Basic Calculus

Topic 4 1. Functions
2. Linear Functions
3. Quadratic Functions
Basic Calculus 4. Exponential Functions
5. Logarithmic Functions

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Functions 1 Functions 1

A function is a rule that assigns to each input Example: y = x + 2

number exactly one output number. The set of all
input numbers to which the rule applies is called
the domain of the function. The set of all output defines y as a function of x.
numbers is called the range. It gives the rule: Add 2 to x.
A variable that represents input numbers for a This rule assigns to each input x exactly one
function is called an independent variable. output x + 2, which is y.
A variable that represents output numbers is Thus if x = 1, then y = 3; if x = -4, then y = -2.
called a dependent variable because its value The independent variable is x and the
depends on the value of the independent variable. dependent variable is y.

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Functions 1 Functions 1

Usually, the letters f, g, h, F, G and so on Example:

are used to represent function rules. To find f(3), which is the output
If y = x + 2 defines y as a function of x, corresponding to the input 3, we replace
then we say that f is the function of x, and each x in f(x) = x + 2 by 3:
we can write it as f(3) = 3 + 2 = 5
f(x) = x + 2 input = 8
f(x), which is read “f of x”, means the f(8) = 8 + 2 = 10 (output)
output number in the range of f that input = -4
corresponds to the input number x in the
domain. f(-4) = -4 + 2 = -2 (output)
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Domain of a function 1 Domain of a function 1

Unless otherwise stated, the domain Example 1: Find the domain for function
consists of all real numbers for which the f(x) = x
rule of the function makes sense, that is, it x2 − x − 2
gives function values that are real
numbers. x2 – x – 2 = 0
1 (x – 2)(x + 1) = 0
For example, suppose h(x) =
x−6 x = 2, -1.
Here any real number can be used for x
except 6 because the denominator is 0 Therefore, the domain of f is all real
when x is 6. Thus the domain h is numbers except 2 and –1
understood to be all real numbers except 6.
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Finding Domain and Function 1 Finding a Difference 1

values Quotient
Let g(x) = 3x2 – x + 5. Any real number can If f(x) = x2, find f ( x + h) − f ( x )
be used for x, so the domain of g is all real h f ( x + h) − f ( x)
numbers. Solution: The expression h is
Find g(z) referred to as a difference quotient. Here the
Solution : Replacing each x in g(x) = 3x2 – x + 5 by z gives numerator is a difference of function values.
g(z) = 3(z)2 – z + 5 = 3z2 – z + 5 f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) = ( x + h) 2 − x 2
Find g(r2) h h
Solution: Replacing each x in g(x) = 3x2 – x + 5 by r2 gives = x + 2hx + h 2 − x 2
g(r2) = 3 (r2)2 – r2 + 5 = 3r4 - r2 + 5
Find g(x + h) h
= 2hx + h 2 = h( 2 x + h) = 2x + h
Solution: g(x + h) = 3(x+h)2 – (x + h) + 5
= 3(x2 + 2hx + h2) – x – h + 5 h h
=3x2 + 6hx + 3h2 – x – h + 5 9 10

Combination of Functions 1 Combination of Functions 1

There are different ways of combining two In general, for any functions f and g, there
functions to create a new function. are 4 types of combination:
Suppose f and g are the functions given by Sum (f + g): (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 3x
Adding f(x) and g(x) gives Difference (f – g): (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)
f(x) + g(x) = x2 + 3x
This operation defines a new function called the Product (fg): (fg)(x) = f(x).g(x)
sum of f and g, denoted f + g. Its function value at
x is f(x) + g(x). That is, f f f(x)
Quotient ( ) : (x) =
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = x2 + 3x g g g(x)
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Combination of Functions 1 Combination of Functions 1

Example Solution:
a) (f + g)(x)= 3x – 1 + x2 + 3x
If f(x) = 3x – 1 and g(x) = x2 + 3x find = x2+ 6x + 1
a. (f + g)(x) b) (f – g)(x)=3x – 1 – (x2 + 3x)
b. (f – g)(x) =3x – 1 – x2 - 3x = – x2 – 1
c) (fg)(x) = (3x – 1)(x2 + 3x)
c. (fg)(x) = 3x3 + 9x2 -x2 -3x = 3x3 + 8x2 - 3x
f
d. f (x) d) (x) = (3x – 1)
g g (x2 + 3x)

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Linear Function 2 Linear Function 2

Definition: Suppose that f(x) = mx + c is a linear

function and we let y = f(x).
A function f is a linear function if and
Then y = mx + c, which is an equation of a
only if f(x) can be written in the form
straight line with slope a and y-intercept b.
f(x) = mx + c, Thus the graph of a linear function is a
where m and c are constants and m ≠ 0 straight line. We say that the function f(x)
= mx + c has a slope m

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Slope of a line 2 Slope of a line 2

Definition Example:
Find the slope of a line passing through
Let (x1, y1) and (x2,y2) be two (2,3) and (4,4)
different points on a nonvertical line.
The slope of the line is the number m Solution:
given by m=4–3
y − y1
m = ∆y = vertical.change = 2 4–2
∆x horizontal.change x 2 − x1 =1
2
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Equations of Lines 2 Equations of Lines 2

If we know a point on a line and the slope of the Example:

line, we can find an equation whose graph is that
line. Find and equation of the line passing
Suppose that line L has a slope m and passes through (-3 , 8) and (4, -2).
through the point (x1,y1). If (x,y) is any other point
on L, we can find an algebraic relationship between Solution:
x and y. Using the slope formula on the point
(x1,y1) and (x, y) gives First, find the slope of the line.
y − y1 = m y − y1
m= = −2−8 = − 10
x − x1 x − x1 4 − (−3) 7
y - y1 = m(x – x1)
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Equations of Lines 2 Finding the slope and y- 2

intercept of a Line
Secondly, use a point-slope form with (-3, Example:
8) as (x1,y1) gives Find the slope and y-intercept of the line
with equation y = 5(3-2x)
y–8=
− 10 (x – (-3)) Solution:
7 y = 5(3-2x)
− 10 30 y = 15 – 10x
y = x- +8
7 7 rewrite in the form of y= mx + c
− 10 26 y = -10x +15
y = x+ or 10x +7y –26 = 0 Thus m = -10 and c = 15, so the slope is –10
7 7
and the y-intercept is 15.
21 22

Parallel and Perpendicular 2 Parallel and Perpendicular 2

line line
Parallel Lines Example
Two lines are parallel if and only if they Figure below shows two lines passing through (3, -
have the same slope or are vertical. 2). One is parallel to the line y = 3x + 1 and the
other is perpendicular to it. Find equations of
Perpendicular lines these lines.
Two lines with slope m1 and m2 are
perpendicular to each other if, and only
if,
1
m1 = -
m2
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Parallel and Perpendicular 2 Parallel and Perpendicular 2
line line
Solution: Solution:
a) The slope of y = 3x + 1 is 3. Thus b) The slope of a line perpendicular
the line through (3 , -2) that is to y = 3x + 1 must be - 1 3 . Using a
parallel to y = 3x + 1 also has slope point –slope form, we get
3. Using a point-slope form, we get y - y1 = m(x – x1)
y - y1 = m(x – x1) y - (-2) = - 1 3(x – 3)
y - (-2) = 3 (x – 3) y + 2 = - 1 3x + 1
y + 2 = 3x – 9 y = - 1 3x – 1
y = 3x - 11
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Intercepts and Graph 2 Intercepts and Graph 2

An x-intercepts of the graph of an Example:

equation in x and y is a point where the Find the x and y intercepts of y = x2 + 2x – 3
graph intersects the x-axis. A y-intercept i) Setting y = 0 and solving for x gives
is a point where the graph intersects the 0 = x2 + 2x – 3
y-axis. 0 = (x + 3)(x – 1)
To find the x-intercepts of the graph of an x = -3, 1
equation in x and y, we first set y = 0 and Thus the x-intercepts are (-3,0) and (1,0)
solve the resulting equation for x. To find ii) Setting x = 0 and solving for y gives
the y-intercepts, we first set x = 0 and y = 02 +2(0) –3
solve for y. y = -3
Thus the y-intercepts is (0,-3)
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Intercepts and Graph 2 Middle point between two 2

coordinates on a straight line
Example The Middle point between two coordinate
Find the intersect point between two lines, x + 3y = 9 and 3x – y A(x1, y1) and B(x2,y2) is given as,
–7=0
Solution: x + 3y = 9 ………………………….(1)

 x +x y+y 

,
1 2 1 2

3x – y – 7 = 0………………………(2)  
From (1), x = 9 – 3y  2 2 
Replace x into equation (2), which gives Replace y in x which
3(9 – 3y) – y – 7 = 0 gives, Example
27 – 9y – y – 7 = 0 x = 9 – 3(2) = 3 Find the middle point between A (2,4) and B (6,10) .
20 – 10y = 0 Solution:
10y = 20  2+6 4 +10  = (4,7)

y=2  , 
Thus the intersect point between two 
2 2 
 
lines, x + 3y = 9 and 3x – y – 7 = 0 is (3,2)
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Distance between two points 2 GRAPHING LINEAR 2
FUNCTIONS
The distance between A(x1, y1) and B(x2,y2) gives a. Graph f(x) = 2x + 1
2 2
x − x2  +  y1 − y2 
 1
 m = 2, c = 1
Example: f(x)
Find the distance between (1,4) and (-2,5). f(x) = 2x + 1
Solution:
= 1− (−2)  + 1− 5
2 2
   
1
= 3 +  − 4
2 2

x
= 25
=5

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GRAPHING LINEAR 2 Quadratic Functions 3

FUNCTIONS
15 - 2t
b. Graph g(t) = A function is a quadratic function if
3 and only if f(x) can be written in the
Notice that g is a linear function because we can form
express it in the form g(t) = at + b;
g(t) =
15 - 2t
=
15 2t
-
2
=- t +5
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
3 3 3 3
g(t) 2 where a, b, and c are constants
m=- , c=5
5 15 - 2t 3 and a ≠ 0
g(t) =
3

t
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Quadratic Functions 3 Quadratic Functions Graph 3

For example The graph of the quadratic function

the functions f(x) = x2 – 3x + 2 and y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
f(t) = -3t2 are quadratic. is called a parabola and has a shape
However, g(x) =
1 like the curves in the following figure.
x2 y

is not quadratic because it cannot be

written in the form g(x) = ax2 + bx + c
x
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Quadratic Functions Graph 3 Quadratic Functions Graph 3

If a > 0 , the graph extends If a < 0, the parabola Each parabola is symmetric about vertical line, called the
upward indefinitely and we opens downward. axis of symmetry of the parabola. The figure below shows a
say the parabola opens point called vertex, where the axis cuts the parabola.
upward. a < 0
a > 0 If a > 0, the vertex is the If a < 0, the vertex is the
y y c > 0
c > 0 lowest point of the parabola. highest point of the parabola.
This means that f(x) has a This means that f(x) has a
minimum value at this point maximum value at this point
x x
y
y y axis of symmetry y vertex (maximum value)

x
x x
x

37 vertex (minimum value) axis of symmetry

38

Vertex 3 y-intercept 3

The formula for vertex is given by: The point where the parabola
y = ax2 + bx + c
 − b  − b 
Vertex =  , f   intersects the y-axis (that is the y-
 2a  2 a   intercept) occurs when x = 0.
The y-coordinate of this point is c, so
the y-intercept is (0,c).

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x-intercept 3 x-intercept 3

The x-intercept occur when y = 0. For a < 0:

There are 3 types of x-intercepts: y y
y
For a > 0:
x x x
y y y

x x x

1 solution for x 2 solution for x no solution/ no 1 solution for x 2 solution for x no solution/ no
x-intercepts x-intercepts
b2-4ac = 0 b2-4ac > 0 b2-4ac = 0 b2-4ac > 0
b2-4ac < 0 b2-4ac < 0
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x-intercept 3 x-intercept 3

To find the x-intersects, Example

(i) Factorization
− b ± b 2 − 4ac Find p and q if x = 1 and x = 4 for the
(ii) Quadratic Formula, x =
2a equation x2 + px + q = 0
b2 – 4ac is called source of an equation.
Solution:
If a and b is a source for a quadratic x2 + px + q = x2 – (a + b)x + ab = 0
equations, the equation will be: = x2 – (1 + 4)x + (1)(4) = 0
(x – a)(x – b) = 0 or x2 – (a + b)x + ab = 0 = x2 – 5x + 4 = 0
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Quadratic Functions Graph: 3 Quadratic Functions Graph: 3

Example Example
Example: Graph the quadratic function Step 2: (a = -1, b = -4)
 − b  − b 
y = f(x) = -x2 – 4x + 12 Formula to find vertex is  , f  
 2a  2a  
-b
Solution: - b - (-4)
= = -2 f( ) = f( -2 )= -(-2) 2 -4(-2)+12
2a
Step 1: 2a 2(-1)
= -4+8+12
Here a = -1, b = -4, and c = 12.
Since a < 0, the parabola opens downward = 16
and thus has a highest point (maximum The x-coordinate of the vertex is
value) (-2,16)
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Quadratic Functions Graph: 3 Quadratic Functions Graph: 3

Example Example
Step 3: Step 4: draw the function graph
y-intercept: when x = 0 y

y = f(x) = -x2 – 4x + 12 = 0 – 0 + 12 = 12
16
then y-intercept is (0,12) 12

x-intercept: when y = 0 8

y = f(x) = -x2 – 4x + 12 4

x
0 = - (x2 + 4x + 12) -6 -4 -2
-4 2

0 = - (x + 6)(x – 2) -8

Thus x = -6 or x = 2,
so the x-intercepts are (–6,0) and (2,0) 47 48

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Exponential Function 4 Exponential Function 4

The function f defined by Example:

f(x) = bx
1. f(x) = 3x
Where b > 0, b ≠ 1, and the exponent 2. f(t) = 0.12t
x is any real number, is called an 3. f(x) = ex (original exponent, e ≈ 2.71828 )
exponential function with base b 4. If the base is 2 and x = 4, the
function value f(4) will equal 16
49 50

Rules for exponent 4 Example for rule of exponent 4

Let the base a = 2, base b = 4, x = 2 and y = 3

a x .a y = a x+ y ax
= a x− y (a )
x y
= a xy
ay a x .a y = a x + y 2 2.2 3 = 2 2 + 3 = 2 5 = 32
x
ax 1 ax 22 1 1
a a −x = = a x− y = 2 2−3 = 2 −1 = 1 =
(ab ) x
=a bx x
  = x ax ay 23 2 2
b b
x (a )x y
= a xy (2 )
2 3
= 2 ( 2)(3) = 2 6 = 64
a = ay y x a0 = 1 a =a
1

(ab ) x = a xb x (2 x 4) 2 = 2 2 x 4 2 = 4 x16 = 64
51 52

Example for rule of exponent 4 Logarithmic Function 5

Let the base a = 2, base b = 4, x = 2 and y = 3 The logarithmic function with base b,
a a
x x 2 2 where b > 0 and b ≠ 1, is defined by
2 2 4 1
  = x   = 2 = = logb and is defined by
b b 4 4 16 4
1 1 1 y = logbx if and only if by = x
−x
a = x 2 −2 = 2 =
a 2 4 The domain of logb is all positive real
x 2
numbers and the range is all real
a y = ax
y
2 3 = 3 22 = 3 4
numbers.
a0 = 1 20 = 1 y = logbx means by = x
a1 = a 21 = 2 53 54

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Logarithmic Function 5 5
Example: Converting from Exponential
to Logarithmic Form

In this sense, a logarithm of a number Exponential Logarithmic Form

Form
is an exponent: logbx is the power to
a. Since 52 = 25 then Log5 25 = 2
which we must raise b to get x.
b. Since 34 = 81 then Log3 81 = 4
Example:
logarithm exponent c. Since 100 =1 then Log10 1 = 0

Log28 = 3 because 23 = 8

base

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5
Example: Converting from Logarithmic
Original Logarithmic 5
to exponential Form

Logarithmic Form Exponential Form 2 type of log function, with base 10

and e:
a. Log10 1000 = 3 means 103 = 1000
log10 x written as log x
loge x written as ln x
1
b. Log64 8 =
1 means 64 2 = 8
2
1 1
c. Log2 16 = - 4 means 2- 4 =
16

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Rule of Logarithmic 5 Exponential Equations 5

a log a N = N
log a a = 1 There 2 way to solve exponential
log a 1 = 0 equation:
log a ( MN ) = log a M + log a N writes both left hand side and right
M  hand side of equation in the same bases
log a   = log a M − log a N and then compared and solved
N
log a M p = p log a M writes both left hand side and right
hand side of equation in the logarithmic
log a x
log b x = equation
log a b
If log a x = log a y then x = y 59 60

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Exponential Equations 5 Logarithmic Equations 5

Example: Logarithmic Equation is solve by

1 writing both left hand side and right
Solve 8 x -1 - =0
32 x hand side of equation in the same
1
then : bases
8 x -1 = 3x - 3 = - 5 x
32 x
3x + 5 x = 3
1
(2 3 ) x -1 = 5x 8x = 3
2
3x - 3 - 5x 3
2 = 2 (same base which is 2) x=
8
61 62

Logarithmic Equations 5

Example:
Solve 2 log 2 y = 2 + log 2 ( y - 1)
2 log 2 y = 2 + log 2 ( y - 1) y2
= 22
( y - 1)
2 log 2 y - log 2 ( y - 1) = 2
y 2 = 4( y - 1)
log 2 y 2 - log 2 ( y - 1) = 2 y 2 = 4y - 4
2
y2 y - 4y + 4 = 0
log 2 =2 (y-2) (y-2) = 0
( y - 1)
y= 2 63

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