/h
499
• Among them:
– = trucks & buses
– = PC
519
105
217

• PCE = +  ≈ PC/h
– Calculations are based on an
assumption of RT equivalency factor =
1.0 Phase,  Critical Lane Volume

– You may then calculate the critical lane A

volume for each phase B
C
D
Total
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Public Works Department Traffic Engineering Intersection Design and Control

– Determine Yi and Yi:

Phase A (EB) Phase B (WB) Phase C (SB) Phase D (NB)

Lane 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
335 499 499 189 338 338 115 79 37 519 105 217
2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
/


– Optimum cycle length:
• Total lost time L = 3.5  number of phases =

Intersection Control and Signal Design

– Total effective green time:

Gte =

– Effective and actual green times for each phase:

gai =
• gaA =
• gaB =
• gaC =
• gaD =

– Check:
• Sum of all actual green, yellow, and all-red is equal to cycle length

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