Anatomy and Physiology

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
BY PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC
MODULE 2 : MIDTERMS
1st SEMESTER, SCHOOL YEAR 2020 – 2021

GENERAL
BIOLOGY IPHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
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Anatomy and Physiology

LEARNING EXPERIENCES

Learning Outcomes
 Define anatomy and physiology and explain the relationship between them
 Define cell and explain its different functions in the body and its structural properties
 Discuss the process of Cell cycle
 Describe and discuss the parts and functions of cardiovascular system
 Describe and discuss the parts and functions of respiratory system
Learning Activities Instructions
1. Read Information Sheet on The Read and understand the information sheet
Lymphatic System & Immunity and check your self by answering self-check.
2. Answer Self Check on The Lymphatic You must answer all questions correctly
System & Immunity before proceeding to the next activity. Task
3. Compare your answers with Answer sheet will help you accomplish your work and
key on The Lymphatic System & Job sheet will help you practice your skills
Immunity
4. Do Task Sheet on The Lymphatic
System
Check your Performance using
Performance Criteria Check list
5. Read Information Sheet on The
Digestive System
6. Answer Self Check on The Digestive
System
Compare your answer with answers
key on The Digestive System
7. Do Task Sheet on The Digestive
System
Check your Performance using
Performance Criteria Check list
8. Read Information Sheet on Endocrine
System
9. Answer Self Check on The Endocrine
System
Compare your answer with answers
key on The Endocrine system
10. Do Task Sheet on The Endocrine
System
Check your Performance using
Performance Criteria Check list
11. Read Information Sheet on The Renal
System and Fluid Balance
12. Answer Self Check on The Renal
System and Fluid Balance Compare

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your answer with answers key on The

Renal System and Fluid Balance
13. Do Task Sheet on The Renal System
and Fluid Balance
Check your Performance using
Performance Criteria Check list

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INFORMATION SHEET
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNITY
Learning Objectives

After reading this information sheet, the trainee must be able to:
1. Understand the functions of lymphatic system
2. Identify organs involve in lymphatic system
3. Determine the blood vessels of lymphatic system

A. FUNCTIONS
Introduction
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste
and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport
lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.
The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are similar to the veins and
capillaries of the circulatory system. The vessels are connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph
is filtered. The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.
Functions of Lymphatic System
1. Removal of Fluid
Interstitial fluid accumulates in the tissues, generally as a result of the pressure exerted
from capillaries (hydrostatic and osmotic pressure) or from protein leakage into the
tissues (which occurs during inflammation). These conditions force fluid from the
capillaries into the tissues. One of the main functions of the lymphatic system is to drain
the excess interstitial fluid that accumulates.
The lymphatic system is a blunt-ended linear flow system, in which tissue fluids, cells, and
large extracellular molecules, collectively called lymph, are drained into the initial
lymphatic capillary vessels that begin at the interstitial spaces of tissues and organs. They
are then transported to thicker collecting lymphatics, which are embedded with multiple
lymph nodes, and are eventually returned to the blood circulation through the left and
right subclavian veins and into the vena cava. They drain into venous circulation because
there is lower blood pressure in veins, which minimizes the impact of lymph cycling on
blood pressure. Lymph nodes located at junctions between the lymph vessels also filter
the lymph fluid to remove pathogens and other abnormalities.
Fluid removal from tissues prevents the development of edema. Edema is any type of
tissue swelling from increased flow of interstitial fluid into tissues relative to fluid
drainage. While edema is a normal component of the inflammation process, in some
cases it can be very harmful. Cerebral and pulmonary edema are especially problematic,
which is why lymph drainage is so important. Abnormal edema can still occur if the
drainage components of the lymph vessels are obstructed.

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2. Fatty Acid Transport

The lymphatic system also facilitates fatty acid absorption from the digestive system.
During fat digestion, fatty acids are digested, emulsified, and converted within intestinal
cells into a lipoprotein called chylomicrons. Lymph drainage vessels that line the intestine,
called lacteals, absorb the chylomicrons into lymph fluid. The lymph vessels then take the
chylomicrons into blood circulation, where they react with HDL cholesterols and are then
broken down in the liver.
3. Immune Cell Transport
In addition to tissue fluid homeostasis, the lymphatic system serves as a conduit for
transport of cells involved in immune system function. Most notably, highly-specialized
white blood cells called lymphocytes and antigen -presenting cells are transported to
regional lymph nodes, where the immune system encounters pathogens, microbes, and
other immune elicitors that are filtered from the lymph fluid. Much of the adaptive
immune system response, which is mediated by dendritic cells, takes place in the lymph
nodes. Lymphatic vessels, which uptake various antigens from peripheral tissues, are
positively regulated by chemokines/cytokines secreted by various immune cells during
inflammation. This allows antigens to enter lymph nodes, where dendritic cells can
present them to lymphocytes to trigger an adaptive immune response.
While the lymphatic system is important for transporting immune cells, its transport
capabilities can also provide a pathway for the spread of cancer. Lymph circulation is one
of the main ways that tumors can spread to distant parts of the body, which is difficult to
prevent.

B. LYMPHATIC VESSELS
 Lymph (or lymphatic) vessels are thin-walled valved structures that carry lymph.
 Lymph vessels are lined by endothelial cells
and have a thin layer of smooth muscles
and adventitia that bind the lymph vessels
to the surrounding tissue.
 Lymph movement occurs despite low
pressure due to smooth muscle action,
valves, and compression during
contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle
and arterial pulsation.
 When the pressure inside a lymphangion
becomes high enough, lymph fluid will
push through the semilunar valve into the
next lymphangion, while the valve then
closes.
 Lymph vessels are structurally very similar to blood vessels.

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 Valves prevent backwards flow of lymph fluid, which allows the lymphatic system to
function without a central pump.
 The lymph system is not a closed system. Lymph flows in one direction toward the heart.
 Lymph nodes are most densely distributed toward the center of the body, particularly
around the neck, intestines, and armpits.
 Lymph vessels and nodes are not found within bone or nervous system tissue.
 Afferent lymph vessels flow into lymph nodes, while efferent lymph vessels flow out of
them.
 Lymphatic capillaries are the sites of lymph fluid collection, and are distributed
throughout most tissues of the body, particularly connective tissue.

C. LYMPHATIC ORGANS
Primary Lymphoid Organs
 Central lymphoid organs.
 Primary lymphoid organs are the sites where Leukocytes (WBCs) are generated. It
includes: (i) Bone marrow and (ii) Thymus.
 The Lymphoid stem cells proliferate (rapid increase), differentiate and mature.
 Contains either B – cell or T – cell.
 Antigens cannot enter in.
 Site of Maturation for T & B cells.
 Develop before Secondary lymphoid organs during Ontogeny (Organization and
development of organs).
 Differentiation of Lymphocytes (Type of WBCs, E.g., T cells, B cells & NK cells) is taken
place in Primary lymphoid organs.
 Decrease in size and strength with age.

1. Thymus
 Growth and maturation of T - lymphocytes takes place in Thymus only.
 It is large at the time of birth (70 g) but with age, the size keep on reducing and becomes
very small by attaining puberty (3 g).
 It is a flat, bilobed organ situated above the heart.
 Each Lobe is surrounded by a Capsule and is divided into Lobules, which are separated
from each other by strands of Connective tissue called Trabeculae.
 Each lobule is organized into 2 compartments: the outer compartment, or cortex, is
densely packed with immature T cells, called Thymocytes, whereas the inner
compartment, or medulla, is sparsely populated with Thymocytes.
 Both the cortex and medulla of the thymus are crisscrossed (moved or travel around) by
a three -dimensional stromal - cell network composed of Epithelial cells, Dendritic cells

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and Macrophages, which make up the framework of the organ and contribute to the
growth and maturation of Thymocytes.
 Some thymic epithelial cells in the outer cortex, called Nurse cells, have long membrane
extensions that surround as many as 50 Thymocytes, forming large multicellular
complexes.
 Hassall corpuscles are a characteristic morphologic feature located within the medullary
region of the thymus.

Functions of Thymus
 The main function of the Thymus is to release Thymosin hormone that will stimulate the
maturation of T - cells.
 Failure of Thymus development shows dramatic decrease in circulating Lymphocytes of
the T-cell lineage and absence of Cell - mediated immunity.
 Aging is accompanied by a decline in Thymic function.

2. Bone Marrow
 Bone marrow is the soft, flexible connective tissue present within the bone cavities.
 In humans and Mice, bone marrow is
the site of B – cell origin and
development.
 Bone marrow forms around 4 % of total
body weight.
 There are two categories of bone
marrow tissue: Red marrow and Yellow
marrow. From birth to early
adolescence, the majority of our bone

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marrow is red marrow. As we grow and mature, increasing amounts of red marrow is
replaced by yellow marrow.
 Bone marrow can generate 200 billion of new blood cells every day.

Red Bone Marrow

 Also known as Myeloid tissue.
 Hematopoietic (formation of blood cell components) in nature and produces RBC, WBC
& Platelets.
 Gets its red color from the hemoglobin in the erythroid cells.
 High Vascular supply.
 Function - Helps to remove old cells from circulation.

Yellow Bone Marrow

 Also known as Fatty tissue.
 Multipotent Stromal (connective tissue cell of any organ) in nature and produces Fat,
Cartilage and Bone.
 Gets its yellow color from the carotenoids in the fat droplets in the high number of fat
cells.
 Poor Vascular supply.
 Function - When blood supply is extremely low, yellow marrow can be converted to red
marrow in order to produce more blood cells.

Functions of Bone Marrow

 Bone marrow is the site of B - cell origin and development.
 A bone marrow transplant can save the lives of people battling leukemia, lymphoma and
other blood cancers.
 Bone marrow generates RBCs which carry oxygen to the tissues.
 Bone marrow generates Platelets or Thrombocytes help prevent bleeding and aid in
clotting of blood.
 Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Basophils & Eosinophils) and Macrophages fight against
microbial infections. They also remove dead cells and remodel tissue and bones.

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

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1. Lymph Node
 Lymph nodes are a group of small, bean-
shaped organs (2.6 cm in length) found
mainly in the neck and trunk of the
human body.
 They play vital roles in the filtration of
antigens and debris from Lymph
(circulating colourless watery fluid) and
in the generation of immune responses
to pathogens.
 Lymph nodes are often removed from
cancer patients as their filtration function catches tumor cells metastasized (spread to
other sites in the body) from primary tumors.

Structure of Lymph Node

 The Capsule is made of Collagen and has a sub-capsular Sinus.
 The Lymph flows into the Sinus carrying Lymphocytes, Antigen processing macrophages
and Dendritic cells to the node Cortex, Paracortex and Medulla.
 Morphologically, Lymph node can be divided into 3 roughly concentric regions: (1) Cortex,
(2) Paracortex and (3) Medulla.
 The outermost layer, Cortex contains Lymphocytes (mostly B - cells), Macrophages and
Follicular dendritic cells arranged in Primary follicles.
 The Primary follicles enlarge into
Secondary follicles, each containing a
Germinal center.
 Beneath the cortex is the Paracortex,
which is populated largely by T -
lymphocytes and also contains
Interdigitating dendritic cells thought to
have migrated from tissues to the node.
 The innermost layer of a lymph node, the
Medulla is more sparsely populated with
Lymphoid-lineage cells of those present,
many are Plasma cells actively secreting antibody molecules.
 The Medulla in the core of the lymph node mainly processes T - lymphocytes.

Functions of Lymph Node

 Drainage of fluid from blood stream into the tissues.
 Filtration of the lymph at the lymph nodes.

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 Filtering blood.
 Raise an immune reaction and fight against microbial infections.
2. Spleen
 The Spleen is an organ found in virtually all Vertebrates.
 The spleen is an organ located in the left side of the abdominal cavity under the
Diaphragm, the muscular partition between the Abdomen and the Chest.
 Similar to a Lymph node, it acts
primarily as a blood filter.
 Old RBCs are recycled in the Spleen.
 Platelets and WBCs are stored in
Spleen.
 The spleen also helps to fight against
certain kinds of bacteria that cause
Pneumonia and Meningitis.

Structure of Spleen
 The spleen varies in size and shape between
people, but it’s commonly Ovoid shaped and
Reddish brown in colour.
 The spleen, in healthy adult humans, is
approximately 7 cm (2.8 in) to 14 cm (5.5 in) in
length. It usually weighs between 150 g and 200
g.
 The spleen is surrounded by a Capsule that
extends a number of projections (Trabeculae)
into the interior to form a compartmentalized
structure.
 The compartments are of two types, the (i) Red
pulp & (ii) White pulp, which are separated by a diffuse marginal zone.
 The splenic Red pulp consists of a network of sinusoids populated by Macrophages and
numerous RBCs and few Lymphocytes. It is the site where old and defective red blood
cells are destroyed and removed.
 The splenic White pulp surrounds the branches of the Splenic artery, forming a
Periarteriolar lymphoid sheath (PALS) populated mainly by T - lymphocytes.
 Primary lymphoid follicles - Rich in B - cells and some of them contain Germinal centers.
 The Marginal zone, located peripheral to the PALS, is populated by Lymphocytes and
Macrophages.

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 In the marginal zone, antigen is trapped by Interdigitating dendritic cells, which carry it to
the PALS.
 The initial activation of B and T - cells takes place in the T- cell - rich PALS.
 Like Lymph node, the Primary follicles enlarge into Secondary follicles, each containing a
Germinal center.

Functions of Spleen
 Similar to a Lymph node, Spleen acts primarily as a blood filter.
 Old RBCs are recycled in the Spleen.
 Platelets and WBCs are stored in Spleen.
 The spleen also helps to fight against certain kinds of bacteria that cause Pneumonia and
Meningitis.

3. Mucosal-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)

 The mucous membranes lining the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems have a
combined surface area of about 400 m2 and are the major sites of entry for most
pathogens.
 These vulnerable membrane surfaces are defended by a group of organized lymphoid
tissues mentioned earlier and known collectively as Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT).
 MALT can be further classified as Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) or Bronchus-
associated lymphoid tissue (BALT).
 The Tonsils, Appendix and Peyer’s patches are representative of lymphoid tissue found in
and around mucosal epithelia.

Tonsils
 Tonsils are collections of Lymphoid tissue facing into the Aero digestive tract.
 The Tonsils play a role in protecting the body against Respiratory and Gastrointestinal
infections.
 Each tonsil consists of a network of crypts (pits) that store cells used to fight infection.
 The tonsils contain B & T- cells, that fights against infections.
 Tonsils also produce Antibodies against Polio, Streptococcal pneumonia, Influenza, and
numerous infections.
 Tonsillitis occurs when bacterial or viral organisms cause inflammation of the Tonsillar
tissue. This results in fever, difficulty swallowing, sore throat, ear pain, loss of voice and
throat tenderness.

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Appendix

 Appendix - Blind - ended tube connected to the Cecum.

 The Cecum is a pouch like structure of the Colon, located at the junction of the Small and
the Large intestines.
 The human appendix averages 9 cm in length but can range from 2 to 20 cm. The diameter
of the appendix is usually between 7 and 8 mm.
 Appendicitis – Inflammation of Appendix.
 Functions of Appendix - 1) Maintaining Gut flora, 2) Important component of Mucosal
immune function and 3) Storehouse for good bacteria, “rebooting” the digestive system
after diarrheal illnesses.
 Surgical removal of the appendix causes no observable health problems.

Peyer’s Patches

 Peyer’s patches are small masses of lymphatic tissue found throughout the Ileum region
of the Small intestine.

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 Peyer’s patches are roughly egg-shaped lymphatic tissue nodules that are similar to lymph
nodes in structure, except that they are not surrounded by a connective tissue capsule.
 Important part of the immune system by monitoring intestinal bacteria populations and
preventing the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestines.
 Peyer’s patches also playing an important role in trapping antigens from pathogens and
destroying them.

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SELF-CHECK The Lymphatic System & Immunity

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice. Write your letter of your choice on the space provided. Write capital letter
only.
1. These are thin-walled valved structures that carry lymph.
A. Lymph B. lymphatic vessels C. All of the above
2. Central lymphoid organs is known as :
A. Contains either B – cell or T – cell.
B. Site of Maturation for T & B cells
C. All of the above
3. It is a flat, bilobed organ situated above the heart.
A. Spleen B. Thymus C. Kidney
4. It is the site of blood regeneration.
A. Blood B. Heart C. Red bone marrow
5. It is also known as fatty tissue.
A. Yellow marrow B. Red Marrow C. Bone marrow
6. They fight against microbial infections.
A. Neutrophils B. Macrophages C. All of the above
7. These are group of small, bean-shaped organs found mainly in the neck and trunk of the
human body.
A. Lymph B. Spleen C. Adrenals
8. It is the innermost layer of a lymph node.
A. Cortex B. Spleen C. Medulla
9. It is where old RBCs are recycled.
A. Liver B. Thymus C. Spleen
10. Which of the following are stored in spleen?
A. WBC B. Platelets C. All of the above

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ANSWER KEY The Lymphatic System & Immunity

1. C
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. C
10. C

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TASK SHEET The Lymphatic System & Immunity

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

TASK SHEET

Title: The Lymphatic System

Performance Objective: Given the knowledge that you have, You should be able to
draw the Lymphatic System with label

Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, Sketch pad, pencil, etc…

Equipment: working Table, Computer with internet.

Steps/Procedure:

1. Draw the Lymphatic system and label its parts

2. Make sure that you draw it clear.
3. Make it more colorful and interesting
4. Present your work with your Trainer
5. Discuss it in class.

Assessment Method:
Assessment using the Performance Criteria Checklist

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PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CHECKLIST

CRITERIA
Did you … YES NO

1. Draw the Lymphatic system and label its parts

2. Make sure that you draw it clear.

3. Make it more colorful and interesting

4. Present your work with your Trainer

5. Discuss your portfolio in class.

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INFORMATION SHEET
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Learning Objectives
After reading this information sheet, the trainee must be able to:
1. Identify and be familiarize with the anatomy and physiology of Digestive system
2. Discuss the activities in Digestive System
A. ACTIVITIES IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process food
into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. Food is broken down,
bit by bit, until the molecules are small enough to be absorbed and the waste products are
eliminated. The digestive tract, also called the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract,
consists of a long continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The tongue and teeth
are accessory structures located in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas are major accessory organs that have a role in digestion. These organs secrete fluids
into the digestive tract.
Food undergoes three types of processes in the body:

 Digestion
 Absorption
 Elimination

Digestion and absorption occur in the digestive tract. After the nutrients are absorbed, they are
available to all cells in the body and are utilized by the body cells in metabolism.
The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or
functions.
Ingestion
The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth. This process, called
ingestion, has to take place before anything else can happen.
Mechanical Digestion
The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into smaller particles that can be
acted upon by various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which begins in the mouth with
chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing actions in the stomach.
Chemical Digestion
The complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are transformed by chemical
digestion into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells. Chemical
digestion, through a process called hydrolysis, uses water and digestive enzymes to break down

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the complex molecules. Digestive enzymes speed up the hydrolysis process, which is otherwise
very slow.
Movements
After ingestion and mastication, the food particles move from the mouth into the pharynx, then
into the esophagus. This movement is deglutition, or swallowing. Mixing movements occur in the
stomach as a result of smooth muscle contraction. These repetitive contractions usually occur in
small segments of the digestive tract and mix the food particles with enzymes and other fluids.
The movements that propel the food particles through the digestive tract are called peristalsis.
These are rhythmic waves of contractions that move the food particles through the various
regions in which mechanical and chemical digestion takes place.
Absorption
The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell membranes of the
lining in the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries. This process is called absorption.
Elimination
The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated from the body.
The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, is defecation or
elimination.

B. TRUNKS AND LAYERS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

Four Layers of the Gastrointestinal Tract

The GI tract contains four layers: the innermost layer is the mucosa, underneath this is the
submucosa, followed by the muscularis propria and finally, the outermost layer - the adventitia.
The structure of these layers varies, in different regions of the digestive system, depending on
their function.
The four layers in more detail:

1. Mucosa
A lining epithelium, including glandular tissue, an underlying
layer of loose connective tissue called the lamina propria,
which provides vascular support for the epithelium, and often
contains mucosal glands. Products of digestion pass into these
capillaries. Lymphoid follicles, and plasma cells are also often
found here. Finally, a thin double layer of smooth muscle is
often present - the muscularis mucosa for local movement
of the mucosa.

2. Submucosa
A loose connective tissue layer, with larger blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and can contain
mucous secreting glands.
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3. Muscularis propria (externa): smooth muscle layer.

There are usually two layers; the inner layer is circular, and the outer layer is longitudinal. These
layers of smooth muscle are used for peristalsis (rhythmic waves of contraction), to move food
down through the gut.
4. Adventia layer (or serosa)
Outermost layer of loose connective tissue - covered by the visceral peritoneum. Contains blood
vessels, lymphatics and nerves.

C. ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to do its job of turning your food into the nutrients
and energy you need to survive. And when it’s done with that, it handily packages your solid
waste, or stool, for disposal when you have a bowel movement.
The main organs that make up the digestive system (in order of their function) are the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Helping them along the
way are the pancreas, gall bladder and liver.
Here’s how these organs work together in your digestive system.

1. Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact,
digestion starts before you even take a bite. Your salivary
glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or
warm bread. After you start eating, you chew your food into
pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with
the food to begin to break it down into a form your body can
absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue passes the
food into your throat and into your esophagus.

2. Esophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the
esophagus receives food from your mouth when you
swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your
windpipe as you swallow to prevent you from choking (when
food goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called
peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.
But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus, called the lower esophageal
sphincter, has to relax to let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents
of the stomach from flowing back into the esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these contents flow
back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or heartburn.)

3. Stomach
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The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with
stomach enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable
form. Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are
responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are processed
enough, they’re released into the small intestine.
4. Small Intestine
Made up of three segments -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum -- the small intestine is a 22-
foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile
from the liver. Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with
digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.
The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly
responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through
the organ. Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency. Once the
nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small
intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.

5. Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and
carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin
is the chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar.
6. Liver
The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the
nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine
also plays an important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.
The liver is the body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine
and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function.
The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs
that can be toxic to the body.

7. Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the
duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.
8. Colon (Large Intestine)
The large intestine, or colon, is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is
easy and convenient. It’s a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the
rectum.

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The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across)
colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of
peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon,
water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement"
empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.
It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food
debris and bacteria. These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing
various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles and protecting against harmful
bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into
the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel movement).
9. Rectum
The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job is
to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out)
and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the
rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be
released or not.
If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents
cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.

10. Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor
muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able
to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.
The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The
pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from
coming out when it’s not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool
enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we are
asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.
When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool
until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

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Anatomy and Physiology

SELF- CHECK The Digestive System

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

1. The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth.
A. Ingestion B. Absorption C. Distribution
2. The following are the food that undergoes three types of processes in the body except:
A. Absorption B. Elimination C. Circulation
3. It begins in the mouth with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing
actions in the stomach.
A. Chemical Digestion B. Mechanical Digestion C. All of the above
4. Deglutition means:
A. Peristalsis B. Swallowing C. All of the above
5. The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell membranes of
the lining in the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries.
A. Absorption B. Digestion C. Elimination
6. The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces.
A. Absorption B. Digestion C. Elimination
7. A loose connective tissue layer, with larger blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and can
contain mucous secreting glands.
A. Mucosa B. Sub mucosa C. Lumen
8. It is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to prevent you from choking.
A. Epiglottis B. Glottis C. Trachea
9. It is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with digestive
enzymes.
A. Heart B. Stomach C. Urinary bladder
10. Which of the following is not a part of small intestine.
A. Ascending colon B. Rectum C. All of the above

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
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ANSWER KEY The Digestive System

1. A
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. A
9. B
10. C

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Anatomy and Physiology

TASK SHEET The Digestive System

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

TASK SHEET

Title: The Digestive System

Performance Objective: Given the knowledge that you have, You should be able to
draw the Digestive System with label

Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, sketch pad, pencil, etc…

Equipment: working Table, Computer with internet.

Steps/Procedure:

1. Draw the Digestive system

2. Put label on it
3. Make your work more colorful and artistic
4. Present your work to your trainer
5. Discuss it in class.
Assessment Method:
Assessment using the Performance Criteria Checklist

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CHECKLIST

CRITERIA
Did you … YES NO

1. Draw the digestive system

2. Label it

3. Make your work more colorful and artistic

4. Present your work to your trainer

5. Discuss it in class.

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

Information Sheet
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Objectives:
After reading this information sheet, the trainee must be able to:
1. Define what is a hormone
2. Identify the different types of hormones and its function to our body.

A. HORMONES
A hormone is a chemical that is made by specialist cells, usually within an endocrine gland, and it
is released into the bloodstream to send a message to another part of the body. It is often
referred to as a ‘chemical messenger’. Hormones are found in all multicellular organisms and
their role is to provide an internal communication system between cells located in distant parts
of the body.
In the human body, hormones are used for two types of communication. The first is for
communication between two endocrine glands, where one gland releases a hormone which
stimulates another target gland to change the levels of hormones that it is releasing. The second
is between an endocrine gland and a target organ, for example when the pancreas releases
insulin which causes muscle and fat cells to take up glucose from the bloodstream.
Since hormones are released into the bloodstream and can therefore be carried around the
entire body, they can perform both of these actions on many different targets. The complex
interplay between the glands, hormones and other target organs is referred to as the endocrine
system. Hormones affect many physiological activities including growth, metabolism, appetite,
puberty and fertility.

B. THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

The hormonal system (called the endocrine system in medical terminology) has various glands
that release different hormones. It's the way in which one part of the body (the gland) tells
another part of the body (the target cell) to do something important. The endocrine glands
influence reproduction, metabolism, growth and many other functions.

Below is a list of the main glands (see diagram for their location), some of the hormones they
produce and what effects they have on the body.
1. Hypothalamus
 major hormones — anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin and various hormones that
stimulate the pituitary gland
 influences — nervous and hormonal systems

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

2. Pituitary gland
 major hormones — luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),
prolactin, growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), oxytocin, anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
 influences — reproduction, growth, childbirth, breastfeeding, hormone regulation
3. Pineal gland
 major hormones — melatonin
 influences — sleep cycle
4. Thyroid gland
 major hormones — tri-iodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), calcitonin
 influence — metabolism, bone health
5. Parathyroid gland
 major hormones — parathyroid hormone
 influences — calcium and vitamin D regulation
6. Adrenal glands
 major hormones — adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol, aldosterone
 influences — stress response and blood pressure/salt control
7. Pancreas
 major hormones — insulin, glucagon, somatostatin
 influences — blood sugar control
8. Ovaries (females only)
 major hormones — estrogen, progesterone
 influences — female characteristics
9. Testes (males only)
 major hormones — testosterone
 influences — male characteristics

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

SELF CHECK The Endocrine System

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice. Write your letter of your choice on the space provided. Write capital letter
only.

1. It is a chemical that is made by specialist cells, usually within an endocrine gland, and it is
released into the bloodstream to send a message to another part of the body
A. Hormone B. Blood C. All of the above
2. It influences the sleep cycle.
A. PTH hormone B. Estrogen C. Pineal Gland
3. It influences — reproduction, growth, childbirth, breastfeeding, hormone regulation
A. Hypothalamus B. Pituitary Gland C. Ovaries
4. It influences the metabolism, bone health.
A. Thymus gland B. Thyroid gland C. Adrenals
5. It influences the stress response and blood pressure/salt control.
A. Reproductive gland B. Thyroid gland C. Adrenal gland

6. Testosterone can found only with?

A. Male B. Female C. All of the above
7. It influences the female characteristics.
A. Ovaries B. Testes C. Kidneys

8. Which of the following are included in pancreas

A. Glucagon B. Insulin C. All of the above
9. It influences the nervous and hormonal systems.
A. Hypothalamus gland B. Pituitary gland C. Thyroid gland
10. It influences the calcium and vitamin D regulation.
A. PTH B. Thyroid hormone C. All of the above

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
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ANSWER KEY: The Endocrine System

1. A
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. C
6. A
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. A

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

TASK SHEET The Endocrine System

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

TASK SHEET

Title: The Endocrine System

Performance Objective: Given the knowledge that you have, You should be able to
draw and label the Endocrine system

Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, Sketch pad paper, pencil, etc…

Equipment: working Table, Computer with internet.

Steps/Procedure:

1. Draw the Endocrine system

2. Label it
3. Make your work more colorful and artistic
4. Present your work to your trainer
5. Discuss it in class.
Assessment Method:
Assessment using the Performance Criteria Checklist

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CHECKLIST

CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you …
1. Draw the Endocrine System

2. Label it

3. Make your work more colorful and artistic

4. Present your work to your trainer

5. Discuss it in class.

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

Information Sheet
THE URINARY SYSTEM & FLUID BALANCE
Objectives:
After reading this information sheet, the trainee must be able to:
1. Understand the Urinary system
2. Identify the structures and functions of Urinary system

A. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The urinary system's function is to filter blood and
create urine as a waste by-product. The organs of
the urinary system include the kidneys, renal
pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra.
The body takes nutrients from food and converts
them to energy. After the body has taken the food
components that it needs, waste products are left
behind in the bowel and in the blood.
The kidney and urinary systems help the body to
eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep
chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and
water in balance. Urea is produced when foods
containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables,
are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to
the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other
wastes in the form of urine.
Other important functions of the kidneys include blood pressure
regulation and the production of erythropoietin, which controls
red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Kidneys also
regulate the acid-base balance and conserve fluids.

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Kidney and Urinary System Parts and Their Functions

1. Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is
located below the ribs toward the middle of the back.
Their function is to:
 Remove waste products and drugs from the body
 Balance the body's fluids
 Release hormones to regulate blood pressure
 Control production of red blood cells

The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering
units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed
of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube
called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other
waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules
of the kidney.

2. Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in
the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the
kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About
every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the
ureters.
3. Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in
place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's
walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through
the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two
to five hours.

Upon examination, specific "landmarks" are used to describe the location of any
irregularities in the bladder. These are:

 Trigone: a triangle-shaped region near the junction of the urethra and the bladder
 Right and left lateral walls: walls on either side of the trigone
 Posterior wall: back wall
 Dome: roof of the bladder
4. Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by closing
tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
5. Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the
bladder.

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

6. Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain
signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra.
When all the signals occur in the correct
order, normal urination occurs.

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

SELF CHECK: The Urinary System & Fluid Balance

Student Number : ____________
Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice. Write your letter of your choice on the space provided. Write capital letter
only.

1. Which of the following are the major cations in the body fluid.
A. Sodium B. Chloride C. Bicarbonate
2. It is the fluid found inside cells.
A. Lysosome B. Cytoplasm C. Golgi bodies
3. Sodium and magnesium belongs to which type of fluids?
A. Anion B. Cation C. All of the above
4. It is a complex mixture of substances dissolved in water.
A. Cytosol B. Cytoplasm C. Cellulose
5. It usually denotes all the body fluid that is outside of the cells.
A. ICF B. ECF C. interstitial space
6. It is the smallest component of extracellular fluid, which also includes interstitial fluid and
plasma.
A. ICF B. ECF C. Transcellular fluid
7. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of the back.
A. Kidney B. Ureter C. Urinary bladder
8. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called?
A. Urethra B. Nephron C. Hilum
9. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen.
A. Kidney B. Ureter C. Urinary bladder
10. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body.
A. Urethra B. Ureter C. Urinary bladder

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

ANSWER KEY: The Urinary System & Fluid Balance

1. A
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. C
10. A

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

TASK SHEET The Urinary System & Fluid Balance

Student Number : ____________

Name:_____________________ Score:___________
Course/Year _________________ Date: ____________

TASK SHEET

Title: The Urinary System & Fluid Balance

Performance Objective: Given the knowledge that you have, You should be able to
draw and label the Renal system

Supplies/Materials: Coloring materials, Sketch pad, pencil, etc…

Equipment: working Table, Computer with internet.

Steps/Procedure:

1. Draw the Renal system

2. Label it
3. Make your work more colorful and artistic
4. Present your work to your trainer
5. Discuss it in class.
Assessment Method:
Assessment using the Performance Criteria Checklist

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PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC
Anatomy and Physiology

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CHECKLIST

CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you …
1. Draw the Renal System

2. Label it

3. Make your work more colorful and artistic

4. Present your work to your trainer

5. Discuss it in class.

39
PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY CDCEC TARLAC