Chapter 8

SQL-99: Schema Definition,

Basic Constraints, and Queries
Chapter Summary
 Overview of SQL
 DDL/DML
 Review of DDL features
 Review of DML features
 More on constraints: assertions, triggers
 Views in SQL

Slide 2- 2
SQL Overview (1)
 SQL: Structured Query Language
 Standard language for commercial relational DBMSs
 SEQUEL: Structured English QUEry Language
 1978 System/R IBM- 1st Relational DBMS
 1979 Oracle and Ingres
 1982 SQL/DS and DB2 IBM
 ANSI + ISO
 SQL86 (SQL1) : first by ANSI and ratified by ISO (SQL-87), minor revision on 89
(SQL-89)
 SQL92 (SQL2) : major revision
 SQL99 (SQL3) : add recursive query, trigger, some OO features,

Not fully endorsed by the industry
 SQL2003 : XML, Window functions, etc
 Window functions: a different kind of aggregate functions which require a

"sliding window" of rows.


Minor revision to SQL 3, relatively new
 There are some minor syntax differences among commercial DBMSs,
but the majority of SQL is standard across DBMSs.

Slide 2- 3
SQL Overview (2)
 SQL has two major parts:
 Data Definition Language (DDL): Used to create
database schema and its elements (such as
tables, constraints, etc)
 Data Manipulation Language (DML): used to
store, retrieve and update data from tables.

Slide 2- 4
DDL
 DDL is used to define the schema of the database.
 Create a database schema
 Create a domain
 Create, Drop or Alter a table
 Create or Drop an Index
 Define Integrity constraints
 Define access privileges to users
 Define access privileges on objects
 Since SQL2, SQL supports the creation of multiple
schemas per database each with a distinct owner and
authorized users.

Slide 2- 5
DML
 Data Manipulation Language (DML): used to
store, retrieve and update data from tables.

Slide 2- 6
Schema and Catalog Concepts (1)
 Specifies a new database schema by giving it a name
 Schema elements include tables, constraints, views, domains,

and other constructs such as authorization grants

 CREATE SCHEMA COMPANY AUTHORIZATION Jsmith;
 Not all users are authorized to create schema and schema
elements. Authorization grants to the relevant user accounts
should be done by the DBA.
 CREATE USER Jsmith
IDENTIFIED BY Jsmith
DEFAULT TABLESPACE somedata
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp
QUOTA 10M ON somedata;
…..
GRANT create session TO Jsmith;
GRANT create table TO Jsmith;
GRANT create view TO Jsmith;
………..

Slide 2- 7
Schema and Catalog Concepts (2)
 Catalog: a named collection of schemas in an
SQL environment
 SQL environment: an installation of an SQL-
compliant RDBMS on a computer system
 A catalog contains a special schema called
INFORMATION_SCHEMA, which provides
information on all schemas in the catalog.

Slide 2- 8
CREATE TABLE
 Specifies a new base relation by giving it a name, and
specifying each of its attributes and their data types
(INTEGER, FLOAT, DECIMAL(i,j), CHAR(n),
VARCHAR(n))
 A constraint NOT NULL may be specified on an attribute
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT (
DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT
NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9) );

Slide 2- 9
CREATE TABLE
 In SQL2, can use the CREATE TABLE command for specifying the primary
key attributes, secondary keys, and referential integrity constraints (foreign
keys).
 Key attributes can be specified via the PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE phrases
CREATE TABLE DEPT (
DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP(SSN)
);

Slide 2- 10
Data Types
 Numeric: INTEGER, INT, FLOAT, DECIMAL
 Character: CHAR(n), VARCHAR(n), CHAR VARYING(n),
CLOB (Character Large OBject) – use with LOB storage
control for efficiency
 Bit String: BIT(n), VARBIT(n), BIT VARING(n), BLOB
 Boolean: has values of TRUE, FALSE, UNKOWN
 Date and Time: DATE (YYYY-MM-DD) TIME( HH:MM:SS)
 Timestamp: DATE + TIME
 INTERVAL data type: YEAR/MONTH or DAY/TIME
 USER Defined types
 (e.g.,) CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);

Slide 2- 11
Additional Data Types in SQL2 and
SQL-99
Has DATE, TIME, and TIMESTAMP data types
 DATE:

 Made up of year-month-day in the format yyyy-mm-dd

 TIME:
 Made up of hour:minute:second in the format hh:mm:ss
 TIME(i):
 Made up of hour:minute:second plus i additional digits
specifying fractions of a second
 format is hh:mm:ss:ii...i

Slide 2- 12
Additional Data Types in SQL2 and
SQL-99 (contd.)
 TIMESTAMP:
 Has both DATE and TIME components
 INTERVAL:
 Specifies a relative value rather than an absolute
value
 Can be DAY/TIME intervals or YEAR/MONTH
intervals
 Can be positive or negative when added to or
subtracted from an absolute value, the result is an
absolute value

Slide 2- 13
DROP TABLE
 Used to remove a relation (base table) and its
definition
 The relation can no longer be used in queries,
updates, or any other commands since its
description no longer exists
 Example:

DROP TABLE DEPENDENT;

Slide 2- 14
ALTER TABLE
 Used to add (or drop) an attribute to (from) one of the base
relations.
 Also used for changing a column definition, and
adding/dropping table constraints.
 For adding an attribute, the new attribute will have NULLs in

all the tuples of the relation right after the command is

executed; hence, the NOT NULL constraint is not allowed
for such an attribute
 Example:
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD JOB VARCHAR(12);
 The database users must still enter a value for the new
attribute JOB for each EMPLOYEE tuple.
 This can be done using the UPDATE command.

Slide 2- 15
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
OPTIONS
 We can specify RESTRICT, CASCADE, SET NULL or
SET DEFAULT on referential integrity constraints (foreign
keys)
CREATE TABLE DEPT (
DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE
CASCADE); Slide 2- 16
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
OPTIONS (continued)
CREATE TABLE EMP(
ENAME VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
ESSN CHAR(9),
BDATE DATE,
DNO INTEGER DEFAULT 1,
SUPERSSN CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (ESSN),
FOREIGN KEY (DNO) REFERENCES DEPT (Dnumber)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY (SUPERSSN) REFERENCES EMP (Ssn)
ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE);

Slide 2- 17
Retrieval Queries in SQL
 SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information
from a database; the SELECT statement
 This is not the same as the SELECT operation of the
relational algebra
 Important distinction between SQL and the formal
relational model:
 SQL allows a table (relation) to have two or more tuples that
are identical in all their attribute values
 Hence, an SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes
called a bag) of tuples; it is not a set of tuples
 SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by specifying
PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE attributes, or by using the
DISTINCT option in a query

Slide 2- 18
Retrieval Queries in SQL (contd.)
 A bag or multi-set is like a set, but an element
may appear more than once.
 Example: {A, B, C, A} is a bag. {A, B, C} is also a
bag that also is a set.
 Bags also resemble lists, but the order is irrelevant
in a bag.
 Example:
 {A, B, A} = {B, A, A} as bags
 However, [A, B, A] is not equal to [B, A, A] as lists

Slide 2- 19
Retrieval Queries in SQL (contd.)
 Basic form of the SQL SELECT statement is called a
mapping or a SELECT-FROM-WHERE block

SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
WHERE <condition>

 <attribute list> is a list of attribute names whose values are

to be retrieved by the query
 <table list> is a list of the relation names required to process
the query
 <condition> is a conditional (Boolean) expression that
identifies the tuples to be retrieved by the query

Slide 2- 20
Relational Database Schema--Figure 5.5

Slide 2- 21
Populated
Database--
Fig.5.6

Slide 2- 22
Simple SQL Queries
 Basic SQL queries correspond to using the
following operations of the relational algebra:
 SELECT
 PROJECT
 JOIN
 All subsequent examples use the COMPANY
database

Slide 2- 23
Simple SQL Queries (contd.)
 Example of a simple query on one relation
 Query 0: Retrieve the birthdate and address of the
employee whose name is 'John B. Smith'.
Q0:SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME='John' AND MINIT='B’
AND LNAME='Smith’
 Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT pair of relational algebra
operations:

The SELECT-clause specifies the projection attributes and the
WHERE-clause specifies the selection condition
 However, the result of the query may contain duplicate
tuples

Slide 2- 24
Simple SQL Queries (contd.)
 Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees
who work for the 'Research' department.

Q1:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO

 Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT-JOIN sequence of

relational algebra operations
 (DNAME='Research') is a selection condition (corresponds
to a SELECT operation in relational algebra)
 (DNUMBER=DNO) is a join condition (corresponds to a
JOIN operation in relational algebra)

Slide 2- 25
Simple SQL Queries (contd.)
 Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the project
number, the controlling department number, and the department
manager's last name, address, and birthdate.

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND PLOCATION='Stafford'

 In Q2, there are two join conditions

 The join condition DNUM=DNUMBER relates a project to its
controlling department
 The join condition MGRSSN=SSN relates the controlling
department to the employee who manages that department

Slide 2- 26
Aliases, * and DISTINCT, Empty
WHERE-clause
 In SQL, we can use the same name for two (or
more) attributes as long as the attributes are in
different relations
 A query that refers to two or more attributes with
the same name must qualify the attribute name
with the relation name by prefixing the relation
name to the attribute name
 Example:

 EMPLOYEE.LNAME, DEPARTMENT.DNAME

Slide 2- 27
ALIASES
 Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice
 In this case, aliases are given to the relation name

 Query 8: For each employee, retrieve the employee's name, and the
name of his or her immediate supervisor.

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

 In Q8, the alternate relation names E and S are called aliases or

tuple variables for the EMPLOYEE relation
 We can think of E and S as two different copies of EMPLOYEE; E
represents employees in role of supervisees and S represents
employees in role of supervisors

Slide 2- 28
ALIASES (contd.)
 Aliasing can also be used in any SQL query for
convenience
 Can also use the AS keyword to specify aliases

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME,

S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E,
EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

Slide 2- 29
UNSPECIFIED
WHERE-clause
 A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition; hence,
all tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are selected
 This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE
 Query 9: Retrieve the SSN values for all employees.

 Q9: SELECT SSN

FROM EMPLOYEE

 If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-clause

and there is no join condition, then the CARTESIAN
PRODUCT of tuples is selected

Slide 2- 30
UNSPECIFIED
WHERE-clause (contd.)
 Example:

Q10: SELECT SSN, DNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT

 It is extremely important not to overlook specifying

any selection and join conditions in the WHERE-
clause; otherwise, incorrect and very large
relations may result

Slide 2- 31
USE OF *
 To retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples, a
* is used, which stands for all the attributes
Examples:

Q1C: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=5

Q1D: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND
DNO=DNUMBER

Slide 2- 32
USE OF DISTINCT
 SQL does not treat a relation as a set; duplicate tuples
can appear
 To eliminate duplicate tuples in a query result, the
keyword DISTINCT is used
 For example, the result of Q11 may have duplicate
SALARY values whereas Q11A does not have any
duplicate values

Q11: SELECT SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE
Q11A: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE

Slide 2- 33
SET OPERATIONS
 SQL has directly incorporated some set operations
 There is a union operation (UNION), and in some versions
of SQL there are set difference (MINUS) and intersection
(INTERSECT) operations
 The resulting relations of these set operations are sets of
tuples; duplicate tuples are eliminated from the result
 The set operations apply only to union compatible
relations; the two relations must have the same attributes
and the attributes must appear in the same order

Slide 2- 34
SET OPERATIONS (contd.)
 Query 4: Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an
employee whose last name is 'Smith' as a worker or as a manager of
the department that controls the project.

Q4: (SELECT PNAME

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT,
EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND
MGRSSN=SSN AND LNAME='Smith')
UNION
(SELECT PNAME
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO AND
ESSN=SSN AND NAME='Smith')

Slide 2- 35
NESTING OF QUERIES
 A complete SELECT query, called a nested query, can be
specified within the WHERE-clause of another query,
called the outer query
 Many of the previous queries can be specified in an
alternative form using nesting
 Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees
who work for the 'Research' department.

Q1:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' )

Slide 2- 36
NESTING OF QUERIES (contd.)
 The nested query selects the number of the 'Research'
department
 The outer query select an EMPLOYEE tuple if its DNO
value is in the result of either nested query
 The comparison operator IN compares a value v with a
set (or multi-set) of values V, and evaluates to TRUE if v
is one of the elements in V
 In general, we can have several levels of nested queries
 A reference to an unqualified attribute refers to the
relation declared in the innermost nested query
 In this example, the nested query is not correlated with
the outer query

Slide 2- 37
CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
 If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query references an
attribute of a relation declared in the outer query, the two queries are
said to be correlated
 The result of a correlated nested query is different for each tuple

(or combination of tuples) of the relation(s) the outer query

 Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent
with the same first name as the employee.

Q12: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN
(SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

Slide 2- 38
CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
(contd.)
 In Q12, the nested query has a different result in the outer
query
 A query written with nested SELECT... FROM...
WHERE... blocks and using the = or IN comparison
operators can always be expressed as a single block
query. For example, Q12 may be written as in Q12A

Q12A: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D
WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND
E.FNAME=D.DEPENDENT_NAME

Slide 2- 39
CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
(contd.)
 The original SQL as specified for SYSTEM R also had a
CONTAINS comparison operator, which is used in
conjunction with nested correlated queries
 This operator was dropped from the language, possibly
because of the difficulty in implementing it efficiently
 Most implementations of SQL do not have this operator
 The CONTAINS operator compares two sets of values, and
returns TRUE if one set contains all values in the other set

Reminiscent of the division operation of algebra

Slide 2- 40
CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
(contd.)
 Query 3: Retrieve the name of each employee who works
on all the projects controlled by department number 5.

Q3: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ( (SELECT PNO
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN)
CONTAINS
(SELECT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT
WHERE DNUM=5) )

Slide 2- 41
CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
(contd.)
 In Q3, the second nested query, which is not
correlated with the outer query, retrieves the
project numbers of all projects controlled by
department 5
 The first nested query, which is correlated,
retrieves the project numbers on which the
employee works, which is different for each
employee tuple because of the correlation

Slide 2- 42
THE EXISTS FUNCTION
 EXISTS is used to check whether the result of a
correlated nested query is empty (contains no
tuples) or not
 We can formulate Query 12 in an alternative form
that uses EXISTS as Q12B

Slide 2- 43
THE EXISTS FUNCTION (contd.)
 Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee
who has a dependent with the same first name as
the employee.

Q12B: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN
AND

FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

Slide 2- 44
THE EXISTS FUNCTION (contd.)
 Query 6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no
dependents.

Q6: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN)
 In Q6, the correlated nested query retrieves all
DEPENDENT tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If
none exist, the EMPLOYEE tuple is selected
 EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL

Slide 2- 45
EXPLICIT SETS
 It is also possible to use an explicit
(enumerated) set of values in the WHERE-
clause rather than a nested query
 Query 13: Retrieve the social security numbers of
all employees who work on project number 1, 2,
or 3.
Q13: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3)

Slide 2- 46
NULLS IN SQL QUERIES
 SQL allows queries that check if a value is NULL (missing
or undefined or not applicable)
 SQL uses IS or IS NOT to compare NULLs because it
considers each NULL value distinct from other NULL
values, so equality comparison is not appropriate.
 Query 14: Retrieve the names of all employees who do
not have supervisors.
Q14: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SUPERSSN IS NULL
 Note: If a join condition is specified, tuples with NULL values
for the join attributes are not included in the result

Slide 2- 47
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2
 Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-
clause
 Looks like any other relation but is the result of a
join
 Allows the user to specify different types of joins
(regular "theta" JOIN, NATURAL JOIN, LEFT
OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN, CROSS
JOIN, etc)

Slide 2- 48
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (contd.)
 Examples:
Q8:SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

 can be written as:

Q8:SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN
EMPLOYEES ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN)

Slide 2- 49
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (contd.)
 Examples:
Q1:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO
 could be written as:
Q1:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT
ON DNUMBER=DNO)
WHERE DNAME='Research’
 or as:
Q1:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN
DEPARTMENT
AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO, MSSN, MSDATE)
WHERE DNAME='Research’

Slide 2- 50
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (contd.)
 Another Example: Q2 could be written as follows;
this illustrates multiple joins in the joined tables
Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME,
BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM (PROJECT JOIN
DEPARTMENT ON
DNUM=DNUMBER) JOIN
EMPLOYEE ON
MGRSSN=SSN) )
WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford’

Slide 2- 51
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 Include COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
 Query 15: Find the maximum salary, the
minimum salary, and the average salary among
all employees.
Q15: SELECT MAX(SALARY),
MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE

 Some SQL implementations may not allow more

than one function in the SELECT-clause

Slide 2- 52
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (contd.)
 Query 16: Find the maximum salary, the
minimum salary, and the average salary among
employees who work for the 'Research'
department.
Q16: SELECT MAX(SALARY),
MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research'

Slide 2- 53
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (contd.)
 Queries 17 and 18: Retrieve the total number of
employees in the company (Q17), and the number of
employees in the 'Research' department (Q18).
Q17: SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE

Q18: SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research’

Slide 2- 54
GROUPING
 In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate
functions to subgroups of tuples in a relation
 Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of
tuples that have the same value for the grouping
attribute(s)
 The function is applied to each subgroup
independently
 SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying the
grouping attributes, which must also appear in the
SELECT-clause

Slide 2- 55
GROUPING (contd.)
 Query 20: For each department, retrieve the department
number, the number of employees in the department, and
their average salary.
Q20: SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO
 In Q20, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups-

Each group having the same value for the grouping attribute
DNO
 The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such
group of tuples separately
 The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute
and the functions to be applied on each group of tuples
 A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping

Slide 2- 56
GROUPING (contd.)
 Query 21: For each project, retrieve the project number,
project name, and the number of employees who work on
that project.

Q21: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME

 In this case, the grouping and functions are applied after

the joining of the two relations

Slide 2- 57
THE HAVING-CLAUSE
 Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of
these functions for only those groups that satisfy
certain conditions
 The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a
selection condition on groups (rather than on
individual tuples)

Slide 2- 58
THE HAVING-CLAUSE (contd.)
 Query 22: For each project on which more than
two employees work, retrieve the project number,
project name, and the number of employees who
work on that project.
Q22: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME,
COUNT(*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2

Slide 2- 59
SUBSTRING COMPARISON
 The LIKE comparison operator is used to
compare partial strings
 Two reserved characters are used: '%' (or '*' in
some implementations) replaces an arbitrary
number of characters, and '_' replaces a single
arbitrary character

Slide 2- 60
SUBSTRING COMPARISON (contd.)
 Query 25: Retrieve all employees whose address
is in Houston, Texas. Here, the value of the
ADDRESS attribute must contain the substring
'Houston,TX‘ in it.
Q25: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ADDRESS LIKE
'%Houston,TX%'

Slide 2- 61
SUBSTRING COMPARISON (contd.)
 Query 26: Retrieve all employees who were born during
the 1950s.
Here, '5' must be the 8th character of the string (according
to our format for date), so the BDATE value is '_______5_',
with each underscore as a place holder for a single arbitrary
character.
Q26: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE BDATE LIKE '_______5_’

 The LIKE operator allows us to get around the fact that

each value is considered atomic and indivisible
 Hence, in SQL, character string attribute values are not
atomic

Slide 2- 62
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
 The standard arithmetic operators '+', '-'. '*', and '/' (for
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
respectively) can be applied to numeric values in an SQL
query result
 Query 27: Show the effect of giving all employees who
work on the 'ProductX' project a 10% raise.
Q27: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON,
PROJECT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
AND PNAME='ProductX’

Slide 2- 63
ORDER BY
 The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples in a
query result based on the values of some attribute(s)
 Query 28: Retrieve a list of employees and the projects
each works in, ordered by the employee's department,
and within each department ordered alphabetically by
employee last name.
Q28: SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE,
WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN
AND PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME

Slide 2- 64
ORDER BY (contd.)
 The default order is in ascending order of values
 We can specify the keyword DESC if we want a
descending order; the keyword ASC can be used
to explicitly specify ascending order, even though
it is the default

Slide 2- 65
Summary of SQL Queries
 A query in SQL can consist of up to six clauses,
but only the first two, SELECT and FROM, are
mandatory. The clauses are specified in the
following order:

SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <grouping attribute(s)>]
[HAVING <group condition>]
[ORDER BY <attribute list>]

Slide 2- 66
Summary of SQL Queries (contd.)
 The SELECT-clause lists the attributes or functions to be retrieved
 The FROM-clause specifies all relations (or aliases) needed in the
query but not those needed in nested queries
 The WHERE-clause specifies the conditions for selection and join of
tuples from the relations specified in the FROM-clause
 GROUP BY specifies grouping attributes
 HAVING specifies a condition for selection of groups
 ORDER BY specifies an order for displaying the result of a query
 A query is evaluated by first applying the WHERE-clause, then

GROUP BY and HAVING, and finally the SELECT-clause

Slide 2- 67
Specifying Updates in SQL
 There are three SQL commands to modify the
database: INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE

Slide 2- 68
INSERT
 In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more
tuples to a relation
 Attribute values should be listed in the same
order as the attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command

Slide 2- 69
INSERT (contd.)
 Example:
U1:INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE
VALUES ('Richard','K','Marini', '653298653', '30-DEC-52',
'98 Oak Forest,Katy,TX', 'M', 37000,'987654321', 4 )

 An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the

attribute names that correspond to the values in the new
tuple
 Attributes with NULL values can be left out
 Example: Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom
we only know the FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.
U1A: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME,
SSN)
VALUES ('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653')

Slide 2- 70
INSERT (contd.)
 Important Note: Only the constraints specified in
the DDL commands are automatically enforced
by the DBMS when updates are applied to the
database
 Another variation of INSERT allows insertion of
multiple tuples resulting from a query into a
relation

Slide 2- 71
INSERT (contd.)
 Example: Suppose we want to create a temporary table that has the
name, number of employees, and total salaries for each department.
 A table DEPTS_INFO is created by U3A, and is loaded with the

summary information retrieved from the database by the query in

U3B.
U3A: CREATE TABLE DEPTS_INFO
(DEPT_NAME VARCHAR(10),
NO_OF_EMPS INTEGER,
TOTAL_SAL INTEGER);

U3B: INSERT INTO DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME,

NO_OF_EMPS, TOTAL_SAL)
SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY)
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO
GROUP BY DNAME ;

Slide 2- 72
INSERT (contd.)
 Note: The DEPTS_INFO table may not be up-to-
date if we change the tuples in either the
DEPARTMENT or the EMPLOYEE relations after
issuing U3B. We have to create a view (see later)
to keep such a table up to date.

Slide 2- 73
DELETE
 Removes tuples from a relation
 Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be deleted
 Referential integrity should be enforced
 Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity constraint)
 A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an empty
table
 The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause

Slide 2- 74
DELETE (contd.)
 Examples:
U4A: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE LNAME='Brown’

U4B: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE SSN='123456789’

U4C: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE DNO IN
(SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE
DNAME='Research')

U4D: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

Slide 2- 75
UPDATE
 Used to modify attribute values of one or more
selected tuples
 A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be
modified
 An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes
to be modified and their new values
 Each command modifies tuples in the same
relation
 Referential integrity should be enforced

Slide 2- 76
UPDATE (contd.)
 Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to
'Bellaire' and 5, respectively.
U5: UPDATE PROJECT
SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire',
DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10

Slide 2- 77
UPDATE (contd.)
 Example: Give all employees in the 'Research'
department a 10% raise in salary.
U6:UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

 In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on

the original SALARY value in each tuple
 The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of =
refers to the old SALARY value before modification
 The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of = refers
to the new SALARY value after modification

Slide 2- 78
Recap of SQL Queries
 A query in SQL can consist of up to six clauses, but only
the first two, SELECT and FROM, are mandatory. The
clauses are specified in the following order:

SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <grouping attribute(s)>]
[HAVING <group condition>]
[ORDER BY <attribute list>]
 There are three SQL commands to modify the database:
INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE

Slide 2- 79
Constraints as Assertions
 General constraints: constraints that do not fit in
the basic SQL categories (presented in chapter
8)
 Mechanism: CREAT ASSERTION
 Components include:
 a constraint name,
 followed by CHECK,

followed by a condition

Slide 2- 80
Assertions: An Example
 “The salary of an employee must not be greater
than the salary of the manager of the department
that the employee works for’’ constraint
name,
CREAT ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT CHECK,
condition
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M,
DEPARTMENT D
WHERE E.SALARY > M.SALARY AND
E.DNO=D.NUMBER AND
D.MGRSSN=M.SSN))

Slide 2- 81
Using General Assertions
 Specify a query that violates the condition;
include inside a NOT EXISTS clause
 Query result must be empty
 if the query result is not empty, the assertion has
been violated

Slide 2- 82
SQL Triggers
 Objective: to monitor a database and take initiate
action when a condition occurs
 Triggers are expressed in a syntax similar to
assertions and include the following:
 Event
 Such as an insert, deleted, or update operation
 Condition
 Action
 To be taken when the condition is satisfied

Slide 2- 83
SQL Triggers: An Example
 A trigger to compare an employee’s salary to his/her
supervisor during insert or update operations:

CREATE TRIGGER INFORM_SUPERVISOR

BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF
SALARY, SUPERVISOR_SSN ON EMPLOYEE
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN
(NEW.SALARY> (SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN=NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN))
INFORM_SUPERVISOR (NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN,NEW.SSN);

Slide 2- 84
Views in SQL
 A view is a “virtual” table that is derived from
other tables
 Allows for limited update operations
 Since the table may not physically be stored
 Allows full query operations
 A convenience for expressing certain operations

Slide 2- 85
Specification of Views
 SQL command: CREATE VIEW
 a table (view) name
 a possible list of attribute names (for example,
when arithmetic operations are specified or when
we want the names to be different from the
attributes in the base relations)
 a query to specify the table contents

Slide 2- 86
SQL Views: An Example
 Specify a different WORKS_ON table

CREATE VIEW WORKS_ON_NEW AS

SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
GROUP BY PNAME;

Slide 2- 87
Using a Virtual Table
 We can specify SQL queries on a newly create
table (view):
SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM WORKS_ON_NEW
WHERE PNAME=‘Seena’;

 When no longer needed, a view can be dropped:

DROP WORKS_ON_NEW;

Slide 2- 88
Efficient View Implementation
 Query modification:
 Present the view query in terms of a query on the
underlying base tables
 Disadvantage:
 Inefficient for views defined via complex queries
 Especially if additional queries are to be applied to
the view within a short time period

Slide 2- 89
Efficient View Implementation
 View materialization:
 Involves physically creating and keeping a
temporary table
 Assumption:
 Other queries on the view will follow
 Concerns:
 Maintaining correspondence between the base
table and the view when the base table is updated
 Strategy:
 Incremental update

Slide 2- 90
Update Views
 Update on a single view without aggregate
operations:
 Update may map to an update on the underlying
base table
 Views involving joins:
 An update may map to an update on the
underlying base relations

Not always possible

Slide 2- 91
Un-updatable Views
 Views defined using groups and aggregate
functions are not updateable
 Views defined on multiple tables using joins are
generally not updateable
 WITH CHECK OPTION: must be added to the
definition of a view if the view is to be updated
 To allow check for updatability and to plan for an
execution strategy

Slide 2- 92