MODULE I

Unit 2: Psychology as a Science

ENGAGE

Have you ever wondered about other people’s behaviors? Maybe you get irritated
by your sibling’s laziness, or your friend being late each time you meet. Maybe you feel
curious about your classmate’s enthusiasm in Algebra? Or you may be thinking of why your
teacher tends to get angry even at the slightest noise the class makes. Well, before you
can actually understand others’ behaviors, it is always best to try to understand your own
behavior first. Below are questions for you to reflect on. Answer these questions, and later
on at the end of the Unit, you will have a better understanding of how to study behaviors.

What is one behavior you have that you want to

understand better?

It could be a behavior you find weird, different, or a behavior you want to

change.

How can you understand this behavior better?

EXPLORE

As you have learned in the Engage and Evaluate activities in Unit 1, there are topics
that some people think are related to or under Psychology. Listed below are some of these
topics:

MIND-READING

PALM READING

NUMEROLOGY

SEEING GHOSTS OR SUPERNATURAL BEINGS

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 1
 SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS (like having bad luck after a black cat crosses your path, or not going out on
Friday the 13th because you will get into trouble, or Filipino indigenous beliefs like being “nausog”
when one feels sick)

ONLINE QUIZZES (like “What is your spirit animal?” or “What were you in your past life?”)
Much as these topics are relevant to behavior, they are not actually under
Psychology. Thus, you will not be studying and learning about these topics even in your
other subjects/courses in Psychology. You may be wondering why, when in fact, they are
also relevant to behavior. The answer is simple:

These topics are under what we refer to as “Pop” Psychology, wwhich is short
for popular psychology. This is often based on an "urban myth" type culture, meaning a
theory that may have been heard for so long and spread so far that the general public
believes it. Being a “pseudoscience” (a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly
regarded as being based on scientific method), these phenomena cannot be validated,
nor do they have scientific evidence to back them up. Remember that Psychology is a
science, and all topics under it are explained with scientific basis and evidence.

EXPLAIN
After reading the explanation for “Pop Psychology”, let us now look into Psychology
as a scientific discipline.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Psychology is a science. As such, studying behavior is done following the scientific
method. One cannot simply observe behavior and then come up with a conclusion
just basing on his/her own assumptions or feelings. The scientific method is a step-by-
step process that is applied in research, as well as in studying behavior. In Psychology,
it is important to possess two important characteristics: being objective and being
impersonal. To be objective and impersonal is to be factual, not allowing personal
feelings or opinions to interfere with what is really going on. It is adhering to the truth,
and being honest in terms of observations and findings. Applying the scientific method
allows one to study behavior in a systematic and objective way, providing more
accurate conclusions.

Steps:
1. Stating a Problem or Asking a Question
A problem or question could be very simple (such as “Why is my classmate always
hot-tempered?”) or quite complicated (such as “What are the contributing factors in a
couple’s decision to part ways?”). It stems from observation, with the goal of finding an
answer to better understand the behavior.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 2
 2. Formulating a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an “intelligent guess”, meaning, even if it is a “guess”, there should
still be a sound basis for it.
3. Gathering of Data
As we are talking about Psychology, gathering of data is done through
observation. Observation may be unaided or aided. Most psychological researches
would apply aided observation, making use of questionnaires, interviews, or
experiments.

4. Organizing and Analyzing Data

Organizing and analyzing data
refers to basically understanding
the data
through quantitative or qualitative
analysis. Through this, findings and results
are drawn.

5. Coming up with a Conclusion

A conclusion is the answer to the
problem or question. After
examining the
results, a sound explanation is made
available. Here, the hypothesis is either
accepted or rejected.

RESEARCH METHODS

Earlier, we discussed about the types of Observation. Objective observation is

observing and evaluating another person’s behavior. This is also applicable in
conducting research studies. The following are objective methods of research.

1. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
- This method consists of a systematic observation of a situation wherein a set of
conditions (independent variable) are manipulated in order to determine their
effect on a particular behavior (dependent variable). The objective is to
discover the effect of an independent variable (IV) on a dependent variable
(DV).

- Variables:
✓ IV – manipulated
✓ DV – to be measured; behavior under study
✓ CV (Controlled Variable) – other factors which may have an effect on
the
✓ DV and are kept under strict control

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 3
 ✓ EV (Extraneous Variable) – factors that may influence the DV, but are
not part of the study

Example:
Study habits and their effects on Academic Performance of College
Students
IV – study habits
DV – academic performance
CV – college students
Possible EVs – noise during an exam, dirty room while taking a quiz,
headache while answering an activity

- An Experiment uses a DESIGN (plan and structure)

✓ Simplest design: 2 randomized groups – two levels of IV
Example: The effects of Music on adolescents’ concentration
IV - Music : Rock, Jazz

✓ Multiple group design - more than 2 levels of IV

Example: Peer pressure among college students as an effect of Bullying
IV – Bullying: Physical, Verbal, Emotional, Cyber

✓ Factorial experiments – more than one IV is manipulated

Example: Study habits and Physical Exercise and their effects on
Concentration among Varsity players
IVs – Study Habits, Physical Exercise

- The Experimental method uses measurements

– Variables are measured using objective means such that variables
can be categorized, scaled or quantified
– Experiment data is analyzed through inferential statistics

2. DIFFERENTIAL METHOD
- This method makes use of existing differences between subjects by comparing
an experimental group with a control group.

- Applied when the psychologist-researcher is not able to change and manipulate

the independent variable

Example: GSELF Course and its effect on Well-Being

Since the IV (GSELF Course) cannot be manipulated, two groups will be compared:
Experimental Group (EG) – takes a GSELF Course
Control Group (CG) – does NOT take a GSELF Course

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 4
 The well-being of the two groups is then compared after the EG finishes the GSELF
Course.

3. CORRELATIONAL METHOD
- this method is used to determine whether 2 or more variables are associated
with or related to each other
a. positive correlation means there is direct relationship between variables.
i. if x increases, y also increases
ii. if x decreases, y also decreases
b. negative correlation means there is indirect relationship between variables
i. as x increases, y decreases
ii. as x decreases, y increases

Example: Bullying and its relation to Self-Esteem among High School students
Positive correlation: As bullying increases, self-esteem increases OR
As bullying decreases, self-esteem decreases

Negative correlation: As bullying increases, self-esteem decreases OR

As bullying decreases, self-esteem increases

*After statistical treatment of data, there will only be 1 result, either a positive correlation
or a negative correlation, or even no significant correlation (meaning the variables are not
related to each other).

4. NATURALISTIC METHOD or FIELD OBSERVATION

- This method consists of observing behavior in its most natural environment, and
may serve as a starting point for more researches in psychology as one is able
to observe other behaviors that may be studied.

- Researchers using this method must be trained to observe and record

accurately their observations.

Advantages:
✓ High realism : High external validity

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 5
 As behavior is observed in its natural environment, behavior is more realistic
and accurate.
✓ Availability of and accessibility to descriptive information on sequence and/or
development of behavior.

Disadvantages:
✓ Prone to perceptual distortion & subjectivity
The researcher may be influenced by his/her own opinions and biases.
✓ Lack of control over situation
As behavior takes place in its natural setting, the researcher would not be
able to control extraneous variables.
✓ Takes a lot of time to observe

5. SURVEY METHOD
- This method is used when there is a big number of participants, and when the
researcher aims to study a certain behavior in a wider scale.
- Surveys may be through questionnaires (written) or interviews (oral), and are
used to obtain information about people’s behaviors (opinions, attitudes, etc.)
Example: Answering a questionnaire about Love Attitudes
Being interviewed about your opinion on Online Learning.

*Responses of participants are then collated and analyzed (via quantitative

methods for questionnaires, and qualitative methods for interviews) to come up
with a general conclusion.

Advantages:
✓ Allows for very specific formulations of issues or concerns
✓ Easier to administer (questionnaires)
✓ Economical (questionnaires)
✓ Assures anonymity of participants
✓ For interviews, allows for more clarification (follow-up questions may be asked)
Disadvantages:
✓ For interviews, more expensive and susceptible to bias
✓ Issue on accuracy of data (participants may give false responses)
✓ Possibility for social desirability (the tendency to report an answer in a way deemed
to be more socially acceptable than the "true" answer)
✓ Answering to appear good

6. CLINICAL METHOD
- This method is used by Psychologists working with people having psychological
difficulties
- This method studies the individual as a unique whole, and employs systematic
observation, interviews, and standardized psychological tests

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 6
 - Through this method, clinical psychologists try to understand past behaviors
(circumstances of past actions) in order to help the individual become
responsible and more directed in his/her present behavior.
-

7. LONGITUDINAL METHOD
- This method consists of studying an individual’s (or group’s) behavior over a long
period of time (weeks, months, or years) with observations and measurements
made at periodic intervals.
- People under study are followed over a long period of time to get an information
about a behavior of interest

Example: Studying the behavioral and developmental changes of children

- childhood covers a period of several years (from around age 4 to 12)

Advantage:
✓ Multiple observation of the same group of people can give more reliable and
consistent information

Disadvantage:
✓ Time-consuming
✓ Expensive

8. ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
- This method consists of looking into and analyzing written records (public/private
documents), statistical archives, and also physical traces of human beings. It
employs systematic observations of these materials.

Advantage:
✓ Allows hypothesis testing

Disadvantage:
✓ Analysis is possible only upon availability of material

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES

Pioneers of Psychology introduced various perspectives and approaches to explain

behavior and mental processes, and these are applied until now. These approaches or
perspectives need not be mutually exclusive, meaning there could be a combination of
perspectives to explain a certain behavior. In addition, one perspective may be used to
understand one behavior, but not another.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 7
 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE

• This approach was introduced by Sigmund Freud, and

explains how behavior stems from unconscious processes,
conflicts between biological instincts and society’s
demands, and early family experiences.

Example: Ever since you can remember, you have not made
friends with anyone to the point of being very close. When the friendship starts
to become serious, you tend to back away and avoid instances where you
need to be open about problems, concerns, or even your goals in life.

- The Psychodynamic Perspective may explain this by looking into your

early childhood experiences. Maybe you were not listened to by your
parents when you were telling them about your concerns, like being afraid
of the dark or what not. Maybe you were always ignored, causing you to lose
trust in people in general.
• The Psychodynamic Approach explains how we may be unaware of our fears
and desires, but they influence our behaviors anyway. When we forbid our
influences, we force them out of awareness into the unconscious so that they
affect our dreams, slips of the tongue (something that you say by accident
when you intended to say something else), and may even manifest in emotional
problems.

• Psychodynamic theory was the basis for Freud’s psychotherapeutic approach:

PSYCHOANALYSIS
• Other Significant People: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

• Behaviors are activities of people or other organisms that can be observed by

others, and as we learned earlier, only by studying what people do could
psychology be considered a science.

• This approach looks into observable behaviors and environmental determinants. It

applies STIMULUS-RESPONSE (S-R) Psychology, in which relevant stimuli in the
environment and responses elicited by these stimuli are studied. It also looks into the
effects of rewards and punishments following these responses.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 8
 Example: You tend to be lazy and
always find excuses not to do your
schoolwork. Your father notices this, and
tells you that if you do well in school, he
will double your allowance. You then do
your best to finish your schoolwork in the
best way you can, causing your grade
to increase from 72 to 80. Your father
then doubles your allowance. Next
semester, you tell yourself that you will do
your schoolwork well again.

• The Behavioral Approach was proposed by B.F. Skinner and John Watson.

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

• This approach consists of focusing on specific behaviors and understanding them in

terms of underlying mental processes.

• The Cognitive Perspective was a reaction to the narrowness of behaviorism, as an

individual’s mental processes (nor what is between S and R) cannot be studied
because they are not observable.
• One’s mental processes (such as perceiving,
remembering, reasoning, deciding, problem solving) are
reflected through a person’s behavior. It is only through
studying mental processes that we can understand what
people do.

BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

• According to the Biological perspective,

the brain and nervous system underlie one’s
behavior and mental processes.

• This perspective related behavior to

chemical and electrical events taking
place in the body to come up with an
explanation.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 9
 • The endocrine system and the senses are important as well.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

• This approach was proposed by Carl Rogers.

• The phenomenological perspective looks into subjective and

personal experiences of events (individual’s phenomenology) in
understanding behavior. It is a reaction to the overly mechanistic quality of
the other approaches.

• The need for personal growth is stressed, and a humanistic approach

is applied where focus is on traits that distinguish human beings from animals.

SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

• This perspective considers how social and cultural environments

influence behavior, and involves the understanding of social and
cultural contexts in understanding behavior.

• It includes comparing behaviors across countries as well as cultures within a country.

EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

• The evolutionary approach is a theoretical approach to

psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and
psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or
language—as adaptations, i.e., as the functional
products of natural selection.

• The purpose of this approach is to bring the functional way of thinking about
biological mechanisms such as the immune system into the field of psychology, and
to approach psychological mechanisms in a similar way. Evolutionary Psychology
proposes that the human brain comprises many functional mechanisms, called
psychological adaptations or evolved cognitive mechanisms designed by the
process of natural selection.

• It is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 10
 ELABORATE
E
To apply what we have discussed, specifically in the lecture on Perspectives and
Approaches, let us explain the given behavior using the various perspectives.

Behavior: Len has always been afraid of spiders. Whenever she sees a spider, she
trembles, screams and does whatever she can to either kill the spider or run away from
it. More often than not, even pictures of spiders are enough to terrify her.

Possible Explanation:

PSYCHODYNAMIC – Perhaps as a child, Len had an encounter with a man

who tried to rape her. She remembers the man wearing a shirt with a spider
printed on it, and seeing a spider on the pavement as he tried to grab her.

BEHAVIORAL – A few years ago, Len was bitten by a spider. It did not do
her any harm, but the mere knowledge that a spider could bite was enough
to
remind Len to stay away from spiders.

COGNITIVE – Len perceives spiders as poisonous creatures, as she watched a movie

where spiders attacked a town and caused a lot of deaths. She always remembers this
whenever she sees a spider.

BIOLOGICAL – Len’s reaction to spiders is triggered by an adrenaline rush which

causes her to act the way she does. Her peripheral nervous system is triggered causing
her to sweat and tremble at the same time, with her heart beating fast every time she
sees a spider.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL – Because her brother always scared her with spiders when she
was young, Len developed a fear of them, but always tells herself that she is bigger and
that she can overcome her fear.

SOCIOCULTURAL – Len grew up in a community that saw spiders as dangerous and

evil creatures that should be eradicated.

EVOLUTIONARY – As spiders appear to be scary to Len, it is an automatic response for

her to protect herself and not allow her personal space to be taken over by something
she fears.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 11
 References:

SLU General Psychology manual

https://www.verbalbeginnings.com/aba-blog/aba-behind-the-scenes-what-does-
behavior-really-mean/

https://www.verywellmind.com/steps-of-the-scientific-method-2795782

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/evolutionary_psychology.htm#:~:text=2-
,Evolutionary%20psychology,functional%20products%20of%20natural%20selection.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 12