Module

JMJ Marists Brothers

Notre Dame of Marbel University
College of Education

1 PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

EDFPE 104 Principles of Motor Control and Learning of

Exercise, Sports and Dance
Jethro Carl H. Arandallo, MAED

Lesson 3: The Neurological Bases of Human Movement

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students can:
 analyze rationally the proprioceptors of the skill performed by an athlete through
a video analysis;
 differentiate correctly the two visual systems in the performance of an athlete
using comparative analysis; and
 apply effectively the role of reticular activating system in one’s personal
experience through a reflection paper.

BTI: 2.5.1. Demonstrate knowledge of learning environments that motivate learners to

work productively by assuming responsibility for their own learning.

Introduction
Analyzing skills for common feature is more than a mere exercise in
identifying similarities, however. For one thing, such analysis forms the basis in
determining the most effective methods for instructing motor skills. In an exercise like
bench press, many of the instructional methods best suited to teaching someone to put
the shot are the same as those that should be used to teaching someone the proper
mechanics for performing the bench press.

In this lesson, you will learn topics concerning the nature of skills, including what
all skills have in common as well as those features differentiating various types of skill.
You will also examine the ways in which movement scientists conceptualize skills, the
theoretical problems confronted in studying skilled behaviors, and the vocabulary used
to communicate effectively about motor skills.
 Acquisition of New Knowledge
The Communication of Information:

The Cellular Bases for Motor Learning and Control

At the most fundamental level, the study of motor behavior is the study of
connections. That is, the various systems of the body – perceptual, nervous, motor,
muscular, and so on – must all communicate with one another. This communication is
made possible through a vats and sophisticated system of nerve cells. These nerve
cells, forming the human nervous system, are initially classified within two main
divisions: The central and peripheral nervous systems.

Central nervous system (CNS) includes all of the nerve cells within or originating
within the brain and spine.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all of the nerve cells originating or
contained entirely outside of the central nervous system.

Cells originating in the CNS carry their signals away from the CNS (though many
may both originate and terminate entirely within the CNS).
Those nerve cells that form the communication network of the nervous system are
called neurons, of which about 200 billion comprise the nervous system of the average
person (with about an equal number comprising both the brain and the remainder of the
nervous system).

Neuron is the basic cell for communication with the central nervous system. Neurons
are responsible for sending and receiving information.

As with all cells, neurons contain a cell body (or soma) containing the cell
nucleus and other organelles that produce energy and direct the cell’s activities.
Branching from the cell’s body are numerous tentacles called dendrites (a Greek word
for “tree”), which receive messages directed toward the cell. Extending from the cell’s
body is an elongated, tubular shaped fiber called axon, which carries messages away
from the neuron and, through perhaps thousands of terminal branches, to the dendrites
of other neurons. Axons are encased within a myelin sheath, a fatty covering important
for both the conductivity and insulation of the neural messages travelling their length.
The entire cell is encased within a thin, permeable membrane.

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 https://www.web-books.com/

Beside neurons, the nervous system contains anther essential cellular building
bock called the neuroglia, or simply glia. Glial cells support the activity of neurons, and
there are many more glia than neurons. Glial cells literally do provide the “glue” that
holds the nervous system together, but neuroscientists are beginning to discover that
they also fulfil other significant roles such as strengthening synaptic transmission,
guiding neuronal development, and repairing damaged neurons. It is the neurons,
however, that are the principle players in the control of movement.

The Neuron
Of the billions of neurons in the CNS, no two are exactly alike. They vary in size,
shape, and functional capacity. Luckily, however, though they differ, all neurons can be
classified into one the three basic types depending on their function. The functional
classes of neurons found in the nervous system are sensory neurons, motor neurons,
and interneurons.

Sensory neurons convey information from both the environment and body toward the
spine and brain. Communication toward the brain is said to follow an ascending or
afferent pathway, and for this reason sensory neurons are also called afferent
neurons. A sensory neuron is shaped somewhat differently than are motor neurons and
interneurons. Projecting from the cell body, instead of dendrites, is a fiber called an
afferent fiber that is typically located outside of the spinal cord and is attached, at its
terminal ending, to a sensory receptor, often at some distance from the cell body.
Sensory receptors generate messages in response to certain types of stimuli such as
for vision, touch, hearing, smell, heat, cold, pressure, pain, detection of changes in
motion.

Motor Neurons send messages from the CNS to the effectors (muscles or glands) that
they innervate, conveying the commands that the effectors are to carry out.
Communication from the CNS to muscles is said to follow a descending or efferent
pathway. The primary function of a motor neuron is to control muscle contraction. The
motor neuron responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle is called the alpha

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motor neuron (and is also frequently referred to as a motoneuron). Motor neurons
gather information from many places within the CNS and route it effectively to the
muscles required to carry out movement skills.

Interneurons comprise the large majority of neurons in the CNS. Interneurons play two
primary roles. First, as their name suggest, interneurons link motor neurons, sensory
neurons, and higher brain centers. Far from making simple connections, however,
interneurons integrate the informational exchange between brain centers and sensory
and motor neurons, making possible the tremendous amount of information and the
degree of complexity that can be communicated within the CNS. The greater the
number of interneurons interposed between afferent messages and efferent responses,
the greater the complexity of the resulting movements that are possible. Second, the
interconnections between interneurons themselves are believed to be responsible for
the abstract features of the nervous system we call mind, such as thoughts, emotions,
memory, creativity, intellect, and motivation. These activities, all of which play central
roles in human movement, are still the least understood aspects of the nervous system,
however.

The Neural Impulse and Synaptic Transmission

The primary function of a neuron is to transmit a signal, called the neural
impulse, to another neuron. Any of the 200 or so billion neurons can communicate with
any other neuron through the vast web of linkages among neurons. No neuron is more
than two or three degrees of separation from any other neuron. With each act you
perform, millions of connections are formed, and with each repetition of the act, those
connections are strengthened. So each time you type a letter or hit a golf ball, you are
literally rewiring your central nervous system and advancing your learning of the skill
performed.
As complex as human movement can be, the messages between neurons are
always simple “on” and “off” signals, much like flipping a light switch on or off. The
complexity of human movement is not made possible because of the complexity of the
signals between neurons, but by the complexity of many millions of on and off
connections creating ever-changing patterns of chemically produced electrical flashes
speeding across the neural landscape.

The Synapse
At the end of the axon, the action potential reaches a seeming impasse in its travels
called a synapse – the juncture between neurons (the neuron in which the action
potential is initially conveyed is called the presynaptic neuron, while the neuron on the
other side of the synaptic cleft with the potential of receiving its signal is called the
postsynaptic neuron). Two neurons never touch; although very small, there is always a
space, called the synaptic cleft, between neurons. Movement across this gap is called
synaptic transmission, must be accomplished if messages are to be propagated among
neurons.
When the action potential reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron’s axon, called
the synaptic knob, its transmission across the synaptic cleft can be facilitated, blocked,
or changed. Within the synaptic knob are vesicles (tiny fluid filled sacs) that are capable

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of releasing chemicals known as neurotransmitters as a result of the action potential’s
arrival. These neurotransmitters influence the transmission of the neural impulse,
increase or decreasing the likelihood of depolarization across the synaptic gap. When
properly stimulated, neurotransmitters facilitate transmission of the presynaptic neuron’s
signal across the synaptic gap to the receiving dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron,
stimulating depolarization within that neuron and, as this chain of events is repeated,
encompassing more neurons to assemble a final command structure capable of
activating complex arrangements of muscular activity.

https://teaching.ncl.ac.uk/

Perception is the process by which humans interpret, give meaning to, and orient
themselves to the world. Perception involves making sense of this vast and constantly
changing array of sensory information. In the control of human action, the
transformation of sensations into meaningful perceptual information primarily involves
two perceptual systems. The somatosensory system provides information concerning
the world inside of our body, whereas the visual systems tells us about the outside
world in which our body is located and moves.

A. Somatosensory system is comprised of receptors located in muscles, tendons,

joints, the vestibular apparatus, and skin. Those receptors located in or near

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 layers of the skin is called cutaneous receptors, while those found in muscles,
tendons, joints, and inner ear are called proprioceptors.
B. Kinesthetic system is composed of mucle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, joint
receptors, and the vestibular apparatus, which together provide the sense of
kinesthesis.
Kinesthesis – refers to the sense of position and movement of the body and limbs and
of external forces acting on the body.

The kinesthetic sense is frequently referred to as a muscle memory, though this

term is technically incorrect (muscle do not remember). The proprioceptors constantly
send information to the brain concerning the body’s position and movements.
Muscle Spindles tell us about the state of contraction of a muscle. They provide
moment-to-moment information concerning the length of muscles and the rate of
change (i.e., velocity) in their length as they contract and relax.
Muscle spindles is a proprioceptors found in all skeletal muscles that supplies
information concerning stretch and changes in the length of muscle.
Skeletal muscles are composed of two types of fibers:
1. Extrafusal muscle fiber is a skeletal muscle attached to bones and capable of
generating significant contractile forces; responsible for purposeful movements
and under voluntary control.
2. Intrafusal muscle fiber is a muscle fiber making up part of the muscle spindle, the
deformation of which initiates afferent signal stimulation.
Muscle spindles monitor the contraction of muscle through a simple mechanical
mechanism. The intrafusalfibers of the muscle spindle are attached to extrafusalfibers,
so that when those fibers are stretched or contracted, they in turn stretch or contract the
intrafusalfibers attached to them, which is turn activates the muscle spindle receptor.

Golgi Tendon Organs (GTO) like the muscle spindle, is a mechanoreceptor

contributing to the kinaesthetic sense. The GTO monitors the tension on tendons
caused by muscular contraction. The GTO is a mechanoreceptor located in the muscle-
tendon junction of all skeletal muscle providing information about tension.
Golgi tendon organs have a protective function. If an unusually heavy load on a tendon
is detected, a protective reflex call the clasp-knife reflex is triggered.
Clasp-knife reflex– is a protective reflex initiated by Golgi tendon organs, resulting in the
relaxation of a muscle stretched beyond a familiar load.

Joint receptors is a third type of mechanoreceptor located in the capsules of all

synovial joints and which provide information on joint angle.

Exteroception is the awareness of the environment outside of one’s body, and hearing,
along with vision, is an important source of information about our external environment
necessary for movement control.

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Vestibular apparatus is a region of the inner ear that provides sense of equilibrium and
controls head movements, as well as coordinates head and eye movements; it consists
of the utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals.

http://www.brainkart.com/

Cutaneous receptors – are the receptors located in the dermis and epidermis
throughout the body and specialized to monitor one of several types of sensory
stimulation, including pressure, heat, cold, pain, and chemical stimuli.

Visual Perception
Although the somatosensory system supplies information about the internal world
of the body, the visual system supplies information about the external world outside of
the body. The eyes, the lone source of visual information, are roughly spherically
shaped receptive organs set in deeply cupped cavities in the skull called orbits. Each
eye rotates within these protective cavities under the control of tiny muscles, called
orbital muscles, capable of orienting its gaze across a broad visual field.
The eyes convert the physical energy of light waves (called electromagnetic radiation)
entering them into electrochemical impulses that are then transmitted by sensory
neurons to the brain. As light enters the opening of the eye, it passes through a series
of structures (cornea, iris, pupil, and lens) focusing its waves and directing them through
a clear gel-like supportive filling (the vitreous humor) toward the receptor-rich areas
covering the rear half of the eye’s inner wall. This area is called the retina and contains
the photoreceptors receiving the focused light waves. Two types of photoreceptors,
called rods and cones, convert light energy into neural impulses. A central area of the
retina, called the fovea, is made up entirely of cones, whereas the more peripheral
retina area outside of the fovea is comprised of all of the eye’s rods and only a few
cones.

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Two Visual Systems
1. Focal visual system – is a conscious visual system specialized for object
identification.
2. Ambient visual system – is a non-conscious visual system specialized for
movement control.
Comparison of Focal and Ambient Visual Systems
Focal Vision Ambient Vision

Color Vision Vision in shades of gray

Central visual focus Low visual acuity
Needs good illumination (Day vision) Peripheral vision
Conscious awareness Good in low illumination (Night vision)
Moderate discernment of movement Non-conscious perception
limited by conscious awareness High movement discernment under quick
and automatic control

Though not under conscious control, the ambient visual system supplies an
important source of information helping people maintain bodily balance and stability by
initiating postural corrections to changes in body position.
Optic flow – it is the patterning of light rays moving across the retina that supplies
information concerning the speed and direction of the movements of objects in the
environment.

Affordances - refer to the properties of an object or of the environment that offer

opportunities for action.
 Refer to both the actual and perceived qualities of things, primarily those
qualities of objects or environments that determine how they can be used
and what actions they allow us to perform.
Examples:
1. A chair affords support of the body and therefore affords the action of sitting. A chair
could also through, afford standing on to reach a book on the top shelf of a tall
bookcase.
2. A ball affords throwing. Some balls afford both throwing and bouncing.

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 https://www.slideshare.net/
The Brain - the organ that mediates all mental functions and all behaviours.
 The human brain, weighing no more than about three pounds yet comprised
of more than 100 billion neurons making possible trillions of neural
connections, integrates sensory input from the somatosensory and visual
systems with processes in the brain controlling the actions of the muscular
system.

Structures and Motor-Related Functions of Major Components of the Brain’s

Motor System

Brain Component Major Functions

Medulla  Regulates respiration, blood pressure, heart rate

Pons  Routes ascending signals to upper brain components

(“cross-over” relay station)

Reticular formation  Prioritizes incoming sensory signals and eliminates

irrelevant information from further processing activities
 Controls alertness and arousal levels

Cerebellum  Coordinates and plans voluntary muscular skills

 Maintains balance
 Monitors feedback from ongoing movements and initiates
corrective actions
 Maintain muscle tone
 Helps with synchronization of limb movements

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Hippocampus  Retains working memory of ongoing movements
 Plays essential role in consolidation of long-term
memories
Hypothalamus
 Controls body temperature
 Regulates energy use
 Links brain and endocrine systems
 Helps regulate emotions and behavioural patterns
Thalamus  Relays all sensory inputs to somatosensory cortex
 Reinforces voluntary motor behaviours initiated by higher
brain centers
Basal ganglia
 Plays role in the planning and execution of motor skills
 Is involved in preparing and stabilizing body for movement
 Works in concert with cerebellum to coordinated voluntary
movements
 Coordinates slow, sustained movement
Somatosensory cortex
 Sensory perception
 Routes sensory information to motor centers of cortex
 Prioritizes sensory sensitivity of bodily regions
Motor cortex
 Directly controls skeletal muscle contractions
 Prepares and executes the “motor program”
 Prioritizes complexity of motor control available to the
bodily regions
Supplemental cortex
 Is intricately involved in planning and control of all
voluntary movements
Premotor cortex
 Plans and controls all voluntary movements
 Especially is involved in temporal organization of limb and
body movements

Neural Control of the Muscular System

Humans have approximately 600 muscles, including cardiac, muscle, smooth
muscles lining blood vessels and the intestinal tract, and skeletal muscles. Although
cardiac and smooth muscle actions are controlled almost entirely automatically, skeletal
muscles (of which the average person has 326 by most accounts) control all voluntary
actions and, therefore, underlie the performance of movement skills.

The Motor Unit

Every muscle fiber in every muscle is controlled by a motor neuron. Neurons that
innervate skeletal muscles are called alpha motor neurons. Because the axonal

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endings of these nerves branch, one alpha motor neuron can innervate many individual
muscle fibers. A single alpha motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates
are called motor unit.

Motor unit pool – refers to all of the motor units controlling a specific muscle.
The number of motor units within a muscle’s motor unit pool is a function of both the
need for movement precision and the generation of force typical of the muscle’s actions.

https://github.com/

All-or-none law – refers to a law stating that all of the muscle fibers of a motor unit will
contract maximally when the motor neuron propagates sufficient stimulation, or none of
the muscle fibers will contract in the absence of a sufficient action potential.

Motor Unit Recruitment

Motor units are not activated randomly. They are activated and deactivated in a
predictable sequence or order described by the size principle.
Size principle – refers to the mechanism for motor unit recruitment where motor units
with smallest axons are recruited first and those with largest axons recruited last; the
order is reversed in deactivation.

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 Some motor units are more suited for aerobic metabolism, whereas others are
more appropriate for anaerobic activity. Two distinctive muscle fiber types can be
classified based upon theri contractile and metabolic characteristics.

Slow-twitch or type I muscle fiber – refers to the muscle fibers that produce low
contractile forces and that are relatively slow in responding, but capable of maintaining
sustained workloads. Type I fibers possess a high aerobic metabolic capacity.

Fast-twitch or type II muscle fiber – refers to the muscle fibers capable of producing
quick, high contractile force responses. Type II fibers are further subdivided into two
distinct types identified as type IIa and type IIb. Type IIa fibers have a well- developed
capacity for both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism, whereas Type IIb fibers posses
the greatest anaerobic capacity.

Comparison of Muscle Fiber Types

Fiber Type I Type IIa Type IIb

characteristic (slow twitch (fast twitch) (fast twitch)

Force Production Low Intermediate High

Contraction Speed Slow Fast Fast

Fatigue Resistance High Moderate Low

Endurance Capacity High Moderate Low

.

References

Edwards. William H., (2011). Motor Learning and Control from Theory to Practice.

Wadsworth Cengage Learning. USA

Magill, Richard A., (2001). Motor Learning Concepts and Application 3rd Edition. Wm. C.

Brown Publisher. USA

Krasnow, Donna H., PhD et.al, (2015). Motor Learning and Control for Dance

Principles and Practices for Performers and Teachers. Human Kinetics. USA

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