Teacher Behavior and Student Achievement

Introduction

What teacher behaviors seem to bring about higher achievement among learners? The meta-
analysis study by Barak Rosenshine and Norma Furst ( 1 9 7 1 ) sheds important light on the
question. For more than 45 years, their work has been the mainstay for additional research on
teacher behavior and student achievement.

The eleven teacher behaviors that are included in the Rosenshine and Furst study include:
 Clarity
 Variability
 Enthusiasm
 Task-Oriented and/or Businesslike Behavior
 Student Opportunity to Learn Criterion Material
 Use of Student Ideas and General Indirectness
 Criticism
 Use of Structuring Comments
 Types of Questions
 Probing
 Level of Difficulty of Instruction

Rosenshine and Furst indicate that the focus on performance criteria emanates from what is
known about behavior (rooted in psychology) and a series of experimental studies conducted
in teacher education. Experimental designs in real-life settings are very difficult to conduct;
generally, humans must grant permission to be involved in a study, and most humans will
agree to be subjects only when they are relatively sure that the treatment they receive is the
better treatment! However, through an analysis of a host of classroom studies, generalizations
can be made regarding teacher behavior and its relationship to student gains.

Teacher behaviors can be recorded using observational category systems. Measures are
classified as low-inference, which are those items that focus upon specific, denotable,
relatively objective behaviors that are recorded as frequency counts, and high-inference, which
require an observer to infer these constructs from a series of events. Some examples:

Examples of Low-inference measures

 Teacher repetition of student ideas
 Teacher use of evaluative question
 Latency

Examples of High-inference measures

 Clarity
 Warmth
 Task-orientation

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The researchers also noted some limitations of the studies. All the studies were conducted in
classrooms with typical children. In most instances class means were used to determine
relationships, with few attempts to examine subgroups of students. And the focus was
primarily on general teaching behaviors, which hopefully cross subject areas. The analyses are
based on the correlations found within the studies.

1. Clarity

What is clarity? First, the concept of clarity focuses primarily on the teacher. Is the teacher
clear? And the answer focuses primarily on the learners. Do they perceive the teacher to be
clear?

Four major themes emerge regarding clarity.

1. The clarity of presentation
2. The points the teacher makes are clear and easy to understand
3. The teacher explains concepts clearly and answers questions intelligently
4. The lesson is organized

One measure of the clarity of the presentation is the amount of time spent answering student
questions which require an interpretation of what the teacher said. More effective teachers (in
terms of student gain in achievement) are able to make a statement once without having to
rephrase it only because the students did not understand the first time. Note: don't confuse
rephrasing to achieve clarity with rephrasing for emphasis, additional insight, or use of
examples. Achieve clarity by stating and explaining the concept in a variety of ways. Another
indicator of clarity is being able to ask students a question once without additional information
or additional questions interspersed before the students understand and can answer the initial
query.

Clear teachers use fewer "vagueness words" such as "some," "many," "of course," and "a
little." In addition, clear teachers have enough background in the subject matter and are
familiar enough with their material that they can give intelligent answers to student questions.

Organization that is obvious to the students is another indicator of teacher clarity. In some
studies, ratings of clarity, coherence and organization all loaded on the same factor. Teachers
who are perceived as being organized are also perceived as being clear.

How to Become Clearer

Here are some ideas regarding how we can be clearer teachers. Keep in mind that the reason
we want to be clear is because students learn more from teachers who are clear, and we want
students to learn more!

a. Prepare a written lesson plan for every class session.

b. Write key questions on the lesson plan so that the wording is clear and concise. Use the key

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question to introduce a topic or generate responses from students. This will help avoid the need
to rephrase questions until the students understand.

c. Write key concepts in the lesson plan. These may be the same major concepts that are
written on the chalk broad or projected onto the screen. Again, writing these key concepts in
advance will help ensure that the statement will be clear the first time it is made, without
unnecessary elaboration to achieve clarity.

d. Avoid using vague words. To check yourself, occasionally make an audio tape of a class you
teach, and then listen for those words that add no meaning or understanding to the
presentation. A colleague can also be helpful in identifying those words and phrases, since we
tend to use comfortable words and may not recognize what we are saying.

e. Practice the lesson. The second time through any activity is always better, since we are more
familiar with the content and the materials we will be using. This is especially important in
demonstration and lab work.

f. Have a colleague review the lesson plan (and the entire course outline) for organization.
What is clear to the writer may not be clear to the reader, so ask a friend to check for the
organization of the material. Does the lesson make sense?

g. Write on the chalkboard the topics for the day so students know "where you are going" and
see how the lesson flows from topic to topic. (Include a review of the previous lesson and a
summary at the end of the class session.)

h. Ask the students. Occasionally, have students complete the "Clear Teacher Checklist" to
help you gain an understanding of their perceptions of clarity. Students may not offer the
information. And gauging their understanding by the questions they ask in class may not be a
good indicator. "If it's quiet in the classroom, maybe the confusion is in the minds of the
children."

Teacher clarity is associated with student achievement – the clearer the teacher, the more
students achieve. Being clear is a behavior everyone can master.

2. Variability

The studies in this area, including low-inference and high-inference correlational studies,
revealed a positive relationship between variability and student achievement.

Four examples of variability are prevalent in the studies.

a) Variety of instructional materials
b) Variety of teaching techniques
c) Variety of types of tests
d) Variety of level of discourse and of student tasks

Variability may be one of the easiest areas for teachers to address, but also may be the easiest

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to overlook. The teacher knows and likes the content, having worked in the field for an entire
career. So 50 minutes devoted to THE most important topic of the entire curriculum can seem
like a very short time to the instructor - and an eternity to the Sesame Street generation that
was raised on short segments, sound bites, and immediate response.

How to Achieve Variability

Here are some ideas to help bring variability and variety into our teaching. Remember that the
reason we want to add variety is to make the lesson more interesting for students so they learn
more.

a. Prepare a written lesson plan. In the margin of the plan, estimate the amount of time needed
for each part of the lesson. Identify different methods, techniques and materials that will be
used for each section.

b. Vary the equipment you use. Try using the chalkboard occasionally instead of always using
the overhead projector. In small classes, use a series of flip charts stationed across the room,
moving from one to another as the key points change.

c. Be on the lookout for examples, illustrations, materials you can use in the courses you teach.
A cartoon that introduces a point is a good example. Tape an interview with a colleague who
illustrates a key point in the lecture.

d. Move around. A simple approach to variability is to get out from behind the desk or lectern.
Walk around the classroom while you present a part of the lesson.

e. Change the daily routine. If you frequently start with lecture, start an occasional class
session with a question/answer period, or student reports from their required reading for the
day. Have students get up and move around - form small groups, discuss a key question with
a person in the next row, write on the chalkboard.

f. Ask different types of questions. Mix "recall" questions with "synthesis" questions.

g. Add a display to the bulletin board. Yes, even in college! A simple display of key concepts
in the course will help bring variability to the class. Change it twice during the semester.

h. Vary the types of tests given and the types of questions on tests. Mix objective questions
with essay and short answer questions. Mix tests with papers, projects, presentations and
participation. Use different colors of paper for tests (watch out for dark colors that make
reading black type difficult for some people).

i. Have a colleague review your lesson plans and course materials to offer suggestions and ideas
to help increase the variability in class presentations.

k. Watch other people teach. Go beyond your department and college. What do math teachers
do for variability? rhetoric teachers? foreign language teachers? history teachers?

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Everyone enjoys a little variety! The point is not to have gimmicks but to seriously consider
changing pace, changing the approach, changing how we go about presenting the subject matter
to the students so that they achieve at higher rates.

3. Enthusiasm

Research results that relate teacher enthusiasm with student achievement have identified three
traits that are associated with the variable. They include movement, gesture, and voice
inflections. There is also some evidence that a mixture of teacher questions, especially the use of
questions that call for an interpretation of facts, may be considered a part of teacher
enthusiasm.

An important issue in the area of enthusiasm is personality. Some experts may tend to dismiss
teacher enthusiasm as a “some have it, some don’t” situation. Several studies have shown that
teachers can be taught to incorporate behaviors that are regarded as enthusiasm into their
teaching.

4. Task Oriented and/or Businesslike Behavior

Teacher behavior in this area is not well defined. Assessing task orientation and businesslike
activity can be difficult. Studies have revealed several teacher traits that seem to produce high
student achievement. Observers noted that teachers in high-achieving classes appeared to
emphasize the stimulation of thought rather than information and skills. Further, teachers appear
to be concerned that students learn something rather than that the students enjoy themselves.

Businesslike teachers encourage students to work hard and to do independent and creative
work. These behaviors are closely associated with commonly held teaching and learning
principles, which give some clues regarding specific teacher actions which bring about student
learning.

a. Directed Learning – the teacher presents clues for the purpose of directing the students to
the successful discovery and application of the concepts, principles, understandings and
relationships. Teachers provide the cognitive framework for students to seek and find answers
to simple questions as well as complex issues. Laboratory exercises surely fit into this
category. Non-lab oriented courses, however, can also emphasize directness. Examples
include:

 Questions that require thinking beyond basic recall

 Homework assignments that require synthesis from lectures and readings
 Library work (papers, short essays as a part of homework)
 Group projects
 Review at the start of each class session that requires students to analyze previous
content

b. Motivation
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  Using student ideas in establishing the objectives of the course (usually the first few
class sessions)
 Review course content at the end of the fifth and tenth weeks to have students discuss
in class what they have learned to-date (this could be done along with obtaining early
feedback regarding teaching)

c. Structure – Teach for transfer, helping students understand how what they are studying today
ties to future courses, experiences, career paths and the like.

d. Reward and Reinforcement – the teacher acknowledges hard work and effort and provides
reinforcement for such behavior.

Send a personal note to high achievers with a copy to the student's adviser, acknowledging the
student’s hard work and effort in the course.

Point out exceptional work to the entire class with specific reasons for why the work was
superior.

Provide words of encouragement on assignments and tests, noting the obvious benefit of good
work, independent thinking and creativity.

Caution should be noted regarding the presumed dichotomy between learning and enjoyment.
Task-orientation and businesslike behavior can be an enjoyable experience for both teacher
and students. Student achievement declines when enjoyment (entertaining) is the primary
purpose of the teaching act. Hopefully we can practice these behaviors and still provide a
pleasant experience for students!

5. Student Opportunity to Learn Criterion Material

Significant, positive and consistent correlations have been found between measures of
opportunity to learn and student achievement. There is a definite relationship between the
material covered in a course and student performance on the criterion test. Those findings
should not be surprising; the more we teach, the more the students will learn!

It should be noted that opportunity to learn can include learning actual facts as well as learning
the type of problem exemplified by testing measures. In other words, student achievement can
be increased by teaching students how to resolve problems they encounter that are related to
the content of the course but are not specific regurgitations of facts taught in the course.
Helping students develop problem-solving abilities related to course content is another
mechanism that can be employed to help students learn the criterion material. Several ideas
should be considered.

Time on task: Teachers should ensure that classes begin and end on-time and that students
are actively engaged for the entire class period. Non-instructional time (attendance,
announcements, etc.) should be kept to a minimum. Courses scheduled for three sessions per

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week should meet three sessions per week!

Out-of-class time: Students should be encouraged (expected) to spend time out of class in
learning course material. Teachers should obtain an estimate of how much time students
typically spend outside of class in preparation for class-related activities.

Readiness for learning: Teachers should arrange the content of the course to take into
consideration the background of the students. For the students to be successful, course content
must begin where the learner is.

Teach to the test: Teachers must ensure that course content is directed toward the criteria to
be used as a measure of student success. There is nothing wrong with "teaching to the test" if
the test is an accurate representation of the criterion material.

Sometimes in secondary school students have been "rewarded" by being given days off, few
assignments, in-class study hall, etc., so that they may not appreciate opportunity to learn.
Teachers must ensure that the students get what they pay for by providing maximum
opportunity to learn criterion material.

Summary

Student achievement can clearly be enhanced through effective teacher behaviors. While many
factors contribute to student learning, the one factor we can control is what we do – teacher
behaviors.

References

McKeachie, W. J., & Svinicki, M. (2006). Teaching tips (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage.

Rosenshine, B., & Furst, N. (1971). Research on teacher performance criteria. In B.O. Smith
(Ed.) Research in teacher education, (pp. 37-72). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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 Clear Teacher Checklist

Please place a mark in the box that best describes your teacher in this class for each statement.

Key: N=Never S=Sometimes M=Mostly A=Always N/A=Not Applicable

Gives explanations we understand

Teachers at a pace appropriate to the topic and to us
Tries to find out if we don’t understand and then repeats
things
Teaches step-by-step
Describes the work to be done and how to do it
Asks if we know what to do and how to do it
Prepares us for what we will be doing next
Gives specific details when teaching
Repeats things that are hard to understand
Works examples and explains them
Gives us a chance to think about what’s been taught
Explains something and then stops so we can think
about it
Shows examples of how to do class work and
homework
Gives us enough time for practice
Answers our questions
Goes over difficult homework problems on the board
Shows us how to remember things
Explains things simply
Stays with the topic until we understand
Repeats things when we don’t understand
Explains something and then works an example
Explains something and then stops so we can ask
questions
Shows us how to do the work
Explains the assignment and the materials we need to
use to do it
Stresses difficult points
Asks questions to find out if we understand
Explains how to do assignments by using examples
Shows the difference between things
My teacher in this class . . . N S M A N/A