Computer Science Paper II ( Computer Hardware )

Chapter I : Study of Electronic Components.

Potential : The possibility of doing work is called Potential.
Potential Difference or Voltage : The difference of Potential between two points of an electronic
circuit is called Potential Difference or Voltage. Voltage is necessary for working of an Electronic
circuit. Cell , Battery provides DC voltage. Voltage is measured in Volts. Smaller unit is mili volt (
1000 mV = 1 V ) . It is denoted by ‘V’.
Current : Electric current is the rate of flow of charge or electrons. Current is denoted by ‘I’ and
measured in Ampere. Smaller unit mA , μA ( 1 mA = 1 × 10 – 3 Amp )
Ohm’s Law : Current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the Voltage across it .
i.e. I α V. or I = V / R or V = I × R or R = V / I where R is Resistance.
Resistance : Resistance is the property of conductor or electronic component carrying current to
oppose the current. It is denoted by ‘R’ and measured in ohms or Ω .
Power : Electric power is the product of Voltage and current. P = V × I . Power is measured in
Watts.

Electronic Components :- Every electronic circuit consists of electronic components. Every

electronic component has its own characteristic. The electronic components can be classified
basically into two categories. a) Active components & b) Passive components.

Active components :- The components which are capable of performing active function like
Amplification, Rectification or Switching are known as Active components. Electron tubes and
Semiconductor devices are the two types of Active components. Electron tubes are outdated.
Diodes, Transistors, LEDs etc. are Semiconductor Active devices. Semiconductor devices are
widely used in Electronic circuits.

Passive components :- The components which do not have capacity to perform Active functions
like Amplification, Rectification or Switching are known as Passive components. But these
components are necessary to form a compete circuit. In an electronic circuit Passive components are
used along with Active components. Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors are Passive components.
All these Passive components can be divided into two categories Fixed & Variable.

Electronic Components

Active Passive

Electron Tubes Semiconductor devices Resistor Capacitor Inductor

Vacuum tubes Diode, LED, Fixed Fixed Air core

Gas filled tubes Transistor etc. Variable Variable Iron core
Ferrite

Page no. 01
 Resistors:- Resistors serve two main purposes in electronic circuits. They are used to limit the
current to some specified value or to provide desired reduction in voltage or current or both.
Resistors are available as fixed and variable. A fixed resistor has two terminals and its resistance
value cannot be changed. A variable resistor has three terminals. Resistance between two fix
terminals is constant and resistance between any fix terminal and variable terminal can be adjusted
over a range of resistance value. There are also two types of resistors linear and nonlinear. Linear
resistors obeys Ohms law where as nonlinear resistors do not obey Ohms law. CCR, WWR etc. are
linear and LDR, VDR, Thermistor etc. are nonlinear.

Circuit Symbol

Resistors

Linear Non Linear

Fixed Variable Thermistor

CCR Potentiometer LDR

WWR Rheostat VDR

Film Resistor Preset

Wire Wound Resistor : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Wire Wound Resistor.
Wire Wound Resistors are manufactured by wrapping a length of resistive wire around an insulating
core material of ceramic . Generally Nichrome or Mangenin wire is used as resistive material. Metal
caps with copper leads are attached to ends of the wire for external connections. Then whole
assembly is coated with insulating material to protect the resistive wire and also to dissipate heat.
Resistance value , tolerance and other specifications are then printed on the body of the resistor.
Specifications : Big in size. Higher Power Rating from 3 W to 100 W. Resistance value ranges from
fraction of ohm to upto 10 Kohm. High cost.
Advantages : Less tolerance and high accuracy and stability.
Drawback : Big in size and higher resistance values are not possible.
Applications : WWR are used to control high current and power.
Insulation Insulation

Lead metal cap Resistive wire symbol Lead metal cap C composition symbol

Carbon Composition Resistor : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Carbon
Composition Resistor. They are manufactured by mixing Carbon granules and insulating powder
with some binding material. Proportion of Carbon granules and insulting powder determine the
resistance value. This material is called Carbon Composition. Then this Carbon Composition is
molded in cylindrical form. Metal caps with copper leads are attached to ends of the wire for
external connections. Then whole assembly is coated with color. Four color bands are then printed
on it’s body to specify Resistance value in ohm and tolerance in %.
Page no. 02
Specifications : Small in size. Low power rating from ¼ Watt to 2 Watts. Resistance value ranges
from 1 ohm to 22 Mohm. Low cost.
Drawback : higher tolerance , less stability.
Applications : CCR are widely used in electronic circuits.

Colour coding of CCR : CCR are physically small in size. Hence printing the resistance value and
tolerance in numeral is not possible. Hence colour code method is used for CCR to indicate
resistance value and tolerance. In Colour Code of CCR four colour Bands are printed on the body of
the resistor as shown. Reading from left to right, the first three color Bands indicates Resistance
value in Ohms. The first color band gives first digit and second color band gives second digit in the
value of Resistance. The third color band is Decimal multiplier which gives the number of zeros
after the two digits. The forth color band indicates Tolerance in percentage. The amount by which
the actual resistance value can be different from the color-coded value is called Tolerance.

Resistor Color Code Chart

Significant digit for Value of Third Band Forth Band

Color First and Second
Number of zeros Multiplier Tolerance
Band
Black 0 - 100
Brown 1 0 101 +/-1%
Red 2 00 102
Orange 3 000 103
Yellow 4 0000 104
Green 5 00000 105
Blue 6 000000 106
Violet 7 0000000 107
Gray 8 00000000 108
White 9 000000000 109
Gold -- - 0.1 +/- 5 %
Silver -- - 0.01 +/- 10 %
No Color -- - -- +/- 20 %

Diagram :
1st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th Band
lead

First digit Tolerance

Second digit Multiplier

First three color Bands indicates Resistance value in Ohms and Forth Tolerance in % .

Page no. 03
Problems :
1) Calculate Resistance value and Tolerance of CCR having following colour bands.
RED VIOLET BROWN GOLD
n
Sol First colour band is RED hence first digit is 2. Second colour band is VIOLET hence second
digit is 7. Third colour is BROWN hence multiplier is 101 i.e. 10 . Therefore Resistance
value is 27 × 10 = 270 ohms. Fourth colour band is GOLD hence tolerance is ± 5%. Thus
answer is R = 270 ohm ± 5%

2) Give Colour Coding for the following Resistance Values and tolerance.
10 K ohm ± 10%.
n
Sol Resistance value in ohm 10 K ohm = 10 × 103 ohm = 10000 ohms
First digit is 1 hence first colour band is BROWN. Second digit is 0 hence second colour
band is BLACK. The multiplier is 103 hence third colour band is ORANGE. Tolerance is
hence fourth colour band is SILVER.
Thus the answer is BROWN BLACK ORANGE SILVER

Compare Carbon Composition Resistor with Wire Wound Resistor.

Parameter CCR WWR
Carbon Granules with Fine wire of Nichrome or
Resistive material
insulating powder Manganin
Resistance value 1 ohm to 22 M ohm 0.01 ohm to 10 K ohm
Tolerance High ± 5 % to ± 20 % Low ± 1% to ± 10 %
Power rating Low ¼ W to 2 Watts High 3 W to 100 Watts
Size and cost Small in size and low cost Big in size and high cost
Colour coding Used Not used

Variable Resistors : A variable resistor has three terminals. Resistance between two fix terminals
is constant and resistance between any fix terminal and variable terminal can be adjusted over a
range of resistance value.

1) Rheostat : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Rheostat. Rheostats are
manufactured by wrapping a length of resistive wire on open core of ceramic. Generally Nichrome
or Mangenin wire is used as resistive material. Two fixed end terminals are taken out from two ends
of the wire. A shaft with movable slider is provided above the wire. Slider touches the resistive
wire. Third terminal i.e. connection for the variable terminal is taken from the slider. Contact
position of the slider on the resistive wire determines the resistance between fixed terminal and
variable terminal. By sliding the slider we can change resistance between any fixed terminal and
variable terminal.
Specifications : Big in size, high cost, high power.
Applications : WWR are used to control high current and power.

Construction symbol

Page no. 04
 2) Carbon type Potentiometer : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Carbon type
Potentiometer. In construction of Potentiometer a thin Carbon track is deposited on a disc of
Bakelite. Two fixed terminal are taken out from the two ends of this track. The Length , Width and
Thickness of the track determines the maximum resistance value. A rotating shaft with a wiper is
provided at the centre of the track. Wiper touches the track. third terminal i.e. variable terminal is
taken out from this wiper. Contact position of the wiper on the track determines the resistance
between end terminal and the variable terminal. We can change the resistance by rotating the shaft.
Specifications : Small in size, low cost, low power rating
Applications : Potentiometers are used as a Volume control in TV and Radio sets.

Non-Linear Resistors or Active Resistors : Those resistors which do not obey Ohms Law are
known as Non-linear resistors. There are three Non-linear or Active resistors

1) Light Dependent Resistor : LDR is a non-linear resistor. Resistance of LDR changes with
change in Light Intensity falling on the resistor. Photoconductive material like Cadmium Sulfide is
used in LDR. In dark the resistance of LDR is very very high. In bright light the resistance
decreases to very low value. Thus resistance of LDR decreases with increase in light intensity
falling on it. The change in resistance is non-linear. Figure below shows circuit symbol of LDR.
Advantages : Small in size, low cost, high speed response.
Applications : LDRs are used in Automatic Street Light Control, Burglar Alarm system, Fire
Alarm systems etc.

2) Thermistor : Thermistor is a non-linear resistor. Resistance of Thermistor changes with

change in its surrounding Temperature. There are two types of Thermistors Positive Temperature
Coefficient Thermistor and Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor. In PTC Thermistor the
Resistance increases with increase in Temperature. In NTC Thermistor Resistance decreases with
increase in Temperature. In NTC Thermistor semiconductor material like Silicon is used as a
Resistive material. The change in resistance is non-linear. Fig. below shows circuit symbol of LDR.
Advantages : Small in size, low cost, high speed response.
Applications : Thermistors are used in Temperature measuring and Controlling equipments like Air
Conditioners , Digital Thermometer etc.

3) Voltage Dependent Resistor : VDR is also called as Varistor. Resistance of VDR changes
with change in Voltage across it. Generally VDR have very very high Resistance value for lower
voltages. When voltage across VDR crosses a critical value its resistance suddenly decreases to
very low value. The change in resistance is non-linear. There are two types of VDR. i) Silicon
Carbide VDR and ii) Metal Oxide VDR. Figure below shows circuit symbol of VDR.
Advantages : Small in size, low cost, high speed response.
Applications : Varistors are used in protection circuits and in industrial applications.

T V

LDR Thermistor VDR

Page no. 05
Capacitors : Capacitor is an electronic component which stores energy in the form of charge. It
shows property Capacitance. Capacitance is the ability of parallel plate capacitor to store charge
across it. Capacitance is measured in Farad. Small unit is microfarad. A Capacitor consists of two
parallel conducting metal plates separated by an insulator called as dielectric. Capacitors are also
called as Condensers. Capacitors are used in electronic circuits to store electrical energy and to
deliver this stored energy to other components when required. Depending on the dielectric material
used there are different types of capacitors.

Paper Capacitor : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Paper capacitor. Paper
capacitors are manufactured by rolling two thin metal foils separated by a paper roll as shown. Here
the paper acts as a dielectric. Generally Kraft paper soaked in wax or oil is used. Two wire
terminals from two foils are taken out for external connections. Then the roll is fitted in a plastic
container. Paper capacitors are Non-polar capacitors. Capacitance ranges from 500 pico Farad to 1
micro Farad. Voltage rating ranges from 100 V to 1000 Volts. They are big in size and more costly.
Paper capacitors are used in AC circuits only.

Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Aluminum
Electrolytic Capacitor. Construction of Electrolytic capacitor is similar to that of Paper capacitor. It
consists of two Aluminum foils used as two metal plates. Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 layer is formed
on one side of one of the foil called Positive plate. Aluminum Oxide layer acts as a dielectric. Paper
soaked in electrolyte is placed on the oxide side of first foil. Second foil is placed on the paper.
Then both the foils are rolled in a compact cylinder. Copper leads are attached to the two foils for
external connections. Then the roll is placed in a tin container. Electrolytic capacitors are Polar
capacitors. They should be used with proper polarity of voltage. Capacitance ranges from 1 micro
Farad to 5000 micro Farad. Voltage rating ranges from 1 V to 500 volts. Electrolytic capacitors are
medium in size and low cost. They are used in DC circuits as a Filter.

Ceramic Capacitor : Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Ceramic capacitor. Here
ceramic disc is used as a dielectric material. Ceramic capacitors are constructed by depositing silver
plates on each side of a very thin disc of ceramic material. Two copper leads are attached to these
plates for external connections. Ceramic has high dielectric constant hence ceramic capacitors
provide large capacitance in very small size. Capacitance ranges from 1 pico Farad to 1 micro
Farad. Voltage rating ranges from 30 V to 6000 volts. Ceramic capacitors are small in size and low
cost. They are used in AC circuits as a coupling capacitor.
Page no. 06
Variable Capacitor or Gang Capacitor
Figure shows construction and circuit symbol of Variable Capacitor. It consists of two set of
parallel plates. One of the set is fixed called Stator and other set is movable called Rotor.

Charging and Discharging of Capacitor

Charging of Capacitor : Figure 1 shows circuit connections to study charging of capacitor.
Initially capacitor is uncharged i.e. voltage across capacitor is 0 volt. When switch is turned ON,
plate ‘A’ get connected with battery positive terminal. Electrons from plate ‘A’ flow toward battery
positive terminal. Plate ‘A’ losses electrons hence Positive charge develops on plate ‘A’. These
electrons repelled by battery Negative terminal. Electrons accumulate on plate ‘B’ hence Negative
charge is developed on plate ‘B’. This Potential Difference i.e. voltage produces between two plates
of capacitor. This voltage goes on increasing with time from 0 volt to maximum up to battery
voltage. Graph shows charging of capacitor. Capacitor charges exponentially.

Discharging of Capacitor : Figure 2 shows circuit connections to study discharging of

capacitor. Initially capacitor is fully charged i.e. voltage across capacitor is maximum. Plate ‘A’ has
positive charge and plate ‘B’ has negative charge. When switch is turned ON, Resistor get
connected across two plates of capacitor. Electrons from plate ‘B’ flow through resistor toward
plate ‘A’. These electrons are collected by plate ‘A’. Charge on both plates reduces time. Therefore
voltage across capacitor goes on decreasing with time from maximum to 0 volt. Graph shows
discharging of capacitor. Capacitor discharges exponentially.

Time Constant (T) : Time Constant is the time taken by a capacitor to charge up to 63.3 % of the
applied voltage or to discharge up to 36.7 % of its initial voltage.
Time constant is given by formula T = R × C unit seconds
Where R is Resistance in ohm and C capacitance in Farad.

Problem : Find RC Time Constant if R = 1K ohm and C = 10 micro Farad.

Solution : Given R = 1 K ohm = 1 × 10 3 ohm C = 10 μF = 10 × 10 – 6 F
Formula Time constant T = R × C sec
3 –6
T = 1 × 10 × 10 × 10 F sec
–3
T = 10 × 10 seconds
Ans : Time constant T = 10 miliseconds

Page no. 07
 Inductors
Inductance : Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce an induced voltage when current
through it changes. Inductance is measured in Henry ( small unit mH , µH ). Inductor is a device
which shows the property inductance. Basically Inductor is a simple coil of copper wound on a core
material. Inductor works on the principle of Self inductance. Inductors are classified according to
the material used for core.
1) Air core Inductor : In Air core Inductor , copper wire is wound on a hallow tube. Air inside the
tube acts as a core hence called as Air core Inductor . They have very very low Inductance
values in micro Henry . They are used in very high frequency circuits only .
2) Iron core Inductor : In Iron core Inductor , copper wire is wound on an Iron former. They are
commonly called as ‘Choke’. They have large inductance value. They are used in low frequency
circuits . They have more eddy current loss at high frequencies.
3) Ferrite core Inductor : Ferrite is an artificially made non-metallic material. When copper wire
is wound on a ferromagnetic material , the inductor is known as Ferrite core inductor. They have
no eddy current loss . They have large inductance values in small size. They can be used in low
frequency as well as high frequency circuits.

Circuit symbol of Air core Inductor Iron core Inductor Ferrite core Inductor
Transformer
A Transformer consists of two inductors ( coil ) with common core. Input ac voltage is
applied to one coil called primary. Voltage is induced in the second coil called secondary.
Transformer works on the principle of Mutual inductance. Transformer can be used to change the
level of voltage or current.

Primary secondary
Voltage voltage Vp Vs

Figure above shows construction and circuit symbol of Transformer. It consists of two windings.
When ac voltage is applied to the primary winding, ac current flows through it. Therefore changing
magnetic flux is produced in the core. It links with the secondary winding. Hence ac voltage is
induced in the secondary. The amount of voltage induced in the secondary depends on the number
of turns in the primary and the number of turns in the secondary. This can be calculate by using
Transformer equation given below.
Number of turns in Primary / Number of turns in Secondary = Primary voltage / Secondary voltage
Np / Ns = Vp / Vs i.e. Turn ration = Voltage ratio
The ratio of number of turns in primary to the number of turns in secondary is called Turn ratio.
The ratio of primary voltage to the secondary voltage is called Voltage ratio.
Problem : A transformer has 3000 turns of primary winding and 120 turns of secondary winding ,
calculate its secondary voltage if primary voltage is 240 volts.
Solution : Given Np = 3000 Ns = 120 Vp = 240 V Vs = ?
Formula Np / Ns = Vp / Vs
Therefore 3000 / 120 = 240 / Vs
Vs = 9.6 volts
Answer : Secondary voltage = 9.6 volts
Page no. 08
Computer Science Paper II Semiconductor Devices

Comparison of ac and DC voltage

Every Electronic circuit requires Energy in the form of Voltage. There are two types of
Voltages Direct voltage or DC voltage and Alternating or ac voltage.
DC voltage has fixed polarity. DC current flows in only one direction. i.e. DC current is
Unidirectional. Examples of DC voltage sources are Electrochemical Cells, Batteries, DC
Generators and Rectifiers.
Polarities of ac reverse periodically. Therefore ac current periodically reverses in direction.
Magnitude of ac voltage may change with Time. Examples of ac voltage sources are M S E B 50 Hz
Power Line voltage, Oscillators, ac Alternators, Generators etc.

Sr. No. ac voltage DC voltage

1 Polarity changes in two Half cycles Polarity is fixed
2 Magnitude changes continuously Magnitude can be Steady or Vary
Can be Stepped Up or Stepped Down Cannot be Stepped Up or Stepped Down
3
using Transformer using Transformer
4 Easier to Amplify Difficult to Amplify
5 Difficult to measure Easier to measure
Waveforms Waveforms

Atomic Structure of Silicon

Atomic number of Silicon is 14. Silicon nucleus contains 14 Protons and 14
Neutrons. There are total 14 electrons revolving around the nucleus. The maximum number of
electrons in the nth orbit is given by formula 2 n 2 . Therefore First orbit of Silicon atom contains
Two electrons. Second orbit contains Eight electrons. Remaining four electrons revolve around the
nucleus in the third orbit i.e. third orbit contains only Four electrons. Thus first and second orbits of
Silicon atom are complete. The third orbit is incomplete and it is the last orbit of atom. In an Atom
the last orbit is called as Valence orbit. Electrons present in the last orbit or valence orbit are known
as Valence electrons. As there are only four electrons present in the Silicon atom, the Valency of
Silicon is 4. i.e. Silicon is Tetravalent atom.

Valence orbit
Valence electrons

Nucleus
P+ N Si
First orbit

Second orbit
Representation of Silicon atom

Page no. 09
Insulators : Insulators are bad conductors of electricity. The resistivity of insulators is very very
high. In insulators free electrons or conduction electrons are totally absent. Valence electrons are
tightly bound with the nucleus. Therefore Valence electrons need very high energy to separate them
from the nucleus. Hence in insulator there are no charge carriers present.

Conductors : Conductors are good conductor of electricity. The resistivity of Conductors is very
very low. Conductors have a large number of free electrons or conduction electrons. Valence
electrons are loosely bound with the nucleus. Therefore very small external energy is required to
separate Valence electrons from the nucleus. Hence in Conductors there are large numbers of
charge carriers.

Semiconductors : Semiconductors are neither good conductors nor bad conductors of electricity.
The resistivity of Semiconductors lies between that of Conductors and Insulators. At Absolute Zero
Temperature (00K) Semiconductors act as an Insulators. At room temperature, Semiconductors have
two types of charge carriers electrons and Holes. Resistivity of Semiconductor decreases with
increase in temperature. That is Semiconductors have Negative Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance. At very high temperatures Semiconductors act as a Conductor.
Examples : Silicon, Germanium etc.

Comparison between Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors

Parameter Insulator Semiconductor Conductor
Between that of
Resistivity Very very high Insulators and Very low
Conductors
Very very low. Bad Between that of Very high. Good
Conductivity
conductors of electricity. Insulators & Conductors. conductors of electricity.
Two types of charge
Charge Large number of free
Absent carriers electrons and
Carriers electrons.
Holes
Examples Glass, wood, plastic etc. Silicon, Germanium etc. All metals Cu, Al, Ag etc

Semiconductors can be classified into two types

1) Intrinsic Semiconductor and 2) Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Extremely pure semiconductor crystal is known as Intrinsic semiconductors. Intrinsic
semiconductors have two types of charge carriers electrons and Holes. The number of charge
carriers are less and depends on Temperature. Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors at room
temperature is very low. Charge carriers increases with increase in temperature. Hence conductivity
of intrinsic semiconductor depends on temperature.
Therefore Intrinsic Semiconductors have limited use. e.g. in Thermistors.

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Conductivity of semiconductors can be increased by adding some impurities. The process of
adding impurities into a pure semiconductor is called ‘Doping’ and the impurity atoms are called
‘Dopants’. When impurities are present in the semiconductor it is called Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, there are two types of Extrinsic semiconductors.

Page no. 10
P type Extrinsic Semiconductor
P type Extrinsic semiconductor can be obtained by adding small amount of Trivalent
impurity into pure semiconductor ( Silicon or Germanium ) e.g.Valency of Aluminum, Boron,
Gallium, Indium etc. Trivalent impurities are also called as Acceptor impurities. Here Holes are
the charge carriers. Holes have positive charge hence crystal is known as P type Extrinsic
semiconductor. Large numbers of Holes are present in P type Extrinsic semiconductor. Hence
Holes are the majority charge carriers in P type semiconductor. Free electrons are the minority
charge carrier in P type semiconductor.

N type Extrinsic Semiconductor

N type Extrinsic semiconductor can be obtained by adding small amount of Pentavalent
impurity into pure semiconductor ( Silicon or Germanium ) e.g. Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony
etc. Pentavalent impurities are also called as Donor impurities. Here free electrons are the charge
carriers. Electrons have Negative charge hence crystal is known as N type Extrinsic semiconductor.
Large numbers of free electrons are present in N type Extrinsic semiconductor. Hence electrons are
the majority charge carriers in N type semiconductor. Free Holes are the minority charge
carrier in N type semiconductor.

Comparison between P type and N type semiconductor

P type semiconductor N type semiconductor
Doped with Trivalent impurities Doped with Pentavalent impurities
Trivalent impurities are called as Acceptor Pentavalent impurities are called as Donor
impurities impurities
Holes are the Majority charge carriers Electrons are the Majority charge carriers
Electrons are the Minority charge carriers Holes are the Minority charge carriers
Impurity examples Impurity examples
Aluminum, Boron, Indium, Ga. Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus.

PN junction Diode
When one side of the crystal of pure semiconductor is doped with Acceptor impurities
( Trivalent ) and other side with Donor impurities ( Pentavalent ) then a junction is formed where P
region and N region meet. This junction is called PN junction. One terminal is taken from P region
called Anode terminal. Second terminal is taken from N region called Cathode terminal. This two
terminal device is called as PN junction diode.

Barrier Potential
- +

Anode +++++++++ ------ ----- Cathode A K

+++++++++ -----------
+++++++++ -----------
+++++++++ ------- ---- circuit symbol
P region depletion N region + Holes - electrons
Region - ve ions + ve ions

Figure shows structure and circuit symbol of PN junction diode. It consists of P region,
Depletion region and N region.

Page no. 11
 When half part of a Silicon crystal is doped with Trivalent impurity and remaining Half with
Pentavalent impurity, we get PN junction Diode. The border where P region meets N region is
called the Junction. In P region Holes are the majority charge carrier. In N region electrons are the
Majority charge carriers. During formation of PN junction, free electrons from N region cross the
junction and enter the P region. Hence positive ions are produced in N region near the junction.
After entering into P region, these free electrons recombine with the Holes in P region. Therefore
few Holes in P region disappear. Hence negative ions are produced in N region near the junction.
Thus, a thin layer of positive and negative ions is developed near the junction. This layer stops
further diffusion of free electrons and Holes across the junction.
The ions are fixed in the crystal. They can not move. The region near the junction is free
from charge carrier i.e. free electrons or Holes. This region is called Depletion region / layer. The
width of depletion layer ranges from 0.5 µm to 1.0 µm. Depletion layer acts as a Barrier. Due to the
positive ions in N region Positive potential is developed in N region. Similarly, due to the negative
ions in P region Negative potential is developed in P region. The difference of potential across the
depletion region is called Barrier Potential. At room temperature, under the equilibrium, the value
of Barrier Potential for Silicon diode is 0.7 V and that for Germanium diode is 0.3 V.

Diode Biasing : Biasing means to apply external DC voltage across the PN junction Diode. PN
junction Diode has two terminals Anode and Cathode. Hence we can apply external DC voltage
across the diode in two ways. Therefore there are two methods of Diode biasing
1) Forward Biasing and 2) Reverse Biasing

Forward Biasing of PN junction Diode

When positive terminal of the Battery is connected to the Anode terminal of Diode and
negative terminal of Battery is connected to the Cathode terminal of Diode, the Diode is said to be
Forward Biased. Figure shows circuit connections for Forward Biasing of PN Junction Diode.

Holes electrons
++++ ----- A K
++++ -----
++++ -----

+ -
+ -

Under Forward Bias condition, the External DC voltage across the Diode acts against the
Potential Barrier. Hence Potential Barrier reduces. So, small applied external voltage can eliminate
the Barrier.
Negative terminal of the Battery repels free electrons in N region towards the junction.
Similarly, Positive terminal of the Battery repels Holes in P region towards the junction. Therefore,
width of the depletion region reduces. Hence free electrons cross the junction and enter in P region.
In P region they recombine with the Holes. As free electrons cross the junction, current floes
through the junction due to recombination of electrons and Holes. Thus, large current flows through
the Diode and Diode offers low resistance. Under forward bias condition, large forward current
flows through the Diode and Diode acts as a Closed switch. This current can be limited by external
series resistor.

Page no. 12
Reverse Biasing of PN junction Diode
When positive terminal of the Battery is connected to the Cathode terminal of Diode and
negative terminal of Battery is connected to the Anode terminal of Diode, the Diode is said to be
Reverse Biased. Figure shows circuit connections for Reverse Biasing of PN Junction Diode.

Hoes electrons A K
+++ ----
+++ ----
+++ ----

- +

- +

Under Reverse Bias condition, the External DC voltage across the Diode is added in the
Potential Barrier. Hence Potential Barrier increases.
Positive terminal of the Battery attracts free electrons in N region. Hence free electrons in N
region move away from the junction. Similarly, Negative terminal of the Battery attracts Holes in P
region. Hence Holes in P region move away from the junction. Therefore, width of the depletion
region increases. Hence majority charge carriers can not cross the junction. Hence no current flows
through the junction. Thus, no current flows through the Diode and Diode offers very high
resistance. Under Reverse bias condition, no current flows through the Diode and Diode acts as an
Open switch.

Applications of Diode
1) Diode can be used as an Electronic switch.
Diode acts as a Closed switch when Forward Biased
Diode acts as an Open switch when Reverse Biased
2) Diode can be used as a Rectifier
Diode conducts only in one direction. That is unidirectional current flows through Diode.
Hence Diode can be used to convert ac voltage in to DC voltage i.e. as a Rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier :

Rectifier is a device which converts an Alternating quantity ( voltage or current ) into
unidirectional or Direct quantity ( voltage or current ).
D
A + V
Output i/p
ac mains DC voltage ac t
input Vs RL
o/p
DC t
B
Circuit diagram waveforms

Figure shows circuit diagram of Half Wave Rectifier. It consists of a Transformer, a diode D
and load resister RL. AC mains voltage is applied to the primary of transformer. Secondary voltage
of transformer is ac.
Page no. 13
Working : During positive half cycle of input ac voltage, diode D is Forward biased. Therefore it
conducts and current flows through Diode and load resistor RL. Hence voltage drops across load
resistor RL. Voltage drop across load resistor is the output voltage Vo. Thus we get positive half
cycle at the output. During negative half cycle of input ac voltage, diode D is Reverse biased.
Therefore no current flow diode and load resistor RL. Voltage drop across load resistor is zero volt.
Hence output voltage is 0 V. Thus Diode conducts only for Positive Half Cycles. Therefore only
Positive Half cycles appear at the output. Unidirectional current flows through the load resistor RL.
That is output voltage is DC. Thus circuit converts ac voltage into DC voltage. Only half cycle of
input ac voltage is rectified by the rectifier hence called as Half Wave Rectifier.

Types of diode :
1) Zener Diode + IF

K
forward
Region
- VR + VF

Leakage region

Breakdown
A Region - IR
Symbol I V characteristic of Zener diode

Zener Diode : A properly doped diode having a Sharp Breakdown Voltage is called Zener Diode
and the Breakdown voltage is known as Zener voltage. Zener diode is heavily doped. By adjusting
Doping level, Zener diodes of different breakdown voltages from 2 V to 200 Volts and with
different Wattages are possible. Figure shows circuit symbol and IV characteristic of Zener diode.
Zener diode is usually operated in Breakdown region. Zener diodes are widely used in voltage
regulator circuits.
Figure above shows circuit diagram to use Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator. Here input DC
voltage Vs is unregulated. Positive terminal of input voltage is connected to the Cathode terminal of
Zener diode hence Zener is Reverse biased. It is operated in Break down region. Voltage across the
Zener is the output voltage. When input voltage increases, current through Zener increases. When
input voltage decreases, current through Zener decreases. But voltage across Zener remains
constant. As voltage across Zener diode in breakdown region remains constant, output voltage
remains constant. Thus Zener Diode works as a Voltage Regulator.
Applications : Zener diodes are used in DC power supplies as a Voltage Regulators.

Page no. 14
Photo Diode
A PN junction diode which is prepared so as to respond to photon absorption is known as
Photo Diode. Construction of Photo Diode is similar to that of PN junction Diode. In Photo Diode
Silicon or Germanium with Cadmium Sulphite CdS is used. Photo Diode is packed in transparent
package so that external light can reach the junction. Photo Diode is always operated in reverse bias
condition. Figure shows circuit symbol of Photo Diode.

A K

When Photo Diode is Reverse biased and no light falls on it, only small Reverse Saturation
current flows through it due to minority charge carriers. When Photo Diode is Reverse biased and
light photons having energy hυ > Eg falls on it, light creates electron-Hole pairs which increase
Reverse Saturation current. This current is in the order of few microamperes. This Reverse
Saturation current is directly proportional to the light Intensity falling on the Photo Diode. Thus,
Photo Diode conducts under reverse bias condition when light falls on it. Thus, Photo Diode
converts Light energy into Electrical energy.
Applications
1) Photo Diode can be used in Light measuring Equipments.
2) Photo Diode can be used in Optical Communication Equipments.

Ordinary PN junction Diode

When an ordinary PN junction diode ( Si or Ge ) is Forward biased, current flows through it.
Free electrons from N region cross the PN junction and recombine with the Holes in P region.
When a free electron recombines with a Hole, it falls from high energy level to low energy level.
Therefore it radiated the difference of energies between two energy levels in the form of Heat.

Light Emitting Diode

Anode Cathode

Light Emitting Diode is special Diode which Emits Light energy when conducts. In LED,
Gallium, Arsenic, Phosphorus etc. materials are used instead of Silicon to form the PN junction. For
these materials the Energy Gap is large. So when LED is forward biased, free electrons fall from
high energy level to low energy level and radiate difference of energy in the form of Light. Color of
light emitted depends on the Energy Gap i.e. on the material used to form the PN junction. It is
possible to manufacture LEDs which emit Red, Green, Blue or Infra Red light, by using different
combinations of materials. Intensity of emitted light depends on Forward Current.

Advantages
1) LEDs are small in size and low cost , operate at lower voltages , draw very low current , low
Power consumption , high Efficiency , high Switching Speed , long life , Different spectral color
outputs are possible.

Applications
1) LEDs are widely used in Displays and Instruments as status indicator.
2) Infra Red LEDs can be used in Remote Controls and Burglar Alarm systems.
3) LEDs are used in Digital Watches, Calculators, Mobiles, Toys etc.
Page no. 15
Comparison between LED with Photo Diode
LED Photo Diode
LED is always operated in Forward bias Photo Diode is always operated in Reverse
condition. bias condition.
LED emits light when conducts. Photo diode conducts when light falls on it.
LED converts electrical energy into light Photo Diode converts light energy into
energy. electrical quantity.
Light intensity depends on current flowing Current flowing through it depends on light
through it. falling on it.
Used in Displays, Mobiles etc. Used in Light measuring equipments.

Symbol Symbol

Transistor
Transistor is a solid state semiconductor device made up of Silicon or Germanium. The
word ‘Transistor’ is derived from Transfer + Resistance ( i.e. transfer of signal from low resistance
to high resistance ). Transistor can transform Voltage or Current. A Transistor consists of two PN
junctions and three regions / layers of semiconductor with different types of Doping.
The three regions of Transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector. The middle region is Base
and the extreme regions are Emitter and Collector. These three regions are doped with different
types of impurity and different concentrations. Transistor has two junctions. One junction is
between Emitter and Base called EB junction. The other junction is between Collector and Base
called CB junction. In construction of Transistor, if Base is of N type then Emitter and Collector
will be of P type and vice versa. Therefore there are two types of Transistors 1) NPN transistor and
2) PNP transistor. Figure below sows structure and circuit symbol of NPN & PNP transistor.

C C
o oooooo . o o o o o
E o C E oooooo . o o o o o *C
o B oooooo . o o o o o * B
n p n p n p

B E B E
NPN Transistor Structure symbol PNP Transistor Structure symbol

Emitter : This region supplies charge carrier either electrons or Holes hence called as Emitter.
Emitter is a source of charge carriers. Emitter is Heavily doped. The area of Emitter is smaller than
that of Collector but larger than Base. In the circuit symbol of Transistor an Arrow at the Emitter
terminal indicate direction of flow of conventional current.
Base : The middle region between Emitter and Base is called Collector. The area of Base region is
minimum. Base is very lightly doped. This minimizes electron Hole recombination in Base region.
The function of Base is to control the flow of current through Transistor.
Collector : This region collects the charge carriers supplied by the Emitter hence called as
Collector. Collector is moderately doped. The area of Collector is maximum to dissipate maximum
heat energy.

Page no. 16
Working of NPN Transistor

N P N
Emitter Collector IE = I B + IC
current current IE ≈ I C
IE IC

IB

- + - +
VEE VCC
Figure shows NPN Transistor with forward biased EB junction and Reverse biased CB
junction. As EB junction is forward biased, large number of free electrons cross the EB junction and
enter into Base region. Therefore Emitter current IE flows through Emitter terminal. Base is very
lightly doped and very thin. Some of the electrons entered from Emitter to Base recombine with the
Holes in Base region. Hence Base current IB flows through Base terminal. About 2% free electrons
recombine with the Holes. Remaining 98% free electrons reach the depletion layer of Reverse
biased CB junction. Hence these 98% free electrons cross the CB junction and enter into Collector
region. In Collector region these free electrons are attracted by positive terminal of supply Vcc.
Therefore Collector current IC flows through Collector terminal. Thus, current flows through both
the junctions i.e. though the Transistor.

Emitter current is the sum of Base current and Collector current. IE = IB + IC

But Base current is very small hence can be neglected. Therefore, Emitter current is nearly equal to
the Collector current. IE ≈ IC

Transistor Parameters : The relation between Emitter current, Base current and Collector current
of a Transistor is given by its two parameters.
1) Alpha (α) : Alpha is the ratio of Collector current IC to the Emitter current at constant
Collector-Base voltage. The value of Alpha is close to Unity but always less than Unity.
Alpha has no unit. Alpha (α) = IC / IE

2) Beta (β) : Beta is the ratio of Collector current IC to the Base current at constant Collector-
Emitter voltage. The value of Beta is always large. Beta has no unit.
Beta (β) = IC / IB

Relation between Alpha and Beta

Alpha of Transistor is given by equation α = IC / I E ………(1)
Beta of Transistor is given by equation β = I C / IB ………(2)
Emitter current of Transistor is given by equation IE = IC + IB ………(3)
Dividing both side of equation (3) by IC we get
IE / IC = ( IC / IC ) + ( I B / IC )
But IE / IC = 1 / α and IB / IC = 1 / β hence we can write
1/α=1+(1/β)
1/α=(β+1)/β
α= β /(β+1) ………(4)
similarly, 1/α=1+(1/β)
1/β=1–(1/α)
β= α /(1–α ) ………(5)
Page no. 17
Problem :
1) Calculate α and β of transistor, if base current is 100 µA and collector current is 9.9 mA.
2) Calculate emitter current of transistor if base current is 20 µA and β is 50.

Comparison between PN junction Diode and Transistor

PN junction Diode Transistor

Diode has only one P-N junction Transistor has two P-N junctions
Transistor has three terminals Emitter , Base
Diode has two terminals Anode and Cathode
and Collector
Transistor operates when EB is Forward
Diode conducts only in Forward bias mode
biased and CB is Reverse biased
Diode can be used as a Rectifier Transistor can be used as an Amplifier
Types : Zener , LED , Photo diode etc. Types : NPN , PNP , FET , MOSFET

Applications of Transistor
1) Transistor as a Switch
When Transistor is operated in either Saturation region or Cut Off region, it can be used as a
switch. In Digital circuits, Transistor is used as an electronic switch. Transistor switch can operate
by applying HIGH or LOW input voltage to the Base of Transistor. Figure below shows circuit
diagrams to use Transistor as a switch.
+ VCC + VCC

RL VL = 0 V RL VL ≈ VCC
IL = 0 mA IL = ICmax

Vin IB = 0 µA Vin IB = IBmax

0V VCE = VCC +5V VCE ≈ 0 V
RB RB

Transistor as open switch operated in Cut-Off region Transistor as closed switch operated in Saturation region

Case 1: When input voltage to the Base is LOW i.e. Vin = 0 V, Base current is zero i.e. IB = 0 µA.
Hence Collector current is zero i.e. IC = 0 mA. No current flows through Transistor and
load resistor RL. Hence no voltage drops across load resistor. All supply voltage appears
across the Transistor i.e. VCE = VCC. As IC = 0 mA and VCE = VCC , transistor goes into Cut
Off state. Voltage across Load is zero volt and load current is also zero. Hence Transistor
works as an Open switch.
Case 2: When input voltage to the Base is HIGH i.e. Vin = +5 V, Base current is maximum. Hence
Collector current is maximum i.e. IC = ICmax. Maximum current flows through Transistor
and load resistor RL. Hence all supply voltage appears across load resistor. Voltage across
the Transistor is zero volt i.e. VCE = 0V. As IC = ICmax and VCE = 0V , transistor goes into
Saturation state. Voltage across Load is equal to supply voltage and load current is
maximum. Hence Transistor works as a Closed switch.
Thus, when Transistor is operated in Cut Off state it works as OFF switch and when Transistor is
operated in Saturation state it works as ON switch. Thus Transistor can be used as a Switch.
Page no. 18
2) Transistor as an Amplifier
Amplification : The process of raising or increasing the strength of a weak signal without any
change in its general shape is called Amplification. Device used for amplification is called an
Amplifier. Transistor can be used as an Amplifier. To use Transistor as an Amplifier, it should be
properly biased and must be operated in Active region only. It is done by applying external DC
voltage to the Transistor.

Single Stage CE amplifier

When only one transistor with bias circuit is used to amplify a weak signal, the circuit is
known as single stage Amplifier. Figure shows circuit diagram of single stage amplifier.
+Vcc

R1 RC Co input t

Cin Vo

Output t

Vin R2 RL
RE CE

a) Circuit diagram
Working : Input ac signal Vin which is to be amplify is applied to the Base of Transistor through
capacitor Cin. Output voltage is taken from Collector of the Transistor through capacitor Co. Output
voltage that is Collector-Emitter Voltage VCE .
During Positive Half cycle of input ac signal, Base current IB increases. Therefore Collector
current IC increases Beta times. Hence voltage drop ( IC . RC ) increases. As Vcc is constant, output
voltage decreases. During Negative Half cycle of input ac signal, Base current IB decreases.
Therefore Collector current IC decreases Beta times. Hence voltage drop ( IC . RC ) decreases. As
Vcc is constant, output voltage increases.
As Collector current IC is a Beta times larger than Base current IB, we get amplified voltage
at the output. Thus Transistor can be used as an Amplifier.

Advantages of Semiconductor Devices

1) Semiconductor devices are very small in size and light in weight.
2) They have low power consumption. They need not to have warm up time.
3) They can operate on low voltages.
4) They have high speed operation.
5) Complementary devices are possible such as NPN and PNP Transistor.
6) Integrated circuits i.e. ICs are possible with Semiconductors only.

Page no. 19
Switched Mode Power Supply

Q
Vin Vo
+ L +
Unregulated Regulated
DC input D C DC output

Ton T off
Pulse T total
Generator

Figure shows basic circuit diagram of S M P S using Transistor. Here Series Transistor is
used as a Switch. Unregulated DC input voltage is given to the circuit. Pulse Generator circuit
generates a series of pulses which are given to Base of Transistor. When pulse is HIGH, Transistor
turns ON and acts as a Closed switch. Therefore Transistor provides high output voltage. When
pulse is LOW, Transistor turns OFF and acts as an Open switch. Therefore Transistor provides
LOW output voltage. Hence we get square wave at the output of Transistor. This square wave
output voltage is filtered by L C Filter. Therefore we get constant DC output voltage at the output of
the S M P S. Diode D is connected at the output of Transistor to protect the Transistor from the
Inductive kick. A part of output voltage is fed back to the Pulse Generator circuit to control output
voltage.
In S M P S voltage regulation is achieved by adjusting duty cycle of the square wave. Pulse
Generator controls Duty Cycle i.e. switching time of the Transistor. Duty Cycle of a square wave is
the ratio of ON time to the Total time
Duty cycle = TON / T D = TON / ( TON + TOFF )
Average voltage of square wave having Duty cycle D is given by equation
Vo = D × Vin
When output voltage increases, Pulse Generator reduces ON time of Transistor therefore
Duty cycle D reduces. Hence output voltage Vo decreases to its desired value.
When output voltage increases, Pulse Generator reduces ON time of Transistor therefore
Duty cycle D reduces. Hence output voltage Vo decreases to its desired value.
Advantages :
1) S M P S are small in size, low cost and light in weight.
2) Low power dissipation results in less heating.
3) High regulation. High efficiency.
4) At the same time two different DC voltages can be obtained.
Disadvantages :
1) S M P S generates noise which affects audio section.
2) Control circuit is complex.
3) S M P S are less reliable.
Applications: S M P S are widely used in Television sets, Personal Computers and Battery charges.

Page no. 20
 Logic Families and IC Specifications

Semiconductor Logic families ( ICs )

Bipolar Technology Unipolar Technology

( main elements of a IC are Resistors, Diodes and ( main elements of a IC are Metal Oxide Semi
Bipolar Junction Transistors i.e. BJT ) conductor Field Effect Transistors i.e. MOSFETs )

1) PMOS p channel MOSFET

2) NMOS n channel MOSFET
3) CMOS Complementary MOSFET

Saturated Non-saturated

1) Resistor – Transistor Logic (RTL) 1) Schottky TTL

2) Diode – Transistor Logic (DTL) 2) Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
3) Transistor – Transistor Logic (TTL)
4) Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL)
5) High Threshold Logic (HTL)
6) Integrated Injection Logic (I2L)

Characteristics of Digital ICs

1) Propagation Delay Time ( tp ):- Propagation Delay Time is the time required to change the
output of a gate from one state to the other logic state after the input is applied. It is denoted by tp
and measured in nanoseconds. For standard TTL gate it is 10 ns. For a good logic family
Propagation Delay Time must be smaller.
2) Power Dissipation :- Power Dissipation is the amount of power in milliwatts dissipated in an IC.
It is the product of supply voltage and current drawn by the IC. It is desirable to have low power
dissipation because it reduces the cost of cooling and power supply. Smaller the power dissipation
better is the quality of digital IC. A standard TTL IC gate has power dissipation of about 10 mW.
3) Figure of Merit :- This is the product of Propagation Delay Time and power dissipation. It is
specified in pico joules. A low value of figure of merit is desirable.
Figure of Merit = Propagation Delay Time × Power Dissipation
4) Fan-in :- The fan-in corresponds to the number of inputs to the gate.
5) Fan-out :- The Fan-out is the number of similar gates which can be driven by a gate. High fan-
out is desirable. For standard TTL fan-out is 10.
Page no. 21
Comparison between TTL and CMOS family

Sr no Parameter TTL CMOS

01 Logic family Bipolar Logic family Unipolar Logic family
02 Speed of Operation Fast Slow
03 Propagation Delay Time Less ( 04 – 12 n sec ) More ( 50 n sec )
04 Power dissipation 10 mW high 10 nW very low
05 Figure of merit 100 high 0.002 low
06 Fan out 10 less 50 more
07 Supply Voltage + 5 V ± 5% + 3 V to + 15 V
08 IC numbering system 74XX 40XX

XI Computer Science Paper II

XI Terminal Exam 50 marks Question bank for reference only

1) Multiple Choice Questions and TRUE / FALSE on all syllabus for Ten marks.
2) Write color code for the following Carbon Composition Resistors.
i) 1Kohm ±5% ………
3) Calculate Resistance value and Tolerance for following CC Resistors.
i) RED RED RED GOLD ………
4) Calculate Time constant T if R = 1 Kohm and C = 10 microFarad.
5) Calculate Secondary voltage of Transformer if Np = 1000 , Ns = 25 and Vp = 230 V ac.
6) Compare ac voltage with DC voltage.
7) Draw and explain Atomic structure of Silicon.
8) Explain classification of materials according to electrical conductivity.
9) Compare Conductor with Insulator.
10) Write a note on classification of Semiconductors.
11) Compare P type Semiconductor with N type Semiconductor.
12) Explain formation of PN Junction diode. Draw its circuit symbol.
13) Write a note on Forward Biasing of PN Junction Diode.
14) Explain with diagram Reverse biasing of PN Junction Diode.
15) State applications of PN Junction Diode.
16) Write a note on Zener Diode / LED / Photo Diode. State advantages and applications of LED.
17) Compare LED with Photo Diode.
18) Explain working of NPN Transistor.
19) Define Alpha and Beta of Transistor and derive relation between them.
20) Compare PN Junction Diode with Transistor.
21) Explain use of Transistor as a Switch.
22) State advantages of Semiconductor devices.
23) Write a note on SMPS. State its advantages and disadvantages.
24) Define following terms of digital IC. a) Propagation Delay time. b) Fan in …….. .
25) Compare TTL logic family with CMOS logic family.