GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,KALAHANDI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Lecture notes on Network Theory

Submitted By
Soudamini Behera
 BEES2211 Network Theory

MODULE- I
1. NETWORK TOPOLOGY: Graph of a network, Concept of tree, Incidence matrix,
Tie-set matrix, Cut-set matrix, Formulation and solution of network equilibrium
equations on loop and node basis.
2. NETWORK THEOREMS & COUPLED CIRCUITS: Substitution theorem,
Reciprocity theorem, Maximum power transfer theorem, Tellegen’s theorem,
Millman’s theorem, Compensation theorem, Coupled Circuits, Dot Convention for
representing coupled circuits, Coefficient of coupling, Band Width and Q-factor for
series and parallel resonant circuits.

MODULE- II
3. LAPLACE TRANSFORM & ITS APPLICATION: Introduction to Laplace
Transform, Laplace transform of some basic functions, Laplace transform of periodic
functions, Inverse Laplace transform, Application of Laplace transform: Circuit
Analysis (Steady State and Transient).
4. TWO PORT NETWORK FUNCTIONS & RESPONSES
: z, y, ABCD and h-parameters, Reciprocity and Symmetry, Interrelation of two-port
parameters, Interconnection of two-port networks, Network Functions, Significance
of Poles and Zeros, Restriction on location of Poles and Zeros, Time domain
behaviour from PoleZero plots.

MODULE- III
5. FOURIER SERIES & ITS APPLICATION: Fourier series, Fourier analysis and
evaluation of coefficients, Steady state response of network to periodic signals,
Fourier transform and convergence, Fourier transform of some functions, Brief idea
about network filters (Low pass, High pass, Band pass and Band elimination) and
their frequency response.
6. NETWORK SYNTHESIS
: Hurwitz polynomial, Properties of Hurwitz polynomial, Positive real functions and
their properties, Concepts of network synthesis, Realization of simple R-L, R-C and
L-C functions in Cauer-I,Cauer-II, Foster-I and Foster-II forms.
 -: NETWORK THEORY:-

Any branch in a network may be substituted by a different branch without

disturbing the voltage and current in the entire network provided the new
branch has same set of terminal voltage and current as the original branch.
This theorem states that components can be interchanged as long as the
terminal voltage and current are maintained.
NOTE.
This theorem is a general theorem and is applicable for any network. the
modified network must be a unique solution. This theorem is very important in
circuit analysis of network having non-linear elements.
PROOF.
In a network ‘N’ let no of branches is ‘b’. The branchy method requires
the solution of ‘2b’ equations. Now after substitution 2b-2 or 2 (b-1) branch
equations remain unaltered. However as a branch voltage and current remain
same in it. This means that the set of 2b equation will be satisfied with the
same current and voltage as before.
EXPLANATION
Let’s take an example of a simple networkwhere we see the branch equivalent
of the load resistance.
It is observed that a known potential difference and current in a branch can be
replaced by an ideal current and voltage source respectively.

LIMITATION
 The theorem can’t be used to solve the network containing two or more
sources that are not in series or parallel.
- First obtain the concerned branch voltage and through current given by
Vxy Ixy
- The branch may be substituted by independent voltage source or
current source shown in fig.respectively.
RECIPROCTY THEORUM
In a linear bilateral network if current flowing through any branch is I
due to voltage source E, then the same current will flow when the
position of voltage and ammeter are interchanged.in other case E and I
are mutually transferable.
Now transfer resistance =E/I

Y11 Y12 Y13

Y = Y21 Y22 Y23
Y31 Y32 Y33
 Y12 = Y21
Y13 = Y31
For reciprocity network
Y23 = Y32 reciprocity theorem is
applicable

Fig. (a) In this case E produces the current I1 in resistance R2.

Fig. (b) Now we interchange the position of voltage source E and ammeter that
means voltage source E produce the same current (I) in resistance R 1.
Linear circuit – it is a one in which parameters remain constant i.e. they do not
change w.r.t. current or voltage
Non-linear circuit – its properties change w.r.t. to current and voltage.
Bilateral circuit – it is one whose properties or characteristics are same in
either direction.
Unilateral circuit – it is the circuit whose properties change w.r.t. direction of
operation.
Passive network – it is a network which contains no source of emf or voltage
source.
Active network – it is a network which contains one or more source of emf.
Dependent or Controlled source – in these type of sources voltage or current
source is not fixed but is dependent on a voltage or current fixed at some other
part of the circuit.
Ideal voltage source – it is a circuit element where the voltage across it is
independent of current. In analysis a voltage source supplies a constant AC or
DC voltage b/w its terminal where any current flow through it.
An ideal voltage source has internal resistance 0.
It is able to supply or absorb any amount of current.
Voltage drop in the source is 0.
Does not consume any power.
Eg. DC source, ideal battery, generator etc.
Ideal current source - – it is a circuit element where the current through it is
independent of voltage across it. An independent current source with 0
current is identical to an ideal open circuit, for this reason the internal
resistance of an ideal current source is infinite.
It is capable of supplying infinite power.
E.g.Battery
Independent ideal voltage source – an ideal independent voltage source is a
two terminal circuit element that maintains a constant terminal voltage
whatever be the value of current flowing through it.
MILLMAN’S THEORUM
This theorem states that if several ideal voltage sources (E 1 E2 E3…….)in series
with impedances (z1,z2,z3….)are connected in parallel then the circuit can be
replaced by a single ideal voltage source E in series with an impedances Z such
that
 𝛴𝐼𝑖𝑍𝑖
𝐸=
𝛴𝑍𝑖
1
Z=
𝛴𝑌𝑖

DUAL MILL MANS THEORUM

If several ideal current sources (I1 I2 …. ), in parallel with several impedance
z1z2 z3Connected in series then the circuit can be replaced by a single ideal
current IIn parallel with an impedance (z) such that
 𝛴𝐼𝑖𝑍𝑖
𝐼=
𝛴𝑍𝑖

Z=𝛴𝑍𝑖

TELLEGEN’S THEORUM
In any network the sum of instantaneous power absorbed by various elements
is always equal to 0. Therefore the total power delivered by various active
sources is equal to total power absorbed by various passive element by
branches of the network.
 𝑏

∑ V𝑖 𝑖𝑘 = 0
𝑘=1

The theorem is valid irrespective of

- Type of network. (Series, parallel, any).
- Type of element contained in the network(R, L, C ) .
- Whatever the value of each element in the network.
- Whatever the type of voltage or current sources present in the network.
- So long as the KVL and KCL equation are applicable to the network.
- Generally applicable for linear bilateral network.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEORY
According to this theory, maximum power can be transferred from the source
to node where the node impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of
internal impedance of the circuit.
.Proof:-
Let Vs is the supply voltage
Zs=Internal impedance/source impedance of the circuit
=Rs+jXs
Zl=Load impedance of the circuit
=RL+jXL
PL+ Power consumed by load
In the above circuit
𝑉𝑠
I=
𝑍𝑠+𝑍𝑙
𝑉𝑠
=(𝑅𝑠+𝑗𝑋𝑠)+(𝑅𝑙+𝑗𝑋𝑙)
𝑉𝑠
=(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)+𝑗(𝑋𝑠+𝑋𝑙)

PL = I2ZL
𝑉𝑠 2
=
{(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)+𝑗(𝑋𝑠=𝑋𝑙)}2

According to AC Analysis:-
For maximum power transformation XL and XS are two variables which
vary with frequencies where RL and Rs remain constant.
Now PL=PLmax when denominator is minimum.
For denominator to be minimum
Xs+XL=0
=>XL=-XS
According to DC analysis:-
If complex part is reduced to 0
𝑉𝑠 2
PL = (𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)2*RL

In this case load resistance RL is variable in nature so that PL=PLMax

 𝜕𝑃𝑙
=0
𝜕𝑅𝑙
𝜕 𝑉𝑠 2 𝑅𝑙
=> [(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)2] = 0
𝜕𝑅𝑙

(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)2 ∗𝑉 2 −𝑉 2 𝑅𝑙(2𝑅𝑠+2𝑅𝑙)
=>
(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)4

=>Rs=RL
ZL=RL+jXL
ZL=RL-jXS

But, ZS= RS+jXS

ZS* =RS-jXS
Hence ZL = ZS*

So theorem is proved.

𝑉𝑠 2 𝑅𝑙 𝑉𝑠 2 𝑅𝑙
PLMax=(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙)2 =
4(𝑅𝑙)2

𝑉𝑠 2
PLMax=
4(𝑅𝑙)2 /𝑆

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (ɳ) =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑙
=
𝑃𝑠+𝑃𝑙1
𝐼2 𝑅𝑙
=2
𝐼 𝑅𝑠+𝐼2 𝑅𝑙
𝑅𝑙
=
𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑙

In case of maximum power transfer

RS = RL
 𝑅𝑙 1
ɳ= = = 50%
2𝑅𝑙 2

Hence maximum 50% of power can be transferred from source to load.

Case-1:-
ZS= RS+jXS
ZL=RL+jXL

Condition for maximum transfer is:-

RS = RL
XL = XS
ZL = ZS*

Case 2:-
Condition for maximum power transfer
RL = RS

THEVENIN’S THEORUM:-
It states that in linear active two terminalnetwork containing impedances (for
ac circuits) or resistance (for dc circuit) and voltage source can be replaced by a
single voltage (Vth) in series with impedance (Zth).
Vth = thevenin’s voltage.
Zth = thevenin’s equivalent impedance.
PROCEDURE OF SOLVING PROBLEM
Steps 1- remove the resistance RL across which current is to be found.
Step2 – calculate the open circuit voltage across the open terminal voltage.
Step3- calculate the Rth across the open circuit terminal. Ifthere is a source
then replace by its internal resistance.
Step4- if there is a current source it can be replaced by an open circuit.
Step5 – connect Rth in series withVth that indicates equivalent circuit
DOT CONVENTION IN TRANSFORMER COILS

Electrical equivalence for magnetic coupled circuit

For same polarity -> effect of mutual inductance

  The induced voltage is additive in nature

𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
V1l = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

V1l =V1+Vm
V1l =modified voltage
V1 =applied voltage
Vm = mutual/induced voltage
Similarly,
V2l = V2+Vm
V1(S)=SL1.I1(S)+SM.I2(S)
V1(S)=SM.I1(S)+SL2.I2(S)

V1l(S) = SL1 SM I1(S)

V2l(S) SM SL2 I2(S)

In case of sinusoidal circuit excitation when(s=jw)

V1l = jWL1 jWM I1
V2l jWM jWL2 I2

Case-2:-
When M is –ve
The induced voltage is subtractive in nature.
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
V1l = 𝐿 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
V2l = −𝑀 + 𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
V1l =V1-Vm
V1l =modified voltage
V1 =applied voltage
Vm = mutual/induced voltage
Similarly,
V2l = V2-Vm
V1(S)=SL1.I1(S)-SM.I2(S)
V1(S)=SM.I1(S)+SL2.I2(S)

V1l(S) = SL1 -SM I1(S)

V2l(S) -SM SL2 I2(S)

In case of sinusoidal circuit excitation when(s=jw)

V1l = jWL -jWM I1

V2l -jW jWL2 I2
 CO-EFFICIENT OF COUPLING

Consider two coils having self-inductance L1 and L2 placed very close to each
other. Let the number of turns of the two coils be N1 and N2 respectively. Let
coil 1 carries current i1 and coil 2 carries current i2.

Due to current i1, the flux produced is Φ1 which links with both the coils.
Then from the previous knowledge mutual inductance between two coils can
be written as
M = N1 Φ21/i1 ............. (1)

where Φ21 is the part of the flux Φ1 linking with coil 2. Hence we can write,
Φ21 = k1 Φ1.
... M = N1 (k1 Φ1)/i1 ........... (2)

Similarly due to current i2, the flux produced is Φ2 which links with both the
coils. Then the mutual inductance between two coils can be written as
M = N2 Φ21/i2 …........ (3)

Where Φ21 is the part of the flux Φ2 linking with coil 1. Hence we can write
Φ21 = k2 Φ2.
... M = N2 (k2 Φ2)/i2 ............ (4)

Multiplying equations (2) and (4),

But N1Φ1/i1 = Self-induced of coil 1 = L1

N2Φ2/i2 = Self-induced of coil 2 = L2

... M2 = k1k2L1L2
... M = √ (k1k2) √ (L1L2)
Let k = √ (k1k2)
... M = k √ (L1L2) .......... (5)
Where ‘k’ is called coefficient of coupling.
... k = M/ (√ (L1L2))
 a. When k = 1, it is called critical coupling and the network is called coupled
network.
b. When k > 1, it is called tight coupling.
c. When k < 1 ,it is called looser coupling,
RESONANCE IN A COUPLED CIRCUIT
Resonance is typical state or condition of a system during which the frequency
of oscillation produced by an external forcing function matches with the
natural frequency of the system by causing a response of maximum amplitude.
Resonance doesn’t take place on the steady state condition and for its
occurrence in a system there must be some disturbances from outside the
system that introduces oscillation in the system.

As the system continues with these oscillation interchange of energy takes

place b/w two independent energy storing component present within the
system (components like inductor and capacitor)
In some cases resonance occurs when the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance of the circuit are equal in magnitude then resonance occurs.

SERIES RESONANCE

Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactance which are
opposite and equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the
graph at which this happens is where the two reactance curves cross each
other. In a series resonant circuit, the resonant frequency, ƒr point can be

calculated as follows

PARALLEL RESONANCE

Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary parts of Y become zero.

Then:
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Defination: - Topology refers to the science of place. In mathematics,

topology is a branch of geometry in which figure are considered perfectly
elastic.
Network topology refers to the properties that relates to the
geometry of the network, which remains unaffected, when the graph is twisted
or folded; provided that no parts are cut & no new connections are made.
Why to study network topology?
Ans: to suppress the nature of the circuit elements that make up the network
Terminology:-

Node: - it is an equipotential point at which two or more circuit elements are

joined.
From the above figure nodes are:- a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h
Junction: - It is that point of a network where three or more circuit elements
are joined.
From the above figure junctions are:-c, e, b, g
Essential node:- A node that joins three or more circuit elements.
From the above figure junctions are:-c, e, b, g
Branch:- It is a path of a network that connects two nodes.
From the above figure branches are:- v1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7.
Essential branch:- It is a path of a network that lies between two junction
points.
From the above figure Essential branches are:- c-a-b, c-d-e, c-f-g, b-e, e-g, b-
g(through R7), b-g(through I)
Loop:- A loop is a complete path or any closed path in a network is called as
loop.
From the above figure Essential branches are:- a-b-e-c-a, c-d-e-g-f -c, a-b-e-g-f-
c-a, c-d-e-g-f-c, g-b-h-i-g(through R7), g-b-h-i-g(through I).
Mesh:- An independent loop is a mesh. OR It is a special type of loop which
does not contain any other loops within it.
From the above figure mesh are:- a-b-e-c-a, c-d-e-g-f –c, g-b-h-i-g, i-h-i.
ASSIGNMENT:
Find the nodes, Junction, essential nodes, circuit elements, branches, essential
branches of the following network?
Graph of Network:-
A linear graph is defined as a collections of points called nodes, and line
segment called branches, the nodes being joined together by the branches.
While drawing the graph of a given network, the following rules are to be
noted.
 All the passive elements of network i.e. R, L, C are represented by straight
lines.
 An ideal voltage source & by short circuit & ideal current sources is
represented by their internal resistance i.e. (Voltage source by short circuit
and current sources by open circuit) if they are accompanied by passive
element i.e. a shunt admittance in a current source and a series impedance
in voltage source.
 If the sources are not accompanied by passive elements an arbitrary
impedance is assume to accompany the sources and finally we find the
result by letting the impedance R->0 or R->+∞.

Let us consider a graph shown in this

figure.

Nodes= a, b, c, d

Branches= 1, 2, 3,4,5,6

ORIENTED GRAPH:-

A graph whose is branches are oriented or directed is called a

directed/oriented graph.
FULLY CONNECTED GRAPH:-

It is a graph where each node is connected to all other nodes.

->Direction of current in any branch can be shown below.

RANK OF A GRAPH:-

The rank of a graph =no. of nodes-1=n-1

PLANAR GRAPH:-

A graph which may be drawn on a plane surface such that no branch passes
over or under any other branch.

SUB GRAPH:-

A sub graph is a subset of the branches and nodes of a fully connected graph.
The sub graph is said to be proper if it consists of strictly less than fully
connected graph.

PATH:- A path is a particular sub graph where only two branches are incident
at every node except the internal node that is starting and finishing node. At
internal nodes, only one branch is incident.

CONCEPT OF TREE:-

Solid line= tree

Dotted line= co-tree

Tree=[1,4,5]
Co-tree= [2,3,6]

Tree- A Tree is a set of branches having no closed loops, but connect all the
elements in the network. A tree should contain all the nodes. A graph have
more than one tree.

Twigs-The branches of tree is called twigs. In the above figure twigs are 1,4,5.

No of twigs=n-1,where n=no. of nodes

Links-if a graph for a network is known then the remaining branches are
referred as link.

No of links=total no of branches – total no twigs=b-n+1

Co- tree- The collection of links is called co- tree.

 No of possible tree of a graph= det[A.A’]

Where A = reduced incidence matrix and A’=transpose of A

 For a fully connected graph no. of trees= n^(n-2)

 No. of total branch of a fully connected graph =nC2

Properties of tree:-

 In a tree, there exists one and only one path between any pairs of nodes.
 Every connected graph has at least one tree.
 A tree contains all the nodes of the graph.
 There is no closed loop in a tree and hence tree is circuit less.
INCIDENCE MATRIX (Aa):-

 It symbolically describes a network.

 The matrix which translates all the geometrical features of the graph into an
algebraic expression.
 Every graph has incidence matrix & vice-versa.
 It facilitates the testing & identification of the independent variable. It is a
matrix which represent the graph uniquely.
 In incidence matrix the nodes are represented in rows & branches are
represented in columns.
 Each column of the matrix has one entry of +1 & another entry of -1. So, the
each column of matrix is 0.
 The convention of current taken arbitrarily.
Let’s us take the current coming towards the node is –ve & current going
out from the node is +ve. So, the incidence matrix of the above figure is :

a -1 1 0 0 0

b 0 -1 1 1 0

c0 0 0 -1 -1

d 1 0 -1 0 1 4*5
Properties of Incidence matrix:-

 The determinant of the incident matrix of closed loop is zero.

 Order of incidence matrix is [n*b]
 Rank of incidence matrix is (n-1).

REDUCED INCIDENCE MATRIX:-

For this matrix one node of the graph is taken as reference node. Delete the
row corresponding to that node to obtain the reduced incidence matrix.

Order of reduced incidence matrix is = [(n-1)*b]

This matrix is used to find total no of trees for fully connected graph.

Let b is reference node. So, reduced incidence matrix is

a -1 1 0 0 0

c0 0 0 -1 -1

d 1 0 -1 0 1 3*5

Equilibrium equation from incidence matrix :-

Incidence matrix & KCL:-

 Row wise the sum of all branch currents is equal to zero corresponding to
each node.
 Total no of Equilibrium equation from incidence matrix or KCL equation =
no. of nodes.

At node a; -i1+i2=0

At node b; -i2+i3+i4=0

At node c; -i4-i5=0

At node d; i1-i3+i5=0

In matrix form
 a -1 1 0 0 0 i1

b 0 -1 1 1 0 i2 =0

c0 0 0 -1 -1 i3

d 1 0 -1 0 1 i4

OR

Aa. Ib =0

Incidence matrix & KVL:-

 Column wise the sum of all branch voltages are corresponding to nodal
voltage.
 Total no of Equilibrium equation from incidence matrix or KVL equation =
no. of branches.

At node 1; V1= -Va+Vd

At node 2; V2= Va- Vb

At node 3; V3= Vb-Vc

At node 4; V4= Vb-Vc

At node 5; V5= -Vc+Vd

In matrix form

a -1 0 0 1 va v1

b 1 -1 0 0 vb = v2

c0 1 0 -1 * vc v3

d 0 1 -1 0 vd v4

e 0 0 -1 1 v5
 OR

(Aa)’. Vn =Vb

F-tie set :-

 F-tie set matrix represents a group of branches in a closed loop. Each tie set
contains only one link or cut , remaining are tree branches.
 The direction of each F-tie set matrix is same as that of link.
 No of fundamental F-tie set = no of links = no. of loops = b-n+1 = no. of KVL
equation

F-tie set 1=[1,2,4]; 4 is link

F-tie set 2=[1,2,3,5]; 5 is link

F-tie set matrix:-

L1 +1 +1 0 +1 0

L2 -1 -1 +1 0 +1

F-tie set matrix & KCL:-

From the above graph there is 2 loops i.e. L1,L2.

Branch currents are ib1, ib2, ib3, ib4, ib5.

Loop currents are iL1, iL2.

Then , the branch current are represents in terms of loop currents as follows:

ib1= iL1-iL2

ib2=iL1-iL2
ib3= iL2

ib4= iL1

ib5= iL2

F-tie set matrix & KVL :-

From the graph branch voltages are Vb1, Vb2, Vb3, Vb4, Vb5.

For loop 1 ; VL1= Vb1+Vb2+Vb4=0

For loop 2 ; VL2= -Vb1-Vb2+Vb3+Vb5=0

In matrix form Vb1

L1 +1 +1 0 +1 0 * Vb2

L2 -1 -1 +1 0 +1 Vb3 =0

Vb4

Vb5

OR Ba. Vb =0.

F-cut set:-

 It is a group of branch which must be called so that the entire group is

divided into two parts.
 Each F-cut set contain only one tree branches or twigs , remaining are links
or chords.
 No of fundamental F-cut set = no of twigs = n-1 = no. of KCL equation= Rank
of the graph

C1=[1,4,5] ; 1 is Twig

C2=[2,4,5] ; 2 is twig

C3=[3,5] ; 3 is twig

F-cut set Matrix (Qc):-

C1 1 0 0 -1 -1

C2 0 1 0 -1 -1

C3 0 0 1 0 -1

F-cut set Matrix & KCL:-

From the above graph, there are 3 cut-sets i.e. C1,C2,C3 ; 5 branch currents i.e
Ib1,Ib2,Ib3,Ib4,Ib5

The branch current can be represented as

Ic1= Ib1-Ib4-Ib5=0

Ic2= Ib2-Ib4-Ib5 =0

Ic3= Ib3-Ib5 =0

In matrix form Ib1

1 0 0 -1 -1 * Ib2

0 1 0 -1 -1 Ib3 =0

0 0 1 0 -1 Ib4

Ib5

OR Qc. Ib =0.

F-cut set Matrix & KVL:-

From the graph tree branch voltages are Vt1,Vt2,Vt3.

Branch voltages are Vb1,Vb2,Vb3,Vb4,Vb5.

The relationship between twig voltages and branch voltages are as follows:-

Vb1=Vt1

Vb2=Vt2

Vb3=Vt3

Vb1=-Vt1-Vt2

Vb5=-Vt1-Vt2-Vt3

In matrix form:-

Vb1 1 0 0 Vt1

Vb2 0 1 0 x Vt2

Vb3 = 0 0 1 Vt3

Vb4 -1 -1 0

Vb5 -1 -1 -1

Vb = (Qc)’.Vt Or Vb =(Aa)’.Vn Vn=Nodal voltage matrix

 TWO PORT NETWORK

TWO PORT NETWORK FUNCTION AND RESOURCES

1. The general nature of a network can be represented by rectangular box.

2. A port is pair of nodes across which a device can be connected. These
pairs are entry (or exist) point of the network.

I/P port N O/P port

3. The voltage is measured across the pair of nodes.

4. The current going into one node is same as the current coming out from
the other node in the port.
5. In any electrical system there are two type of network:
 Single port network
 Two port network

Single Port Network:

It is consistof two terminals. One terminal is positive with respect to
other terminal.
+
V1 N
-

Two Port Network:

This type of network has four terminals out of these two terminals are
positive and other two ate negative.
+ I 1 I2 +
V1 N V2
- -

In above diagram current I1 entering to the network but I2 flowing away

from the network but we are considering that all currents entering to the
 junction so that I1 current is exporting in nature and I2 current importing
in nature. That means exporting and importing takes place in a single
phase is called Port.
Two Port network Parameters:
1. Open circuit parameter (z-parameter)
2. Short circuit parameter (y-parameter)
3. Transmission parameter (ABCD-parameter/T-parameter)
4. Inverse transmission parameter(T ’-parameter)
5. Hybrid parameter (H-parameter)
6. Inverse hybrid parameter (H ’-parameter)
Open circuit parameter (z-parameter):
In a z-parameter analysis the input voltage ‘V1’ and output voltage ‘V2’
can be expressed as:
n
V1=Z11I1 + Z12I2 eq ( 1)
n
V2=Z21I1 + Z22I2 eq ( 2)
The impedence parameter matrix may be written as:
V1 Z11 Z12 I1
=
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
dependent variable z-parameter matrix independent variable

+ I1 I2 +
V1 N V2
- -
Step 1: Calculation of Z11 and Z21 from eq n (1)
Put I2=0 (secondary side is open circuited)
Z11 = V1 Z21 = V2
I2 I2
Driving point impedence Transfer impedence
Step 2: Calculation for Z12 and Z22 from eqn (2)
Z12 = V1 Z22 = V2
I2 I2
Transfer impedence Driving point impedence

Driving point function: (Z11, Z22, Y11, Y22)

If a function relates the transform of a quantity at one-port to the
transform of another quantity at same port, it may be regarded as
Driving point function.
Example: 1. Driving point input immitance function:
Z11(s) = V1(s) Y11(s) = I1(s)
I1(s) V1(s)
2. Driving point output immitance:
Z22 = V2(s) Y22(s) = I2(s)
I2(s) V2(s)
Transfer function:(Z12, Z21, Y12, Y21)
If a function relates transform of a quantity at one port to the
transform of another quantity at other port, it may be regarded
as Transfer function.
Example:
1. Transfer impedence function:
Z12(s) = V1(s) Z21(s) = V2(s)
I2(s) I1(s)
2. Transfer admittance function:
Y12(s) = I1(s) Y21(s) = I2(s)
V2(s) V1(s)
3. Transfer voltage ratio:
G12(s) = V1(s) G21(s) = V2(s)
V2(s) V1(s)
Network function: (N(s))
A network function exhibits the relationship between input
(excitation) and output (response) for electrical network.
Network function

Driving point immitance Transfer function

Driving point Driving point Z12(s), Z21(s)

impedenceadmittance Y12(s), Y21(s)

G12(s), G21(s)
Ratio at same portRatio at different port

Short circuit parameter: (Y-parameter/Admittance parameter)

I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 eqn (1) KCL equation
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 eqn (2) KCL equation
In matrix form:
I1 Y11 Y22 V1

I2 Y21 Y22 V2

Admittance parameter matrix

Step 1: calculation for Y11 and Y21

Put V2 = 0 (secondary side is short circuited)

 Y11 = I1 (Driving point admittance)

V1

Y21 = I2 (Transfer admittance)

V1

Step 2: calculation for Y12 and Y22

Put V1 = 0 (primary side is short circuited)

Y12 = I1 (Transfer admittance)

V2

Y22 = I2 (Driving point admittance)

V2

Transmission parameter: (ABC-parameter/T-parameter)

V= = A V2 – B I2 (1)

I1 = C V2 - D I2 (2)

In matrix form:

V1= A B V2

I1 C D -I2
V1 = Sending end voltage

I1 = Sending end current

V2 = Receiving end voltage

I2 = Receiving end current

Step 1: set I2 = 0 (i.e. secondary side is open circuited)

A = V1 (reverse voltage ratio(unit less))

V2 I2=0

C = I1 (transfer admittance (unit is mho))

V2 I2=0

Step 2: Put V2=0 (i.e. secondary side us short circuited)

B = -V1 (Transfer impedance (ohm))

I2

D = -I1 (reverse current ratio (unit less))

I2

These are known as transmission parameter as in transmission

line. The current enter in one end and link at other end and we
need to know a relation between the sending end quantities and
receiving end quantities.
Hybrid parameters: (h-parameter)
General equations are:
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 (1)

I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 (2)

In matrix form:

V1 = h11 h12 I1
I2 h21 h22 V2

Step 1: Set V2=0 (i.e. secondary is short circuited)

h11 = V1 (i/p impedance (ohm))

I1

h21 = I2 (forward current gain(unit less))

I1

Step 2: I1=0 (i.e. primary side is open circuited)

h12 = V1 (reverse voltage gain (unit less))

V2

h22 = I2 (o/p admittance (mho))

V2

In above steps, parameter calculation, we conform that both

short circuit and open circuit occurred in same network. So it is

called Hybrid parameter.

Condition for a network to be Symmetrical or Reciprocal:

Reciprocal Symmetrical

 Z12 = Z21  Z11 = Z22

 Y12 = Y21  Y11 = Y22

 AD – BC = 1 A=D

 h12 = -h21  h11 h22 – h12 h21 = 0

 Inter-Relationship between 2-port parameter

Where ∆Y= Y11 Y22 – Y12 Y21

∆Z= Z11 Z22 – Z12 Z21
∆T= AD – BC
∆h= h11 h22 – h12 h21
Inter connection between various 2-port network:

Case 1: Series network

+ N1 +
- -

N2

O/P voltage α O/P current

Feedback output voltage and input voltage area in series voltage.
Equivalent impedance:

𝑍"11 𝑍"12
[Z] = [𝑍′11 𝑍′12] + [ ]
𝑍′21 𝑍′22 𝑍"21 𝑍"22

𝑍 ′ 11 + 𝑍"11 𝑍 ′ 12 + 𝑍"12
[Z] = [ ′ ]
𝑍 21 + 𝑍"21 𝑍 ′ 22 + 𝑍"22

Conclusion:
When two networks connected in series at i/p and o/p also, then
the equivalent [Z]- parameter, then z-parameter of respective
network are added.
Case 2: Parallel network
+ N
-

+
N1
-

𝑌11 𝑌12
[Y]=[ ] + [𝑌′11 𝑌′12]
𝑌21 𝑌22 𝑌′21 𝑌′22

𝑌11 + 𝑌 ′ 11 𝑌12 + 𝑌′12

[Y] = [ ]
𝑌21 + 𝑌′21 𝑌22 + 𝑌 ′ 22

Comment:
When two network are connected in parallel at i/p as well as at
o/p then the Y-parameters of respective network added.
Case 3: Series-Parallel network
+ + N +

+ N1+
 ℎ"11 ℎ"12
[h] = [ℎ′11 ℎ′12] + [ ]
ℎ′21 ℎ′22 ℎ"21 ℎ"22
ℎ′ 11 + ℎ"11 ℎ′ 12 + ℎ"12
[h] = [ ′ ]
ℎ 21 + ℎ"21 ℎ′ 22 + ℎ"22

Comment:
When two networks are connected in series at i/p and in
parallel at o/p, then the [h] parameter of respective networks are
added.
Case 4: Parallel-Series network
+ N1 + +
- - -
+ N2 +
- -

′ ′
𝐺
[𝐺 ] = [ ′ 11 + 𝐺"11 𝐺 12 + 𝐺"12
′ ]
𝐺 21 + 𝐺"21 𝐺 22 + 𝐺"22

NOTES:

I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2 eqn (1) (KCL equation)

V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2 eqn (2) (KCL equation)

Step 1: Put I2=0, (secondary side is short circuited)
 𝐼1
g11 =
𝑉1
𝑉2
g21 =
𝑉1

Step 2: Put V1=0 (primary side is open circuited)

𝐼1
g12 =
𝐼2
𝑉2
g22=
𝐼2
Comment:
When two networks are connected parallel at i/p and series at
o/p, then the g-parameter of respective networks are added.
Case-5(Cascaded Network)

N1 N2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴" 𝐵"
[ ] = [𝐴′ 𝐵′] × [ ]
𝐶 𝐷 𝐶′ 𝐷′ 𝐶" 𝐷"

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴′𝐴" + 𝐵′𝐶" 𝐴′𝐵" + 𝐵′𝐷"

[ ]= [ ]
𝐶 𝐷 𝐶′𝐴" + 𝐷′𝐶" 𝐶′𝐵" + 𝐷′𝐷"

Comments
When 2 networks are connected in cascaded, then ABCD
parameters of the respective networks are multiplied.
Case-6(Lattice Network)
+ +
Z1

Z2 Z2
V1 V2

Z1
- -
Z1= straight arm impedance
Z2= cross arm impedance

Comments
1. A lattice network is said to be symmetrical if the two
straight arm impedances are equal.
2. A lattice network is said to be reciprocal if the two cross
arm impedances are equal.

П or ∆ Network:
Yb
I1 I2

V1 Ya Yc V2
Q. To find the y-parameter
Ans: Put V2=0
𝐼1
Y11=
𝑉1
𝐼2
Y21=
𝑉1
Put V1=0,
𝐼1
Y12=
𝑉2
𝐼2
Y22=
𝑉2
Case 1: put V2=0
Yb
I1 I2

V1 Ya

Iya= I1 + I2

⇒ I1+I2=V1Ya(1)

-I2= V1 Yb(2)
𝐼2
⇒-Yb= = Y21 (3)
𝑉1
I1= V1(Ya+Yb)
𝐼1
⇒Ya+Yb= = Y11 (4)
𝑉1
Case 2 (Put V1=0) Yb
I2
I1
I1+I2=V2Yc (5)
Yc
V2
-I1=V2Yb (6)
𝐼1
⇒ -Yb= =Y12 (7)
𝑉2
Equation(1)+Equation(2) is

⇒I2=V2(Yb+Yc)
𝐼2
⇒Ya+Yb= =Y22(8)
𝑉2
𝑌 𝑌
[Y]=[𝑌11 𝑌12 ] + [𝑌𝑎 + 𝑌𝑏 −𝑌𝑏 ]
21 21 −𝑌𝑏 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑐
Comments:
 Hence the network is reciprocal (asY12=Y21), but not
symmetrical (asY22≠ Y11).
 Any general π- network is always reciprocal network
but may not be symmetrical.
 The general π- network can be symmetrical network
when two shunt-arm admittances are equal. i.e. Ya=Yc

Q1. Find out the Y-parameter.

I1 I2
20Ω

V15Ω10Ω V2
 𝑌𝑎 + 𝑌𝑏 −𝑌𝑏
Ans: [Y]=[ ]
−𝑌𝑏 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑐

1 1 −1
+
= [20−1 5
1
20
1 ]
+
20 20 10

1 −1
4 20
=[−1 3]
20 20

0.25 −0.05
[Y] =[ ] (Ans)
−0.05 0.15
T-Network or * network:
I1 Za
I2 Zc

V1 Zb V2

Find out the Z-parameter:

Case 1: Put V2=0

V1=I1 Za+(I1+I2)Zb

⇒V1=(Za+Zb)I1 + I2 Zb (1)
Case 2: Put V1=0

V2=I2 Zc + (I1+I2)Zb

⇒V2=I1 Zb + (Zb +Zc)I2

𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑏
[Z]=[ ]
𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐

Comments:
 It is the reciprocal network (as Z12=Z21), but not
symmetrical network (asZ11≠Z22).
 Any general network is always reciprocal T-network
but may not be a symmetrical network.
 The general T-network can be symmetrical if the two
series arm impedances are equal (Za=Zb).

Q. Find out Z-parameter.

I1 I2
3Ω 7Ω

V14ΩV2

𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑏
Ans: [Z] = [ ]
𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐
9 6
[Z] = [ ] (𝑎𝑛𝑠)
6 13
Q. Find out the Z-parameter.
I1 I2
2Ω

E14Ω E2
E1

Ans: Applying KVL

E1 – 2I1 – 4I1 - 4I2 + 10E1 = 0
⇒2I1 + 4(I1+I2) = 11E1
⇒6I1 + 4I2 = 11E1 (1)
Similarly
E2 - 4(I1+I2) + 10E1 = 0
⇒4(I1 + I2) = E2 + 10E1 (2)
When I2=0,
6I1 = 11E1

𝐸1 6
⇒
𝐼1
= 𝑍11 = 11

When I1=0,
4I2 = 11E1

𝐸1 4
⇒
𝐼2
= 11 = Z12
Put the value of E1 from equation (1) into the equation 2
6 4
⇒4 (I1+I2) = E2 + 10( I1 + I2)
11 11
60 40
⇒ 4 (I1+ I2) =E2 + I1 + I2
11 11
60 40
⇒ (4- )I1 + (4- )I2 = E2
11 11
−16 4
⇒E2 = I1 + I2
11 11

Z21 Z22

6 4
11 11
[z] = [−16 4 ](Ans)
11 11
Delta (∆) to Star (*) conversion:
Zb
Z2 Z3

Za Zc ⇒ Z1
Z1

𝑍𝑎 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑎 𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑐
Z1 = Z2= Z3=
∑𝑍 ∑𝑍 ∑𝑍

Where, ∑Z=Za+Zb+Zc

Star (*) to Delta (∆) conversion:

 Z2 Z3 Zb

Z1⇒Za Zc

∑ 𝑍1 𝑍2 ∑ 𝑍2 𝑍3 ∑ 𝑍3 𝑍1
Za= Zb= Zc=
𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍2

Where,
∑ Z1 Z2=∑ Z2 Z3=∑ Z3 Z1 = Z1 Z2+Z2 Z3+Z3 Z1

Example:
Find the value of R1, R2 and R3
16Ω R2 R3

24Ω 16Ω R1

24 ×24
R1= = 9Ω
64
16×24
R2= = 6Ω
64
16×24
R3= = 6Ω
64
 Q. Using Delta to Star conversion find out the h-parameter
I1 I2
4Ω 4Ω
4Ω

E14Ω 8Ω E2

Ans:
I1 I2
4Ω 1Ω 2Ω 4Ω

E12Ω E2

Applying KVL
E1=5I1 + 2I1 + 2I2
E1 = 7I1 +2I2 (1)
Similarly
E2= 2I1 + 8I2 (2)
From these equations, we find that
Z11=7, Z12=2, Z21=2, Z22=8
7 2
∆Z=| | = 56 – 4=52
2 8
∆𝑍 52 𝑍12 2
So, h11= = = 6.5 h12= = = 0.25
𝑍22 8 𝑍22 8
 −𝑍21 −2 1 1
h21= =
𝑍22 8
= -0.25h22= = = 0.125
𝑍22 8
Physical significance of Poles and Zeroes:
For,
2(𝑠+1)(𝑠+3)
N(s) = (1)
𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+4)
2= Scale factor
Zeroes: numerator polynomial will be zero.
i.e. (s+1) (s+3) = 0
⇒s=-1, s=-3
Poles: denominator polynomial equal to zero
⇒s(s+2) (s+4) = 0
⇒s=0, s=-2, s=-4
 Zeroes and Poles are also called as singularities and also called
complex frequencies.
Complex s-plane:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0

Scale factor=2

Pole-zero for N(s)

Equatin (1) can be written as :
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
N(s)= + +
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
 A = Residue of pole at s=0
B = residue of pole at s=-2
C= Residue of pole at s=-4
Applying Laplace Transformation,

L[N(s)]=A + B𝑒 −2𝑡 + C𝑒 −4𝑡

Notes:
1. The zeroes represent the complex frequencies for which
the numerator polynomial of a given function becomes
zero.
2. Zero controls the magnitude of response of given network
corresponding to particular input.
3. The poles are complex frequencies at which the
denominator polynomial becomes zero or the network
function itself becomes infinity.
4. The poles of network function control the type or shape of
the response of a give network.
5. For any network function all the poles lie on the left half of
the s-plane for its stabling.
6. No multiple poles can exist along jω-axis.
7. No poles can exist the right of the s-plane.
8. For driving point immittance function all the zeroes lie on
the left half of the s-plane, whereas for transfer function
some of the zeroes may also lie on the right half of the s-
plane.
9. In any network, no. of zeroes and no. of poles are always
equal.
10. If any network has either only zeroes or pole, the network
behaves as a dead network. Since it response always remains
constant and won’t respond to any external excitation.