Chapter 7

FACTORS AFFECTING INSOLATION ON THE

EARTH
7.1 SOLAR RADIATION

The sun, which is the source of all energy on the surface of the Earth, is
continually shedding part of its mass by radiating waves of electromagnetic energy and
high energy particles into space. Almost all of the energy that drives the various
systems (climate systems, ecosystems, hydrologic systems, etc.) found on the Earth
originates from the sun. Solar energy is created at the core of the sun when hydrogen
atoms are fused into helium by nuclear fusion. The core occupies an area from the
sun’s center to about a quarter of the star’s radius. At the core, gravity pulls all of the
mass of the sun inward and creates intense pressure. This pressure is high enough to
force the fusion of atomic masses.

For each second of the solar nuclear fusion process, 700 million tons of hydrogen
is converted into the heavier atom helium. Since its formation 4.5 billion years ago, the
sun has used up about half of the hydrogen found in its core. The solar nuclear process
also creates immense heat that causes atoms to discharge photons. Temperatures at
the core are about 15 million degrees Kelvin (15 million degrees C or 27 million degrees
F). Each photon that is created travels about one micrometer before being absorbed by
an adjacent gas molecule. This absorption then causes the heating of the neighboring
atom and it re-emits another photon that again travels a short distance before being
absorbed by another atom. This process then repeats itself many times over before the
photon can finally be emitted to outer space at the sun’s surface. The last 20% of the
journey to the surface the energy is transported more by convection than by radiation. It
takes a photon approximately 100,000 years or about 1025 absorptions and re-
emissions to make the journey from the core to the sun’s surface. The trip from the
sun’s surface to the Earth takes about 8 minutes.

The radiative surface of the sun, or photosphere, has an average temperature of

about 5,800 Kelvins. Most of the electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun's
surface lies in the visible band centered at 500 µm (1 µm = 10-6 meters), although the
sun also emits significant energy in the ultraviolet and infrared bands, and small
amounts of energy in the radio, microwave, X-ray and gamma ray bands. The total
quantity of energy emitted from the sun's surface is approximately 3.84 X 1026 W which
is the total solar output into space. This value is calculated with the help of Stefan’s
Law which is applied to all black bodies:

F=σT4

Where σ= 5.67X10-8Wm-2K-4 (Stefan–Boltzmann constant)

T = absolute temperature of the black body (in this case assuming a temperature of
5760K on the sun’s surface.)

The sun behaves virtually as a black body i.e. it absorbs all energy received and in
turn radiates energy at the maximum rate possible for a given temperature.

The energy emitted by the sun passes through space until it is intercepted by
planets, other celestial objects, or interstellar gas and dust. The intensity of solar
radiation striking these objects is determined by a physical law known as the Inverse
Square Law. This law merely states that the intensity of the radiation emitted from
the sun varies with the squared distance from the source. As a result of this law, if
the intensity of radiation at a given distance is one unit, at twice the distance the
intensity will become only one-quarter. At three times the distance, the intensity will
become only one-ninth of its original intensity at a distance of one unit, and so on.

Given the amount of energy radiated by the sun and the average Earth-sun
distance of 149.5 million kilometers, the amount of radiation intercepted by the outer
limits of the atmosphere can be calculated to be around 1,367 W/m2. This is termed as
solar constant with an absolute uncertainty ±2 Wm-2. Only about 40% of the solar
energy intercepted at the top of Earth's atmosphere passes through to the surface. The
atmosphere reflects and scatters some of the received visible radiation. Gamma rays,
X-rays, and ultraviolet radiation less than 200 nanometers in wavelength are selectively
absorbed in the atmosphere by oxygen and nitrogen and turned into heat energy.

Several processes deplete the solar radiation as it passes into the atmosphere.
These processes include reflection, scattering and absorption.

7.1.1 Reflection

The Earth and its atmosphere reflect part of the solar radiation back to space.
There is considerable variation in reflection of natural surfaces. Reflectivity, or albedo,
is expressed as a percentage of the incident radiation reaching the surface. Clouds are
by far the most important reflectors in the earth environment. Reflectivity ranges from 40
to 90% depending on type and thickness.

Water covers the largest area of Earth’s surface. The reflectivity of water depends
on the angle of the solar beam and the roughness of the water surface. Reflectivity
decreases as the sun gets higher and higher in the sky. When the surface is smooth
and the sun is near the horizon, reflectivity is high. People out in boats before 10 a.m.
and after 2p.m. can sunburn because of reflection from water. Water reflects as little as
two percent of the radiation when the solar angle is >90. On the other hand, when angle
of incidence is less than 30˚and water is rough, the reflection (albedo) is more.

The land surface of the earth reflects only 40 to 50 percent of solar radiation. This
varies with the type of surface. Table 7.1 provides examples of the reflectivity of various
natural surfaces.

Table 7.1- Typical Albedos of Various Surfaces to Solar Radiation

 Type of Surface Albedo (%)

Fresh snow 75- 95

Old snow and sea ice 30-40

Dry sand 35-45

Concrete 25-30

Savanna (dry) 25-30

Grass covered meadow 10-20

Tundra 15-20

Deciduous Forest 10-20

Coniferous Forest 5-15

Source: Oliver J.E and Hidore J.J., Climatology- An Atmospheric Science

7.1.2 Scattering

Scattering is the process by which small particles and molecules of gases diffuse
part of the radiation in different directions. The amount and direction of scatter depends
on the ratio of the radius of the scattering particle to the wavelength of the energy.

The amount of scatter is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the

wavelength. This means that in a given set of conditions, the shorter wavelengths
scatter more readily than long wave radiation. This relationship was given by Lord
Rayleigh in (1842-1919) and therefore this effect is called Rayleigh Scattering.

The sunlit sky appears blue because air scatters short-wavelength light more than
longer wavelengths. Since blue light is at the short wavelength end of the visible
spectrum, it is more strongly scattered in the atmosphere than long wavelength red
light. The result is that the human eye perceives blue when looking toward parts of the
sky other than the sun.

Near sunrise and sunset, most of the light we see comes in nearly tangent to the
Earth's surface, so that the light's path through the atmosphere is so long that much of
the blue and even green light is scattered out, leaving the sun rays and the clouds it
illuminates red. Therefore, when looking at the sunset and sunrise, you will see the
color red more than any of the other colors.

Scattering and absorption are major causes for the dilution of radiation by the
atmosphere. Scattering varies as a function of the ratio of the particle diameter to the
wavelength of the radiation. When this ratio is less than about one-tenth, Rayleigh
scattering occurs in which the scattering coefficient varies inversely as the fourth power
of the wavelength. At larger values of the ratio of particle diameter to wavelength, the
scattering varies in a complex fashion described, for spherical particles, by the Mie
theory; at a ratio of the order of 10, the laws of geometric optics begin to apply. This
theory was developed by Gustave Mie in 1908.

The sky is often the darkest blue shortly after rain because the rain washes out
the larger particles of debris and removes much of the moisture. There is often less
scattering and a darker sky. The bright white colour of the sky on a hazy day is due to
the scattering of all the visible light as it passes through the haze. The sky appears
black to astronauts above the earth’s atmosphere and also as seen from the surface of
the moon. Since there is no atmosphere on the moon to scatter the radiation, there is no
colour.

7.1.3 Absorption

Absorption retains incident radiation and converts it to some other form of energy.
Most often it changes to sensible heat, which raises the temperature of the absorbing
object. Gas molecules, cloud particles, haze, smoke and dust absorb part of the
incoming solar radiation. Such absorption is selective for gases absorb only in certain
wavelengths. Nitrogen which is the most abundant gas does not absorb much incoming
radiation. Oxygen and Ozone absorb well at wavelengths below 0.3µm, with most of the
absorption occurring in the ionosphere and stratosphere. Water vapour absorbs well in
the infra-red range but not in the range of maximum solar radiation.

7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING INSOLATION RECEIVED AT THE TOP OF

THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

The amount of energy received at the top of the atmosphere is affected by four factors:

• Solar output

• The sun-earth distance

• The altitude of the sun

• Length of day

7.2.1 Solar Output

The solar output to space assuming the temperature of the sun to be 5760K is
3.84X1026W, but only a tiny fraction of this is intercepted by the earth, because the
energy received is inversely proportional to the square of the solar distance (150 million
kms.). The energy received at the top of the atmosphere on a surface
perpendicular to the solar beam for mean solar distance is termed the solar
constant (1366W/m2). This solar constant undergoes small periodic variations of just
over 1Wm-2related to sunspot activity from sunspot maximum to minimum. Sunspot
number and positions change in a regular manner, known as sunspot cycles. Sunspots
are dark (i.e. cooler) areas visible on the sun’s surface. Although sunspots are cool,
bright areas of activity known as faculae (plages) that have higher temperatures
surround them.
 Sunspot populations quickly rise and more slowly fall on an irregular cycle of
11 years, although significant variations in the number of sunspots attending the 11-
year period are known over longer spans of time. For example, from 1900 to the 1960s
the solar maxima trend of sunspot count has been upward; from the 1960s to the
present, it has diminished somewhat. Over the last decades the Sun has had a
markedly high average level of sunspot activity; it was last similarly active over 8,000
years ago.

The number of sunspots correlates with the intensity of solar radiation over the
period since 1979, when satellite measurements of absolute radiative flux became
available. Since sunspots are darker than the surrounding photosphere it might be
expected that more sunspots would lead to less solar radiation and a decreased solar
constant. However, the surrounding margins of sunspots are brighter than the average,
and so are hotter; overall, more sunspots increase the sun's solar constant or
brightness. The variation caused by the sunspot cycle to solar output is relatively small,
on the order of 0.1% of the solar constant (a peak-to-trough range of 1.3 W.m−2
compared to 1366 W.m−2 for the average solar constant). Sunspots were rarely
observed during the Maunder Minimum in the second part of the 17th century
(approximately from 1645 to 1715). This coincides with the middle (and coldest) part of
a period of cooling known as the Little Ice Age.

7.2.2 Distance from the Sun

The annually changing distance of the earth from the sun produces seasonal
variations in solar energy received by the earth. In its revolution around the sun, the
earth follows an elliptical orbit so that the distance from Earth to the sun varies. Earth is
usually closest to the sun (perihelion) on January 4 and most distant (aphelion) on
July 4. The amount of solar radiation intercepted by Earth at perihelion is about seven
percent higher than aphelion.
 This configuration should make the northern winters warmer than those in the
southern hemisphere, and southern summers warmer than those in the northern
hemisphere. In practice atmospheric heat circulation and the effects of continentality
(more land than water in the northern hemisphere) mask this global tendency, and the
actual seasonal contrast between the hemispheres is reversed.

This difference slowly changes, about 10,000 years ago the aphelion occurred in the
northern hemisphere winter, and northern summers received 3 to 4 per cent more
radiation than today. This same pattern will return about 10,000 years from now.

Figure 7.1: Aphelion and Perihelion Position

Source: www. physicalgeography.net

 Figure 7.2: Earth’s Orbit

Source: www.oceanworld.tamu.edu

Solstice and Equinox

A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun's
apparent position in the sky reaches its northernmost or southernmost extremes.
The name is derived from the Latin sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still), because at
the solstices, the Sun stands still in declination; that is, the apparent movement of
the Sun's path north or south comes to a stop before reversing direction.

The term solstice can also be used in a broader sense, as the date (day) when this
occurs. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons.
In some cultures they are considered to start or separate the seasons, while in
others they fall nearer the middle.

An equinox occurs twice a year, when the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither
away from nor towards the Sun, the center of the Sun being in the same plane as
the Earth's equator. The term equinox can also be used in a broader sense, meaning
the date when such a passage happens. The name "equinox" is derived from the
Latin aequus (equal) and nox (night), because around the equinox, the night and
day are approximately equally long. It may be better understood to mean that
latitudes +L and -L north and south of the Equator experience nights of equal
length.

An equinox happens each year at two specific moments in time (rather than two
whole days), when there is a location (the subsolar point) on the Earth's equator,
where the center of the Sun can be observed to be vertically overhead, occurring
around March 20/21 and September 22/23 each year.
7.2.3 Altitude of the Sun

The altitude of the sun (i.e. the angle between its rays and a tangent to the earth’s
surface at the point of observation) also affects the amount of solar radiation received at
the surface of the earth. The greater the sun’s altitude, the more concentrated is the
radiation intensity per unit area at the earth’s surface and the shorter is the path length
of the beam through the atmosphere, which decreases the atmospheric absorption (Fig.
7.3).

Figure 7.3: Altitude of the Sun

Source: www. nsidc.org

The principal factors that determine the sun’s altitude are the latitude of the site, the
time of day and the season. At the June solstice, the sun’s altitude is a constant
23½˚throughout the day at the North Pole and the sun is directly overhead at noon at
the Tropic of Cancer.
7.2.4 Length of Day

The length of daylight also affects the amount of radiation that is received. The
longer the time the sun shines the greater is the quantity of radiation that a given portion
of the earth will receive. At the equator the day length is close to 12 hours in all months,
whereas at the poles it varies between 0 and 24 hours from winter to summer.

The combination of all the four factors mentioned above, produces the pattern of
receipt of solar energy at the top of the atmosphere. The Polar Regions receive their
maximum amounts of solar radiation during their summer solstices, which is the period
of continuous day.

The equator has two radiation maxima at the equinoxes and two minima at the
solstices, due to the apparent passage of its double annual movement between the
northern and southern hemispheres.

7.3 EARTH’S HEAT ENERGY BUDGET

The Earth can be considered as a physical system with a heat energy budget that
includes all gains of incoming energy and all losses of outgoing energy. The planet is
approximately in equilibrium, so the sum of the gains is approximately equal to the sum
of the losses.

Figure 7.4: Earth’s Heat Budget

Source: Source: Source:http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents

7.3.1 Incoming Energy

The total solar constant or energy received at the top of the atmosphere is
approximately 1366 watts per square metre. This is the incident energy. The energy
actually reaching the surface is modified by several factors – atmosphere, clouds,
albedo. This solar constant may undergo variations of 0.1% over a solar cycle. The
other sources of energy on the Earth are geothermal energy, tidal energy and energy
generated by the burning of fossil fuels. These sources of energy are insignificant as
compared to energy received from the Sun.

7.3.2 Outgoing energy

The average albedo (reflectivity) of the Earth is about 0.3, which means that 30% of
the incident solar energy is reflected into space, while 70% is absorbed by the Earth
and reradiated as infrared. The planet's albedo varies from month to month and place
to place, but 0.3 is the average figure. The contributions from geothermal and tidal
power sources are so small that they are omitted from the following calculations.

30% of the incident energy is reflected, consisting of:

• 6% reflected from the atmosphere

• 20% reflected from clouds
• 4% reflected from the ground (including land, water and ice)

The remaining 70% of the incident energy is absorbed:

51% is absorbed by land and water, and then emerges in the following ways:

• 23% is transferred back into the atmosphere as latent heat by the evaporation of
water, called latent heat flux
• 7% is transferred back into the atmosphere by heated rising air, called Sensible
heat flux
• 6% is radiated directly into space
• 15% is transferred into the atmosphere by radiation, then reradiated into space
 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, including:

• 16% reradiated into space

• 3% transferred to clouds, from where it is radiated back into space

When the Earth is at thermal equilibrium, the same 70% that is absorbed is reradiated:

• 64% by the clouds and atmosphere

• 6% by the ground

7.4 ENERGY TRANSFER WITHIN THE EARTH – ATMOSPHERE

SYSTEM

Heat energy in the Earth-Atmospheric system is transferred by three mechanisms:

7.4.1 Radiation

Electromagnetic waves transfer energy (both heat and light) between two bodies,
without the necessary aid of an intervening material medium, at a speed of 300 X
106m/s. This is how solar energy travels through space. However, when it enters the
atmosphere it allows the passage of radiation only at certain wavelengths and restricts
that at others.

Radiation entering the atmosphere may be absorbed in certain wavelengths by

atmospheric gases. Most short-wave radiation is transmitted without absorption.
Scattering of radiation occurs which imparts blue colour to the sky (Rayleigh scattering
when the gas molecules are smaller than the radiation wavelength). The sky appears
grey and white when water droplets and aerosol particles are present in the atmosphere
due to Mie scattering.
7.4.2 Conduction

In this mechanism heat passes through a substance from warmer part to colder
part. This energy is transferred by transferring energy to adjacent molecules. On gaining
heat a molecule starts to vibrate more vigorously and passes on this to the next
molecule. In solids the molecules are closely packed and therefore they are better
conductors as compared to gases and liquids. Thus, land is a good conductor of heat
whereas very little conduction occurs in the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Thermal
conductivity increases as the water content of the soil increases. Frozen soil is a better
conductor as compared to unfrozen soil. This is because water particles fill up the
intermolecular spaces between the soil particles.

7.4.3 Convection

This type of energy transfer occurs only in fluids (both liquids and gases). Since
their particles can move about freely they can circulate internally and transfer energy
from surplus to deficit areas. This is the most important way by which energy gets
transferred in the atmosphere. Gas molecules are in constant motion and are
transferring energy from one part to the other. Forced convection occurs when air is
forced to rise because of a barrier in its path (mechanical turbulence). Free convection
is thermally induced. It occurs when air near the surface of the earth becomes warm
and less dense. Low density causes it to move upwards which initiates convection
currents.

During convection energy may be transferred in two ways: sensible heat transfer and
latent heat transfer.
Sensible Heat

When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The increase in
heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed from an object and its
temperature falls, the heat removed is also called sensible heat. Heat that causes a
change in temperature in an object is called sensible heat. This is also called enthalpy
by physicists. It is defined as CP T where T is temperature and Cp is the specific heat at
constant pressure. Specific heat is the heat absorbed by unit mass for unit increase in
temperature. Besides convection sensible heat can also be transferred by conduction.

Latent Heat

The second form of energy transfer by convection is indirect, involving latent heat.
All pure substances in nature are able to change their state. Solids can become liquids
(ice to water) and liquids can become gases (water to vapor) but changes such as these
require the addition or removal of heat. The heat that causes these changes is called
latent heat.

Latent heat however, does not affect the temperature of a substance - for
example, water remains at 100°C while boiling. This is referred to as latent heat of
vaporization. For example at 0˚C the amount of heat required by 1kg of water to
change from liquid to vapour is 2.50 X 106 J. When this vapour condenses in the
atmosphere the same amount of energy is released and is termed latent heat of
condensation. Similarly, when ice melts at 0˚C, latent heat of fusion is absorbed.
When ice evaporates in nature without turning into liquid, latent heat of sublimation is
absorbed. In all of these phase changes of water energy is transferred.

Sensible heat and latent heat are terms often used to indicate the effect that
the flow of heat has on a substance. The flow of heat from one substance to another
is normally reflected in a temperature change in each substance—the hotter substance
becomes cooler, the cooler substance becomes hotter. However, he flow of heat is not
reflected in a temperature change in a substance that is in the process of changing
from one physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) to another. When the flow of heat is
reflected in a temperature change, we say that sensible heat has been added to or
removed from the substance (heat that can be sensed or felt). When the flow of heat is
not reflected in a temperature change, but is reflected in the changing physical state of
a substance, we say that latent heat has been added or removed.

Figure 7.4: Relationship between Sensible Heat and Latent Heat

Source: www.tpub.com

The above figure shows the relationship between sensible heat and latent heat for
water at atmospheric pressure. The same kind of chart could be drawn for other
substances; however, different amounts of thermal energy would be involved in the
changes of state for each substance. If we start with 1 pound of ice at 0°F, we must add
16 Btu to raise the temperature of the ice to 32°F. We call this adding sensible heat. To
change the pound of ice at 32°F to a pound of water at 32°F, we must add 144 Btu (the
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION). No change in temperature will occur while the ice is
melting. After all the ice has melted, however, the temperature of the water will be
raised as additional heat is supplied. If we add 180 Btu—that is, 1 Btu for each degree
of temperature between 32°F and 212°F—the temperature of the water will be
raised to the boiling point. To change the pound of water at 212°F to a pound of steam
at 212°F, we must add 970 Btu (the LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZA- TION). After all the
water has been converted to steam, the addition of more heat will cause an
increase in the temperature of the steam. If we add about 44 Btu to the pound of
steam that is at 212°F, we can super heat it to 300°F. The same relationships
apply when heat is being removed. The removal of 44 Btu from the pound of steam that
is at 300°F will cause the temperature to drop to 212°F. As the pound of steam at
212°F changes to a pound of water at 212°F, 970 Btu are given off. When a
substance is changing from a gas or vapor to a liquid, the heat that is given off is
LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION. Notice, however, that the latent heat of
condensation is exactly the same as the latent heat of vaporization. The removal of
another 180 Btu of sensible heat will lower the temperature of the pound of pure
water from 212°F to 32°F. As the pound of water at 32°F changes to a pound of ice at
32°F, 144 Btu are given off without any accompanying change in temperature. Further
removal of heat causes the temperature of the ice to decrease.

Summary

• The sun is continually shedding part of its mass by radiating waves of

electromagnetic energy and high energy particles into space.
• The total quantity of energy emitted from the sun's surface is approximately 3.84
X 1026 W which is the total solar output into space.
• Several processes deplete the solar radiation as it passes into the atmosphere.
These processes include reflection, scattering and absorption.
• The energy received at the top of the atmosphere on a surface perpendicular to
the solar beam for mean solar distance is termed the solar constant. This solar
constant undergoes small periodic variations of just over 1Wm-2related to
sunspot activity from sunspot maximum to minimum.
 • Earth is usually closest to the sun (perihelion) on January 4 and most distant
(aphelion) on July 4. The amount of solar radiation intercepted by Earth at
perihelion is about seven percent higher than aphelion.

• The amount of solar insolation intercepted by the earth is also determined by the
sun’s altitude which depends on the latitude of the site, the time of day and the
season.

• The length of daylight also affects the amount of radiation that is received.

• In the Earth- Atmospheric system energy is transferred by radiation, conduction

and convection.

Exercises

1. What do you mean by solar output and how does it get affected by sunspot
cycles?
2. How does distance from the sun, altitude of the sun and length of day affect the
incoming solar insolation?
3. What happens to the solar insolation when it passes through the Earth’s
atmosphere?
4. What are the three mechanisms by which heat energy is transferred ?

Glossary

Hydrological cycle – water cycle

Nuclear fusion – In nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry and astrophysics nuclear
fusion is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to
form a single heavier nucleus
Photon – A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic
interaction and the basic unit of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Wavelength – Wavelength of a sine wave, λ, can be measured between any two points
with the same phase, such as between crests, or troughs, or corresponding zero
crossings as shown.

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