KOREAN

한국어 / 조선어
A. HANGUL ALPHABET (한글)
1. Consonants (자음)
There are 30 consonants include 14 simple consonants, 5 double consonants and 11
consonant clusters
Allophone Allophone
Letter Name Letter Name
Initial Medial Final Initial Medial Final
ㄱ 기역 k ɡ k̚ ㄸ 쌍디귿 t͈ –
ㄴ 니은 n ㅃ 쌍비읍 p͈ –
ㄷ 디귿 t d t ̚ ㅆ 쌍시옷 s͈ t̚
ㄹ 리을 ɾ/l* ɾ l ㅉ 쌍지읒 t͈ ɕ –
ㅁ 미음 m ㄳ – – k̚s͈ k̚
ㅂ 비읍 p b p̚ ㄵ – – ndʑ n
ㅅ 시옷 s t̚ ㄶ – – n
ㅇ 이응 – ŋ ㄺ – – lɡ k̚
ㅈ 지읒 tɕ dʑ t̚ ㄻ – – lm m
ㅊ 치읓 tɕʰ t̚ ㄼ – – lb l
ㅋ 키읔 kʰ k̚ ㄽ – – ls l
ㅌ 티읕 tʰ t ̚ ㄾ – – ltʰ l
ㅍ 피읖 pʰ p̚ ㄿ – – lpʰ p̚
*
ㅎ 히읗 h (ɦ) – ㅀ – – ɾ l
ㄲ 쌍기역 k͈ k̚ ㅄ – – p̚s͈ p̚

Notes:
*
The initial is at the beginning of the word, the medial is between vowel and the
final is the end of the word
*
The final ㅎ is silent. Except the name 히읗, the final ㅎ is pronounced as ㄷ (
히읃)
*
The letter ㄹ is always pronounced /ɾ/ in the initial however it can be pronounced
as /l/ when the word originated from English begin with L.
*
In North Korea:
 The stroke that distinguishes ㅌ from ㄷ is written above rather than inside
the letter.
 ㅈ is pronounced [ts] in the initial and [z] between vowels.
 ㅊ and ㅉ are pronounced as [tsʰ], [ts͈ ]
  Some letters have different names in the North:
Jam North Korean Jam North Korean
o name o name
ㄱ 기윽 ㄸ 된디읃
ㄷ 디읃 ㅃ 된비읍
ㅅ 시읏 ㅆ 된시읏
ㄲ 된기윽 ㅉ 된지읒

Example words for consonants (initial):

Phonem Exampl Phonem
English Example English
e e e
Fire/ Light/ Dollar/
/p/ 불 /tɕʰ/ 차다 To kick/ To be cold
France/ Buddha
/p͈/ 뿔 Horn /k/ 가다 To go
/pʰ/ 풀 Grass/ Glue /k͈/ 까다 To peel
/m/ 물 Water/ Liquid/ Flood /kʰ/ 칼 Knife
/t/ 달 Moon /ŋ/ 방 Room
/t͈ / 딸 Daughter /s/ 살 Flesh
Uncooked grains of
/tʰ/ 탈 Mask /s͈ / 쌀
rice
/n/ 날 Day /ɾ/ 바람 Wind/ Wish
/tɕ/ 자다 To sleep /l/ 레몬 Lemon
/t͈ ɕ/ 짜다 To squeeze/ To be salty /h/ 하다 To do

Consonant assimilation
Next letter
ᄀ ᄁ ᄃ ᄄ ᄂ ᄅ ᄆ ᄇ ᄈ ᄉ ᄊ ᄌ ᄍ ᄎ ᄏ ᄐ ᄑ ᄒ
ᇂ ㅋ ㅌ ㄴ ㅍ ㅆ ㅊ
ㅇ
ᆨ/ᄁ/ᆿ/
ㄱ+ㄲ ㄱ+ㄸ ㅇ+ㄴ + ㄱ+ㅃ ㄱ+ㅆ ㄱ+ㅉ ㅋ
ㄳ/ ㄺ*
ㅁ
Bottom Letter

ᆼ ㅇ
ᆮ/ᇀ/ ᆺ/ ㄴ
ᆻ/ ㄷ+ㄲ ㄷ+ㄸ ㄴ+ㄴ + ㄷ+ㅃ ㄷ+ㅆ ㄷ+ㅉ ㅌ
ᆽ/ᆾ ㅁ
ㄴ+ㄴ
ㄹ
ᆫ ㄴ
+
ㄹ
ㄵ ㄴ+ㄲ ㄴ+ㄸ ㄹ+ㄹ* ㄴ+ㅃ ㄴ+ㅆ ㄴ+ㅉ
 ᆯ ㄹ
ㄼ* / ㄽ/ ㄾ ㄹ+ㄲ ㄹ+ㄸ ㄹ+ㅃ ㄹ+ㅆ ㄹ+ㅉ
ㅁ
ᆸ/ ᇁ/ ㄿ/
ㅂ+ㄲ ㅂ+ㄸ ㅁ+ㄴ + ㅂ+ㅃ ㅂ+ㅆ ㅂ+ㅉ ㅍ
ㅄ
ㅁ
ᆷ/ ㄻ ㅁ
*
ㄹ+ㄹ is pronounced as /l /+ /l/
*
ㄺ +ㄱ = ㄹ + ㄲ
*
ㄶ/ ㅀ + ㄱ/ ㄷ/ ㅈ/ ㅅ = ㄴ/ ㄹ + ㅋ/ ㅌ/ ㅊ/ㅆ
*
The final ㄼ in 밟다 and 넓다 is pronounced as ㅂ
*
In the North:
 ㄺ +ㄱ = ㄹ + ㅋ  ㅂ/ㅁ + ㄹ = ㅁ + ㄹ
 ㄱ/ㅇ + ㄹ = ㅇ + ㄹ  ㄴ+ㄴ=ㄹ+ㄹ

Ex:
Pronunciation
Word Meaning
North (hangul) South (hangul)
To read
읽고 일코 일꼬
(continuative form)
압록강 Amnok river 암록깡 암녹깡
독립 Independence 동립 동닙
관념 Idea / sense / conception 괄렴 관념

2. Vowels (모음)
Letter Name Phoneme Letter Name Phoneme Letter Name Phoneme
ㅏ 아 /a/ ㅠ 유 /ju/ ㅚ 외 /ø/
ㅑ 야 /ja/ ㅡ 으 /ɯ/ ㅙ 왜 /wɛ/
ㅓ 어 /ʌ/ ㅣ 이 /i/ ㅘ 와 /wa/
ㅕ 여 /jʌ/ ㅐ 애 /ɛ/ ㅟ 위 /wi/
ㅗ 오 /o/ ㅒ 얘 /jɛ/ ㅝ 워 /wʌ/
ㅛ 요 /jo/ ㅔ 에 /e/ ㅢ 의 /ɰi/
ㅜ 우 /u/ ㅖ 예 /je/ ㅞ 웨 /we/

a) Monophthongs
 Korean has 9 different vowels and a length distinction for each: ㅏ, ㅐ, ㅓ, ㅔ, ㅗ,
ㅚ, ㅜ, ㅡ, ㅣ. Ex:
Short vowel Long vowel Short vowel Long vowel
/i/ 시장 (hunger) /iː/ 시장 (market) /u/ 구리 (copper) /uː/ 수박 (watermelon)
/e/ 베개 (pillow) /eː/ 베다 (to cut) /ʌ/ 벌 (punishment) /ʌː/ 벌 (bee)
/ɛ/ 태양 (sun) /ɛː/ 태도 (attitude) /ɯ/ 어른 (seniors) /ɯː/ 음식 (food)
/a/ 말 (horse) /ɑː/ 말 (language) /ø/ 교회 (church) /øː/ 외투 (overcoat)
/o/ 보리 (barley) /oː/ 보수 (salary)

b) Diphthongs
Korean have 12 diphthongs: ㅑ, ㅒ, ㅕ, ㅖ, ㅘ, ㅙ, ㅛ, ㅝ, ㅞ, ㅟ, ㅠ, ㅢ. Ex:
Phonem Exampl Phonem Exampl
English English
e e e e
je 예산 Budget wi 뒤 Back
jɛ 얘기 Story we 궤 Chest/ box
ja 야구 Baseball wɛ 왜 Why
jo 교사 Teacher wa 과일 Fruit
ju 유리 Glass wʌ 뭐 What
jʌ 여기 Here ɰi 의사 Doctor

Notes:
1. The vowel 어, 여, 워 is pronounced [ɔ], [jɔ], [wɔ] in the North dialect.
2. The letter 의 is pronounced as:
 의 when it’s at the beginning of the word
 이 when it's not at the beginning of the word or after consonant
 에 when it's used at the end of the word as a possessive marker
3. When followed by a word or suffix beginning with 이/ 야/ 여/ 요/ 유/ 얘/ 예 :
 An underlying ᄃ or ᄐ at the end of a morpheme becomes a ᆽ /dʑ-/ or ᆾ /tɕʰ-/
though this does not happen within a word root such as 어디.
 ᄉ, ᄊ is pronouned as /ɕ/, /ɕ͈/ in the South while it’s optional in the North
4. In the South, after consonant, the letter 예 can be pronounced either 에 or 예

c) Vowel harmony
The vowel classes follow positive (ㅏ/ㅗ) vowels and the negative (ㅓ/ ㅜ); they
also follow orthography. Exchanging positive vowels with negative vowels usually
creates different nuances of meaning, with positive vowels sounding diminutive
and negative vowels sounding crude. Some examples:
 Onomatopoeia:
퐁당퐁당 (light water splashing ) and 풍덩풍덩 (heavy water splashing).
 Emphasised adjectives:
노랗다 (plain yellow), while its negative, 누렇다 (very yellow)
 파랗다 (plain blue), while its negative, 퍼렇다 (deep blue)
 Particles at the end of verbs:
잡다 (to catch) → 잡았다 (caught) while 접다 (to fold) → 접었다 (folded)
 Interjections:
아이고 (expressing surprise) and 어이구 (expressing discomfort or sympathy).
아하 (expressing sudden realization) and 어허 (expressing mild objection).

3. Morpho-syllabic blocks
No letter may stand alone to represent elements of the Korean language. Instead,
jamo are grouped into syllabic or morphemic blocks of at least two and often three:
초성 - the initial (a consonant or a doubled consonant), 중성 - the medial (a vowel
or diphthong) and, optionally, at the end of the syllable, 종성 - the final (a
consonant or consonant cluster). When a syllable has no actual initial consonant,
the null initial ㅇ is used as a placeholder. Thus, a block contains a minimum of
two jamo, an initial and a medial. The sets of initial and final consonants are not
the same. For instance, ㅇ(ng) only occurs in final position, while the doubled
jamo that can occur in final position are limited to ㅆ and ㄲ.

B. VOCABULARY (단어)
There are three main types of vocabulary in Korean: Sino-Korean, Native Korean
and foreign words imported from other language (Japanese, English, German,…)
1. Sino-Korean words
Sino-Korean refers to the set of words in the Korean language vocabulary that
originated from or were influenced from Chinese. Ex:
English Korean English Korean English Korean
Station 역 Introduction 소개 Drive 운전
Automobile 자동차 Case, situation 경우 Mountain 산
President 대통령 Culture 문화 Airplane 비행기
Letter 편지 Foreign currency 외환 Prisoner 수인
Tissue 휴지 Maid 식모 / 하녀 Study 공부
Gift 선물 Promise 약속 /언약 Movie, film 영화
(One's) Name card, Prohibit,
행방 명함 휴지/ 해지/취소
whereabouts business card cancel
Newspaper 신문 Company, firm 회사 Extremely 대단
Dining table 식탁 Faction 파벌 Doctor 의사
Tab (in a The person in Currency
외상 담당자 환전
restaurant) charge (of) exchange

Some Chinese character when translate in Korean have some different forms. Ex:
 Sino- Korean Notes Examples
연초 - the beginning of the year
Pronounced 연 at the
연말 - the end of the year
연, 년 (year) beginning of a word, 년
작년 - last year
elsewhere
내년 - next year
Pronounced 입 at the 입장 - position, standpoint
입, 립 (stand,
beginning of a word, 립 독립 - independence
establish)
elsewhere 조립 - construction, set-up
여자 - woman, female
Pronounced 여 at the
여학생 - a female student
여, 녀 (girl, woman) beginning of a word, 녀
소녀 - a young girl
elsewhere
미녀 - a beautiful girl
부정 - unlawfulness, dishonesty
No rule, some words just use 부득이 - unavoidably, inevitably
불, 부 (Negation)
one or the other 불편 - discomfort
불가능 - impossibility

2. Foreign words imported from other language

The vast majority of loanwords other than Sino-Korean come from modern times,
90% of which are from English. Many words have also been borrowed from
Japanese and Western languages such as German. Ex:
Korean Meaning Korean Meaning Korean Meaning
From English
Mechanical
게임 Game 넥타이 Necktie 샤프
pencil
노트 Note 퍼센트 Percent 테니스 Tennis
달러 Dollar 메뉴 Menu 팀 Team
콜라 Cola 에어컨 Air conditioner 택시 Taxi
미터 Meter 바나나 Banana 테이블 Table
카메라 Camera 커피 Coffee 파티 Party
비디오 Video 샤워 Shower 버스 Bus
센티미
Centimeter 소파 Sofa 피아노 Piano
터
쇼핑 Shopping 슈퍼마켓 Supermarket 카드 Card
스키 Ski 스트레스 Stress 오렌지 Orange
스포츠 Sports 피자 Pizza 초콜릿 Chocolate
호텔 Hotel 레일 Rail 스카프 Scraf
From German
알레르 아르바이
Allergy Part-time job
기 트
From Japanese
 조립 Assemble 주식 Share of stock 견적 Estimate
건물 Building 다스 Dozen 시합 Match

3. Native Korean
The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of native Korean words. Ex: 나라
(country), 날 (day),… Native Korean words and Sino-Korean words can be
intercharged. Some words have both the native form and Sino form. Ex: 일기
(weather) is Sino from and 날씨 (weather) is native form.

4. The differences between The North and The South

The standard language in the South (표준어) is based on the Seoul dialect (서울
방언), and the standard language in the North (문화어) is based on the Pyongyang
dialect (평양 방언)
a) Difference in Sino-Korean words
 Initial ㄴ / ㄹ
In the South, in Sino-Korean words that begin with ㄹ and is followed by one of
ㅣ/ ㅑ/ ㅕ/ ㅖ/ ㅛ and ㅠ, ㄹ is replaced by ㅇ |∅|; when this ㄹ is followed by
other vowels it is replaced by ㄴ. In the North, the initial ㄹ is kept.
South North Meaning South North Meaning South North Meaning
연애 련애 Love 이혼 리혼 Divorce 노동 로동 Labour
연습 련습 Pratice 역사 력사 History 누누이 루루이 Repeatedly
역량 력량 Strength 냉수 랭수 Cold water 농구 롱구 Basketball
Iced
이유 리유 Reason 냉면 랭면 열차 렬차 Train
noodle
여행 려행 Travel 낙하 락하 Downfall 낙원 낙원 Paradise

Similarly, in Sino-Korean words that begin with ㄴ and is followed by one of ㅣ/

ㅑ/ ㅕ/ ㅖ/ ㅛ and ㅠ, in the South this ㄴ is replaced by ㅇ |∅|, whereas this
remains unchanged in the North.
Sout Nort
Meaning South North Meaning
h h
이승 니승 This world 연말 년말 The end of the year
여자 녀자 Female

 Hanja spelling
Where a Hanja is written 몌 or 폐 in the South, this is written 메, 페 in the North
(but even in the South these are pronounced like the North)
Sout Nort Meanin
h h g
폐쇄 페쇄 Closure
폐 페 Lungs
 In words where the original hanja is spelt "렬" or "률" and follows a vowel, the
initial ㄹ is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with
that in the South where the ㄹ is dropped in the spelling.
Sout Nort Meanin
h h g
규율 규률 Rule

b) Difference in compound words: Middle ㅅ (사이 시옷)

When forming compound words from uninflected words, where the middle ㅅ is
inserted in the South, this is left out in the North, but the pronunciation is the same
as in the South.
Pronunciatio
South North Meaning
n
젓가
저가락 젇까락 Chopsticks
락
햇빛 해빛 핻빋 Sunshine
나뭇
나무잎 나문닙 (Tree) Leaf
잎

c) Differences due to the difference in political system or social structure

South North Meaning South North Meaning
한반도 조선반도 Korean Peninsula 초등학교 소학교 Primary school
한국어 조선어 Korean language 친구 동무* Friend
한국 전쟁 조국해방전쟁 Korean War
*
The word 동무 that is used to mean "friend" in the North was originally a native
Korean word used across the whole of Korea, but after the division of Korea, the
word has come to mean "comrade" in the South as well and has fallen out of use.

d) Differences in words of foreign origin

South Korea has borrowed a lot of English words, whereas North Korean has
borrowed a number of Russian words. Even when the same English word is
borrowed, how this word is transliterated into Korean may differ because the South
uses American English while the North uses British English.
South North Meaning South North Meaning
트랙터 뜨락또르 Tractor 컴퓨터 콤퓨터 Computer
스타킹 스토킹 Stocking 라디오 라지오 Radio
그룹 구루빠 Group 텔레비전 텔레비죤 Television
탱크 땅크 Tank 아파트 아빠트 (문화주택) Apartment
컵 고뿌 Cup 타이어 다이야 Tyre
 비디오 비데오 Video 캠페인 깜빠니아 Campaign

For names of other nations and their places, the principle is to base the
transliteration on the English word in the South (except the name of Germany is
borrowed from Japanese), and to base the transliteration on the word in the original
language in the North. Some Sino-Korean are still in use in both Korea.

South North Meaning South North Meaning

배트남 윁남 Vietnam 아시아 아세아 Asia
폴란드 뽈스까 Poland 유럽 구라파 Europe
쿠바 꾸바 Cuba 스페인 에스빠냐 Spain
스웨덴 스웨리예 Sweden 독일 도이췰란드 Germany

e) Difference in use double consonant

Some words written with a double consonant in the middle in the South but aren't
written in the North (but the pronounce is same in the South)
Sout Nort Sout Nort Meanin
Meaning
h h h h g
이빨 이발 Teeth (animal) 잠깐 잠간 Awhile
눈썹 눈섭 Eyebrows 날짜 날자 Date
손뼉 손벽 Clap one’s hand

f) Other differences
North Korean vocabulary shows a tendency to prefer native Korean over Sino-
Korean or foreign borrowings, especially with recent political objectives aimed at
eliminating foreign (mostly Chinese) influences on the Korean language in the
North. By contrast, South Korean may have several Sino-Korean or foreign
borrowings which tend to be absent in North Korean. Example:
South North Meaning South North Meaning
발코니 내민대 Balcony 보트 젓기배 Boat
고기겹빵/ 다진 양복치마/ 잔주
햄버거 Hamburger 스커트 Skirt
쇠고기와 빵 름치마
주스 과일단물 Juice 원피스 달린옷/ 외동옷 One-piece
뮤지컬 가무 이야기 Musical 핸드폰/ 휴대폰 손전화 Cellphone
노크 손기척 Knock 나이프 밥상칼 Knife
드레스 나리 옷 Dress 마스크 얼굴가리개 Mask
아이스크림 얼음보숭이 Ice cream 볼펜 원주필 Ballpoint pen
홍수 큰물 Flood 냉면 찬국수 Iced noodle
녹차 푸른차 Green tea 라면 꼬부랑 국수 Instant noodle
수표 돈표 Cheque 뉴스 보도 News
주차장 차마당 Car park 빙수 단얼음 Ice water
시장 장마당 Market 투피스 나뉜옷/ 동강옷 Two-piece

Even if the North uses Sino-korean words, it can be different from the South
South North Meaning South North Meaning
원수 원쑤 Mortal enemy 주민등록증 공민증 Id card
공항 항공역 Airport 국민 인민 National people
American
화장실 위생실 Bathroom 미국 제국 미제
imperialists

Some native words have the difference:

South North Meaning South North Meaning
*
옥수수 강냉이 Corn 아내 안해 Wife
위 우* On, above 도시락 곽밥 Lunch box
한나산 한라산 Halla mountain 망치 마치 Hammer
날씨 날거리 Weather 거스름돈 각전 Pocket change
거위 게사니 Goose 무지개 색동다리 Rainbow
수레 달구지 Cart 출입문 나들문 Exit
가게 가가 Store 가깝다 가찹다 To be near
볶음밥 기름밥 Fried rice 개고기 단고기 Dog meat
반찬 찔게 Side dish 돌 돐 Anniversary
벚꽃 벗꽃 Cherry blossom 노려보다 지르보다 To stare at
높임말을 쓰 To use formal
괜찮다 일없다 To be OK. 옙하다
다 language
냉대하 To cold- To lend a
미우다 도와주다 방조하다
다 shoulder helping hand
가르치
배워주다 To teach 도착하다 가닿다 To arrive
다
올바르
옳바르다 To be upright (값)싸다 눅다 To be cheap
다
*
강냉이 and 우 are also sometimes heard in various dialects in South Korea.
There are also some words that only exist in the North. The verb 마스다 (to break)
and its passive form 마사지다 (to be broken) have no exactly corresponding words
in the South.

C. Numerals (수사)
 There are two systems of numerals in Korean: native Korean and Sino-Korean.
The distinction between the two numeral systems is very important. Everything
that can be counted will use one of the two systems, but seldom both. For example,
when denoting the age of a person, one will usually use 살 for the native Korean
numerals, and 세 for Sino-Korean. Ex: 스물다섯 살 / 이십 오 세 (25 years old).
Sino- Native Sino- Native Sino- Native
No. No. No.
Korean Korean Korean Korean Korean Korean
0 영/공 - 13 십삼 열셋 80 팔십 여든
1 일 하나 14 십사 열넷 90 구십 아흔
2 이 둘 15 십오 열 다섯 100 백 -
3 삼 셋 16 십육 열 여섯 101 백일 백 하나
4 사 넷 17 십칠 열 일곱 103
천 -
5 오 다섯 18 십팔 열 여덟 104
만 -
6 육 여섯 19 십구 열 아홉 10 5
십만 -
7 칠 일곱 20 이십 스물 10 6
백만 -
8 팔 여덟 30 삼십 서른 10 7
천만 -
9 구 아홉 40 사십 마흔 108
억 -
10 십 열 50 오십 쉰 10 12
조 -
11 십일 열 하나 60 육십 예순 10 16
경 -
12 십이 열둘 70 칠십 일흔 10 20
해 -
Note:
 In the Sino-Korean system, number 0 is 령, number 6 is 륙, number 16 is 십륙
and number 60 is 륙십 in North Korea
 When combines with counting word, the forms for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 20 are formed
by "dropping the last letter" from the original native cardinal to become 한, 두,
세, 네, 스무. The forms of 1, 2, 3, 4 also become short when combined with
other numerals (such as in 12, 13, 14 and so on).
 The cardinals for 3 and 4 have alternatives forms in front of some measure
words: 석 (three) /넉 (four). Ex: 석 달 (three months) and 넉 잔 (four cups).
 Pronunciation
 십 육 (16) is pronounced as [심뉵] in the South and [심륙] in the North
 The initial consonants of measure words and numbers following the native
cardinals 열 (10) become tensed consonants when possible. For example:
열 셋 (13) is pronounced like [열쎗]
 The usual liaison and the consonant assimilation aslo is applied.
 The ordinal number is made by use the native korean systems with 째: 첫째
(first), 둘째 (second), 셋째 (third), ..., 서른째 (thirtieth), ...
 Constant Suffixes 번, 호, 차, and 회 are always used with Sino-Korean or
Arabic ordinal numerals. For example, 이호선 is Line Number Two in
metropolitan subway system. 37 번국도 is Highway Number 37. They cannot
be used interchangeably. 906 호 is 'Apt #906' in mailing address. 906 without
 호 is not used in spoken Korean to imply apartment number or office suite #.
Special prefix 제 is usually used in combination with suffixes to designate a
specific event in sequential things such as the Olympics.

D. GRAMMAR (문법)
1. Nouns (명사)
Both nouns and pronouns take case clitics. As with many clitics and suffixes in
Korean, for many case clitics a different form is used with nouns ending in a
consonant than with nouns ending in a vowel.
After
Case After vowel After ㄹ Honorifics
consonant
Topic* 는 은 께서는
Nominative 가 이 께서
Accusative 를 을
Genitive 의 **
Time, destination, reason 에
Source ( aslo locative, Animate: 에게서/ 한테서/
께로부터
place of event) Inanimate: 에서/으로부터
Animate: 에게/ 한테.
Dative 께
Inanimate: 에
Instrumental, destination 로 으로
하고
Comitative (also and) 와 과
랑 이랑
Or 나 이나
Also* 도
* The topic marker and the also marker mark the noun phrase with case markers.
They override the nominative and accusative case markers rather than being
attached after those case markers.

2. Pronouns (대명사)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
The Korean language makes extensive use of speech levels and honorifics in its grammar, and
Korean pronouns also change depending on the social distinction between the speaker and the
person or persons spoken to.
Korean English Comment
FIRST PRONOUN
나 I This is the low form version.
As a subject, it can be 나는(can be contracted as 난) or 내가.
 Possessive is 나의 or the shortened version, 내
This is the humble form version.
저 I As a subject, it can be 저는(can be contracted as 전) or 제가.
Possessive is 저의 or the shortened version, 제
This is the plural form of 나.
우리 can also mean “my/our” sometimes.
우리 We Ex: 우리 엄마: My mom (our mom)/
우리 나라: My country (our country)
우리 남편: My husband
저희 We This is the plural form of 저.
SECOND PERSON
nd
In Korean using 2 person is much different from English. Refering to someone as "you,"
especially someone who is older than you can be considered rude, as well as someone who you are
not familiar with (unless they are much younger). It's better to refer to older people by a title and
people who are near your age as their name until you become close to them.
This is the low form version.
As a subject, it can be 너는 (can be contracted as 넌) or 네가. Since 네가
and 내가 have almost the same pronunciation, it can be confusing in
너 You spoken language, so people often pronounce it is 니가 instead of 네가.
Possessive is 너의 or the shortened version, 네. Also often gets
pronounced as 니 instead of 네 in spoken language due to the similar
pronunciation as 내.
This is the humble form version.
This form can also be used when arguing or fighting with someone who's
name you don't know, i.e. during a car accident.
당신, 운전 똑바로 해! (Hey you, drive carefully !)
당신 You
Sometimes this form is also used in a general form when addressing
people in general, i.e. in advertisements.
This form is also used when spouses call each other with respect. 당신,
오늘 몇시에 들어와요? (Honey, what time will you come home today?)
This is used by older both men and women (50 years old and above
자네 You usually, and mostly men) towards younger people, mostly men.
자네는 이름이 뭔가? (What is your name, son?)
너희(들) You This is the plural form of 너.
당신들 You This is the plural form of 당신.
THIRD PERSON
그 He
그녀 She
그들 They
그녀들 They The feminine version
얘 (이 애) This kid 얘가 내 동생이야. (This is my younger sister.)
쟤 (저 애) That kid 쟤가 내 동생이야. (That is younger sister.)
영희 알아? 걔가 내 동생이야.
걔 (그 애) That kid
(Do you know Young Hee? She is my sister.)
In general, Koreans avoid using second person singular pronouns and the third person prounouns,
especially when using honorific forms. This is done by either by:
 Leaving out the subject of the sentence if it can be implied by the context.
 Use the person's name. However this is only done when talking to someone younger than
yourself. With people older than you, it is custom to use either a title or kinship term.
 Use one of the following: 언니 (female’s older sister), 누나 (male’s older sister), 오빠/ 오라비/
오라버니 (female’s older brother) ,형 (male’s older brother), 아줌마/ 아주머니(aunt), 아저씨/
아주버니(uncle), 할머니 (grandmother), 할아버지 (grandfather). In Korea it is common to use
kinship terms for people who are not family at all.
 아가씨 (young lady) is preferable when addressing a young girl of unknown age in public
places like restaurants. (The difference between 아가씨 and 아줌마 reside in marriage status not
in age).
 Use the appropriate title. For example, if you are talking to a teacher, you can use 선생님. 선생
님 is also often used as a general honorific term for other professions like managers etc.
 Use the prefix 이 (this)/ 그 (that)/ 저 (that) before nouns. (ex: 이 분 / 이 사람(this person),…)
 Use the plural 여러분 where applicable
 Use 누구 (who?) and its nominative from 누가 in the question

DEMONSTRATIVES
Prefix Object Place
Near 이 이것 this 이곳, 여기 here
Given 그 그것 that 거기 there
Far 저 저것 that 저기 there
Which? 어느 무엇 what? 어디 where?
The "given" series is often called "medial", and said to be close to the addressee
rather than the speaker. However, they actually refer to referents already
established in the conversation, whether near or far. With new referents, the near or
far forms will be used.

In colloquial speech, the object words, composed of the prefix plus the generic
noun classifier 것, frequently drop the final ㅅ, with proximate 이것 becoming 이
거. This occurs before case clitics as well, for nominative 이게 (a form of 이것이),
topical 이것은 becoming 이건, and accusative 이것을 becoming 이걸.
Interrogative 무엇 contracts to 뭐, and the accusative 무엇을 contracts to 뭘.

The classifier 쪽 (side) is used when referring to people. 이쪽 (this side) means
"this person, these people" (that is, he, she, or they), but is further extended via
"our side" as a polite form for "us" or "me". "How many" is 몇.
 3. Counting items
Korean uses special measure or counting words to count objects .
Countable Items that use Native Korean Numbers
Item Example Notes
편의점에는 열 가지 종류의 담배
두 가지 (2 kinds)
가지 가 있습니다.(There are 10 kinds
네 가지 (4 kinds)
Kind of cigarettes at the convenience
수백 가지 (a hundred kinds)
store.)
담배 한 갑 (a pack of
갑 cigarettes) 개비 is used for counting cigarette.
Pack of 담배 한 개비 (a cigarette) For counting a carton of cigarette
cigarettes 담배 두 보루 (20 packs of (10 packs), use 보루
cigarettes)
개 Many items can be counted with
사과 두 개 (2 apples)
Thing, 개.
지우개 세 개 (3 erasers)
item In general, if you don't know
동전 네 개 (4 coins)
(vague) which counter to use, use this one.
권 영어책 세 권 (3 English books)
Book, 소설책 네 권 (4 novels) Used for counting books
volume 책 수백 권 (hundreds of books)
나무 세 그루 (3 trees)
그루 소나무 한 그루 (a pine tree)
Tree 나무 수십 그루 (scores of
trees)
밥 한 그릇 (a bowl of rice)
You can use 밥 두 공기 instead of
그릇 죽 세 그릇 (3 bowls of gruel)
밥 두 그릇. 공기 is used only for
Bowl 라면 한 그릇 (a bowl of
밥.
noodles)
대 자동차 한 대 (a car)
Used for vehicles, big electronic
Mechani 버스 두 대 (2 buses)
appliances.
cal item 컴퓨터 한 대 (a computer)
마리 고양이 두 마리 (2 cats) Often used for when ordering
Counting 금붕어 다섯 마리 (5 goldfishes) things such as chicken.
animal 모기 열 마리 (10 mosquitoes) "양념 치킨 한마리 주세요"
두 번 (twice)
번 저는 중국에 두 번 가봤어요. (I've
열 번 (10 times)
Time been to China twice)
수십 번 (several tens times)
벌 정장 한 벌 (a suit) A thin shirt is used 장 as well.
Clothes 바지 세 벌 (3 pairs pf pants) 티셔츠 두 장 (2 T shirts).
코트 두 벌 (2 coats) Also, 벌 uses as a set of spoon and
 chopsticks (수저 두 벌: 2 sets of
청바지 두 벌 (2 jeans) spoon and chopsticks), and a set of
자켓 세 벌 (3 jackets) tea things(찻잔 세 벌 : 3 tea sets),
but wit is hardly used.
콜라 두 병 (2 bottles of coke) Often used for ordering things
병
소주 세 병 (3 bottles of Soju) such as 소주,맥주
Bottle
맥주 두 병 (2 bottles of beer) "소주 한 병 주세요."
과자 한 봉지 (a bag of a snack)
봉지 사탕 두 봉지 (2 sack of candy)
Pack, 쓰레기 두 봉지 (2 garbage 봉지 means plastic bag.
sack back)
밀가루 한 봉지 (a bag of flour)
한 명 (a person) Same as 사람.
명, 사람
어린이 다섯 명 (5 children) Honorific form of 사람,명 is 분
People/
여자 수십 명 (scores of 할머니 한 분 (an old woman)
Person
women) 선생님 세 분 (3 teachers)
이것이 저것보다 세 배로 더 큽
두 배 (x2) 니다 (This is three times as large
배 세 배 (x3) as that).
multiple 열 배 (x10) 이것이 저것보다 두 배로 비쌉니
백 배 (x100) 다 (This is twice as expensive as
that).
장미 백 송이 (100 roses)
송이 백합 두 송이 (2 lilies) But you have to use for 다발 as a
Blossom, 포도 두 송이 (2 bunches of bunch of flowers.
bunch of grapes) 꽃 한 다발(a bunch of flowers).
a fruit 바나나 한 송이 (a cluster of In the North, 묶음 replace 다발
bananas)
비둘기 한 쌍 (a couple of
쌍 dove)
Couple 남녀 한 쌍 (a man and a
woman)
자루 연필 두 자루 (2 pencils) 자루 is used for things with long
Small 볼펜 세 자루 (3 ball point pen) handles (writing instruments,
Stick like 샤프 한 자루 (a mechanical shovels, swords, and rifles), and by
items pencil) extension, knives and pistols.
장 종이 세 장 (3 sheets of paper)
신문 세 부 (3 copies of
Flat thin 책 다섯 장 (5 pages of a book)
newspapers)
objects 티슈 한 장 (a tissue)
잔/ 컵 커피 두 잔 (2 cups of coffee) Used for things like coffee, beer
Glass 콜라 한 잔 (a cup of coke) etc
 소주 한 잔 (a cup of Soju)
조각 네 조각 (4 pieces) Used with chicken tenders, pizza,
Piece 빵 한 조각 (a slice of bread) cake, bread
줄
김밥 세 줄(3 Kimbaps) 두 줄로 서세요(Stand in two
Rope,
다섯 줄(5 lines) rows).
Line
켤레 신발 한 켤레 (a pair of shoes)
Shoes 부츠 한 켤레 (a pair of boots)
and socks 양말 네 켤레 (4 pairs of socks)
통 -- letter, telegram, telephone
단 -- bunches of Welsh onion,
call, and
green onion
e-mail
포기 -- Chinese cabbage
통 -- watermelon
푼 -- pennie
통 -- container, bucket
Another 채 -- house
필 -- uncut fabric
few 접시 -- Plate
척 -- boat and ship
counter 톨 -- grains of rice (not cooked),
곡 --song
words stone
마디 -- phrase, joint, and musical
과 -- lesson
measure
교시 -- Period (class)
회 -- Episode
층 -- Floor
상자/ 박스 -- box
캔 -- Can, tin
두루마리 -- Roll
부 -- copy
점 -- picture, photo
Some
접 -- one hundred dried
words are 손 -- two fish (typically mackerels
persimmons
used for or yellow croakers)
줄 -- ten eggs
counting 타스 -- dozens of pencils
판 -- thirty eggs
in 톳 -- one hundred sheets of lavers
코 -- twenty octopuses
multiples
Countable Items that use Sino-Korean Numbers
Item Example Notes
도 일 도 (1 degree)
Degrees 이십 도 (20 degrees) We usually use Celsius in Korea.
(o C) 영하 팔 도 (minus 8 degrees)
번지 이 번지
Used for house addresses
a house 오십 번지
서울시 중랑구 면목동 279 번지
number 삼백 구십 구 번지
인분 이 인분 (two servings) Often used at restaurants to order a
Serving, 삼 인분 (three servings) serving of something, such as
order 오 인분 (five servings) meat.
"삼겹살 오 인분 주세요.(5 orders
 of samgyeopsal, please.)
호 백오 호 (room number 105) Used for room number: 라마다호
Room 삼백일 호 (room number 301) 텔 1005 호(Room N.1005,
number 천백구 호 (room number 1109) Ramada Hotel)
There are two systems of numerals in Korean: native Korean and Sino-Korean.
Native Korean numerals are used with most counter words. Sino-Korean words
are sometimes used to mark ordinal usage. Some counter words can use both
system but with different meaning. Ex: 과, 번, 회, 층, …
열 과 (ten lessons) while 십 과 (lesson ten).
열 번 (ten times) while 십 번 (number ten).
두 층 (two floors) while 이 층 (second floor)
Approximating particles:
 -쯤, -정도, 약- , -여- - About. Ex: 열명 쯤/열명 정도/ 약 열명/ 십여명
(about 10 people)
 -이상 - More than, over, at least. Ex: 열명 이상 (over 10 people)
 -이하 - Below. Ex: 열명 이하 (below 10 people)
 한 - About. Often used in conjunction with 쯤. Ex: 한 열명 쯤 (about 10
people)

4. Dates and times

Item Counting Other
Count years using Native Some related words:
Korean numbers before 해.  재작년 - Two years ago
한 해 (a year)  작년/ 지난해 - Last year
Year 두 해 (2 years)  올해 / 금년 - This year
(연 /년 네 해 (4 years)  내년/ 다음해/ 이듬해 - Next
/ 해) Count years using Sino Korean year
numbers before 년.  내후년 - Two years from
일 년 (a year) now
십 년 (10 years)  연간/ 연례 - Annual
백 년 (100 years)  연초 - The beginning of the
수년 (several years) year
수십년 (several decades)
 연말 - The end of the year
수백년 (hundreds)
 새해/ 신년 - New year
You can use Sino Korean  그해 - That year
numbers along with 년 to state  다년 - Multiple years
the year.  매년 /해마다 - Every year,
이천년 - The year 2000 annually
이천구년 - The year 2009  연대 - Era
  윤년 - Leap year
 시대 - an epoch, a period in
사계: 춘하추동 - Four
seasons: Spring, summer, fall
and winter 초(봄/...) or 조(춘/...) - Early
 봄/ 춘계/ 춘기 - Spring (spring/...)
Season  여름/ 하계/ 하기 - 늦(봄/...) or 만(춘/...) - Late
(계절) Summer (spring/...)
 가을/ 추계/ 추기 - On the North:
Autumn/ fall 마(봄/...) - Late (spring/...)
 겨울/ 동계/ 동기 -
Winter
Count months using Native
Korean numbers before 달
한 달 (a month)
두 달 (2 months)
열 달(10 months)
Count months using Sino Some related words:
Korean numbers before 개월.  지난달 - Last month
일 개월 (a month)  이번달 - This month
삼 개월 (3 months)  다음달 / 내월 - Next month
오 개월 (5 months)  매달 - Every month
 월초 - The beginning of the
Months are just simply Sino month
Month Korean numbers and 월  월말 - The end of the month
(달/ 월) together. Since January is 1 월  초순 - The first 10 days of a
(일월), February is 2 월 (이월). month
However 6 월 and 10 월 are  중순 - The middle 10 days of
irregular and not 육월/ 륙월 and a month
십월, instead they are 유월/  하순 - The last 10 days of a
류월 and 시월 respectively. month
Use the 양력 (solar calender) or
음력 (lunar calender) before the
month. Ex: 음력 2 월. In the
lunar calender, some months
have special name: 1 월 is 정월,
the 10 월 is 상달/상월, the 11 월
is 동짓달 and the 12 월 is 섣달.
Week Count weeks using Sino Korean Some related words:
 지지난주 - Two week ago
지난주 - Last week
numbers before 주(일). 이번주 - This week
일 주(일) (a week) 다음주 - Next week
(주일)
삼 주(일) (3 weeks) 다다음주 - The next two
육 주(일) (6 weeks) week
 주말 – Weekend
 매주 - Every week
Count days using Sino Korean Day of the week (요일)
numbers before 일  일요일 - Sunday
Day 일 일 (1 day)  월요일 - Monday
(일/ 날) 오 일 (5 days)  화요일 - Tuesday
삼십 일 (30 days)  수요일 - Wednesday
 목요일 - Thursday
To show the day, you can aslo  금요일 - Friday
use the Sino-Korean numbers  토요일 - Saturday (North:
일 일 (first day) 문화일)
오 일 (fifth day)
삼십 일 (thirtieth day) Some related words:
 엊그제 - A several days ago
Another way to count days:  그끄저께 - Two days before
하루 - one day yesterday
이틀 - two days  그저께 - The day before
사흘 - three days yesterday
나흘 - four days  어제 - Yesterday
닷새 - five days  오늘/ 금일 - Today
엿새 - six days
 내일 - Tomorrow
이레 - seven days
여드레 - eight days  모레 - The day after tomorrow
아흐레 - nine days  글피 - Two days after tomorrow
열흘 - ten days  종일 - All day long
열하루 - eleven days  매일 / 날마다 - Everyday
보름/ 열닷새 - fifteen days  며칠 - A few days
스무날 - twenty days  평일 - Weekday
스무하루 - twenty one days  날짜/ 일자 - Date
그믐 - thirty days  휴일 - Holiday
 공휴일 - National holiday
(North: 휴식일)
 신정 - New year’s
 섣달 그믐/ 까치 설날- New
year’s eve
  구정/ 설날 - Lunar new year's
 어린이날 - Children's day
 만우절 - April fool’s day
 단오 - Dragon boat festival
 추석/ 중추 - Mid-fall festival
 성탄절 / 크리스마스 -
Christmas
Count hours using Sino Korean
numbers before 시간
한 시간 (a hour) 하루의 부분 (Parts of a day)
세 시간 (3 hours)  새벽 - Dawn
열 두 시간 (12 hours)  여명 - Twilight
 일출 / 해돋이 - Sunrise 
Count minutes using Sino  아침 - Morning 
Korean numbers before 분  정오 / 한낮 - Noon (North:
일 분 (a minute) 중낮)
오 분 (5 minutes)  오후 / 하오-
삼십 분 (30 minites) Afternoon (North: 낮후)
 저녁 - Evening 
Count seconds using Sino  일몰 / 해넘이 - Sunset
Korean numbers before 초  박명 - Twilight
일 초 (1 second)  박모 - Dusk 
오 초 (5 seconds)  밤 - Night
육십 초 (60 seconds)  자정 / 한밤 - Midnight
Time
of the (North: 재밤)
The native Korean numerals are
day
used for the hours in the 12- 하루의 구분
hour system and for the hours 밤중(0:00) 자정
0:00 to 12:00 in the 24-hour 밤
ㅎ 오전
system. The hours 13:00 to ㅇ
상오
24:00 in the 24-hour system are 일출 아침
(North:
denoted using both the native ㅊㄴ
ㄴㄴ 전
Korean numerals and the Sino-
Korean numerals. The Sino- 낮중(12:00) 낮 정오
ㄹ
Korean numerals are used to ㄹ
denote the minute and the 오후
일몰 저녁
second. ㄹ (하오
한 시 삼 십 분 (01:30) ㅎ
밤
네 시 삼십 칠 분 (04:37) 밤중(24:00) 자정
다섯 시 오십 오 분 (5:55)
세 시 이십 분 삼십 초 (3:20:30)
 십 칠 시 / 열 일곱 시 (17:00).
You can also use 반 for half an
hour
(i.e. 두 시 반 means 2:30).
Some paticles usually use with time: -부터 (from)/ -까지,껏 (until)/ -동안,간,중
(에) (during), duration of, middle of / -후(에) (after)/ -전(에) (before), and
approximating particles (쯤, 약,...)
저는 두 달 동안 미국에서 살았습니다.(I've been to America for 2 months.)
저는 세 달 후에 미국으로 돌아갈 예정입니다.(I'll go back to America after 3
months.)
여섯 달 만에 집에 왔습니다.(I came home after a 6 month's absence.)
버스로 약 네 시간 이십 분 걸립니다.(It takes about 4 hours and 20 minutes to
go by bus.)

5. Verbs (동사와 형용사)

Unlike most of the European languages, Korean does not conjugate verbs using
agreement with the subject, and nouns have no gender. Instead, verb conjugations
depend upon the verb tense, aspect, mood, and the social relation between the
speaker, the subjects, and the listeners. For example, different endings are used
depending on the speaker's relation with their subject or audience. Politeness is a
critical part of Korean language and Korean culture, therefore, when talking to
someone esteemed, the correct verb ending must be chosen to indicate the proper
respect.

Korean is an agglutinative language. The basic form of a Korean sentence is:

Subject + Verb + Object. The verb comes last in a sentence but it is the most
important part of the sentence. A verb by itself can form a sentence. The subject
and the object of a sentence are often deleted when these are considered obvious in
context. For example, the sentence: 찾았다! ([I] found [it]!) consists of only a verb
and the because the context in which this sentence would have occurred would
make them obvious or the sentence: 가게에 갔어요? (Did [you] go to the store?)
uses subjectless because the subject "you" is implied in the conversation.

Korean has four types of verbs: action, stative, copulative, and existential.
Action verbs (동사): Action or processive verbs involve some action or internal
movement.
Stative verbs (형용사): are sometimes considered as adjectives. Unlike English
adjectives, however, Korean stative verbs don't require a copula. They are not
modifiers of nouns, and they are never followed by nouns.
Equational copula: the affirmative form 이다(to be) and the negative form 아니다
(not to be)
Existential verb 있다/ 없다: denotes some kind of locational (either physical or
psychological) existence, or possession. 있다/ 없다 occurs most naturally and
commonly with the locational particle 에 (in, on, at, over).

I. Action verbs and Stative verbs

i. Structure
Their structure when used as the predicate of a clause is:
Finite verb template
Prefix 0 a b c d
(Negative) ROOT Valency Honorific Tense aspect Speech styles

a) Prefix
The negative prefix may be 안 – not or 못– can't.

b) Valency
 Causative from
A causative form, in linguistics, (a) is an expression of an agent causing or forcing
a patient to perform an action or to be in a certain condition--salient cause, (b) is an
expression of a patient involves in a non-volitional event that registers the changes
of its state--salient effect, (c) is an expression of a grammatical modality in
perfective (sequential) or hypothetical or non-hypothetical state--perceptual salient.
Forming causative:
이 Causative verb
Active verb Causative verb
먹다 (to eat) 먹이다 (to feed)
죽다 (to die) 죽이다 (to kill)
붙다 (to stick to) 붙이다 (to paste, to attach)
끓다 (to boil) 끓이다 (to make something boiled)
보다 (to see, to look, to watch) 보이다 (to show)
속다 (to be fooled, to be
속이다 (to deceive, to cheat)
deceived)
히 Causative verb
Active verb Causative verb
익다 (to be ripe) 익히다 (to ripen)
읽다 (to read) 읽히다 (to get to read)
입다 (to wear) 입히다 (to clothe)
앉다 (to sit) 앉히다 (to place in a seat)
눕다 (to lie, to couch) 눕히다 (to lay down, to repose)
리 Causative verb
 Active verb Causative verb
알리다 (to announce, to acquaint
알다 (to know)
with)
울다 (to cry) 울리다 (to make so cry)
살다 (to live) 살리다 (to save)
기 Causative verb
Active verb Causative verb
벗다 (To take off clothes) 벗기다 (to peel)
웃다 (to laugh) 웃기다 (to make a person laugh)
맡다 (to undetake) 맡기다 (to entrust)
감다 (to wind, to roll) 감기다 (to wearthe)
우 Causative verb
Active verb Causative verb
깨다 (to awake) 깨우다 (to wake up)
서다 (to stand up) 세우다 (to make so stand up)
자다 (to sleep) 재우다 (to put ot sleep)
타다 (to ride) 태우다 (to give a ride)
구 Causative verb
Active verb Causative verb
돋다 (to sprout) 돋구다 (to make sth sprouted)
추 Causative verb
Active verb Causative verb
맞다 (to be fit) 맞추다 (to adjust)
낮다 (to be low) 낮추다 (to lower, to let down)
늦다 (to be late) 늦추다 (to delay)
Ex:
Active- 나는 김치를 먹는다 (I eat Kimchi)
Causative- 나는 강아지에게 우유를 먹인다 (I feed the puppy some milk.)

 Passive from
The passive voice is a grammatical voice in which the subject receives the action
of a transitive verb. Passive voice emphasizes the process rather than who is
performing the action. Using the passive voice is extremely common in Korean.
Koreans often use it to emphasize what would normally have been the object of the
sentence. Passive verbs are often formed by adding 이/ 히/ 리/ 기 to a regular verb.

이 Passive Verbs (Most verbs in this category end in ㅎ or a vowel)

Active verb Passive verb Examples
놓다 (to 놓이다 (to be 식탁에 그릇들을 놓았다(I put the dishes on
lay, to put, on, to be placed, the table).
to build) to be built) 식탁에 그릇들이 놓였다 (the dishes were put
 on the table).
바꾸다 (to 바뀌다 (to be 결정을 바꾸었다 (I changed the decision).
change) changed) 결정이 바뀌었다 (The decision was changed).
보다 (to 보이다 (to be
see) seen)
그 책은 내 친구가 썼다 (My friend wrote that
쓰다 (to 쓰이다 (to be
book).
use, to used, to be
그 책은 내 친구에 의해 쓰였다 (That book
write) written)
was written by my friend).
쌓다 (to 쌓이다 (to be
상자를 쌓았다 (I stacked the boxes up).
pile up, to piled up, to be
상자가 쌓였다 (The boxes were stacked up).
stack) stacked up)
내가 여자친구를 찼다 (I dumped my
차디 (to
차이다 (to be girlfriend).
dump
dumped) 내 여자친구는 나에게 차였다 (My girlfriend
someone)
was dumped).
히 Passive Verbs (Most verbs in this category end in a ㅂ,ㅈ,ㄷ or ㄱ)
Active verb Passive verb Examples
꽃을 꽃병에 꽂았다 (I put some flowers in a
꽂다 (to
꽂히다 (to be vase).
put in, to
stuck in) 꽃이 꽃병에 꽂혔다 (Some flowers were put in
stick in)
a vase).
닫다 (to 닫히다 (to be
문을 닫았다 (I closed the door).
close, to closed, to be
문이 닫혔다 (The door was closed).
shut) shut)
읽다 (to 읽히다 (to be 책을 읽었다 (I read the book).
read) read) 책이 읽혀졌다 (The book was read).
막다 (to 막히다 (to be
입구를 막았다 (I blocked the entrance).
block, to blocked, to be
입구가 막혔다 (The entrance was blocked).
clog) clogged up)
먹다 (to 먹히다 (to be 빵을 먹는다 (I eat some bread).
eat) eaten) 빵이 먹혔다 (The bread was eaten).
땅에 관을 묻는다 (I bury the coffin under the
묻다 (to 묻히다 (to be ground).
bury) buried) 땅에 관이 묻힌다 (The coffin is buried under
the ground).
뽑다 (to 뽑히다 (to be
잡초를 뽑는다 (I pluck the weeds out).
pluck, to plucked, to be
잡초가 뽑혔다 (The weeds were plucked out).
pull off) pulled off)
잡다 (to 잡히다 (to be 경찰이 범죄자를 잡았다 (The cop caught the
catch) caught) criminal).
 범죄자가 경찰에게 잡혔다 (The criminal was
caught by the cop).
리 Passive Verbs (Most verbs in this category are irregular ㄷ verbs or end
with ㄹ)
Active verb Passive verb Examples
그림을 벽에 걸었다 (I hung a picture on the
걸다 (to 걸리다 (to be wall).
hang) hung) 그림이 벽에 걸렸다 (The picture was hung on
the wall).
듣다 (to 들리다 (to be 노래를 들었다 (I heard the song).
hear) heard) 노래가 들렸다 (The song was heard).
물다 (to 물리다 (to be 개가 나를 물었다 (The dog bit me).
bite) bitten) 나는 개한테 물렸다 (I was bitten by the dog).
열다 (to 열리다 (to be 창문을 열었다 (I opened the window).
open) opened) 창문이 열렸다 (The window was opened).
팔다 (to 팔리다 (to be 나는 장난감을 판다 (I sell the toys).
sell) sold) 장난감이 팔렸다 (The toys were sold).
풀다 (to 풀리다 (to get
문제를 풀었다 (I solve the problem).
untie, to untied, to be
문제가 풀렸다 (The problem was solved).
solve) solved )
잘다 (to 잘리다 (to be 종이를 잘랐다 (I cut the paper).
cut) cut) 종이가 잘렸다 (The paper was cut).
기 Passive Verbs (Most verbs in this category end with ㄴ, ㅅ and ㅁ)
Active verb Passive verb Examples
끊다 (to 끊기다 (to be
줄을 끊었다 (I cut the rope).
cut off, to cut off, to be
줄이 끊겼다 (The rope was cut).
sever) severed)
돈을 빼앗았다 (I stole someone's money).
빼앗다 (to 빼앗기다 (to be
돈을 빼앗겼다 (My money was stolen by
steal) stolen)
someone).
안다 (to 안기다 (to be 아기를 품에 안았다 (I held baby in my arms).
hold, to held, to be 아기가 품에 안겼다 (The baby was held in my
embrace) embraced) arms).
경찰이 도둑을 쫓는다 (A cop chases robbery).
쫓다 (to 쫓기다 (to be
도둑이 경찰에 쫓겼다 (A robbery was chased
chase) chased)
by cop).
잠그다 (to 잠기다 (to be 문을 잠근다 (I lock the door).
lock) locked) 문이 잠긴다 (The door is locked).

When using the passive from:

- The person or animal receiving the action is shown by attaching the particles 가/
이 or 은/는
- The person or animal doing the action or responsible for it is shown by the
particles 한테 or 에게. Ex: 사람이 개한테 물렸어요. (The person was bitten by
the dog.)
- If the thing responsible for the action is an inanimate being the particles 에 or 으
로 are uses instead of 한테/에게. Ex: 그것은 종이로 덮였어요.(It was covered
with the paper.)
- If the underlying verb takes an object (i.e. is with 을/를) then 을/를 must
continue to be used. Ex: 난 돈을 도둑맞았습니다.(I had my money stolen.)
- If an action verb is turned into a passive verb, the object particle 을/를 must be
replaced with 이/가. Ex: 산이 보이비나다.(The mountain can be seen.)
- 하다 verbs are made passive by replacing 하다 with 되다. Ex: 시작되다 (to be
started)

c) Honorific form
All verbs can be converted into an honorific form by adding the infix 시 (after a
vowel) or 으시 (after a consonant) after the stem and before the ending. A few
verbs have special honorific equivalents. The 이 elides before another vowel. For
example, with a following past tense, 시었 reduces to 셨 or with the present tense
in informal speech style, 시어 reduces to 세. This shows deference towards the
topic of the conversation, when speaking of one's elders.

Base verb Honorific Translation

가다 가시다 to go
받다 받으시다 to receive
바쁘다 바쁘시다 to be busy
Base verb Special honorific Translation
계시다 To exist, to be somewhere
있다
있으시다 to have
안계시다 not to exist, not be somewhere
없다
없으시다 Not to have
마시다 드시다 to drink
드시다
먹다 to eat
잡수시다
자다 주무시다 to sleep
마나다 뵙다 to meet
데리고 가다 모시고 가다 Take someone to somewhere
말하다 말씀하시다 To say, to speak
묻다 여쭙다 To ask
죽다 돌아가시다 To die
 드리다
주다 To give
올리다
아프다 편찮으시다 To be hurt, be in pain
배고프다 시장하시다 To be hungry

d) Tenses
 Present tense: if there is no suffix in this slot, the verb is in present simple; if
there is the suffix is 고 있, the verb in present progressive.
 Past tense suffix is 았 if the vowel is one of 아, 야 or 오, 였 after 하다 and
었 after another vowels. (In the North, 았 if the vowel is one of 아, 야 or 오,
였 after 하다 or one of 이, 애, 에, 외, 위, 의 and 었 after another vowels.)
 For the future tense & prospective aspect, the suffix is 겠.
 There are also compound tenses: remote past 었었 (았었/ 였었), past
continous 고 있었, future continuous 고 있겠.
 If the future suffix combines with past suffix like 었겠 (았겠/ 였겠) or 었었
겠 (았었겠/ 였었겠) is used to convey supposition, conjecture, a guess, a
thought or observation about something in the past.

e) Sentences endings (어미)

The most common sequences after the tense suffix are,
Formal Formal Informal Informal
polite plain polite plain
1
ㄴ/ 는다 (verb)
Statement (스) ㅂ니다 아(어/여)요 2 아 (어/여)
다 (adjective)
(느)냐 (verb)
Question (스) ㅂ니까 아(어/여)요 아 (어/여)/ 니
(으)냐 (adjective)
Command (으) 십시오 아 (어/여)라 (으) 세요 아 (어/여) (라)
Proposal (으) ㅂ시다 자 자요 자
는군요 (verb) 는군/ 구나 (verb)
Exclamation - -
군요(adjective) 군/ 구나 (adjective)
Notes:
1
This indicative ㄴ/ 는 is not found after the past or future suffixes.
2
There are three types of basic conjugation rules, depend on the vowel appear in
the last syllable of the adj/verb stem:
 In the South, if the vowel ends with 아 or 오 (아, 오, 야) use 아요; if verb or
adjective that ends with 하다, use 여요 and if the vowel ends with any
vowel beside 오, 아, and is not a 하다 verb/ adjective then uses 어요.
 In the North, if the vowel ends with 아 or 오 (아, 오, 야) use 아요; if verb or
adjective that ends with 하다, use 여요; if the vowel ends with 이 (이, 애,
에, 외, 위, 의 ), use 여요; if the vowel ends with any vowel left and is not a
 하다 verb/ adjective then uses 어요.
3
Besides the sentense endings above, some sentense endings is very popular in
use:
+ (으) ㄹ 까 (요)? / North: (으) ㄹ 가(요)? - Shall I?/ Shall we?/ Will (noun) be?
+ (으) ㄹ 것이다 - Be going to (?)
+ (으) ㄹ 게 (요) - I/we will
+ (으) ㄹ 수 있다 (?) / (으) ㄹ 수 없다 – Can/ can’t

USAGE:
Formal polite: used commonly between strangers, by TV announcers, and to
customers
Formal plain: used to close friends, relatives of similar age, or younger people;
used almost universally in books, newspaper and magazines; also used in reported
speech.
Informal polite: used mainly between strangers, especially those older or of equal
age
Informal plain: used most often between close friends ang relatives, and when
addressing younger people. Rarely used between strangers unless the speaker
wishes to start a confrontation, or the listener is a child.

ii) Making noun (명사형)

Verbs and adjectives can become nouns when combine with (으) ㅁ or 기
Common nouns that are made by using A/V + (으)ㅁ
Adjective/Verb Meaning Noun Meaning
기쁘다 To be happy 기쁨 Delight, happiness
꾸다 To dream 꿈 A dream
단단하다 To be hard 단단함 Hardness, firmness
돕다 To help 도움 Help
싸우다 To fight 싸움 Fight
아프다 To be in pain 아픔 Pain, agony
자다 To sleep 잠 Sleep
죽다 To die 죽음 Death
추다 To dance 춤 Dance
찌다 To steam 찜 Steam
아쉽다 To be fortunate 아쉬움 Unfortunateness
모이다 To be gathering 모임 Meeting, gathering
느끼다 To feel 느낌 Feeling
To announce, to
알리다 알림 Notice
notice
그립다 To desire 그리움 Longing, desire
 걷다 To walk 걸음 Step
졸다 To drowse 졸음 Drowsiness, drowse
젊다 To be young 젊음 Youth
Common nouns that are made by using A/V + 기
Verb/ adjective Meaning Noun Meaning
상하다 to be spoil 상하기 spoilage
놀다 to play 놀기 playing
to write, to
쓰다 쓰기 writing, spending
spend
벌다 to earn 벌기 earning
먹다 to eat 먹기 eating
낫다 to cure 낫기 curing
걷다 to walk 걷기 walking
목욕하다 to take a bath 목욕하기 Taking a bath
가다 to go 가기 going

II. Equational copula: 이다/ 아니다

이다 is a special type of verb (copula) that links the subject of a sentence with a
predicate (a subject complement or an adverbial). In English, this pattern would
translate to be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been. The opposite pattern is 아니다
(to not be). 이다/ 아니다 is used in statement and question only. There are no
command or suggestion forms. Although mostly attached to nouns, noun like
expressions can also be attached.
Form: N + 이다
Formal Informal Informal
Formal plain polite plain
polite After After After After After After
vowel consonant vowel consonant vowel consonan
Statement 입니다 다 이다
예요 이에요 야 이야
Question 입니까 냐 이냐

Form: N + 이/가  아니다

Formal Formal Informal Informal
polite plain polite plain
Statement 아닙니다 아니다 아니에요 아니야

6. Irregular verbs (불규칙 동사와 헝용사)

a) “ㅂ” Irregular verbs
When these irregular stems are followed by a vowel 으, the ㅂ is dropped and 우
is added for all cases. But when are followed by 아/어, ㅂ is dropped and:
In the South: 우 is added to the stem for all case.
 In the North: 우 or 오 is added depends on the the vowel harmony
Verb/Adj + 아/어 요 아/어서 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 거예요 (으)면
가볍다 (to be light) 가벼워요 가벼워서 가벼우니까 가벼울 거예요 가벼우면
고맙다 (to South 고마워요 고마워서 고마우니까 고마울 거예요 고마우면
be
North 고마와요 고마와서 고마우니까 고마울 거예요 고마우면
thankful)

However, the vowel harmony is kept in both the South and the North if the word
root has only one syllable.
Verb/Adj + 아/어 요 아/어서 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 거예요 (으)면
곱다 (to be beautiful) 고와요 고와서 고우니까 고울 거예요 고우면
돕다 (to help) 도와요 도와서 도우니까 도울 거예요 도우면
덥다 (to be hot) 더워요 더워서 더우니까 더울 거예요 더우면

Many verbs ends with ㅂ are regular (the ㅂ does not change): 곱다 (to be numb
from coldness); 넓다 (to be wide); 붙잡다 (to grasp, clench); 뽑다 (to pull out,
extract); 씹다 (to chew); 업다 (carry someone on one´s back); 입다 (to wear
(clothes) ); 잡다 (to catch); 접다 (to fold); 좁다 (to be narrow); 집다 (to pick up)
Verb/Adj + 아/어 요 아/어서 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 거예요 (으)면
곱다 곱아요 곱아서 곱으니까 곱을 거예요 곱으면

b) “ㄷ” Irregular verbs

The ㄷ changes to ㄹ when followed by a vowel
Verb/Adj 아 /어 요 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 거예요 (으)면 (으)세요
걷다 (to walk) 걸어요 걸으니까 걸을 거예요 걸으면 걸으세요
묻다 (to ask) 물어요 물을 거예요 물으니까 물으면 물으세요

Many verbs end with ㄷ are regular (the ㄷ does not change): 믿다(to believe); 닫
다(to close); 받다(to receive); 얻다(to receive); 묻다(to bury); 쏟다(to pour);
뜯다 (to tear, to pluck, to pick)
Verb/Adj 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 거예요 (으)면 (으)세요
묻다 (to bury) 묻어요 묻으니까 묻을 거예요 묻으면 묻으세요

c) “ㄹ” Irregular verbs

All verbs and adjectives whose stem ends with ㄹ are irregular. The ending ㄹ does
not take 으 and disappears if followed by ㄴ,ㅂ,ㅅ and the verb conjugate like it
end with vowel.
(으)니 (으)세
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어 요 (으)ㄹ 거예요 (으)면
까 요
놀다 (to play) 놉니다 놀아요 놀 거예요 노니까 놀면 노세요
들다 (to carry) 듭니다 들어요 들 거예요 드니까 들면 드세요
 d) “으” Irregular verbs
All verbs and adjectives whose stem ends with 으 are irregular. When conjugate
with 아/어, 으 is dropped and 아 or 어 is added depend on the the vowel harmony.
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)면
나쁘다 (to be busy) 나쁩니다 나빠서 나빠요 나쁘니까 나쁘면
예쁘다 (to be pretty) 예쁩니다 예뻐서 예뻐요 예쁘니까 예쁘면

e) “르” Irregular verbs

All verbs and adjectives whose stem ends with 르 are irregular.
 General rule: when conjugate with 아/어, the ㄹ is doubled, the 으 is dropped
and 아 or 어 is added depend on the the vowel harmony.
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)면
마르다 (to be thirsty) 마릅니다 말라서 말라요 마르니까 마르면
부르다 (to call, to
부릅니다 불러서 불러요 부르니까 부르면
sing, to be full)

 Some verbs/ adjectives ends with 르 but is 으 irregular verbs: 다다르다(to

attain a goal or reach a destination), 치르다 (to pay), 따르다 (to pour, to
follow), 들르다 (to stop by)
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)면
따르다 따릅니다 따라서 따라요 따르니까 따르면
 There are only 3 words that ends with 르 but have special from when combine
with 어, the vowel 어 becomes 러: 누르다 (to be yellow), 이르다 (to reach, to
arrive at a place or time), 푸르다 (to be green).
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)면
이르다 이릅니다 이르러서 이르러요 이르니까 이르면
누르다 누릅니다 누르러서 누르러요 누르나까 누르면
Note: 누르다 (to press), 이르다 (to be early/ to say, tell) is applied the general
rule.

f) “ㅅ” Irregular verbs

Some verbs and adjectives whose stem ends with ㅅ are irregular.When these
irregular stems are followed by a vowel, the ㅅ is dropped.
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 까요
낫다 (to recover from
낫습니다 나아서 나아요 나으니까 나을까요
an illness)
잇다 (to join) 잇습니다 이어서 이어요 이으니까 이을까요
 Some verbs/adjectives end with a ㅅ are regular: the ㅅ does not change: 벗다 (to
take off (clothes)); 웃다 (to laugh); 씻다 (to wash); 빗다 (to comb); 솟다 (to gush
out, spring/ to rise, tower, soar); 빼앗다 (To snatch a thing, deprive, take away)
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 까요
씻다 씻습니다 씻어서 씻어요 씻으니까 씻을까요
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 까요
그렇다 (to be so, to be
그렇습니다 그래서 그래요 그러니까 그럴까요
right, to be correct)
하얗다 하얗습니다 하얘서 하얘요 하야니까 하얄까요
Verb/Adj (스)ㅂ니다 아/어서 아/어 요 (으)니까 (으)ㄹ 까요
좋다 좋습니다 좋아서 좋아요 좋으니까 좋을까요
 h) “우” Irregular verbs
The vowel “우” in the end of the stem drops when it meets the suffix ‘어’. There is
only one word in this class: 푸다 (to scoop out, to dip out)
Verb (스)ㅂ니다 아/어 요 아/어서 (으)니까 (으)면 (으)세요
푸다 풉니다 퍼요 퍼서 푸니까 푸면 푸세요

7. Honorifics (존대법)
The Korean language reflects the important observance of a speaker or writer's
relationships with both the subject of the sentence and the audience. Korean
grammar uses an extensive system of honorifics to reflect the speaker's relationship
to the subject of the sentence and speech levels to reflect the speaker's relationship
to the audience.
a) Common Honorifics
 씨 is the most commonly used honorific used amongst people of
approximately equal speech level. It is attached at the end of the full
name,such as 김철수씨 or simply after the first name, 철수씨 if you are
more familiar with someone. Appending 씨 to the surname, for instance 김
씨, can be quite rude, as it indicates the speaker considers himself to be of a
higher social status than the person referred to.
 군 is used moderately on very formal occasions, such as weddings, to a male
only. 양 is the female equivalent of 군. Both are used in a similar fashion to
씨, succeeding either the whole name or the surname in solitude.
 선생 has much more formality and is used to show respect to the addressee.
 귀하 can be seen commonly in formal letters, often used by a company to a
client.
 각하 is used only in extremely formal occasions, usually when addressing
presidents and monarchs.
 선배 (North: 상급생) is used to address senior colleagues or mentor figures,
e.g. students referring to or addressing more senior students in schools,
junior athletes more senior ones in a sports club, or a mentor or more
experienced or senior colleague in a business environment. As with English
titles such as Doctor, 선배 can be used either by itself or as a title. 후배 is
used to refer to juniors. However, the term is not normally addressed to them
directly, and is mainly used in the third person.

b) Honorific Speech
When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer must indicate
the subject's superiority by using special nouns or verb endings. Generally,
someone is superior in status if he or she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly
equal or greater age, an employer, a teacher, a customer, or the like. Someone is
equal or inferior in status if he or she is a younger stranger, a student, an employee
or the like. The use of wrong speech levels or diction is likely to be considered
insulting, depending on the degree of difference between the used form and the
expected form.

Verbs and adjective can be converted into an honorific form by adding the infix
(으) 시 after the stem and before the ending.

One way of using honorifics for nouns is to use special "honorific" nouns in place
of regular ones.
Base noun Honorific Translation
이름 성함, 함자, 존함 Name
나이, 연령 연세 Age
말 말씀 Language
밥 진지, 식사 Food
병 병환 Disease, sickness
사람 분 Person
생일 생신 Birthday
술 약주 Liquor, alcohol
아이 자녀분, 자제분 One's child, kid
이 치아 Tooth
집 댁 House
화가 화백 Painter, artist

Another way is the honorific suffix -님 is affixed to the appropriate title or kinship
terms to make them honorific.
Base noun Honorific Translation
할머니 할머님 grandmother
아버지 아버님 father
형 형님 a male's older brother
누나 누님 a male's older sister
아들 아드님 son
딸 따님 daughter
사장 사장님 director
교수 교수님 professor
선생 선생님 teacher

Some words have synonym, the same honorific level but have a difference in
formal level
Formal Informal Definition
사용하다 쓰다 to use
완료하다 끝내다 to complete, to finish
 전송하다 보내다 to send
부인 (1st wife) / 첩 (2rd
아내 wife
or later wife)
감사하다 고맙다 To be thankful
무료 (로) 공짜 (로) Free (freely)

8. Attributive verbs (과형형)

Korean does not have relative pronouns. Instead, attributive verbs modify nouns,
as adjectives do in English. Verbs use the attributive suffix 은 after a consonant, or
ㄴ after a vowel, for the past tense. To specify the on-going action for an active
verb, the invariable suffix 는 is used instead. For the future, the suffix 을 , ㄹ is
used, and in the imperfective/ retrospective (recalling what once was) it is 던.
For example:
Attributive forms
Present food which is being movie which is being
먹는 밥 보는 영화
progressive eaten seen
movie which was
Perfective 먹은 밥 food which was eaten 본 영화
seen
food which one used movie which one
Imperfective 먹던 밥 보던 영화
to eat used to see
Future 먹을 밥 food to be eaten 볼 영화 movie to be seen
The perfective suffix 았/ 었/ 였 is sometimes used as well for completed actions or
processes that result in a present state. It precedes the attributive suffix: 먹었던 밥
- food which had been eaten.

Almost adjectives use the attributive suffix 은 after a consonant, or ㄴ after a

vowel. For example: 예쁜 꽃 (beautiful flower), 작은 방 (small room),... If the
adjective ends with 있다 and 없다, the invariable suffix 는 is used instead. For
example: 재미 없는 영회 (boring movie), 맛이 있는 음식 (delicious food).

9. Averbs (부사)
In general, many adverbs are created by attaching 게 to the end of the adjective
stem. Ex:
Adverb
Adjective Meaning Meaning
form
가볍다 to be light 가볍게 lightly
나쁘다 to be bad 나쁘게 badly
늦다 to be late 늦게 late (adv)
맛있다 to be delicious 맛있게 deliciously
무례하다 to be rude 무례하게 rudely
 바쁘다 to be busy 바쁘게 busily
밝다 to be bright 밝게 brightly
싸다 to be cheap 싸게 cheaply
아름답다 to be beautiful 아름답게 beautifully
안전하다 to be safe 안전하게 safely
어렵다 to be difficult 어렵게 difficultly
예쁘다 to be beautiful 예쁘게 beautifully
용감하다 to be courage 용감하게 bravely, courageously
위험하다 to be dangerous 위험하게 dangerously
자연스럽다 to be natural 가연스럽게 naturally
자유롭다 to be free 자유롭게 freely
재미있다 to be fun 재미있게 funny
조용하다 to be quiet 조용하게 quietly
즐겁다 to be pleasant 즐겁게 pleasantly
크다 to be large 크게 largely
편리하다 to be convenient 편리하게 conveniently
편하다 to be comfortable 편하게 comfortably
행복하다 to be happy 행복하게 happily

However, sometimes there is a more natural form, especially adverbs ending with
the syllable 히 or (으)로.
Common adverbs ending with 히
Adverb Meaning Derived from Meaning
대단히 greatly, highly, extremely 대단하다 to be great, incredible
definitely, clearly,
분명히 분명하다 to be clear
certainly
솔직히 honestly, frankly 솔직하다 to be frank, honest, open
순순히 passively, obediently 순순하다 to be obedient
zealously, hard (i.e. work
열심히 열심하다 to be hard
hard)
completely, fully,
완전히 완전하다 to be complete, full, perfect
perfectly
to be accidental,
우연히 on accident, by chance 우연하다
coincidentally
자세히 in detail 자세하다 detailed
천천히 slowly - -
특히 especially, particularly 특별하다 to be special
certainly, for sure, for
확실히 확실하다 to be certain, be sure
certain, definitely
Some words originated from Chinese Character, like English word with Latin or
Greek dervation. That’s why you may have some difficulty in finding relation
between “특히” & “특별하다”.

Common adverbs ending with (으)로: These are often formed with nouns, sometimes
in conjunction with 적 attached to the noun as well.
Noun or
Meaning Adverb Meaning
derivative
고질 chronicity 고질적으로 chronically
공식 formality 공식적으로 formally, officially
극 drama 극적으로 dramatically
기본 fundamental 기본적으로 fundamentally
기적 miracle 기적적으로 miraculously
단기 short-term (a) 단기적으로 in the short term
물리 physics 물리적으로 physically
본능 instinct 본능적으로 instinctively
비공식 informality 비공식적으로 informally, unofficially
사적 personal (a) 사적으로 personally
상대 relativity 상대적으로 relatively
수동 manual 수동으로 manually
심리 psychology 심리적으로 psychologically
의도 intention 의도적으로 intentionally, on purpose
일반 general 일반적으로 generally
자동 automatic 자동으로 automatically
잠정 tentative (a) 잠정적으로 tentatively
장기 long-term (a) 장기적으로 in the long term
전적 entire 전적으로 completely, totally, entirely
주기 periodic 주기적으로 regularly, periodically
직접 immediacy 직접으로 directly
질적 qualitative 질적으로 qualitatively
협동 coperation 협동적으로 cooperatively
forth, forward/
앞 Future, front 앞으로
later (longer time period)
Adverbs Meaning Adverbs Meaning
없이 without 꼭 for sure
now and then, now and
틀림 없이 certainly, sure, definitely 가끔
again, once in a while
빨리 quickly 보통 usually
많이 many, much 전혀 absolutely
일찍 early 자주 often
 같이 with, together 자꾸 continously often
같은 same, like 일부러 on purpose, deliberately
따로 separately 함부로 carelessly, mindlessly
깊이 deeply 반드시 at all costs, at any cost
드문드문,
갑자기 suddenly occasionally, sometimes
때때로
곧바로 immediately 다시 again
항상 always 대단 extremely
지금 (right) now 나중에 later (longer time period)
이제 now 당시 at the time of
이따가 later (shorter time period) 잠깐 Awhile, little while
In the North, 가끔 is replaced by 가담가담; 곧 바로 is replaced by 대미쳐; 드문
드문 is replaced by 도간도간; 빨리 is replced by 날래 and 틀림 없이 is
replaced by 거의없이

10.Spacing
In the South, the rules of spacing are not very clear-cut, whereas in the North, these
are very precise. In general, compared to the North, the writing in the South tends
to include more spacing. The main differences are indicated below.
 Bound nouns
Before bound nouns, a space is added in the South but not in the North. This
applies to counter words also, but the space is sometimes allowed to be omitted in
the South.
South North Meaning
내것 내것 my thing
할수 있
할 수 있다 to be able to do
다
한개 한개 one thing (counter word)

 Auxiliaries
Before auxiliaries, a space is inserted in the South but not in the North. Depending
on the situation, however, the space may be omitted in the South.

South North Meaning

먹어 보다／먹어보다 먹어보다 to try to eat
올 듯하다／올듯하다 올듯하다 to seem to come
읽고 있다 읽고있다 to be reading
자고 싶다 자고싶다 to want to sleep
In the above, in the rules of the South, auxiliaries coming after -아/-어 or an
adnominal form allow the space before them to be omitted, while the space after -
고 cannot be omitted.
  Words indicating a single concept
Words formed from two or more words that indicate a single concept in principle
are written with spaces in the South and without spaces in the North. However,
proper nouns and specialised words may also be written without spaces in the
South.
South North Meaning
국어 사전 국어사전 Korean dictionary
경제부흥상
경제 부흥 상황 state of economic recovery
황
Note that since the spacing rules in the South are often not known, not followed or
make spacing optional, spellings vary from place to place. For example, taking the
word 국어 사전, people who see this as two words will add a space, and people
who see this as one word will write it without a space. Thus, the spacing depends
on how one views what "one word" consists of, and hence while spacing is
standardised in the South, in reality the standard does not matter much.

11.Plural
Korean has general number. That is, a noun on its own is neither singular nor
plural however in most instances the singular form is used even when in English it
would be translated as plural. For example, in English: "there are three apples"
would use the plural "apples" while in Korean: “사과 세개 있습니다” maintains
the word 사과 (apple) in its singular form. It also has an optional plural marker
들, which is most likely to be used for definite and highly animate nouns
(primarily first- and second-person pronouns, to a lesser extent nouns and third-
person pronouns referring to humans, etc.) Ex: 아이들이 김 선생님께 빵을 많이
드렸어요 (The children gave Mr Kim a lot of loafs of bread).

However, 들 may also be found on the predicate, on the verb, object of the verb, or
modifier of the object, in which case it forces a distributive plural reading (as
opposed to a collective reading) and indicates that the word it is attached to
expresses new information. If it did, it would not be redundant with the plural
marking on the subject. For example:
학생들이 풍선 하나를 샀어요 (The students bought a balloon),
In this sentense, it's not clear if they bought one balloon together, or one each.
However, with the plural on "one":
학생들이 풍선 하나를들 샀어요 (The students bought a balloon each)
"Balloon" is specified as a distributive plural and the sentense is clear