Pile Group

Analyses performed in the "Pile Group" program can be divided into two groups:

 Analytical solution - calculation of the vertical bearing capacity of a pile group

for cohesive and cohesionless soils and the determination of settlement
 Analysis of a pile group using the spring method together with the determination
of reinforcement of piles

Analytical Solution
Analysis of the vertical bearing capacity of a pile group can be performed for:

 cohesionless soil (analysis for drained conditions)

 cohesive soil (analysis for undrained conditions)
The actual verification analysis is carried out according to the factors of safety or the
theory of limit states.
The verification is performed for the vertical load only. Load due to moments and
shear forces is not considered. To account for horizontal actions of the pile group
calls for choosing the spring method in the frame "Settings".
The analytical methods also allow for calculating the pile group settlement.

Cohesionless Soil (Analysis for Drained Conditions)

The same methods as for the analysis of an isolated pile are used to calculate the
vertical bearing capacity of a pile group:

 NAVFAC DM 7.2
 Effective stress
 CSN 73 1002
The pile group vertical bearing capacity is provided by:

where: n - number of piles in a group

Rc - vertical bearing capacity of an isolated pile

ηg - pile group efficiency

The actual verification analysis is carried out according to the factors of safety or the
theory of limit states.

Efficiency of a Pile Group

UFC 3-220-01A
 for the axial spacing of piles in the group: 3d

 for the axial spacing of piles in the group: 6d

La Barré (CSN 73 1002):

where: nx - number of piles in the x direction

ny - number of piles in the y direction

ψ - angle having tangent , expressed in degrees

s - axial spacing of piles

d - diameter of piles

Seiler-Keeney formula:

where: nx - number of piles in the x direction

ny - number of piles in the y direction

s - axial spacing of piles

Input efficiency
User-defined input of the degree of efficiency in the range of 0.5 - 1.0.
Literature:
Pochman, R.; Simek, J.: Pilotove zaklady - Komentar k CSN 73 1002. 1st edition,
Prague, Vydavatelstvi norem, 1989, 80 p.
Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC 3-220-01A): Design of deep foundations - Technical
instructions, Chapter 5-3, 1997.
Venkatramaiah, C.: Geotechnical Engineering. Second edition, New Delhi (India):
New Age International Publishers, 1995.

Cohesive Soil (Analysis for Undrained Conditions)

UFC 3-220-01A:
The bearing capacity of an earth block is provided by:
where:
for condition:

for condition:

Masopust:
The bearing capacity of an earth block is provided by:

where: l - length of piles

plane dimensions of the base of an earth body in the form of a

bx,by -
block

cus - average undrained shear strength along the piles ( )

cub - undrained shear strength at the base of piles

Ncg - cohesion group bearing capacity factor

bx - minimum width of pile group (shorter layout size of the pile cap)

Note: The earth body is represented by a block with its base given by a plane
containing feet of individual piles and having vertical walls found in the distance of
one pile diameter from the axes of outer piles. This earth block subjected to overall
load caused by the pile group resists by shear along the walls - skin friction and by
bearing capacity at its base.
The actual verification analysis is carried out according to the factors of safety or the
theory of limit states.
Literature:
UFC 3-220-01A
MASOPUST, Jan. Navrhování základových a pažicích konstrukcí: příručka k ČSN
EN 1997. Praha: Pro Českou komoru autorizovaných inženýrů a techniků činných ve
výstavbě vydalo Informační centrum ČKAIT, 2012. ISBN 978-80-87438-31-2.

Analysis According to the Safety Factor

When performing the analysis according to the factor of safety the program carries
out the verification analysis for a pile group in compression:
where: Rg - vertical bearing capacity of a pile group

Vd - maximum vertical force (including the pile cap self-weight)

self-weight of piles (only when the option "Consider the self-weight

Wp -
of pile" is checked)

SFcp - factor of safety for a pile group in compression

Analysis According to the Theory of Limit States

When performing the analysis according to the theory of limit states the program
carries out the verification analysis for a pile group in a cohesionless soil:

where: Rg - vertical bearing capacity of a pile group

n - number of piles in the group

Rc - vertical bearing capacity of an isolated pile (Rb + Rs)

γt reduction coefficient of total resistance

ηg - pile group efficiency

Vd - maximum vertical force (including the pile cap self-weight)

self-weight of piles (only when the option "Consider the self-weight

Wp -
of pile" is checked)

When performing the analysis according to the theory of limit states the program
carries out the verification analysis for a pile group in a cohesive soil:

where: Rg - vertical bearing capacity of a pile group

Vd - maximum vertical force (including the pile cap self-weight)

self-weight of piles (only when the option "Consider the self-weight

Wp -
of pile" is checked)

γt - reduction coefficient of total resistance

When performing the verification analysis according to EN 1997-1 the pile group
vertical bearing capacity in a cohesive soil is reduced by the coefficient of base
resistance (γt = γb).
Pile Group Settlement
Cohesionless soil
The analysis of a pile group in a cohesionless soil is developed based on the linear
theory of settlement (Poulos). The load-settlement curve for a pile group and the
value of the total settlement sg is increased by the so-called group settlement
factor gf.
An immediate settlement of the pile group increased by the group settlement factor is
provided by:

where: sg - pile group settlement

group settlement factor for a cohesionless soil (according to Pile Buck

gf -
Inc. 1992)

settlement of a single pile (determined, e.g. from the load-settlement

s0 -
curve)

d - pile diameter

bx - minimum width of pile group

Cohesive soil
The pile group settlement in a cohesive soil is determined as the settlement of a
substitute foundation at a depth of 0,67*L, having a width B and a length B'.
Analyses to calculate settlement are described in more detail in "Settlement
analysis".
 Scheme of substitute foundation - settlement of pile group in cohesive soil

Settlement Analysis
One of the following methods is available to compute settlement:

 Using the oedometric modulus

 Using the compression constant
 Using the compression index
 According to NEN (Buismann, Ladde)
 Using the Soft soil model
 According to Janbu theory
 Using the DMT (constrained modulus)
The program offers two options to constrain the depth of the influence zone:

 Exploiting the theory of structural strength

 Using the percentage of the magnitude of geostatic stress
The theory of elasticity (Boussinesq theory) is employed to determine stress in a
soil state in all methods available for the settlement analysis.
 General theories of settlement serve as bases in all the above methods.
When computing settlement below the footing bottom the programs first calculate
the stress in the footing bottom and then determine the overall settlement and
rotation of foundation.
The general approach in all theories draws on subdividing the subsoil into layers of
different thickness based on the depth below the footing bottom or ground surface.
Vertical deformation of each layer is then computed - the overall settlement is then
defined as a sum of partial settlements of individual layers within the influence zone
(deformations below the influence zone are either zero or neglected):

where: s - settlement

si - settlement of the ith layer

Stress in the Footing Bottom

The stress in the footing bottom can be assumed as:

 rectangular (uniform in the footing bottom)

 general (trapezoidal) with different edge values
The general distribution of stress follows from the figure:

Stress in the footing bottom

where:

where: Q - vertical load of footing

 l,b - footing width and length

eb - load eccentricity

M - moment acting on the footing

H - horizontal force

N - normal force at the eccentric footing

p - column axis offset from the footing center

If in some points the stress becomes negative, the program continues with adjusted
dimensions b*l while excluding tension from the analysis. Before computing the
stress distribution due to surcharge the stress in the footing bottom is reduced by the
geostatic stress in the following way:

There are three options in the program to specify the geostatic stress in the footing
bottom:

 From the original ground It is therefore considered, whether the footing bottom in the open
pit measured from the original ground is free of stress for the time less than needed for soil
bulking and subsequent loss of stress in the subsoil.
 From the finished grade The same assumptions as above apply.
 Not considered at all.

Overall Settlement and Rotation of Foundation

The foundation settlement is substantially influenced by the overall stiffness of the
system represented by foundation structure and foundation soil given by:

where: Ebasic - modulus of elasticity of footing

t - foundation thickness

weighted average of the deformation modulus up to a depth of the

Edef, av -
influence zone

l - footing dimension in the direction of searched stiffness

For k > 1 the foundation is assumed to be rigid and as a representative point for the
determination of its settlement is assumed the characteristic point (distant by 0.37
times the foundation dimension from its axis).
For k < 1 the foundation structure is assumed to be compliant and as a
representative point for the determination of foundation, the settlement is assumed
the foundation center point.
The foundation rotation is determined as a difference in settlements of individual
edges centers.

Rotation of spread footing - principle calculation

Influence of Foundation Depth and Incompressible

Subsoil
When computing settlement it is possible to account for the influence of the
foundation depth by introducing the reduction coefficient κ1:
for strip footing:

for spread footing:

where: d - depth of the footing bottom

z - depth under footing bottom

Influence of incompressible layer is introduced into the analysis by the reduction

coefficient κ2:

where: zic - depth of rigid base under footing bottom

z - depth under footing bottom

Incorporating the above coefficients allows the transformation of the vertical
component of stress σz such that the actual depth is replaced by a substitute
value zr given by:

where: κ1 - coefficient of footing bottom depth

κ2 - coefficient of the rigid base

z - depth under footing bottom

Influence of Sand-Gravel Cushion

If the sand-gravel cushion is specified below the spread footing, the material
parameters X in individual layers are computed in the following way:
For layer ha,i:

where: Xi - material parameters at ith layer

Xc - material parameters of sand-gravel cushion

For layer hb,i:

where: Ac - area of sand-gravel cushion

Xc - material parameters of sand-gravel cushion

Xb,i - material parameters of b,i layer

bi - cushion widths in the ith layer

li - cushion length in the ith layer

 Analysis Xi in the sand-
gravel cushion

Analysis Using the Oedometric Modulus

The equation to compute compression of an ith soil layer below foundation having a
thickness h arises from the definition of oedometric modulus Eoed:

where: σz,i - vertical component of incremental stress in the middle of the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Eoed,i - oedometric modulus of the ith layer

The oedometric modulus Eoed can be specified for each soil either as constant or with
the help of an oedometric curve (σef/ε relation). When using the oedometric curve the
program assumes for each layer the value of Eoed corresponding to a given range of
original and final stress. If the value of oedometric modulus Eoed is not available, it is
possible to input the deformation modulus Edef and the program carries out the
respective transformation.

where:

where: ν - Poisson's ratio

Edef - deformation modulus

 Analysis Using the Compression Constant
The equation to compute compression of an ith soil layer below foundation having a
thickness h arises from the definition of compression constant C:

where: σor,i - vertical component of original geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Ci - compression constant in the ith layer

The program allows for inputting either the compression constant Ci or

the compression constant C10 (the program itself carries out the transformation).

Analysis Using the Compression Index

Equation for settlement when employing the compression index Cc of the ith layer
arises from the formula:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

eo - initial void ratio

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Cc,i - compression index in the ith layer

Analysis According to NEN (Buismann, Ladd)

This method computes both the primary and secondary settlement. When computing
the method accounts for overconsolidated soils and differentiates between two
possible cases:

 Sum of the current vertical effective stress in the soil and stress due to external surcharge is
less than the pre-consolidation pressure so that only additional surcharge is considered.
 Sum of the current vertical effective stress in the soil and stress due to external surcharge is
greater than the pre-consolidation pressure so that the primary consolidation is set on again.
The primary settlement is then larger when compared to the first case.
Primary settlement
Primary settlement of the ith layer of overconsolidated soil (OCR> 1) is provided by:
for: σor+ σz ≤ σp (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is less than the
preconsolidation pressure):

for: σor+ σz > σp (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is greater than
the preconsolidation pressure):

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

σp,i - pre-consolidation pressure in the ith layer

eo - initial void ratio

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Cc,i - compression index in the ith layer

Cr,i - recompression index in the ith layer

Primary settlement of the ith layer of normally consolidated soil (OCR= 1) reads:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

eo - initial void ratio

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Cc,i - compression index the ithlayer

Secondary settlement
Secondary settlement of the ith layer assumes the form:
for: σor+ σz ≤ σp (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is less than the
preconsolidation pressure):
for: σor+ σz > σp (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is greater than
the preconsolidation pressure):

where: hi - thickness of the ith layer

secondary compression index below preconsolidation pressure in

Cαr,i -
the ith layer

Cα - index of secondary compression in the ith layer

tp - time to terminate primary consolidation

ts - time required for secondary settlement

If we specify the value of pre-consolidation index of secondary compression the

same as for the index of secondary compression, the program does not take into
account in the computation of secondary settlement the effect of pre-consolidation
pressure.
Literature:
Netherlandish standard NEN6740, 1991, Geotechniek TGB1990 Basisen en
belastingen, Nederlands normalisatie-Institut.

Analysis Using the Soft Soil Model

The analysis employs the modified compression index λ and is based on the Soft soil
elastic-plastic model developed in the University of Cambridge. The soil deformation
assumes the volumetric strain to be linearly dependent on the change of effective
mean stress ε plotted in the natural logarithmic scale. The settlement of the ith layer is
then provided by:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

hi - thickness of the ith layer

λ - modified compression index in the ith layer

The analysis requires inputting the modified compression index λ usually obtained
from triaxial laboratory measurements.
If the modified compression index λ is not known, it is possible to specify
the compression index CC together with an average value of the void ratio e (if you
do not know it, it is sufficient to provide the initial void ratio eo) and the program then
 performs an approximate computation of the modified compression index λ using the
available information.
Literature:
Burland J.B. The yielding and dilatation of clay (correspondence), Géotechnique, 15
(2),1965, str. 211-214.

Analysis According to the Janbu Theory

It is based on principles of nonlinear elastic deformation, where the stress-strain
relationship is described by a function of two dimensionless parameters unique for a
given soil. The parameters are the exponent j and the Janbu modulus m. Equations
describing the settlement are obtained by specifying ε from the definition of
deformation modulus Et and by subsequent integration. The program allows the user
to compute settlement for the following types of soil:

 Cohesionless soils
 Coarse-grained soil
 Sands and silts
 Overconsolidated sands and silts
 Cohesive soils
 Overconsolidated cohesive soils
Literature:
Method of settlement computation for various types of soils, Soil Mechanics and
foundation engineering, Springer, 7 (3), 1970, str, 201-206

Analysis for Cohesionless Soils

For cohesionless soils the stress exponent is not equal to zero. For layered subsoil
the resulting settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements of individual layers:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

ji - stress exponent in the ith layer

mi - Janbu modulus in the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Analysis for Coarse-Grained Soils
For dense coarse-grained soils (e.g. ice soil) the stress-deformation (settlement)
relationship is usually assumed as "elastic", i.e. the stress exponent j is equal to one.
Thus for j = 1 and the reference stress σr = 100 kPa the resulting settlement equals
to the sum of partial settlements of individual layers:

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

where: σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression - i.e. change of effective stress

mi - Janbu modulus in the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Analysis for Sands and Silts

For sands and silts the stress exponent j receives the value around 0,5, for the
reference stress σr = 100 kPa the resulting settlement equals the sum of partial
settlements of individual layers. It can be derived from the following formula:

where: σor,i vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i
surcharge) inducing layer compression

mi Janbu modulus in the ith layer

hi thickness of the ith layer

Analysis for Overconsolidated Sands and Silts

Providing the final stress in the soil exceeds the pre-consolidation pressure (σor+ σz >
σp), the settlement of layered subsoil is found from the following equation:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

σp,i - pre-consolidation pressure in the ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

mi - Janbu modulus in the ith layer

 mr,i - Janbu modulus of recompression in the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

If the stress due to surcharge does not cause the final stress to exceed the pre-
consolidation pressure (σor+ σz ≤ σp), it is possible to assume the following forms of
equations for the computation of settlement of layered sand or silt subsoil:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

σp,i - preconsolidation pressure in the ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

mr,i - Janbu modulus of recompression in the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Analysis for Cohesive Soils

In the case of cohesive soils the stress exponent is equal to zero. For normally
consolidated soils we obtain from the definition of the tangent modulus of
deformation (by modification and subsequent integration) Et equation for the
settlement of layered subsoil formed by cohesive soils in the form:

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

mi - Janbu modulus in the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Analysis for Overconsolidated Cohesive Soils

Most cohesive soils in the original order except very young or organic clays are
overconsolidated. If the final stress in the soil exceeds overconsolidation stress (σor+
σz > σp) than the settlement of the layered subsoil composites from cohesive soils is
computed from following relation:
for: σor+ σz > σp
for: σor+ σz ≤ σp

where: σor,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer

σp,i - pre-consolidation pressure in the ith layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure

σz,i -
surcharge) inducing layer compression

mi - Janbu modulus in the ith layer

mr,i - Janbu modulus of recompression in the ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

Settlement Analysis Using DMT (Constrained Soil

Modulus)
Constrained modulus MDMT is defined as the vertical drained confined tangent
modulus at σvo. Modulus MDMT is obtained from dilatometric tests (DMT).
If the value of the constrained modulus MDMT is not available, it is possible to input the
coefficient of volume compressibility mV (determined from the oedometric test) and
the program carries out the respective transformation:

where: MDMT - constrained modulus

mV - coefficient of volume compressibility

The analysis employs the constrained modulus MDMT or coefficient of volume

compressibility mV and is based on Marchetti's theory. This approach is based on
linear elasticity, provides a settlement proportional to the load, and is unable to
provide non-linear predictions.
The settlement of the ith layer is then provided by:

where: σz,i - vertical component of incremental stress in the middle of ith layer

hi - thickness of the ith layer

 MDMT - constrained modulus

Literature:
Marchetti, S., Monaco, P., Totani, G. & Calabrese, M.: The Flat Dilatometric Test
(DMT) in soil investigations. A Report by the ISSMGE Committee TC16, University of
L'Aquila, Italy, 2001, 48 p.

Theory of Settlement
If the stress change in the soil or in the currently build earth structure, caused by the
ground surface surcharge, is known, it is possible to determine the soil deformation.
The soil deformation is generally inclined and its vertical component is termed the
settlement. In general, the settlement is non-stationary dependent on time, which
means that it does not occur immediately after introducing the surcharge, but it
rather depends on the consolidation characteristics of a soil. Permeable, less
compressible soils (sand, gravel) deform fast, while saturated, low permeability
clayey soils experience gradual deformation called consolidation.

Time dependent
settlement of soils
Applied load yields settlement, which can be subdivided based on time-dependent
response into three separate components:

 Instantaneous settlement (initial)

 Primary settlement (consolidation)
 Secondary settlement (creep)

Instantaneous settlement
During instantaneous settlement the soil experiences only shear deformation
resulting into change in shape without volumetric deformation. The loss of pore
pressure in the soil is zero.

Primary settlement
 This stage of soil deformation is characterized by skeleton deformation due to motion
and compression of grains manifested by volume changes. If the pores are filled with
water (particularly in case of low permeability soils), the water will be carried away
from squeezed pores into locations with lower pressure (the soil will undergo
consolidation). The consolidation primary settlement is, therefore, time-dependent
and is terminated by reaching zero pore pressure.

Secondary settlement
When the primary consolidation is over the skeleton deformation will no longer cause
the change in pore pressure (theoretically at infinite time). With increasing pressure
the grains may become so closely packed that they will start to deform themselves
and the volumetric changes will continue - this is referred to as creep deformation of
skeleton or secondary consolidation (settlement). Unlike the primary consolidation
the secondary consolidation proceeds under constant effective stress. Particularly in
case of soft plastic or squash soils the secondary consolidation should not be
neglected - in case of overconsolidated soils it may represent the app. 10% of the
overall settlement, for normally consolidated soils even app. 20%.

Primary Settlement
The final primary settlement s is often substituted by the term settlement. Most of the
computational approaches can be attached to one of the two groups:

 Linear elastic deformation

 Nonlinear elastic deformation

Linear elastic deformation

The linear stress-strain relationship follows the Hook law:

where: ε - induced deformation of the soil layer

Δσef - induced change of effective stress in the soil layer

E - Young's modulus in the soil layer

ν - Poisson's ratio

The applicability of Young's modulus E of elasticity is substantiated only in cases, in

which the stressed soil is allowed to stretch in the horizontal direction. This, however,
is acceptable only for small spread foundations. When applying the load over a
larger area, the stressed soil cannot, except for its edges, to deform sideways and
experiences therefore only a vertical (one-dimensional) strain related to the
oedometric modulus Eoed, that is larger than the elastic modulus E.
The settlement of a soil layer s is determined by multiplying the deformation of a soil
layer ε by the layer thickness (height) Ho:
where: ε - deformation of the soil layer

Ho - thickness of the soil layer

In case of layered subsoil we get the total settlement by summing up settlements of

individual layers:

where: s - settlement of the layered subsoil

εi - deformation of the ith soil layer

Hoi - thickness of the ith soil layer

Nonlinear elastic deformation

For most soils the stress-strain relationship is nonlinear and often influenced by the
load history. This nonlinearity cannot be neglected, particularly when computing the
settlement of fine-grained soils (silts, clays). Clearly, the procedure based on the
application of Young's modulus of elasticity is not generally applicable. Even if
employing the stress-dependent oedometric modulus of deformation, it will not be
possible to receive reasonable estimates of the behavior of certain overconsolidated
soils. Nonlinear elastic deformation is generally modeled using the void ratio and
deformation characteristics derived from one-dimensional deformation of a soil
sample (e.g. compression constant, compression index, etc.).
The procedure for the computation of settlement of a compressible saturated soil
layer using the void e is described on the following soil element having the
height Ho and the width B = 1 m:
 Analysis of settlement from the phase diagram
Because the soil is a three-phase medium (it contains solid particles and pore filled
with fluid and gas) it is possible to describe the solid particles (rock particles and
mineral grains) by their volume Vs (and assumed to be equal to unity), while the
porous phase can be described using the void ratio e.
The soil element is subjected on its upper surface to a uniform load q causing the
change in stress inside the sample and also the vertical displacement ΔH, which in
turn leads to the reduction of pores Vp and therefore also to the reduction of void
ratio (from its original value eo to a new value e). The vertical strain ε of a soil sample
is given by the ratio of ΔH to the original sample height Ho, and can be expressed
using the void ratio e:

where: ε - vertical relative compression

ΔH - vertical deformation

Ho - origin height of the element

s - settlement

e - void ratio

Δe - change of void ratio

By modifying this equation we arrive at the formula describing the sample settlement
with the help of void ratio:

where: ε - vertical relative compression

Ho - origin height of the element

s - settlement

e - void ratio

Δe - change of void ratio

Secondary Settlement
To describe a gradual creep of soil during secondary settlement the program
employs the Buissman method (it incorporates the index of secondary
compression Cα derived by Ladd). From observations suggesting that the soil
deformation follows a linear path when plotted in the semi-logarithmic scale against
time Buissman proposed the variation of ε due to long-term stress in the form:

where: ε - total deformation

εp - deformation associated with primary consolidation

εs - deformation associated with secondary consolidation

t - time of consolidation

t0 - reference time
 Time-dependent variation of strain (primary and secondary consolidation)

Consolidation Analysis
The program allows you to set the analysis of consolidation in the frame "Settings".
Consolidated layer, formed by impermeable, resp. lower permeable soil
subsequently settles with increasing time. Consolidation affects values of pore
pressure. Soil parameters influencing consolidation analysis are entered in the frame
"Soils", other consolidation parameters are set in the frame "Analysis" in individual
construction stages.
Consolidation coefficient depended on the soil properties, is calculated:

where: Eoed - oedometric modulus of deformation

k - coefficient of permeability

γw - unit weight of water

When the consolidated layer is composed of a non-homogeneous soil,

coefficient cv is evaluated as an average of soil coefficients.
Consolidation analysis is also influenced by time factors, which are dependent on the
path of water outflow. This path is equal to the thickness of the consolidated layer in
case of only one direction outflow (upwards or downwards) or half of the thickness in
case of both directions outflow (upwards and downwards). The real-time factor is
evaluated according to the following formula:
where: cv - consolidation coefficient

t - real-time

H - drainage path

The time factor of build duration is influenced by the duration of load action. When
the entire load is introduced at the beginning of the stage, build time is equal to zero.
When load linearly increases during stage duration, then build time is equal to the
time of stage duration. The time factor of build duration is calculated by the formula:

where: cv - consolidation coefficient

tc - build time

H - drainage path

Degree of consolidation is evaluated by the following formulas:

for:

for:

where:

where: Tv - real-time factor

Tc - time factor of build duration

The original value of deformation in a consolidated layer in certain construction stage

is multiplied by the corresponding degree of consolidation Uav to obtain result value of
deformation:

where: εfin - result value of deformation

ε - original value of deformation

Uav - degree of consolidation

Consolidation analysis also influences pore pressure values in the consolidated

layer. In the time of introducing the load action, pore pressure values are the highest.
When time increases to theoretical infinity, pore pressure decreases to zero.
Pore pressure:

for:

for:

where:

where: Tv - real-time factor

Tc - time factor of build duration

H - drainage path

z - depth, where the value of pore pressure is evaluated

u0 - change of effective stress compared to the previous stage (load)

Literature:
Braja M. Das. Advanced Soil Mechanics; Taylor & Francis: London, 2008.pp278 -
316Verruijt A. Soil Mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2010, pp97-123.
http://geo.verruijt.net/software/SoilMechBook.pdf.