Linux Internals

Introduction to Linux

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Module Contents

➢ Background and History of Linux

➢ Concepts of OS
– Where does an OS fit in?
– What does an OS do?
– Who needs OS?
➢ Program versus Process
➢ Process/kernel model
➢ Linux OS Roles and Features
– Process Management
– Memory Management
– File Systems
– H/W and N/W Management

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History of Linux

➢ Linux is a member of the large family of Unix-like operating systems

➢ Linux was initially developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991 as an operating system for
IBM compatible personal computers based on the Intel 80386 microprocessor
➢ It is open source and the source code is open under the GNU Public License
➢ Source code is available for study as well as modification http://www.kernel.org/
➢ Source code is present in the path /usr/src. But directory structure inside this path
can differ depending on the distribution

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Advantages of Using Linux

➢ Linux is free
➢ Linux is fully customizable in all its components
➢ Linux runs on low-end, cheap hardware platforms
➢ Linux is powerful
➢ Linux has a high standard for source code quality
➢ The Linux kernel is very small and compact

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Advantages of Using Linux (Contd…)

➢ Linux is highly compatible with many common operating systems

➢ Linux is well supported

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Where does an OS fit in?

➢ The layer between the hardware and

the user programs (application
programs)
User programs
➢ OS is a software system that directly
interacts with the hardware Operating system interface

OS
Hardware interface

hardware

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What does an OS do?

➢ OS manages resources such as memory, process, I/O devices etc

➢ How does computer hardware run programs?
– A program in memory, starting from program counter (pc), run till the halt instruction.
➢ Share resources (CPU, memory, disk, ….)
– For each program running (a process), the OS makes each process feel that it solely
owns the CPU, owns the memory -- Virtual machine for each process
➢ Manage the processes (create, exit, switch, scheduling)

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Who needs OS?

➢ OS makes computer easier to use

– All general purpose computers need OS.
➢ A better question: Who does not need OS?
– Some very specialized (and small) systems do not need OS.
– Example microwave oven control system (the OS functions are implemented in the
application).

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Linux OS Role & Features

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Program versus Process

➢ A program by itself is not a process

➢ A program is a passive entity
– Data stored on the disk or in memory
➢ A process is an active entity
– Instructions are waiting to be executed
– Instructions must be executed sequentially
– Many processes can execute the same program
➢ Several processes can execute the same program concurrently

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Process Scheduling

➢ Linux implements preemptive multitasking

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System Call Interface Process/kernel model

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Process management

➢ The OS must provide the ability to

– Create and delete user and system processes
– Suspend and resume processes
– Provide a method for process synchronization
– Provide a method for process communication
– Provide a method to handle deadlock
➢ Tracking a Process
– As a process-manager, the OS must keep track of each process that is currently in
existence, to facilitate cooperation among them and to mediate competing demands

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Memory Management

➢ Main memory is increasing in size as time goes on.

➢ As memory size increases, so does the complexity of maintaining the memory.
➢ As we add more devices, we must allocate more memory to run the hardware,
i.e.
– Sound cards
– modems
➢ Thus programs are getting bigger and more complex, and to run these
programs more (Main) memory is required

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Memory Management(Contd..)

➢ The OS must keep track of memory and decide:

– What memory is currently being used
– Who is using the memory
– Which processes will be allocated memory when memory frees up
– How much memory should be allocated to a particular process
– When memory should be deallocated

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File Management

➢ The way files are managed is one of the most visible parts of an OS
➢ File management must be logical and efficient
➢ Efficiency is needed as the average number of files on a given disk increases
➢ User control may also need to be implemented, controlling which files should
be accessed by any given user

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File Management (Contd..)

➢ The OS is responsible for:

– Creating and deleting files and directories
– Supporting basic functionality needed for manipulating those files and directories
– Mapping files onto secondary storage (i.e. saving the file)
– Backing up files on stable media

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I/O System Management

➢ A OS should hide the underlying differences between various types of

hardware.
➢ For example, saving a file to disk should be no different if the disk is IDE or
SCSI
➢ I/O handling is hidden from the rest of the system through a standard interface
known as the I/O Subsystem

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Networking

➢ Computers are connected through a communication network

➢ Network communication must be controlled and managed
➢ Without communication between OSs, distributed systems would not be
possible
➢ Most OSs generalize network access as a form of file access

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Protection System

➢ If we want to run concurrent programs, we must be able to protect:

– Processes
– CPU
– Disk
– Memory
– Devices
➢ If we cannot guarantee these basics, then we cannot guarantee the integrity
of the processes

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Command Interpreter System

➢ The command interpreter is the interface between the OS and the user
➢ The command interpreter can be a part of the OS kernel or may be run as an
external program.
➢ Commands are given to the OS by using control statements
➢ The program used to interpret the control statements is known as the
“command interpreter” or the “command shell”

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 Runlevels
Run Level Mode Action
0 Halt Shuts down system
Does not configure network
1 Single-User Mode interfaces, start daemons, or allow
non-root logins
Does not configure network
2 Multi-User Mode
interfaces or start daemons.
3 Multi-User Mode with Networking Starts the system normally.
4 Undefined Not used/User-definable
5 X11 As runlevel 3 + display manager(X)
6 Reboot Reboots the system

Most Linux servers lack a graphical user interface and therefore start in runlevel 3. Servers
with a GUI and desktop Unix systems start runlevel 5. When a server is issued a reboot
command, it enters runlevel 6.

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Review

➢ Who developed the Linux OS and When?

➢ Why one needs operating System?
➢ What are the advantages of Linux?
➢ What is process? How process is selected for execution in Linux? How it is
related to program?
➢ When does process enter in Kernel mode?
➢ What are the different functions of Linux OS?
➢ What are the activities performed by OS for Process Management?

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