Structured Query Language

Chapter 6
Contents

1 Introduction of Structured Query Language

2 DDL: create, drop, alter
3 DML: select, insert, update, delete
4 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke

2
Contents

1 Introduction of Structured Query Language

2 DDL: create, drop, alter
3 DML: select, insert, update, delete
4 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke

3
Introduction of Structured Query Language
 Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard
computer language for relational database
management and data manipulation.
 Basic SQL:
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Create, Alter, Drop
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Select, Insert, Update, Delete
 Data Control Language (DCL)
 Commit, Rollback, Grant, Revoke

4
Contents

1 Introduction of Structured Query Language

2 DDL: create, drop, alter
3 DML: select, insert, update, delete
4 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke

5
Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Permits specification of data types, structures and any
data constraints
 All specifications are stored in the database
 Includes:
 CREATE: make a new database object (database, table,
index, user, stored query, …)
 ALTER: modify an existing database object
 DROP: destroy an existing database object

6
The COMPANY Database

7
Schema and Catalog Concepts in SQL
 Schema: a group of tables and other constructs that
belong to the same database application

CREATE SCHEMA Schema_Name

AUTHORIZATION Authorization_Identifier;

CREATE SCHEMA Company AUTHORIZATION JSmith;

 Catalog: a named collection of schemas

8
CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE [SchemaName.]TableName
{(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE] [PRIMARY KEY]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}
[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]
{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] […,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)]
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,…]}
{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,…] })

9
CREATE TABLE
 Base tables (base relations)
 Relation and its tuples are actually created and stored as
a file by the DBMS.
 Virtual relations
 Created through the CREATE VIEW statement.
 Some foreign keys may cause errors
 Circular references
 refer to a table that has not yet been created

10
Basic Data Types
 Numeric data types:
 Integer numbers: INTEGER, INT, and SMALLINT
 Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and DOUBLE PRECISION
 Character-string data types:
 Fixed length: CHAR(n), CHARACTER(n)
 Varying length: VARCHAR(n), CHAR VARYING(n), CHARACTER
VARYING(n)
 Bit-string data types:
 Fixed length: BIT(n)
 Varying length: BIT VARYING(n)
 Boolean data type:
 Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL
 Date-Time data types:
 Date components: YEAR, MONTH, and DAY (‘YYYY-MM-DD’)
 Time components: HOUR, MINUTE, and SECOND (‘HH:MM:SS’)

11
Basic Data Types
 Additional data types
 Timestamp data type (TIMESTAMP)
 Includes the DATE and TIME fields
 Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal fractions of
seconds
 Optional WITH TIME ZONE qualifier
 INTERVAL data type
 Specifies a relative value that can be used to increment or
decrement an absolute value of a date, time, or timestamp

12
Domains
 Name used with the attribute specification
 Makes it easier to change the data type for a domain
that is used by numerous attributes
 Improves schema readability

CREATE DOMAIN DomainName AS DataType

[CHECK conditions];

CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);

CREATE DOMAIN D_NUM AS INTEGER
CHECK (D_NUM>0 AND D_NUM<21);

13
Specifying Constraints
 Basic constraints:
 Key and referential integrity constraints
 Attribute constraints
 Constraints on individual tuples within a relation

14
Key and Referential Integrity Constraints
 PRIMARY KEY clause: specifies one or more attributes
that make up the primary key of a relation.

Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY

PRIMARY KEY (Dnumber, DLocation)

 UNIQUE clause: Specifies alternate (secondary) keys.

Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;

15
Key and Referential Integrity Constraints
 FOREIGN KEY clause

FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)

REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)]
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]

 Referential triggered actions: RESTRICT (default), SET

NULL, CASCADE, and SET DEFAULT

FOREIGN KEY (Dno) REFERENCES Department(Dnumber)

ON DELETE CASCADE
ON UPDATE CASCADE

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Attribute Constraints
 NOT NULL
 NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute
 Default values
 DEFAULT <value> can be specified for an attribute
 If no default clause is specified, the default value is NULL
for attributes that do not have the NOT NULL constraint
Dno INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 1
 CHECK clause:
Dnumber INT NOT NULL CHECK (Dnumber > 0 AND
Dnumber <21);

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The COMPANY Database

18
19
20
Specifying Constraints
 Giving names to constraints
 This is optional.
 Keyword CONSTRAINT
 The name is unique within a particular DB schema.
 Used to identify a particular constraint in case it must be
dropped later and replaced with another one.

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22
Constraints on individual tuples within a relation
 Specifying constraints on tuples using CHECK
 Affected on each tuple individually as being inserted or
modified (tuple-based constraints)
 Ex: Department’s create-date must be earlier than the
manager’s start-date:
CHECK (DEPT_CREATE_DATE < MGRSTARTDATE);
 More general constraints: CREATE ASSERTION

23
DROP Command
 Used to drop named schema elements: tables, domains,
constraints, and the schema itself
 Drop behavior options:
 CASCADE and RESTRICT

DROP SCHEMA Company CASCADE;

Or
DROP SCHEMA Company RESTRICT;

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DROP Command
 Drop a table:

DROP TABLE Department CASCADE;

 RESTRICT (default): dropped on if it is not referenced in

any constraints or views
 CASCADE: all such constraints and views that reference
the table are dropped automatically from the schema
along with the table itself
 Similarly, we can drop constraints & domains

25
ALTER Command
 ALTER command: change the definition of a base table or
of other named schema elements
 Base tables: adding or dropping a column or constraints,
changing a column definition.
ALTER TABLE Employee ADD Job VARCHAR(15);
ALTER TABLE Employee
DROP COLUMN Address CASCADE;
ALTER TABLE Department
ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn SET DEFAULT ‘333445555’;
ALTER TABLE Employee
DROP CONSTRAINT Empsuperfk CASCADE;

26
Contents

1 Introduction of Structured Query Language

2 DDL: create, drop, alter
3 DML: select, insert, update, delete
4 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke

27
SELECT Command
 SELECT command: retrieve information from a
database
 SELECT command in SQL is the same as the SELECT
operation in relational algebra.
 SQL allows a table (relation) to have two or more
tuples that are identical in all their attribute values
 SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes called a
bag) of tuples; it is not a set of tuples
 SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by
specifying PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE attributes, or by
using the DISTINCT option in a query

28
SELECT Command
 Basic form:

SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
WHERE <condition>

 <attribute list> is a list of attribute names whose

values are to be retrieved by the query
 <table list> is a list of the relation names required to
process the query
 <condition> is a conditional (Boolean) expression that
identifies the tuples to be retrieved by the query
29
SELECT Command
 Complete form:

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]

{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]

30
SELECT Command
 SELECT : Specifies which columns are to appear in
output
 FROM : Specifies table(s) to be used
 WHERE : Filters rows
 GROUP BY : Forms groups of rows with same column
value
 HAVING : Filters groups subject to some condition
 ORDER BY : Specifies the order of the output

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The COMPANY Database

32
SELECT Command
 Basic SQL queries: using the SELECT, PROJECT, and JOIN
operations of the relational algebra
Query 0: Retrieve the birthdate and address of the employee
whose name is 'John B. Smith'.
Q0: SELECT Bdate, Address
FROM Employee
WHERE Fname = 'John' AND Minit = 'B’
AND Lname = 'Smith’;
 Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT pair of relational algebra
operations:
 SELECT clause specifies the projection attributes
 WHERE clause specifies the selection condition
 However, the result of the query may contain duplicate tuples

33
SELECT Command
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees
who work for the 'Research' department.
Q1: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM Employee, Department
WHERE Dname='Research' AND Dnumber= Dno;

 Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT-JOIN sequence of

relational algebra operations
 (DNAME='Research'): selection condition (SELECT
operation in relational algebra)
 (DNUMBER=DNO): join condition (JOIN operation in
relational algebra)

34
The COMPANY Database

35
SELECT Command
Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the project
number, the controlling department number, and the
department manager's last name, address, and birthdate
Q2: SELECT Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Bdate, Address
FROM Project, Department, Employee
WHERE Dnum = Dnumber AND MgrSSN = SSN
AND Plocation='Stafford‘;

 Two join conditions:

 Dnum = Dnumber: relates a project to its controlling
department
 MgrSSN = SSN: relates the controlling department to the
employee who manages that department

36
The COMPANY Database

37
Ambiguous Attribute Names
 In SQL, we can use the same name for attributes as long as
the attributes are in different relations. Query referring to
attributes with the same name must qualify the attribute
name with the relation name by prefixing the relation name
to the attribute name
 Examples:
 DEPARTMENT.DNUMBER and DEPT_LOCATIONS.DNUMBER

38
Aliases
 Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice:
aliases are given to the relation name
Query 3: For each employee, retrieve the employee's name,
and the name of his or her immediate supervisor.
Q3a: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, S.Fname, S.Lname
FROM Employee E S
WHERE E.SuperSSN = S.SSN;

 E and S are called aliases or tuple variables for the

Employee relation
 E represents employees in role of supervisees
 S represents employees in role of supervisors

39
Aliases
 Aliases can also be used in any SQL query for
convenience. Can also use the AS keyword to specify
aliases
Q3b: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, S.Fname, S.Lname
FROM Employee AS E, Employee AS S
WHERE E.SuperSSN = S.SSN;

 Renaming using aliases:

Employee AS E(FN, M, LN, SSN, BD, Addr, Sex, Sal, SSSN, DNO)
(in the FROM clause)

40
Unspecified WHERE-clause
 A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition: all
tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are selected
 This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE
Query 4: Retrieve the SSN values for all employees
Q4: SELECT SSN
FROM Employee;

41
Unspecified WHERE-clause
 If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-
clause and there is no join condition, then the
CARTESIAN PRODUCT of tuples is selected
Query 5: retrieve all combinations of Employee.SSN and
Department.Dname
Q5: SELECT SSN, Dname
FROM Employee, Department;

 It is extremely important not to overlook specifying

any selection and join conditions in the WHERE-clause;
otherwise, incorrect and very large relations may
result

42
Use of ASTERISK (*)
 An asterisk (*) stands for all the attributes
Query 6: retrieves all the attribute values of any Employee who
works in Department number 5
Q6: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE DNO = 5;
Query 7: retrieves all the attributes of an Employee and the
attributes of the Department in which he or she works for every
employee of the ‘Research’ department
Q7: SELECT *
FROM Employee, Department
WHERE Dname = 'Research' AND DNO = Dnumber;

43
Use of DISTINCT
 SQL does not treat a relation as a set: duplicate tuples can
appear in a query result.
 To eliminate duplicate tuples, use the keyword DISTINCT
Query 8: Retrieve the salary of every employee (Q8A) and all
distinct salary values (Q8B)
Q8a: SELECT Salary
FROM Employee;
Q8b: SELECT DISTINCT Salary
FROM Employee;
 The result of Q8A may have duplicate SALARY values, but
Q8B’s
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Set Operations
 Set union (UNION), set difference (EXCEPT) and set
intersection (INTERSECT) operations
 The resulting relations of these set operations are sets of
tuples: duplicate tuples are eliminated from the result
 The set operations apply only to union compatible relations
 UNION ALL, EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT ALL

45
Set Operations
Query 9: Make a list of all project numbers for projects
that involve an employee whose last name is 'Smith' as a
worker or as a manager of the department that controls
the project.
Q10: (SELECT DISTINCT Pnumber
FROM Project, Department, Employee
WHERE Dnum = Dnumber AND MgrSSN = SSN
AND Lname = 'Smith')
UNION
(SELECT DISTINCT Pnumber
FROM Project, Works_on, Employee
WHERE Pnumber = Pno AND ESSN=SSN
AND Lname = 'Smith');
46
Substring pattern matching and arithmetic
operators
Two reserved characters: % and _
Query 10: Retrieve all employees whose address is in
Houston, Texas.
Q10: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Address LIKE ‘%Houston,TX%’;

Query 11: Retrieve all employees whose SSN has ’88’ at the
end.
Q11: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE SSN LIKE ‘_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 88’;
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Substring pattern matching and arithmetic
operators
 Standard arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /
Query 12: show the resulting salaries if every employee
working on “ProductX” is given 10% raise
Q12: SELECT Fname, Lname, 1.1*Salary AS INC_SAL
FROM Employee, Works_on, Project
WHERE SSN = ESSN AND PNO = Pnumber
AND Pname = ‘ProductX’;

48
NULL & 3-valued logic
AND True False Unknown
True T F U
False F F F
Unknown U F U NOT
True F
False T
OR True False Unknown
Unknown U
True T T T
False T F U
Unknown T U U

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE SuperSSN IS NULL;

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE SuperSSN IS NOT NULL;
SELECT Command

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]

{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]

50
Nested Queries
 Complete SELECT-FROM-WHERE blocks within WHERE
clause of another query
 Comparison operator IN
 Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V
 Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V
Query 13: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who
work for the 'Research' department
Q13: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM Employee
WHERE Dno IN ( SELECT Dnumber
FROM Department
WHERE Dname = 'Research' );

51
 Correlated Nested Queries
 If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query
references an attribute of a relation declared in the outer
query , the two queries are said to be correlated
Query 14: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a
dependent with the same first name as the employee.
Q14: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname
FROM Employee E
WHERE E.SSN IN ( SELECT ESSN
FROM Dependent
WHERE ESSN = E.SSN AND
E.Fname = Dependent_name);

52
The COMPANY Database

53
Correlated Nested Queries
 A query written with nested SELECT-FROM-WHERE
blocks and using IN comparison operator can always
be expressed as a single block query
 For example, Q14 may be written as in Q14A
Q14a: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname
FROM Employee E, Dependent D
WHERE E.SSN = D.ESSN AND
E.Fname = D.Dependent_name;

54
Nested Query Exercises
Query 15: Retrieve the SSNs of all employees who work the
same (project, hours) combination on some project that
employee John Smith (SSN=123456789) works on (using a
nested query)
Q15: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN
FROM Works_on
WHERE (PNO, Hours) IN
( SELECT PNO, Hours
FROM Works_on
WHERE ESSN = ‘123456789’ );

55
More Comparison Operators
 Operators that can be combined with ANY (or SOME),
ALL: =, >, >=, <, <=, and <>
Query 16: Retrieve all employees whose salary is greater
than the salary of all employees in department 5
Q16: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Salary > ALL ( SELECT Salary
FROM Employee
WHERE DNO=5 );

56
EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions
 EXISTS and NOT EXISTS function
 Typically used in conjunction with a correlated nested
query
 EXISTS(Q) returns TRUE if the result of a query Q is NOT
empty (Some tuples EXIST in the result).
 NOT EXISTS(Q) returns TRUE if the result of a query Q is
empty (No tuples are in the result).
 UNIQUE(Q) function
 Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in the result
of query Q

57
EXISTS Function
Query 14: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a
dependent with the same first name as the employee
Q14b: SELECT Fname, Lname
FROM Employee
WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT *
FROM Dependent
WHERE ESSN = SSN AND
FName = Dependent_name);

58
EXISTS Function
Query 17: Retrieve the names of employees who have no
dependents
Q17: SELECT Fname, Lname
FROM Employee
WHERE NOT EXISTS ( SELECT *
FROM Dependent
WHERE SSN = ESSN);

 In Q17, the correlated nested query retrieves all

DEPENDENT tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If
none exist , the EMPLOYEE tuple is selected

59
Enumerated Sets
 An explicit (enumerated) set of values in the WHERE-
clause
Query 18: Retrieve the SSNs of all employees who work on
project numbers 1, 2, or 3.
Q18: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN
FROM Works_on
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3);

60
Joined Relations
 Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-clause
 Allows the user to specify different types of joins
 EQUIJOIN
 NATURAL JOIN
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
 FULL OUTER JOIN

61
 Joined Tables and Outer Joins
 Joined table
 Permits users to specify a table resulting from a join operation
in the FROM clause of a query
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who
work for the 'Research' department.
Q1a: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM (Employee JOIN Department ON Dno = Dnumber)
WHERE Dname = ‘Research’;

Q1: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address

FROM Employee, Department
WHERE Dname='Research' AND Dnumber= Dno;

62
Joined Tables and Outer Joins
 Specify different types of join
 NATURAL JOIN
 Various types of OUTER JOIN
 NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S
 No join condition specified
 Implicit EQUIJOIN condition for each pair of attributes
with same name from R and S

63
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins (cont’d.)
 Inner join
 Default type of join in a joined table
 Tuple is included in the result only if a matching tuple
exists in the other relation
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
 Every tuple in LEFT table must appear in result
 If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for attributes of RIGHT table

64
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins (cont’d.)
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
 Every tuple in RIGHT table must appear in result
 If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for the attributes of LEFT table
 FULL OUTER JOIN

65
Joined Relations - Examples
Query 3: For each employee, retrieve the employee's name,
and the name of his or her immediate supervisor.
Q3a: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, S.Fname, S.Lname
FROM Employee E S
WHERE E.SuperSSN = S.SSN;

Q3c: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, S.Fname, S.Lname

FROM ( Employee E LEFT OUTER JOIN
Employee S ON E.SuperSSN = S.SSN );

 Compare two queries???

66
Joined Relations - Examples
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work
for the 'Research' department.
Q1: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM Employee, Department
WHERE Dname = 'Research' AND Dnumber = Dno;
 could be written as:
Q1a: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM (Employee JOIN Department ON Dnumber = Dno)
WHERE Dname = 'Research’;
Q1b: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM (Employee NATURAL JOIN (Department
AS Dept(Dname, Dno, MSSN, MSDate)))
WHERE Dname = 'Research’;
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 Joined Relations - Examples
Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the project
number, the controlling department number, and the
department manager's last name, address, and birthdate
Q2a: SELECT Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Bdate, Address
FROM ((Project JOIN Department ON Dnum =
Dnumber) JOIN Employee ON MGRSSN = SSN))
WHERE Plocation = 'Stafford’ ;

68
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, AVG
Query 19: Find the max, min, & average salary among all
employees
Q19: SELECT MAX(Salary), MIN(Salary), AVG(Salary)
FROM Employee;

69
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
Queries 20: Retrieve the total number of employees in the
company
Q20: SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Employee;
Queries 21: Retrieve the number of employees in the
'Research' department
Q21: SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Employee, Department
WHERE Dno = Dnumber AND Dname = 'Research’;
 Note: NULL values are discarded wrt. aggregate functions
as applied to a particular column
70
GROUPING
 A GROUP BY-clause is for specifying the grouping
attributes, which must also appear in the SELECT-clause
 Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of tuples that
have the same value for the grouping attribute(s)
 The aggregate function is applied to each subgroup
independently
 If NULLs exist in grouping attribute
 Separate group created for all tuples with a NULL value in
grouping attribute

71
SELECT Command

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]

{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]

72
GROUPING
Query 22: For each department, retrieve the department number,
the number of employees in the department, and their average
salary
Q22: SELECT Dno, COUNT (*), AVG (Salary)
FROM Employee
GROUP BY Dno;

 In Q22, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups - each

group having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO
 The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such group
of tuples separately
 The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and
the functions to be applied on each group of tuples
 A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping

73
GROUPING: Q22 result

Result of Q22

74
GROUPING: THE HAVING-CLAUSE
 Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of these
functions for only those groups that satisfy certain
conditions
 The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a selection
condition on groups (rather than on individual
tuples)

75
GROUPING: THE HAVING-CLAUSE
Query 23: For each project on which more than two
employees work , retrieve the project number, project name,
and the number of employees who work on that project.
Q23: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)
FROM Project, Works_on
WHERE Pnumber = Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;

76
ORDER BY
 The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples in a
query result based on the values of some attribute(s)
Query 24: Retrieve a list of employees and the projects
each works in, ordered by the employee's department, and
within each department ordered alphabetically by
employee last name
Q24: SELECT Dname, Lname, Fname, Pname
FROM Department, Employee, Works_on, Project
WHERE Dnumber = Dno AND SSN = ESSN
AND Pno = Pnumber
ORDER BY Dname, Lname [DESC|ASC]

77
SELECT Command

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]

{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]

78
 SELECT Command
 SELECT Specifies which columns are to
appear in output
 FROM Specifies table(s) to be used
 WHERE Filters rows
 GROUP BY Forms groups of rows with same
column value
 HAVING Filters groups subject to some condition
 ORDER BY Specifies the order of the output

79
Contents

1 Introduction of Structured Query Language

2 DDL: create, drop, alter
3 DML: select, insert, update, delete
4 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke

80
Insert Command
 Add one or more tuples to a relation
 Attribute values should be listed in the same order as
the attributes were specified in the CREATE TABLE
command

INSERT INTO TableName (Attribute1, Attribute2, …)

VALUES (value1, value2, …);

81
Insert Command
 Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE:
U1: INSERT INTO Employee
VALUES ('Richard', 'K', 'Marini', '653298653',
'30-DEC-52', '98 Oak Forest, Katy, TX',
'M', 37000, '987654321', 4);
 An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the
attribute names that correspond to the values in the new
tuple, attributes with NULL values can be left out
 Example: Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom
we only know the FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.
U2: INSERT INTO Employee (Fname, Lname, SSN)
VALUES ('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653');
82
Insert Command
 Important note: Only the constraints specified in the
DDL commands are automatically enforced by the
DBMS when updates are applied to the database
 Another variation of INSERT allows insertion of
multiple tuples resulting from a query into a relation

83
Insert Command
Example: Suppose we want to create a temporary table that
has the name, number of employees, and total salaries for each
department. A table DEPTS_INFO is created by U3, and is
loaded with the summary information retrieved from the
database by the query in U3A
U3: CREATE TABLE Depts_info
( Dept_name VARCHAR(10),
No_of_emps INTEGER,
Total_sal INTEGER);
U3A: INSERT INTODepts_info (Dept_name, No_of_emps,
Total_sal)
SELECT Dname, COUNT (*), SUM (Salary)
FROM Department, Employee
WHERE Dnumber = Dno
GROUP BY Dname;

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Delete Command
DELETE FROM TableName
WHERE Condition;
 Removes tuples from a relation
 Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity constraint)
 A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an
empty table
 The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause

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Delete Command - Examples
U4A: DELETE FROM Employee
WHERE Lname = 'Brown’;

U4B: DELETE FROM Employee

WHERE SSN = '123456789’;

U4C: DELETE FROM Employee

WHERE Dno IN
(SELECT Dnumber
FROM Department
WHERE Dname = 'Research');

U4D: DELETE FROM Employee;

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Update Command
UPDATE TableName
SET Set-Clause
WHERE Condition;
 Used to modify attribute values of one or more selected
tuples
 A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified
 An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to be
modified and their new values
 Each command modifies tuples in the same relation
 Referential integrity should be enforced

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Update Command
 Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to 'Bellaire'
and 5, respectively.
U5: UPDATE Project
SET Plocation = 'Bellaire', Dnum = 5
WHERE Pnumber = 10;

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Update Command
 Example: Give all employees in the 'Research'
department a 10% raise in salary.
U6: UPDATE Employee
SET Salary = Salary *1.1
WHERE Dno IN (SELECT Dnumber
FROM Department
WHERE Dname = 'Research');

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Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
 ASSERTIONs to express constraints that do not fit in
the basic SQL categories
 Mechanism: CREATE ASSERTION
 components include: a constraint name, followed by
CHECK, followed by a condition

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Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
 Example: The salary of an employee must not be greater
than the salary of the manager of the department that
the employee works for’
CREATE ASSERTION Salary_constraint
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM Employee E, Employee M,
Department D
WHERE E.Salary > M.Salary AND
E.Dno = D.Number AND
D.MGRSSN = M.SSN));

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Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
 Triggers: to specify the type of action to be taken as
certain events occur and as certain conditions are
satisfied
 Details of triggers: presentation and lab

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Views
 A view is a “virtual” table that is derived from other
tables
 Allows for limited update operations (since the table
may not physically be stored)
 Allows full query operations
 A convenience for expressing certain operations

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VIEWs
 Specify a different WORKS_ON table (view)
CREATE VIEW Works_on_new AS
SELECT Fname, Lname, Pname, Hours
FROM Employee, Project, Works_on
WHERE SSN = ESSN AND Pno = Pnumber;
 We can specify SQL queries on a newly create table (view):

SELECT Fname, Lname From Works_on_new

WHERE Pname = ‘Seena’;
 When no longer needed, a view can be dropped:
DROP VIEW Works_on_new;

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View Update and Inline Views
 Update on a view defined on a single table without any
aggregate functions
 Can be mapped to an update on underlying base table
 View involving joins
 Often not possible for DBMS to determine which of the
updates is intended

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Contents

1 Introduction of Structured Query Language

2 DDL: create, drop, alter
3 DML: select, insert, update, delete
DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
4
(Chapter 9 + homework)

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SQL for Data Control
 Commands:
 GRANT
 REVOKE
 Based on three central objects:
 Users
 Database objects
 Privileges: select, modify (insert, update, delete),
reference
SQL for Data Control
 GRANT: pass privileges on their own database objects
to other users
GRANT <privilege list>
ON <database objects>
TO <user list>
 REVOKE: take back (cancel) privileges on their own
database objects from other users
REVOKE <privilege list>
ON <database objects>
FROM <user list>
SQL for Data Control
 Propagation of Privileges using the GRANT OPTION
 Whenever the owner A of a relation R grants a privilege
on R to another account B, privilege can be given to B
with or without the GRANT OPTION.
 If the GRANT OPTION is given, this means that B can also
grant that privilege on R to other accounts.
An Example
 Suppose that the DBA creates four accounts
 A1, A2, A3, A4
 and wants only A1 to be able to create base
relations. Then the DBA must issue the following
GRANT command in SQL
GRANT CREATETAB TO A1;
 In SQL2 the same effect can be accomplished by
having the DBA issue a CREATE SCHEMA
command as follows:
CREATE SCHEMA EXAMPLE AUTHORIZATION
A1;
An Example(2)
 User account A1 can create tables under the
schema called EXAMPLE.
 Suppose that A1 creates the two base relations
EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT
 A1 is then owner of these two relations and hence all
the relation privileges on each of them.
 Suppose that A1 wants to grant A2 the privilege
to insert and delete tuples in both of these
relations, but A1 does not want A2 to be able to
propagate these privileges to additional accounts:
GRANT INSERT, DELETE ON
EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT TO A2;
An Example(3)
An Example(4)

 Suppose that A1 wants to allow A3 to retrieve

information from either of the two tables and also to
be able to propagate the SELECT privilege to other
accounts.
 A1 can issue the command:
GRANT SELECT ON EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
TO A3 WITH GRANT OPTION;
 A3 can grant the SELECT privilege on the
EMPLOYEE relation to A4 by issuing:
GRANT SELECT ON EMPLOYEE TO A4;
 Notice that A4 can’t propagate the SELECT privilege because
GRANT OPTION was not given to A4
An Example(5)

 Suppose that A1 decides to revoke the SELECT

privilege on the EMPLOYEE relation from A3; A1
can issue:
REVOKE SELECT ON EMPLOYEE FROM A3;
 The DBMS must now automatically revoke the
SELECT privilege on EMPLOYEE from A4, too,
because A3 granted that privilege to A4 and A3
does not have the privilege any more.
An Example(6)

 Suppose that A1 wants to give back to A3 a limited capability to

SELECT from the EMPLOYEE relation and wants to allow A3 to
be able to propagate the privilege.
 The limitation is to retrieve only the NAME, BDATE, and
ADDRESS attributes and only for the tuples with DNO=5.
 A1 then create the view:
CREATE VIEW A3EMPLOYEE AS
SELECT NAME, BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO = 5;
 After the view is created, A1 can grant SELECT on the view
A3EMPLOYEE to A3 as follows:
GRANT SELECT ON A3EMPLOYEE TO A3
WITH GRANT OPTION;
An Example(7)
 Finally, suppose that A1 wants to allow A4 to update
only the SALARY attribute of EMPLOYEE;
 A1 can issue:
GRANT UPDATE ON EMPLOYEE (SALARY) TO
A4;
 The UPDATE or INSERT privilege can specify particular
attributes that may be updated or inserted in a
relation.
 Other privileges (SELECT, DELETE) are not attribute
specific.
Summary
 SQL developments: an overview
 SQL
 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
 DML: select, insert, update, delete
 Introduction to advanced DDL (assertions & triggers),
views, DCL (commit, rollback, grant, revoke)

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108
Exercise 1

EMPLOYEE: DEPARTMENT:
 Fname, Lname: VARCHAR(15), NOT  Dname: VARCHAR(15), NOT NULL,
NULL UNIQUE
 Minit: CHAR  Dnumber: INT, NOT NULL, PRIMARY
 SSN: CHAR(9), NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY
KEY  MgrSSN: CHAR(9), NOT NULL, default
 Bdate: DATE, earlier than “1/1/1999” value = ‘888665555’, refers to
 Address: VARCHAR(100) EMPLOYEE(SSN) – ON DELETE SET
 Sex: CHAR, {F/M} DEFAUL, ON UPDATE CASCADE
 Salary: DECIMAL(10,2)  MgrStartDate: DATE
 SuperSSN: CHAR(9), refers to  CreateDate: DATE, earlier than
EMPLOYEE(SSN) MgrStartDate
 Dno: INT, NOT NULL, default value = 1,
refers to DEPARTMENT(Dnumber) –
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT
Exercise 2
1. For each employee, retrieve the employee’s first name and last
name and the first and last name of his/her immediate
supervisor.
2. Retrieve the names of all employees in the departments which
are located in Houston
3. List the names of all employees who have a dependent with the
same first name as themselves
4. For each project, calculate the total number of employees who
work for it, and the total number of hours that these employees
work for the project.
5. Retrieve the average salary of all female employees.
6. For each department whose average employee salary is more
than $30.000, retrieve the department name and the number of
employees work for that department.

110