ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED PER CUBIC METRE OF

COMPACTED MORTAR OR CONCRETE

NOMINAL MIX WATER WATER CEMENT SAND CRUSHED

CEMENT F.A. C.A. CEMENT PER BY BY (CUM) STONES
RATIO 50KG WEIGHT NUMBER (CUM)
BAG OF (KG) OF BAGS
CEMENT
1 1 - 0.25 12.5 1015 20.3 0.710 -
1 1.5 0.28 14 815 16.3 0.855 -
1 2 - 0.3 15 687 13.74 0.963 -
1 2.5 - 0.35 17.5 585 11.7 1.023
1 3 - 0.4 20 505 10.1 1.06 -
1 4 - 0.53 26.5 395 7.9 1.106 -
1 6 - 0.7 35 285 5.7 1.197 -
1 8 - 0.9 45 220 4.4 1.232 -
1 1 2 0.3 15 560 11.2 0.392 0.784
1 2 2 0.42 21 430 8.6 0.602 0.602
1 1.5 3 0.42 21 395 7.9 0.414 0.828
1 1.66 3.33 0.48 24 363 7.26 0.419 0.838
1 2 3 0.5 25 385 7.7 0.539 0.808
1 2 3.5 0.53 26.5 330 6.6 0.462 0.808
1 2 4 0.55 27.5 310 6.2 0.434 0.868
1 2.5 3.5 0.57 28.5 305 6.1 0.534 0.748
1 2.5 4 0.6 30 285 5.7 0.499 0.798
1 3 4 0.65 32.5 265 5.3 0.556 0.742
1 2.5 5 0.65 32.5 255 5.1 0.446 0.892
1 3 5 0.69 34.5 240 4.8 0.504 0.84
1 3 6 0.75 37.5 215 4.3 0.452 0.904
1 4 8 0.95 47.5 165 3.3 0.462 0.924

Notes:

1. F.A.= Fine Aggregates, C.A.= Coarse Aggregates

2. The table is based on assumption that the voids in sand and crushed stone are 40 and 45
percent respectively.

3. Air content of 1 percent has been assumed.

4. For gravel aggregates decrease cement by 5 percent, increase sand by 2 percent and coarse
aggregate in proportion to fine aggregate in mix.

4. No allowance has been made in the table for bulking of sand and wastage.
RECOMMENDED VOLUMETRIC MIXES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF
CONSTRUCTION

Kind of work Appro Maximu Water for one cement bag batch
x. Mix m size of (ltr)
aggregat
Total for For Best
es (mm)
dry aggregates consistency
aggregat condition
es from dry to
moist

Small precast work, fence posts, 1:2:2 16 20 15 to 16 Soft

poles, garden furniture and other
work of very thin sections

Storage tanks, cisterns, sewers, 1:2:3 20 25 19 to 22 Medium

well knerbs, watertight work,
and columns or other structural
parts subjected to high stresses

Reinforced concrete work, floor 1:2.5:3 20 32 23 to 27 Medium or

slab, beams, columns, arches, .5 soft
stairs etc

Ordinary floors, footpaths, drive 1:2.5:3 20 23 20 to 23 Stiff

ways, steps, roads, pavements .5

Building and basement walls, 1:2:4 40 30 23 to 26 Stiff or

silos, sills, lintels, machine Medium
foundations subject to vibration,
bridges, dams, piers, etc exposed
to action of water and frost
foundation concrete for masonry
walls

Culverts, retaining walls, 1:3:5 40 34 26 to 30 Stiff or

compound walls, ordinary Medium
machine bases, etc.

Mass concrete for heavy walls, 1:3:6 63 36 30 to 32 Medium

lean concrete for levelling
course of RCC foundations
 NOTES: When both fine and coarse aggregates are poorly graded, the following general
rules regarding suitable proportioning of these will be found helpful:

1. For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 40mm and over, sand should be half as
much as coarse aggregates.
2. For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 20mm and over, sand should be two-thirds
as much as coarse aggregates.
3. For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 16mm, sand and coarse aggregates should
be in equal parts.

GRADING LIMITS FOR AGGREGATES

GRADING LIMIT FOR SINGLE – SIZED AGGREGATES

(Clause 4.1 and 4.2 of IS: 383- 1970)

IS Sieve Percentage passing for single sized aggregates of nominal size(mm)

63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm

80 mm 100 - - - - -

63 mm 85 – 100 100 - - - -

40 mm 0 – 30 85 – 100 100 - - -

20 mm 0–5 0 – 20 85 – 100 100 - -

16 mm - - - 85 – 100 100 -

12.5 mm - - - - 85 – 100 100

10 mm 0–5 0–5 0 – 20 0 – 30 0 – 45 85 – 100

4.75 mm - - 0–5 0–5 0 – 10 0 – 20

2.36 mm - - - - - 0–5

GRADING LIMITS FOR FINE AGGREGATES(Clause 4.3 of IS: 383 – 1970)

IS Sieve Percentage Passing

Designation
Grading Grading Grading Grading

Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone IV

10 mm 100 100 100 100

4.75 mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 95 – 100

2.36 mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100

1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100

600 micron 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100

300 micron 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50

150 micron 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15
DEGREE OF WORKABILITY FOR DIFFERENT PLACING CONDITIONS

Placing Condition Degree of Slump (mm)

Workability

Binding concrete, Very low Use compacting factor

test as per IS: 1199
Shallow Sections

Pavement using pavers

Mass concrete, Low 25-75

Lightly reinforced sections in slabs, beams,

walls, columns, foors, hand placed pavements,
canal linings, strip footings

Heavily Reinforced sections in slabs, columns, Medium 50 – 100, 75 – 100

walls, slipform work, pumped concrete

Trench fill, in-situ piling High 100 – 150

Tensile concrete Very high Use determination of

flow test as per IS: 9103

BULK DENSITY MEASUREMENT OF CONCRETE

The bulk density measurement is used for determining the

weight per cubic meter of freshly mixed concrete (density of
concrete) from which the yield of concrete per cubic meter
can be calculated.

Procedure for measuring bulk density of concrete is as per

IS 1199 – methods of sampling and analysis of concrete. The
steps are as follows:

i)Take freshly mixed concrete from transit mixer by using wheel borrow.

ii) Fill the cylindrical measure with concrete as soon as practicable after mixing.

iii) Fill the cylindrical measure with concrete in layers approximately 5 cm deep and each
layer shall be compacted.
iv) While compacting the concrete the standard tamping bar shall be distributed in uniform
manner over the cross section of the measure.

v) The number of strokes per layer is 60 for 10 litres cylinder and 120 for 20 litres cylinder.

vi) The exterior surface of the cylinder shall be tapped 10 to 15 times or until no large
bubbles of air appear on the surface of the compacted layer.

vii) Strike-off the top surface and finish it smoothly with a flat cover plate.

viii) Clean all excess concrete from the exterior and weigh the filled measured.

ix) Density of concrete ( ): The weight per cubic meter of concrete shall be calculated by
dividing the weight of fully compacted concrete in the cylindrical measure by the capacity of
measure in kg/cu.m ( ).

x. Yield of concrete (V2) : The volume of concrete produced per cum. shall be calculated as
follows.

= Weight of cement, kg

= Weight of fine aggregate, kg

= Weight of coarse aggregate, kg

= Weight of water, kg

ACCELERATED CURING METHOD is used to get early high compressive strength in

concrete. This method is also used to find out 28 days compressive strength of concrete in 28
hours. (As per IS 9013-1978-Method of making, curing and determining compressive
strength of accelerated cured concrete test specimens).

Accelerated curing is useful in the prefabrication

industry wherein high early age strength enables the
removal of the formwork within 24 hours thereby
reducing the cycle time resulting in cost saving
benefits. The most commonly adopted curing
techniques are steam curing at atmospheric
pressure, warm water curing, boiling water curing
and autoclaving.

Compressive strength test using Accelerated curing method:

1. After the test specimens (whose 28 days strength to be determined) have been made, store
it in moist air of at least 90 percent humidity for 23 hours + 15 min.
2. Cover the specimens with flat steel cover plate to avoid distortion during the use.

3. Carefully and gently lower the specimens into the curing tank and shall remain totally
immersed for a period of 3½

Hours + 15 min.

4. The temperature of water in the curing tank shall be at boiling (100 oC) when the
specimens are placed.

5. After curing for 3 ½ hours in boil water, the specimen shall be carefully removed from the
boiling water and cooled by immersing in cooling tank at 27 +2oC for 2 hrs.

6. After cooling remove the specimens from the mould and tested for its accelerated
compressive strength (Ra) in N/mm2.

7. The 28 days can be found out using following formula.

Predicted 28 days compressive strength = R28 = 8.09 + 1.64 Ra, where Ra is accelerated
compressive strength and R28 is predicted compressive strength at 28 days

Learn more about accelerated curing

The digital compression testing machine is used to determine the compressive strength of
cube and cylinder (i.e. hardened concrete).

COMPRESSION TEST MACHINE

Procedure as per IS 516 – Methods of tests for strength of concrete

1. Keep the specimen to be tested centrally on the clean lower platen so that small clearance
is left between the upper platen and the top the specimen under test.

2. Close the pressure release valve.

3. Make the digital display to read “Zero” by adjusting the zero knob.

4. Put the display unit on “Peak Hold” mode to hold the maximum load reading.

5. Start applying the load at the specified pace rate, which could be maintained by adjusting
the slow fast knob.

6. If the pace rate is on higher side the indicator displays red colour and the pace rate is on
lower side the indicator will display yellow colour.

7. If the pace rate is exactly equal to set rate then the indicator will display green colour.

8. As soon as sample fails, release the pressure slowly by opening valve.

9. The digital display will be holding the maximum load reading at which sample has failed.
Note down the pattern of failure and calculate the compressive strength in N/mm2 or kg/cm2.

10. Pace rate for 15 cm cube is 5.15 kN/s.

11. Before starting another test, clean the lower platen and bring the digital display to “Zero”
position by depressing the “Reset” switch.

Why do we test concrete compressive strength after 28 days?

The table below shows the compressive strength gained by concrete after 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28
days with respect to the grade of concrete we use.

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%

From above table, we see that, concrete gains 16 percent strength in one day, 40 percent in 3
days, 65% in 7 days, 90% in 14 days and 99% strength in 28 days. Thus, it is clear that
concrete gains its strength rapidly in the initial days after casting, i.e. 90% in only 14 days.
When, its strength have reached 99% in 28 days, still concrete continues to gain strength after
that period, but that rate of gain in compressive strength is very less compared to that in 28
days.

After 14 days of casting concrete, concrete gains only 9% in next 14

days. So, rate of gain of strength decreases. We have no clear idea
upto when the concrete gains the strength, 1 year or 2 year, but it is
assumed that concrete may gain its final strength after 1 year. So,
since the concrete strength is 99% at 28 days, its almost close to its final strength, thus we
rely upon the results of compressive strength test after 28 days and use this strength as the
base for our design and evaluation.

Though there are also some rapid method of testing concrete compressive strength which
gives relation between rapid test methods and 28 day strength. This rapid test is done where
time is limited for construction and strength of structural member must be known to carry out
further construction work.

The process of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water, so as to
obtain a concrete of desired quality is known as the proportioning of concrete.

The proportions of coarse aggregate, cement and water should be such that the resulting
concrete has the following properties:

1. When concrete is fresh, it should have enough workability so that it can be placed in
the formwork economically.
2. The concrete must possess maximum density or in the other words, it should be
strongest and most water-tight.
3. The cost of materials and labour required to form concrete should be minimum.

The determination of the proportions of cement, aggregates and water to obtain the required
strengths shall be made as follows:

a) By desigining the concrete mix, such concrete shall be called design mix concrete, or

b) By adopting nominal mix, such concrete shall be called nominal mix concrete.

Design mix concrete is preferred to nominal mix.

Concrete of each grade shall be analysed separately to determine its standard
deviation.

Standard Deviation

Where, = deviation of the individual test strength from the average strength of n samples.

n = Number of sample test results.

METHODS OF PROPORTIONING CONCRETE

(1) Arbitrary Method

The general expression for the proportions of cement, sand and coarse aggregate is 1 : n : 2n
by volume.

1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1.2 : 2.4 for very high strength.

1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.

1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations and mass concrete works.

Recommended Mixes of Concrete

The concrete as per IS 456: 2000, the grades of concrete lower than M20 are not to be used in
RCC work.

M10 1:3:6
M15 1:2:4
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3
M25 1:1:2

(2) Fineness Modulus Method:

The term fineness modulus is used to indicate an index number which is roughly proportional
to the average size of the particle in the entire quantity of aggregates.

The fineness modulus is obtained by adding the percentage of weight of the material retained
on the following sieve and divided by 100.

The coarser the aggregates, the higher the fineness modulus.

Sieve is adopted for:

All aggregates : 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.

Coarse aggregates : mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and No. 480.

Fine aggregates : Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.

Proportion of the fine aggregate to the combined aggregate by weight

Where, P = desired fineness modulus for a concrete mix of fine and coarse aggregates.

= fineness modulus of fine aggregate

= fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.

(3) Minimum Void Method (Does not give satisfactory result)

The quantity of sand used should be such that it completely fills the voids of coarse
aggregate. Similarly, the quantity of cement used shown such that it fills the voids of sand, so
that a dense mix the minimum voids is obtained.

In actual practice, the quantity of fine aggregate used in the mix is about 10% more than the
voids in the coarse aggregate and the quantity of cement is kept as about 15% more than the
voids in the fine aggregate.

(4) Maximum Density Method: (Not very Popular)

Where, D = maximum size of aggregate (i.e. coarse aggregate)

P = percentage of material finer than diameter d (by weight)

d = maximum size of fine aggregate.

A box is filled with varying proportions of fine and coarse aggregates. The proportion which
gives heaviest weight is then adopted.

(5) Water – Cement Ratio Method:

According to the water – cement ratio law given by Abram as a result of many experiments,
the strength of well compacted concrete with good workability is dependent only on the ratio.

The lower water content produces stiff paste having greater binding property and
hence the lowering the water-cement ratio within certain limits results in the increased
strength.
Similarly, the higher water content increases the workability, but lower the strength of
concrete.
The optimum water-cement ratio for the concrete of required compressive strength is
decided from graphs and expressions developed from various experiments.
Amount of water less than the optimum water decreases the strength and about 10%
less may be insufficient to ensure complete setting of cement. An increase of 10%
above the optimum may decrease the strength approximately by 15% while an
increase in 50% may decrease the strength to one-half.
According to Abram’s Law water-cement law, lesser the water-cement ratio in a
workable mix greater will be the strength.
If water cement ratio is less than 0.4 to 0.5, complete hydration will not be secured.
Some practical values of water cement ratio for structure reinforced concrete

0.45 for 1 : 1 : 2 concrete

0.5 for 1 : 1.5 : 3 concrete

0.5 to 0.6 for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.

Concrete vibrated by efficient mechanical vibrators require less water cement ratio, and
hence have more strength.

Thumb Rules for deciding the quantity of water in concrete:

(i) Weight of water = 28% of the weight of cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate

(ii) Weight of water = 30% of the weight of cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate

Compressive strength of concrete: Out of many test applied to the concrete, this is the
utmost important which gives an idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single
test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. For cube test two types
of specimens either cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm or 10cm X 10 cm x 10 cm depending
upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15 cm x
15cm x 15 cm are commonly used.

This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After
24 hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top
surface of these specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement
paste and spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
Specimens fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive
strength of concrete.

Following are the procedure for Compressive strength test of Concrete Cubes

APPARATUS

Compression testing machine

PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used
in the field.

SPECIMEN

6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above

MIXING

Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer

HAND MIXING

(i)Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the
mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color

(ii)Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch

(iii)Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency

SAMPLING

(i) Clean the mounds and apply oil

(ii) Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5cm thick

(iii) Compact each layer with not less than 35strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar
16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)
(iv) Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel

CURING

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24hours and after this period the specimens are
marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out
prior to test.

PRECAUTIONS

The water for curing should be tested every 7days and the temperature of water must be at
27+-2oC.

PROCEDURE

(I) Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water
from the surface.

(II) Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m

(III) Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine

(IV) Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.

(V) Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.

(VI) Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.

(VII) Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of
140kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails

(VIII) Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

NOTE

Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen
varies by more than 15 per cent of average strength, results of such specimen should be
rejected. Average of there specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete. The strength
requirements of concrete.

CALCULATIONS

Size of the cube =15cm x15cm x15cm

Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225cm2

Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days =

Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s

Range to be selected is …………………..

Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength

Maximum load applied =……….tones = ………….N

Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=……………N/mm2

=……………………….N/mm2

REPORT

a) Identification mark

b) Date of test

c) Age of specimen

d) Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen

f) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual

RESULT

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = ………….N/ mm2 (at 7 days)

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =………. N/mm2 (at 28 days)

Percentage strength of concrete at various ages:

The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%
WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

Workability of concrete describes the ease or difficulty with which the concrete is handled,
transported and placed between the forms with minimum loss of homogeneity.

Workability is important because, if

i. the concrete mixture is too wet, coarse aggregates settle at the bottom of concrete mass and
as a result concrete becomes non-uniform composition,

ii. the concrete mixture is too dry, it will be difficult to handle and place it in position

Workability of concrete mixture is measured by:

a) Vee-bee consistometer test

b) Compaction factor test

c) Slump test

The first two tests are laboratory tests while the third test is the field test.

Slump Test

This test is carried out with a mould called slump cone whose top diameter is 10cm, bottom
diameter is 20 cm and height is 30 cm. the test may be performed in the following steps:

1. Place the slump mould on a smooth flat and non-absorbent surface.

2. Mix the dry ingredients of the concrete thoroughly till a uniform colour is obtained and
then add the required quantity of water.

3. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about one-fourth of its height.

4. Compact the concrete 25 times with the help of a tamping rod uniformly all over the area.
5. Place the concrete in the mould about half of its height and compact it again.

6. Place the concrete upto its three fourth height and then upto its top. Compact each layer 25
times with the help of tamping rod uniformly. For the second subsequent layers, the tamping
rod should penetrate into underlying layers.

7. Strike off the top surface of mould with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is filled
to its top.

8. Remove the mould immediately, ensuring its movement in vertical direction.

9. When the settlement of concrete stops, measure the subsidence of the concrete in
millimeters which is the required slump of the concrete.

Figure: Measurement of slump

Suitability of Slump Test:

The slump test is suitable only for the concrete of high or medium workability.

Recommended Values of Slump for Various Purposes:

No. Types of concrete Slump

1 Concrete for road construction 20 to 40 mm
2 Concrete for tops of curbs, parapets, piers, slabs and 40 to 50 mm
wall
3 Concrete for canal lining 70 to 80 mm
4 Normal RCC work 80 to 150 mm
5 Mass concrete 20 to 50 mm
6 Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25 mm
ACCEPTANCE OF CONCRETE CUBE TEST RESULTS

ACI-5.6 2008 requires that all the tests to be performed on fresh, hardened or old concrete are
to be performed by qualified field testing technicians. They should collect and prepare all the
specimens for testing and should record temperature and other important information about
the fresh concrete.

1. Frequency Of Testing

A strength test is considered as the average of the strengths of at least

two 150 by 300 mm cylinders or at least three 100 by 200 mm
cylinders made from the same sample of concrete and tested at 28 days
or at test age designated for determination of fc‟.

As mentioned in the earlier chapters, samples for strength tests of each

class of concrete placed each day must be taken not less than all of the
following:

a) Once a day

b) Once for each 110 cum of concrete

c) Once for each 460 sqm of surface area for slabs or walls. Only one side of the slab or wall
should be considered in calculating the area. This criterion requires more frequent sampling
than once for each 110 m3 of concrete placed if the average wall or slab thickness is less than
240 mm.

d) At least five randomly selected samples for a given class of concrete.

e) According to ACI, when total quantity of a given class of concrete is less than 38 m3,
strength tests are not required when evidence of satisfactory strength is submitted to and
approved by the building official.

2. Acceptance Based On Standard-Cured Specimens

Strength of a new concrete determined by standard-cured specimens is considered

satisfactory if both of the following conditions are satisfied:

a) Every arithmetic average of any three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds fc?

b) No strength test falls below fc? by more than 3.5MPa when fc? is 35 MPa or less; or by
more than 0.10 fc? when fc? is more than 35 MPa.

If the above conditions are not satisfied, steps must be taken to increase the average of
subsequent strength test results.

3. Acceptance Of Field-Cured Specimens

Field-cured test cylinders should be molded at the same time and from the same samples as
laboratory-cured test cylinders. These results are not directly used as acceptance criterion but
give idea about the field curing procedure. Procedures for protecting and curing concrete are
to be improved when strength of field cured cylinders at test age designated for determination
of fc? is less than 85 percent of that of companion laboratory-cured cylinders. The 85 percent
limitation need not to be applied if field-cured strength exceeds fc? by more than 3.5 MPa.

4. Investigation Of Low-Strength Test Results

If the strength tests of laboratory-cured cylinders do not satisfy the criterion for acceptance or
if tests of field-cured cylinders indicate deficiencies in protection and curing, immediate
actions are required to avoid under-strength construction. If it is almost confirmed that the
concrete may be of low strength, three cores must be taken for each under-strength test. Cores
are tested after 48 hours but not, later than 7 days after coring unless approved by the licensed
design professional. The strength of concrete may be considered satisfactory if the average of
three cores is equal to at least 85 percent of fc? and if no single core is less than 75 percent of
fc?. If these criteria are not satisfied, it is allowed to extract and test additional cores. Cores
taken to confirm structural adequacy are usually taken at ages later than those specified for
determination of fc?. If the core test also fails and the doubt about the concrete strength still
exists, structural strength evaluation / load test may be recommended.

TESTING OF CONCRETE CORES

While Rebound Hammer, CAPO/Pullout, Windsor probe and ultrasonic pulse velocity
tests give indirect evidence of concrete quality, a more direct assessment on strength can be
made by core sampling and testing. Cores are usually cut by means of a rotary cutting tool
with diamond bits. In this manner, a cylindrical specimen is obtained usually with its ends
being uneven, parallel and square and sometimes with embedded pieces of reinforcement.
The cores are visually described and photographed, giving specific attention to compaction,
distribution of aggregates, presence of steel etc. the core should then be soaked in water,
capped with molten sulpher to make its ends plane, parallel, at right angle and then tested in
compression in a moist condition as per BS 1881: Part 4: 1970 or ASTM C 42-77. The core
samples can also be used for the following:

Strength and density determination

Depth of carbonation of concrete
Chemical analysis
Water/gas permeability
Petrographic analysis
ASHTO Chloride permeability test

Fig: Instrument showing core cutting

 Fig: Concrete Core

The strength of a test specimen depends on its shape, proportions and size. The influence of
height/diameter (H/D) ratio on the recorded strength of cylinder is an established fact.
Strength of core have to be related to the standard cylinder strengths, i.e. for H/D ratio of 2.
Thus core should be preferably have this ration near to 2. For values of H/D less than 1,
between 1 and 2, a correction factor has to be applied. Cores with H/D ratio less than 1 yield
unreliable results and BS 1881: Part-4:1970 prescribes a minimum value as 0.95. The same
standard specifies the use of 150mm or 100mm cores. However cores as small as 50mm are
also permitted in the standards. Very small diameter cores exhibit more variability in results
than larger dia cores, hence their use is generally not recommended. The general rule adopted
for fixing the core size, besides the H/D ratio, is the nominal size of stone aggregate and the
dia should be not less than 3 times the maximum size of stone aggregate. For diameter of core
less than 3 times the size of the stone aggregate, an increased number of cores have to be
tested.

Following are the factors which affect the compressive strength of extracted concrete cores:

Size of stone aggregate: If the ratio of diameter of core to maximum size of stone
aggregate is less than 3, a reduction in strength is reported. For concrete with 20mm
size aggregate, 50mm dia core has been tested to give 10% lower results than with
10mm dia cores.
Presence of transverse reinforcement steel: It is reported that the presence of
transverse steel causes a 5 to 15% reduction in compressive strength of core. The
effect of embedded steel is higher on stronger concrete and as its location moves away
from ends, i.e. towards the middle. However presence of steel parallel to the axis of
the core is not desirable.
H/D ratio: This has been already discussed above. However its value should be
minimum 0.95 and maximum 2. Higher ratio would cause a reduction in strength.
Age of concrete: No age allowance is recommended by the Concrete Society as some
evidence is reported to suggest that in-situ concrete gains little strength after 28 days.
Whereas others suggest that under average conditions, the increase over 28 days‟
strength is 10% after 3 months, 15% after 6 months. Hence it is not easy to deal the
effect of age on core strength.
Strength of concrete: The effect in reducing the core strength appears to be higher in
stronger concretes and reduction has been reported as 15% for 40 MPa concrete.
However a reduction of 5 50 7% is considered reasonable.
Drilling operations: The strength of cores is generally less than that of standard
cylinders, partly as a consequence of disturbance due to vibrations during drilling
 operations. Whatever best precautions are taken during drilling, there is always a risk
of slight damage.
Site conditions vis-a-vis standard specimens: Because site curing is invariably inferior
to curing prescribed for standard specimens, the in-situ core strength is invariably
lower than the standard specimens taken and tested during concreting operations.

The testing of cores is carried out according to the ASTM Standard C 42. The diameter of
core specimens for the determination of concrete compressive strength should preferably be
at least three times the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate used in the concrete,
and must be at least twice the maximum size of the coarse aggregate in the core sample. The
length of the specimen, when capped, should be nearly as practicable twice its diameter. A
core having a maximum height of less than 95% of its diameter before capping or a height
less than its diameter after capping must be rejected. It is preferable to test the cores in moist
condition. The ASTM standard prescribes the following procedure: “Submerge the test
specimens in lime-saturated water at 23.0 +/- 1.7° C for at least 40 h immediately prior to
making the compression test. Test the specimens promptly after removal from water storage.
During the period between removal from water storage and testing, keep the specimens moist
by covering with a wet blanket of burlap or other suitable absorbent fabric.” If the ratio of the
length to diameter of the specimen is less than 1.94 apply correction factors shown in the
Table 1.

Table 23.2. Correction Factor for Ratio of Length of Cone to its Diameter

Ratio of length of cylinder to Strength correction factor

diameter (L/D)

1.75 0.98

1.50 0.96

1.25 0.93

1.00 0.87

The procedures for properly removing concrete samples by core drilling are given in ASTM
C 42. Cores must be taken using diamond-studded core bits when the cores are to be tested
for strength. A shot drill may be acceptable for other applications when the core is drilled
vertically. However, diamond-studded core bits are recommended for other drill orientations.

The following guidelines are of particular importance in core sampling:

The number, size, and location of core samples should be carefully selected to permit
all necessary laboratory tests. If possible, use virgin samples for all tests so that there
will be no influence from prior tests.
For determination of strength the core must have a minimum diameter of greater of
three times the maximum nominal size of the coarse aggregate, or 50 mm.
For strength tests, the cores must have a length of at least twice their diameter.
Reinforcing steel should not be included in a core to be tested for strength.
 During drilling of cores, the electrical conduits or prestressing steel must not be
disturbed.
It is better to drill core through full depth of member to avoid the need of its breaking
for extraction. An extra 50 mm is usually drilled to allow for possible damage at the
base of the core.
At least three cores must be removed at each location in the structure for strength
determination.

The hole drilled to take the core is filled by packaged repair material. A thixotropic material
is required for repair of slabs as it must not fall down under gravity. In some cases, a pre-cast
cylinder of concrete may be fitted in the core hole by using cement grout or epoxy resin.
Minimum core diameter is usually 100 mm but 75 mm and 50 mm diameters may be used in
special cases. The number of 50 mm diameter cores must be three times the number of 100
mm diameter cores to get the same accuracy. The 20 percent top portion of member with a
minimum of 50 mm and maximum of 300 mm and a side cover of 50 mm within the member
is preferably not included in the portion of the core to be tested.

Before testing the cores, dimensions, density, shape, information whether aggregates appear
to be well-graded or gap-graded, position of any cracks, damage due to drilling and presence
of steel must be recorded. Ends are prepared in high speed wet grinding machine using
diamond-faced grinding wheels. Otherwise, capping using strong materials may be carried
out. Water soaking of 40 hours is recommended prior to the testing. According to the British
standard CSTR No. 11, the effect of the length to diameter ratio of the core (R) on the
strength is given as under:

For horizontally drilled cores,

Corrected cylinder strength = Core strength x[(2.5x0.8)/(1+(1/R))]

For vertically drilled cores,

Corrected cylinder strength = Core strength x[(2.3x0.8)/(1+(1/R))]

Design Mix Concrete Acceptance Criteria:

I. The concrete shall be deemed to comply with the strength requirements if:

a) every sample has a test strength not less than the characteristic value;or

b) The strength of one or more samples though less than the characteristic value, is in each
case not less than the greater of :

1) The characteristic strength minus 1.35 times the standard deviation; and

2) 0.80 times the characteristic strength ; and the average strength of all the samples is not
less than the characteristic strength plus

times the standard deviation.

II. The concrete shall be deemed not to comply with the strength requirements if:
a) The strength of any sample is less than the greater of :

1) the characteristic strength mix is 1.35 times the standard deviation; and

2) 0.80 times the characteristic strength ; or

b) The average strength of all samples is less than the characteristic strength
plus

times the standard deviation.

III Concrete which does not meet the strength requirements as specified in I, but has a
strength greater than that required by II may, at the discretion of the designer, be
accepted as being structurally adequate without further testing.

IV. Concrete of each grade shall be assessed separately.

V Concrete shall be assessed daily for compliance.

VI. Concrete is liable to be rejected if it is porous or honey-combed; its placing has been
interrupted without providing a proper construction joint; the reinforcement has been
displaced beyond the tolerances specified; or construction tolerances have not been met.
However, the hardened concrete may be accepted after carrying out suitable remedial
measures to the satisfaction.

VIII. Where the value of the average strength of the tests (preferably 30 tests or 15 tests) is
less than

shall be rejected.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST

The standard method of evaluating the quality of concrete in buildings or structures is to test
specimens cast simultaneously for compressive, flexural and tensile strengths. The main
disadvantages are that results are not obtained immediately; that concrete in specimens may
differ from that in the actual structure as a result of different curing and compaction
conditions; and that strength properties of a concrete specimen depend on its size and shape.

Although there can be no direct measurement of the strength properties of structural concrete
for the simple reason that strength determination involves destructive stresses, several non-
destructive methods of assessment have been developed. These depend on the fact that
certain physical properties of concrete can be related to strength and can be measured by non-
destructive methods. Such properties include hardness, resistance to penetration by
projectiles, rebound capacity and ability to transmit ultrasonic pulses and X- and Y-rays.
These non-destructive methods may be categorized as penetration tests, rebound tests, pull-
out techniques, dynamic tests, radioactive tests, maturity concept. It is the purpose of this
Digest to describe these methods briefly, outlining their advantages and disadvantages.

Penetration Tests

The Windsor probe is generally considered to be the best means of testing penetration.
Equipment consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy probes, loaded
cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring penetration of probes and other related equipment. A
probe, diameter 0.25 in. (6.5 mm) and length 3.125 in. (8.0 cm), is driven into the concrete by
means of a precision powder charge. Depth of penetration provides an indication of the
compressive strength of the concrete. Although calibration charts are provided by the
manufacturer, the instrument should be calibrated for type of concrete and type and size of
aggregate used.

Limitations and Advantages. The probe test produces quite variable results and should not be
expected to give accurate values of concrete strength. It has, however, the potential for
providing a quick means of checking quality and maturity of in situ concrete. It also provides
a means of assessing strength development with curing. The test is essentially non-
destructive, since concrete and structural members can be tested in situ, with only minor
patching of holes on exposed faces.

Rebound Tests

The rebound hammer is a surface hardness tester for which an empirical correlation has been
established between strength and rebound number. The only known instrument to make use
of the rebound principle for concrete testing is the Schmidt hammer, which weighs about 4 lb
(1.8 kg) and is suitable for both laboratory and field work. It consists of a spring-controlled
hammer mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The hammer is forced against
the surface of the concrete by the spring and the distance of rebound is measured on a scale.
The test surface can be horizontal, vertical or at any angle but the instrument must be
calibrated in this position.

Calibration can be done with cylinders (6 by 12 in., 15 by 30 cm) of the same cement and
aggregate as will be used on the job. The cylinders are capped and firmly held in a
compression machine. Several readings are taken, well distributed and reproducible, the
average representing the rebound number for the cylinder. This procedure is repeated with
several cylinders, after which compressive strengths are obtained.

Limitations and Advantages. The Schmidt hammer provides an inexpensive, simple and
quick method of obtaining an indication of concrete strength, but accuracy of ±15 to ±20 per
cent is possible only for specimens cast cured and tested under conditions for which
calibration curves have been established. The results are affected by factors such as
smoothness of surface, size and shape of specimen, moisture condition of the concrete, type
of cement and coarse aggregate, and extent of carbonation of surface.

Pull-Out Tests

A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to pull from the concrete a
specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end has been cast into the concrete to a depth of 3
in. (7.6 cm). The concrete is simultaneously in tension and in shear, but the force required to
pull the concrete out can be related to its compressive strength. The pull-out technique can
thus measure quantitatively the in-situ strength of concrete when proper correlations have
been made. It has been found, over a wide range of strengths, that pull-out strengths have a
coefficient of variation comparable to that of compressive strength.

Limitations and Advantages. Although pullout tests do not measure the interior strength of
mass concrete, they do give information on the maturity and development of strength of a
representative part of it. Such tests have the advantage of measuring quantitatively the
strength of concrete in place. Their main disadvantage is that they have to be planned in
advance and pull-out assemblies set into the formwork before the concrete is placed. The
pull-out, of course, creates some minor damage. The test can be non-destructive, however, if
a minimum pull-out force is applied that stops short of failure but makes certain that a
minimum strength has been reached. This is information of distinct value in determining
when forms can be removed safely.

Dynamic Tests

At present the ultrasonic pulse velocity method is the only one of this type that shows
potential for testing concrete strength in situ. It measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic
pulse passing through the concrete. The fundamental design features of all commercially
available units are very similar, consisting of a pulse generator and a pulse receiver. Pulses
are generated by shock-exciting piezo-electric crystals, with similar crystals used in the
receiver. The time taken for the pulse to pass through the concrete is measured by electronic
measuring circuits.

Pulse velocity tests can be carried out on both laboratory-sized specimens and completed
concrete structures, but some factors affect measurement:

1. There must be smooth contact with the surface under test; a coupling medium such as
a thin film of oil is mandatory.
2. It is desirable for path-lengths to be at least 12 in. (30 cm) in order to avoid any errors
introduced by heterogeneity.
3. It must be recognized that there is an increase in pulse velocity at below-freezing
temperature owing to freezing of water; from 5 to 30°C (41 – 86°F) pulse velocities
are not temperature dependent.
4. The presence of reinforcing steel in concrete has an appreciable effect on pulse
velocity. It is therefore desirable and often mandatory to choose pulse paths that avoid
the influence of reinforcing steel or to make corrections if steel is in the pulse path.

Applications and Limitations: The pulse velocity method is an ideal tool for establishing
whether concrete is uniform. It can be used on both existing structures and those under
construction. Usually, if large differences in pulse velocity are found within a structure for no
apparent reason, there is strong reason to presume that defective or deteriorated concrete is
present.

High pulse velocity readings are generally indicative of good quality concrete. A general
relation between concrete quality and pulse velocity is given in Table.

Table: Quality of Concrete and Pulse Velocity

General Conditions Pulse Velocity

ft/sec
 Excellent Above 15,000

Good 12,000-15,000

Questionable 10,000-12,000

Poor 7,000-10,000

Very Poor below 7,000

Fairly good correlation can be obtained between cube compressive strength and pulse
velocity. These relations enable the strength of structural concrete to be predicted within ±20
per cent, provided the types of aggregate and mix proportions are constant.

The pulse velocity method has been used to study the effects on concrete of freeze-thaw
action, sulphate attack, and acidic waters. Generally, the degree of damage is related to a
reduction in pulse velocity. Cracks can also be detected. Great care should be exercised,
however, in using pulse velocity measurements for these purposes since it is often difficult to
interpret results. Sometimes the pulse does not travel through the damaged portion of the
concrete.

The pulse velocity method can also be used to estimate the rate of hardening and strength
development of concrete in the early stages to determine when to remove formwork. Holes
have to be cut in the formwork so that transducers can be in direct contact with the concrete
surface. As concrete ages, the rate of increase of pulse velocity slows down much more
rapidly than the rate of development of strength, so that beyond a strength of 2,000 to 3,000
psi (13.6 to 20.4 MPa) accuracy in determining strength is less than ±20%. Accuracy depends
on careful calibration and use of the same concrete mix proportions and aggregate in the test
samples used for calibration as in the structure.

In summary, ultrasonic pulse velocity tests have a great potential for concrete control,
particularly for establishing uniformity and detecting cracks or defects. Its use for predicting
strength is much more limited, owing to the large number of variables affecting the relation
between strength and pulse velocity.

Radioactive Methods

Radioactive methods of testing concrete can be used to detect the location of reinforcement,
measure density and perhaps establish whether honeycombing has occurred in structural
concrete units. Gamma radiography is increasingly accepted in England and Europe. The
equipment is quite simple and running costs are small, although the initial price can be high.
Concrete up to 18 in. (45 cm) thick can be examined without difficulty.

REBOUND HAMMER TESTING

The operation of rebound hammer is shown in the fig.1. When the plunger of rebound
hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled mass with a constant
energy is made to hit concrete surface to rebound back. The extent of rebound, which is a
measure of surface hardness, is measured on a graduated scale. This measured value is
designated as Rebound Number (rebound index). A concrete with low strength and low
stiffness will absorb more energy to yield in a lower rebound value.

Fig: Operation of the rebound hammer

IS 13311 Pt-2 – 1992 and BS 6089-81 and BS: 1881: Pt-202 explains the standard procedure
for test and correlation between concrete cube crushing and strength rebound number. The
results are significantly affected by the following factors:

a) Mix characteristics

1. Cement type
2. Cement content
3. Coarse aggregate type

b) Angle of inclination of direction of hammer with reference to horizontal (fig2).

c) Member characteristics

1. Mass
2. Compaction
3. Surface type
4. Age, rate of hardening and curing type
5. Surface carbonation
6. Moisture condition
7. Stress state and temperature
 Fig.2 – cube compressive strength is N/mm2 plotted against rebound number

Since each of these may affect the readings obtained, any attempts to compare or estimate
concrete strength will be valid only if they are all standardised for the concrete under test and
for the calibration of specimens.

A) Strength Assessment

This test is conducted to assess the relative strength of concrete based on the hardness at or
near its exposed surface. Carrying of periodic calibration of rebound hammer using standard
anvil is desirable. However for new concrete construction, rebound hammer is calibrated on
concrete test cubes for a given source of constituent materials (i.e. cement, sand, stone
aggregates), this calibration data can be used with reasonable accuracy In arriving at
equivalent in-situ cube strength of relatively new concrete (not more than three months old
concrete. This calibration exercise may be carried out in a concrete lab by casting cubes of
designed mix and testing these under controlled condition with rebound hammer as well as
test to destruction in compression. Calibration graphs then can be drawn. Large number of
readings are desirable to reduce the affects of variability in readings due to various localized
as well as instrument factors. This method may give highly erroneous results for concrete
whose surface is exposed to atmosphere for longer periods say more than three months. This
is due to hardening of concrete surface due to carbonation, which may cause overestimation
as much as 50% for old structure. Hence strength assessment by rebound hammer test should
generally be restricted to relatively new structures only,

B) Survey of weak and delaminating concrete

as the test requires a flat surface and large number of readings to reduce variability, this test is
not generally suitable for use on spalled concrete surfaces of distressed structures. However,
comparison of rebound numbers which indicate the near surface hardness of the concrete will
help to identify relative surface weakness in cover concrete and also can be used to determine
the relative compressive strength of concrete. Locations possessing very low rebound
numbers will be identified as weak surface concrete and such locations will be identified for
further investigations like corrosion distress, fire damage and or any other reason including
original construction defects of concrete. This survey is to be carried our on each identified
member in a systematic way by dividing the member into well-defined grid points. The grid
matrix should have a spacing of approximately 300mm x 300mm. Table 1 gives guidelines
for qualitative interception of rebound hammer test results with reference to quality.

Table: 1 Quality of concrete from rebound values

Comparative Hardness

Average Rebound Quality of Concrete

>40 Very good
30 – 40 Good
20 – 30 Fair
<20 Poor and / or delaminated
0 Very poor and/or
delaminated

Procedure

i) Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammer should be tested against the test
anvil, to get reliable results, for which the manufacturer of the rebound hammer indicates the
range of readings on the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammer.

ii) Apply light pressure on the plunger – it will release it from the locked position and allow it
to extend to the ready position for the test.

iii) Press the plunger against the surface of the concrete, keeping the instrument perpendicular
to the test surface. Apply a gradual increase in pressure until the hammer impacts. (Do not
touch the button while depressing the plunger. Press the button after impact, in case it is not
convenient to note the rebound reading in that position.)

iv) Take the average of about 15 readings.

WINDSOR PROBE TECHNIQUES

This technique offers a means of determining relative strengths of concrete in the same
structure or relative strength of different structures. Because of nature of equipments, it can
not and should not be expected to yield absolute values of strength. ASTM C-803 gives this
standard test method titled “Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete”.

Windsor Probe is penetration resistance measurement equipment, which consists of a gun

powder actuated driver, hardened alloy of probe, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge and other
accessories. In this technique a gunpowder actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy
probe into the concrete. During testing, it is the exposed length of probe which is measured
by a calibration depth gauge. But it is preferable to express the coefficient of variation in
terms of depth of penetration as the fundamental relation is between concrete strength and
penetration depth.

The probe shown in fig.1 has a diameter of 6.3mm, length of 73mm and conical point at the
tip. The rear of the probe is threaded and screwed into a probe-driving head, which is
12.6mm in diameter and fits snugly along with a rubber washer into the bore of the driver. As
the probe penetrates into the concrete, test results are actually not affected by local surface
conditions such as texture and moisture content. However damage in the form of cracking
may be cause to slender members. A minimum edge distance and member thickness of
150mm is required. It is important to leave 50mm distance from the reinforcement present in
the member since the presence of reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of penetrating
probe affects the penetration depth.

A pin penetration test device (PNR Tester) which requires less energy than the Windsor
Probe system is given in fig.2.

Fig.1: Windsor Probe

 Fig.2: Penetration Tester

Being a low energy device, sensitivity is reduced at higher strengths. Hence it is not
recommended for testing concrete having strength above 28 N/sq.mm. in this a spring-loaded
device, having energy of about 1.3% of that of Windsor probe, us used to drive 3.56mm
diameter, a pointed hardened steel pin into the concrete. The penetration of pin creates a
small indentation (or hole) on the surface of concrete. The pin is removed from the hole, the
hole is cleaned with an air jet and the hole depth is measured with a suitable depth gauge.
Each time a new pin is required as the pin gets blunted after use.

The strength properties of both mortar and stone aggregate influence the penetration depth of
the probe in a concrete, which is contrastingly different than cube crushing strength, wherein
the mortar strength predominantly governs the strength. Thus the type of stone aggregate has
a strong effect on the relation of concrete strength versus depth of penetration as given in
fig.3.
Fig.3: Effect of aggregate type on relationship between concrete strength and depth of probe
penetration

For two samples of concrete with equal cube crushing strength, penetration depth would be
more in the sample with softer aggregate than the one with harder aggregates. Correlation of
the penetration resistance to compressive strength is based on calibration curves obtained
from laboratory test on specific concrete with particular type of aggregates. Aggregate
hardness is determined from standard samples provided along with the instrument. Aggregate
size in the mix also influences the scatter of individual probe readings. This technique offers
a means of determining relative strength of concrete in the same structure or relative strength
of different structures. Because of the nature of equipment it cannot and should not be
expected to yield absolute values of strength. This test is not operator independent although
verticality of bolt relative to the surface is obviously important and safety device in the driver
prevents, if alignment is poor.

It is claimed an average coefficient of variation for a series of groups of three readings on

similar concrete of the order of 4% may be expected. It has been observed that ±20%
accuracy may be possible in strength determination of concrete. Fig.4 explains the
approximate shape of failure during the test.

Fig.4: Approximate shape of failure zone in probe penetration test

COVERMETER TEST

Fig: Micro Covermeter (Micro processor controlled Covermeter)

Covermeter are devices that give information about concrete cover to steel reinforcement
using magnetic fields. Magnetic instruments for locating reinforcing steel present within in
concrete work on the principle that the steel affects the alternating magnetic field. When a
hand-held search unit is moved along the concrete surface, a beep indicates that the unit is
located directly above a reinforcing bar. These meters can also be used to estimate the depth
of a bar if its size is known, or estimate the bar size if the depth of cover is known. However,
detailed calibration is needed to get satisfactory results. The bars may be located within 175
mm of the concrete mass but the method is not effective in heavily reinforced sections,
sections with two or more adjacent bars or nearly adjacent layers of reinforcement. Inaccurate
results may occur when the depth of concrete cover is equal to or close to the spacing of the
reinforcing bars. During this test, steel or other metals must not be present close to the area
under examination. Some results from tests must be calibrated by chipping of concrete to
confirm concrete cover and bar size.

A number of pachometers are available that range in capability from merely indicating the
presence of steel to those that may be calibrated to allow the experienced user a closer
determination of depth and the size of reinforcing steel.

Fig: Pachometer (For locating reinforcement under concrete)

QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES

Study duties responsibilities, Tender specification, standards, codes of practice and

work instruction.
Evolve effective acceptance/rejection procedures for construction materials in
coordination with the project purchase department.
Do proper sampling and testing of steel, cement, concrete, aggregates, water, etc., and
verify test results in view of standards and work specifications prior to their use in
construction. Also control quality of electrodes to their use in welding.
Set procedures to control quality at the points of storage for raw materials, mixing and
placing of concrete.
Follow the prescribed curing and de-shuttering schedules.
Observe procedures to control quality of welded joints of structural steel members.
Evolve a system to check quality of workmanship in all construction activities.
Keep all revised Indian Standards and codes of practice available in QC laboratory
and have them handy during discussion with client/consultant.
Maintain sequence of construction required under any activity.
Discuss QA/QC issues as a separate agenda during site review meetings with staff.
Observe regular schedule for maintenance, repairs and calibration of plants and
equipments.
Keep spare parts/materials for laboratory equipments weigh batchers, batching plant,
etc., always keep spare vibrators ready at site.
Carry work instruction cards in pocket while supervising/inspecting works.
Regularly maintain the formats prescribed under ISO 9002 Quality assurance system
Practice sound housekeeping methods to achieve saving, safety and quality.

CHEMICAL TEST ON CONCRETE

Chemical analysis of concrete can provide extremely useful information regarding the causes
of failure of concrete. The tests most frequently carried out are listed below:

1. Depth of carbonation
2. Chloride content
3. Cement content
4. Sulphate content
5. Type of cement
6. Alkali content

Carbonation test

This test is carried out to determine the depth of concrete affected due to combined attact of
atmoshpheric carbon dioxide and moisture causing a reduction in level of alkalinity of
concrete. A spry of 0.2% solution of phenolphthalein is used as pH indicator of concrete. The
change of colour of concrete to pink indicates that the concrete is in the good health, where
no changes in colour takes place, it is suggestive of carbonation-affected concrete. The test is
conducted by drilling a hole on the concrete surface to different depths upto cover concrete
thickness, removing dust by air blowing, spraying phenolphthalein with physician‟s injection
syringe and needle on such freshly drilled broken concrete and observing change in colour.
The depth of carbonation is estimated based on the change in colour profile. The pH value
can also be determined by analysing samples of mortar collected by drilling from the site,
dissolving the same in distilled water and thereby titrating in laboratory.
Chloride content

Chloride content can be determined from broken samples or core samples of concrete.
Primarily the level of chloride near the steel-concrete interface is of prime importance.
Chloride present in concrete are fixed (water insoluble) as well as free (water soluble).
Though it is the water soluble chloride ions, which are importance from corrosion risk point
of view, yet total acid soluble (fixed as well as free) chloride contents are determined and
compared with limiting values specified for the concrete to assess the risk of corrosion in
concrete. The total acid soluble chloride are determined in accordance with IS:14959 Part –
III – 2001, whereas for assessment of water soluble chlorides the test consists of obtaining the
water extracts, and conducting standard titration experiment for determining the water soluble
chloride content and is expressed by water soluble chloride expressed by weight of concrete
or cement. The method gives the average chloride content in the cover region. Further a
chloride profile across the cover thickness will be a more useful measurements as this can
help to make a rough estimate on chloride content diffusion rate. One recent development for
field testing of chloride content includes the use of chloride ion sensitive electrode. This is
commercially known as “Rapid Chloride test kit-4”. The test consists of obtaining powdered
samples by drilling and collecting them from different depths (every 5mm), mixing the
sample (of about 15.g weight) with a special chloride extraction liquid, and measuring the
electrical potential of the liquid by chloride-ion selective electrodes. With the help of a
calibration graph relating electrical potential and chloride content, the chloride content of the
samples can be directly determined.

Based on the chemical analysis, corrosion-prone locations can be identified as per the
guidelines given in table-1.

Table-1: Guidelines for Identification for Corrosion Prone Locations based on Chemical
Analysis

Sl. No. Test Results Interpretations

1 High pH values greater than 11.5 and very low No corrosion
chloride content
2 High pH values and high chloride content Corrosion prone
greater than threshold values (0.15 % by
weight of cement)
3 Low pH values and high chloride content Increased risk of corrosion
(greater corrosion prone than threshold values
of chloride 0.15% by weight of cement.

PULLOUT TESTING(LOK TEST)

The fundamental principle behind pull out testing with LOK-test and CAPO test is that the
test equipment designed to a specific geometry will produce results (pull-out forces) that
closely correlate to the compressive strength of concrete. This correlation is achieved by
measuring the force required to pull a steel disc or ring, embedded in fresh concrete, against a
circular counter pressure placed on the concrete surface concentric with the disc/ring.
For hardened concrete, an expandable steel ring is used instead. This ring expands to fit a
specially drilled hole and routed recessin the concrete. The first method, shown in figure 1
using the cast steel disc is called LOK test. The second method shown in fig.2 using
expandable ring is called CAPO test (i.e. Cut and Pull out Test). The diameter of both the
disc and ring is 25mm. the distance to the concrete surface is also 25mm. the inner diameter
of the counter-pressure is 55mm.

Fig.1: LOK Test Insert

Fig.2: CAPO test testing principle

The relationship between the pullout force Fu in kN and compressive strength Fc in MPa is
given in fig.3.

Fig.3: Typical Pull out Force Calibration Chart

By measuring the pull-out force of a cast-in disc or expanded ring, the compressive strength
of in-situ concrete can be determined from the relationship in fig.4 to a great degree of
confidence.

Fig.4: Pull off force compressive strength relationship

The pullout test produces a well defined in the concrete and measure a static strength
property of concrete. The equipment is simple to assemble and operate.

As the insert is pulled out, a roughly cone shaped fragment of the concrete is extracted. The
compressive strength which is considered as an indicator of quality is obtained from the
calibration curves, prepared based on laboratory and field tests conducted on concrete cubes
and pull out samples cast with various grades of concrete. In the test assembly, the
embedment depth and insert head diameter have to be equal with inner diameter of the
reaction ring could vary between 2 to 2.4 times the diameter of the insert head. The apex of
the conic frustum defined by the insert-head diameter and the inside diameter of the reaction
ring can vary between 54 degree and 70 degree. The compressive strength can be considered
as proportional to the ultimate pullout force. The reliability of the test is reported as good.

Since the embedment depths of the commercially available metallic inserts is of the order of
25 to 30mm, the test results cover a small portion of the near surface concrete located
adjacent to the fractured surface and below the reaction ring. Thus due to the inherent
heterogeneity of concrete, typical average within batch coefficient of variation of such
pullout tests has been found to be in the range of 7 to 10% which is better than that of
standard cube/cylinder compression test. It is superior to rebound hammer and Windsor probe
test because of greater depth of concrete volume tested. This is not affected by type of cement
and aggregate characteristics. However this test is not recommended for aggregates beyond
size of 38mm. the major limitation of this test is that it requires special care at the time of
placement of inserts to minimize air void below the disc besides a pre-planned usage.

Pull out tests are used to:

1. Determine in-situ compressive strength of the concrete

2. Ascertain the strength of concrete for carrying out post tensioning operations.
3. Determine the time of removal of forms and shores based on actual in-situ strength of
the structure.
4. Terminate curing based on in-situ strength of the structure.

Here item No.(i) only are of relevance for residual strength assessment of old and distressed
structures. It can be also used for testing repaired concrete sections. These tests are divided
under the following two categories:

a) Embedding an insert into the fresh concrete while casting and then pulling out with a jack
(LOK test – LOK meaning „punch‟) after hardening after a specified period.

b) Insert fixed into a hole drilled into the hardened concrete and then pulling out with a jack
(CAPO test- cut and pull out test). This second method offers greater flexibility for
conducting in-situ tests on hardened concrete of existing structures and is explained above in
detail.

After the concrete has fractured by this test, the holes left in the surface are first cleaned of
the dust by a blower. It is then primed with epoxy glue and the hole is filled with a polymer-
modified mortar immediately thereafter and the surface is smoothened.