Review

• Definitions: Complex number components, complex conjugate, equality.

• polar forms (trigonometric & exponential) absolute and argument of complex number.
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 , Euler formula: 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃
• Addition and subtractions: Suitable to use Cartesian form, Distance between two points
• Multiplication: Suitable to use polar form
1. 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ,
2. Arg 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = Arg 𝑧𝑧1 + Arg 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2
• Division: Suitable to use polar form:
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1
1. 𝑧𝑧2
=
𝑧𝑧2
=
𝑟𝑟2
,
𝑧𝑧
2. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2
2

Today: Complex function

Derivative, Analyticity, Harmonic functions
Exponential, logarithm, Trigonometric, Root
 Functions of a Complex Variable
When the domain A of a function is a set of complex numbers z, we naturally say that f is a
function of a complex variable z or a complex function for short.
The image w of a complex number z will be some complex number u + iv; that is,

where u and v are the real and imaginary parts of w

and are real-valued functions.

Notes:
• Here z varies in A and is called a complex variable.
• The set A is called the domain of definition of f or,
briefly, the domain of f.
• The set of all values of a function f is called the range
of f.
Example 1: Let 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 + 3𝑧𝑧, find the real and imaginary parts of function w at 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 3𝑖𝑖.
Solution: 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑤𝑤 = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)2 +3 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑖2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖3𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦)
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 , 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦
At 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1 + 3𝑖𝑖, the function 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(1 + 3𝑖𝑖) , is
𝑤𝑤 = 1 − 9 + 3 + 𝑖𝑖 2 ∗ 1 ∗ 3 + 3 ∗ = 5 + 𝑖𝑖15
So, 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 1 + 3𝑖𝑖 = −5 + 𝑖𝑖15. This means that 𝑢𝑢 1,3 = −5 & 𝑣𝑣 1,3 = 15
Differentiability of Complex Function
Rules of differentiation
Rules of differentiation are the same as in the calculus of real variables. If Note: if f(z) is differentiable
f and g are differentiable at a point z, and c is a complex constant, then: at 𝒛𝒛𝒐𝒐 , it is continuous at 𝒛𝒛𝒐𝒐 .
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑓𝑓′ 𝑧𝑧 −𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔′ 𝑧𝑧
Constant rules: 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 Quotient rule: =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 2
𝑑𝑑
Sum rule: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔′ 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
Product rule: Chain rule: 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔′ 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔′ 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 Power rule: 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛−1 , 𝒏𝒏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Analytic Functions
Definition: A function f(z) is said to be analytic in a domain D, if f(z) is defined and differentiable at all points in
D. The function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 in D, if f(z) is analytic in the neighborhood of 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 .

Examples: It is left as an exercise to show that the function f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable at z = 0 but is
differentiable nowhere else. Hence, f (z) = |z|2 is nowhere analytic. In contrast, the simple polynomial f (z) = z2 is
differentiable at every point z in the complex plane. Hence, f (z) = z2 is analytic everywhere.
1 Entire function: A function that is analytic at every point z is said to be an
Example: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 1−𝑧𝑧 is analytic
entire function. Polynomial functions are differentiable at every point z and
everywhere except at z=1.
so are entire functions.

Cauchy – Riemann equations

For the function, 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) , We show that if f(z) is analytic in a domain D,
then u and v satisfy the so – called Cauchy – Riemann equations, everywhere in D.
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
= , = 𝟏𝟏
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
If u and v are continuous and have first partial derivatives, which satisfy eq (1) everywhere in D,
then f(z) is analytic in D.
Example 1: Does the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 Example 5: Is the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥
− 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, satisfy the C-R equations? Analytic?
Solution: Solution:
This function is analytic for all z, and 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑧𝑧, 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 → 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
=0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
then,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣 = 0 → = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =0
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 → = 2𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −2𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
The C-R conditions
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 → = 2𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 2𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
C-R conditions are ≠ , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= → 2𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 The C-R equations are not satisfied, that is, the
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 f(z)=Re(z) is not analytic.
=− → −2𝑦𝑦 = −2𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Then, C-R equation are satisfied for all x and y.

 Laplace's equations and harmonic functions
The complex function w is: W=u+iv
Harmonic functions:
If D is a domain in the plane, a real – value function u(x,y) having continuous second partial
derivatives is said to be harmonic function on D if it is satisfies Laplace's equation:
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 Laplace equation of the function u
+ = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
Also, the imaginary – value function v(x,y) having continuous second partial derivatives is said to
be harmonic function on D if it is satisfies the Laplace's equation on D,
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣
2
+ 2=0 Laplace equation of the function v
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦

Theorem 3 (Laplace's equation): The real part and imaginary part of an analytic complex function
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) in a domain D, are harmonic functions. This means that these functions 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣
and 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) are solutions of Laplace's equation, ∇2 𝑢𝑢 = + & ∇2 𝑣𝑣 = + , in D and have
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
continuous second partial derivatives in D.
Analyticity and harmonicity Next, if we differentiate the first C-R equation with
respect to y and the second with respect to x, and
There is a practically important relationship between
harmonic function and analytic functions. Suppose f(z) is then subtract the second from the first, we get
analytic function on D, and let 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).
Now, from the Cauchy – Riemann equation, we know
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − − − =0
= =− 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
If we differentiate the first of these with respect to x, 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣
∴ 2
+ 2
=0
and the second with respect to y, and then add the 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
two results, we have: the imaginary part of an analytic function is also
harmonic.
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣
+ + − =0 Conjugate Harmonic function
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
suppose u(x, y) is a given function that is harmonic
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 in D. It is then sometimes possible to find another
∴ + = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 function v(x, y) that is harmonic in D so that u(x, y)
Thus the real part u(x,y) of any analytic function is + iv(x, y) is an analytic function in D. The function
harmonic. v is called a conjugate harmonic function of u.
Example 1: Test whether the function 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 is Method 1: By integrating eq 1 with respect to y, we
harmonic and find a corresponding analytic function obtain
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) if it exists.
𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) ……….(3),
Solution:
where h(x) is depending only on x. To find h(x),
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2
𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2
𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢
= 2𝑥𝑥 → 2 = 2 = −2𝑦𝑦 → 2 = −2
differentiate eq 3 with respect to x:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑ℎ(𝑥𝑥)
So, Laplace equation = 2𝑦𝑦 + ℎ′ (𝑥𝑥) ……….(4) [ℎ′ 𝑥𝑥 = ]
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 Comparing eq 4 with 2, we obtain

+ =2−2=0
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
ℎ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖→ ℎ = 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
∴ 𝑢𝑢 is a harmonic function.
∴ 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐 is the conjugate harmonic
Use the C-R equations to find the conjugate harmonic function of u(x,y)
function [v(x,y)] of u(x,y).
∴ the analytic complex function is 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦
+ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑖𝑖 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 2𝑥𝑥 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
…………………………(1) 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ 𝑖𝑖2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 or,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= −2𝑦𝑦 = − …………………………(2)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
 Exponential complex functions
4. If z=pure real: 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
Definition: Define the exponential function:
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 or exp z 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎: cos 𝑦𝑦 = 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 0 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ……(1) If z= pure imaginary: 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃
Sub Euler formula in eq1, we obtain
𝑧𝑧 5. 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1+𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 . 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 cos 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑦𝑦1
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 (cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑦𝑦) …….(2)
. 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2 cos 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑦𝑦2
Properties:
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1+𝑥𝑥2 (cos 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 )
1. The real and imaginary parts of 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 are: 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
6. cos 𝜃𝜃 = , sin 𝜃𝜃 =
2 2 𝑖𝑖
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 7. Analytic: Satisfy C–R eq’s at all points of the
� 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 complex plane: = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒚𝒚 = ,
=1 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
2. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 = −𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒚𝒚 =
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 = 𝒚𝒚
𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧
The function 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
and its derivative 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 , is
3. The derivative of ez is: (ez)’=ez 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
analytic for all z ( entire function).
8. Periodicity of the argument
If 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜋𝜋, then cos 2𝜋𝜋 = 1 & sin 2𝜋𝜋 = 0,
𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖2𝜋𝜋 = cos 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 2𝜋𝜋 = 1
Then: 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
Which shows that 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛+𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is periodic with the
imaginary period 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, thus,
𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛∓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 (n=0,1,2…)

𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 (cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑦𝑦) 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 (𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒚𝒚)
 Logarithm function
Definition: The natural logarithm of z=x+iy is 2. ln 𝑧𝑧 = ln(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = ln 𝑟𝑟 + ln 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ln 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
defined by 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐳𝐳 , which is the inverse of
the exponential function ez. = ln 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑖𝑖 arg 𝑧𝑧 = ln 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑖𝑖 arg(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Properties: 3. The familiar relations for the natural logarithm
1. f(z) = 𝑤𝑤 = ln 𝑧𝑧 for 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0 , take the reverse continue to hold for complex value, that is,
𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 …………..(1) ln 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = ln 𝑧𝑧1 + ln 𝑧𝑧2
𝑑𝑑
ln 𝑧𝑧 =
1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧
Let: 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧
ln( 1 ) = ln 𝑧𝑧1 − ln 𝑧𝑧2
𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 …………..(2) 𝑧𝑧2

The absolute values on both sides must be equal. 4. Analyticity of the Logarithm (Theorem): The
formula ln 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, is analytic, except at 0
𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
→ absolute value = [where 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢
= 1] 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
and on the negative real axis, and has the derivative:
′ = 𝟏𝟏/𝒛𝒛 𝒛𝒛 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝟎𝟎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
→ absolute value = r [where 𝑒𝑒 = 1], 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒛𝒛
1
𝑢𝑢 = ln 𝑟𝑟 → 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 = , 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0, So, the function is
So: 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 , then 𝑢𝑢 = ln 𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟 analytic.
The arguments on both sides of eq 2 must be equal. 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜃𝜃 → 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 0, 𝑣𝑣𝜃𝜃 = 1
1 1 1
𝑣𝑣 = 𝜃𝜃 = arg 𝑧𝑧 C–R equations: 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑣𝑣𝜃𝜃 = , 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = − 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
5. complex natural logarithm is infinitely many–valued. We know that:
ln 𝑧𝑧 = ln(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = ln 𝑟𝑟 + ln 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ln 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 + 2𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Where n= 0, ±1, ±2, ·····

θo = Principal argument of z, –π < θo ≤ π

𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛 = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝒛𝒛 ∓ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 , 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑 …

For n=0, the value of ln z=Ln z, and is called the principal value of 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛 and is often denoted by 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝒛𝒛.
In the following examples, find ln z.
Example 1: if z=x , x is real positive Example 3: if 𝒛𝒛 = −𝒙𝒙, where x real positive
0 0
The principal of arg 𝑧𝑧 = tan−1 = 𝜃𝜃 = 0 The principal of arg 𝑧𝑧 = tan−1 = 𝜋𝜋
+𝑥𝑥 −𝑥𝑥
Then the principal value 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = ln 𝑧𝑧 and Then the principal value 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = ln 𝑧𝑧 + 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 and
ln 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 ∓ (0 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) ln 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = ln 𝑧𝑧 + 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∓ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= ln 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

Example 2: let z=i, find 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒊𝒊 Example 4: let 𝒛𝒛 = −𝟏𝟏, find 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛.
−1 1 𝜋𝜋 −1 0
The principal of arg 𝑧𝑧 = arg 𝑖𝑖 = tan = The principal of arg 𝑧𝑧 = tan = 𝜋𝜋
0 2 −1
The principal value 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑖 = ln 1 + 𝑖𝑖
𝜋𝜋 The principal value
2
1 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −1 = ln 1 + 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
ln 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 0 + 𝑖𝑖 ∓ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = ln 1 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖( ∓ 2𝑛𝑛)
2 ∴ ln −1 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −1 + 0i ∓ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∓ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋
ln 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖, − 𝑖𝑖, 𝑖𝑖, − 𝑖𝑖, … n=1,2,….
2 2 2 2
So, ln −1 = ∓𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, ∓3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, ∓5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, …

𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛 = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝒛𝒛 ∓ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 , 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, …

 Trigonometric functions
Basic forms: From Euler's formula, 2. Note: Euler formula is valid for complex values:
𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑥 …………….(a) 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑧𝑧
𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑥 ………….……(b) 3. Even and Odd character: The functions 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒛𝒛
𝑥𝑥 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒛𝒛 are even, and the other functions are
By adding: 2 cos 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 → cos 𝑥𝑥 =
2 odd: cos −𝑧𝑧 = cos 𝑧𝑧 , sin −𝑧𝑧 = − sin 𝑧𝑧 ,
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
By subtra.: 2𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 → sin 𝑥𝑥 = sec −𝑧𝑧 = sec 𝑧𝑧 , tan −𝑧𝑧 = − tan 𝑧𝑧 ,
2𝑖𝑖
This suggests gives: cot −𝑧𝑧 = − cot 𝑧𝑧
𝒆𝒆𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 +𝒆𝒆−𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒆𝒆𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 −𝒆𝒆−𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒛𝒛 = & 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒛𝒛 = 4. Periodicity of the trigonometric functions: Since
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Properties: the exponential function is periodic, the
sin 𝑧𝑧 cos 𝑧𝑧 trigonometric functions are also periodic, and we
1. we define: tan 𝑧𝑧 = & cot 𝑧𝑧 =
cos 𝑧𝑧 sin 𝑧𝑧 have: cos 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = cos 𝑧𝑧 ,
1 1
, sec 𝑧𝑧 = & csc 𝑧𝑧 = sin 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = sin 𝑧𝑧 ,
cos 𝑧𝑧 sin 𝑧𝑧
cos 𝑧𝑧 = cos 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − sin x sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 tan 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = tan 𝑧𝑧 ,
sin 𝑧𝑧 = sin 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + cos 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 cot 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = cot 𝑧𝑧
5. Other relations: The familiar formulas for the Example2: what is cos(1+2i)?
real trigonometric functions continue to hold for Solution:
complex values, for example:
cos(1+2i) = cos 1 cosh 2 – i sin 1 sinh 2
• cos 𝑧𝑧1 ∓ 𝑧𝑧2 = cos 𝑧𝑧1 cos 𝑧𝑧2 ∓ sin 𝑧𝑧1 sin 𝑧𝑧2
= (0.5403)(3.7622)–i(0.8415)(3.6269)
• sin 𝑧𝑧1 ∓ 𝑧𝑧2 = sin 𝑧𝑧1 cos 𝑧𝑧2 ∓ sin 𝑧𝑧2 cos 𝑧𝑧1
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑧𝑧 = 1 = 2.033 – i 3.052
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
• cos 𝑧𝑧 = − sin 𝑧𝑧 , sin 𝑧𝑧 = cos 𝑧𝑧 Example 4: show that the function f(z) = sin z, is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
analytic, and find f’(z).
𝑑𝑑
tan 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Solution: f(z) = sin z = sin (x+ I y) = sin x cosh y + I
cos x sinh y
Example 1: Prove this equation 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑧𝑧 = 1
U = sin x cosh y , v = cos x sinh y
Solution: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑧𝑧
Ux = cos x cosh y, Vx = –sin x sinh y
1
= [−(𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )2 +(𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )2 ] Uy = sin x sinh y, Vy = cos x cosh y
4
1 Ux = cos x cosh y = Vy , Uy = sin x sinh y = – Vx
= �−𝑒𝑒 2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
4  the function is analytic
1
+ 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = 2 + 2 = 1
4 F’(z) =
 Hyperbolic functions
Definition: cos 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦
The hyperbolic cosine and sine of a complex sin 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = sin 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 cos 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦
variable z are defined by: cosh 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cosh 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 sinh 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦
𝒛𝒛
𝒆𝒆 + 𝒆𝒆 −𝒛𝒛 𝒛𝒛
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒆𝒆 −𝒛𝒛
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒛𝒛 = & 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒛𝒛 = sinh 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = sinh 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 cosh 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
3.
Properties:
cosh 𝑧𝑧 = cos(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) & sinh 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
1. The hyperbolic cosine and sine of a real value x
cosh 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝑧𝑧 & sinh 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑧𝑧
are defined by:
cosh 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos(𝑦𝑦) & sinh 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝑦𝑦)
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 +𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 −𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
cosh 𝑥𝑥 = & sinh 𝑥𝑥 =
2 2
4. As in real calculus, we define
2. From eq 1 of the trigonometric functions and the
sinh 𝑧𝑧 cosh 𝑧𝑧
definition of the hyperbolic cosine and sine, tanh 𝑧𝑧 = , coth 𝑧𝑧 =
cosh 𝑧𝑧 sinh 𝑧𝑧
1 −𝑦𝑦
cos 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = (𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 ) = cosh 𝑦𝑦 1 1
2 sech 𝑧𝑧 = , csch 𝑧𝑧 =
cosh 𝑧𝑧 sinh 𝑧𝑧
1 −𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = i sinh 𝑦𝑦 cosh 𝑧𝑧 = sinh 𝑧𝑧 , sinh 𝑧𝑧 = cosh 𝑧𝑧
2𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
n th root of z (z1/n ) where n is integer:
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 +2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 +2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
W=f(z)=𝑧𝑧1/𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟1/𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 (𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 +2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)/𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟1/𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 /𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟1/𝑛𝑛 cos + 𝑖𝑖 si𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛

Since the enclosed term takes n distinct values

for various choices of k, so, this term, and
hence z1/n is n-valued rather than single-
valued.
• The nth root of z1/n (i.e. the n distinct values
of z1/n):
1. fall on a circle of radius of |z|1/n
2. centers at its origin
3. equally spaced on the circle
cercumference.

𝜽𝜽𝒐𝒐 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽𝒐𝒐 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏/𝒏𝒏 = 𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏/𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏
 𝜽𝜽𝒐𝒐 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽𝒐𝒐 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏/𝒏𝒏 = 𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏/𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏
 Review of previous classes
• Definitions: Complex number components, • Complex function: mapping from z-plane to w-plane.
complex conjugate, equality.
• Polar forms (trigonometric & exponential) • Derivative: derivative is continuity.
absolute and argument of complex number.
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 , • Analytic complex functions: meaning of analytic
Euler formula: 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 function, CR equations:
• Addition and subtraction: Suitable to use 1.
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
=
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
,
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
=
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Cartesian form, Distance between two points 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
• Multiplication: Suitable to use polar form • Harmonic functions: Harmonic functions, Laplace
1. 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 , equations, Conjugate harmonic functions
2. Arg 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = Arg 𝑧𝑧1 + Arg 𝑧𝑧2 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝒖 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝒖
1. 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
+
𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
= 𝟎𝟎
= 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2
𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗
• Division: Suitable to use polar form: 2. 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
+
𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
= 𝟎𝟎
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1
1. 𝑧𝑧2
=
𝑧𝑧2
=
𝑟𝑟2
,
𝑧𝑧
2. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧2
2
= 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2
 Review of previous classes
• Exponential Complex function: 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙+𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 𝒆𝒆𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 , 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑦𝑦, 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1+𝑧𝑧2 ,
Analytic entire function, 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧∓2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 , derivative
• Logarithmic complex function: 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒛𝒛 , 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 , 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 , 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜃𝜃
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Analyticity: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 ′ = 1/𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ,
Multi-valued function: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 ∓ 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
𝒆𝒆𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 +𝒆𝒆−𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒆𝒆𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 −𝒆𝒆−𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊
• Trigonometric complex functions: 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒛𝒛 = & 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒛𝒛 =
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Periodicity of the trigonometric functions
𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 +𝒆𝒆−𝒛𝒛 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 −𝒆𝒆−𝒛𝒛
• Hyperbolic complex functions: 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒛𝒛 = & 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒛𝒛 =
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝜽𝜽𝒐𝒐 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽𝒐𝒐 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
• Root of a complex number: 𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏/𝒏𝒏 = 𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏/𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒊𝒊 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏