ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE

2P2

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANI
ZATIONAL
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE M. | 2P2
PSYCHOLOGY
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL to perform well, work/life

PSYCHOLOGY REVIEWER environment
Chapter 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology Major Fields of I/O Psychology
What is Industrial/Organizational  Personnel Psychology
Psychology? o Analyze jobs to obtain a
knowledge of what an
 Branch of psychology that applies
employee does
the principles of psychology to the
o Methods to train and develop
workplace
employees
 Scientific study and professional
 Organizational Psychology
practice that focuses on concepts
o Issues of leadership, job
and principles that are psychological
in nature satisfaction, employee
 Operations in context of business motivation, organizational
and industry communication and change,
 It includes principles of learning, conflict management
develop training programs, incentive o Serve as the role of
plans, and work groups consultant
 Human Factors/ Ergonomics
Two sides of I/O Psychology o Workplace design
o Human-machine interaction
o Science inquiry – advancing
 Selection and Placement
knowledge about people at
o Developing assessment
work
o Professional – application of methods for the selection,
placement and promotion of
knowledge and principles in
employees
I/O Psychology (hire, reduce,
 Training and Development
improve, increase, and solve)
o Identifying employee skills
Scientist-Practitioner Model that needs to enhance job
performance
o Model framework for
 Performance Appraisal
education bases on the
o Process of identifying criteria
scientific principles and
or standards for determining
finding evidenced in the
that performance of
discipline and basis for
employees
practice
 Organization Development
Two approaches in IO Psychology o Analyzing structure of an
organization and maximize
o Industrial – determining the the satisfaction and
competencies needed to effectiveness
perform a job, employees,  Quality of Worklife
and training o Factors that contribute to a
o Organizational – healthy and productivity
organizational structure and workforce
culture; motivate employees
Brief History of I/O Psychology
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 The Early Years (1900-1916)  Psychological research to

o Walter Dill Scott (1997) solve problems
 The Theory of Advertising concentrated on
– which psychology was selection, classification
first applied to business and development
 Increasing Human o Psychological Corporation
Efficiency in Business  James Cattell in 1921
o Hugo Munsterberg  Advance psychology and
 Psychology and Industrial promote usefulness to
Efficiency industry
o Frank and Lillian Gilbreth o Hawthorne Studies
 Pioneered industrial  To show complexity in
management techniques efficiency
 Effect of stress and  Change in behavior when
fatigue on workers people react to a change
 World War 1 (1917-1918) in the environment
o Used to assign units in the  Human relations in the
armed forces workplace and its
o Robert Yerkes – president of APA productivity
 Ways of screening  World War 2 (1941-1945)
recruits for mental o Walter Bingham
deficiency  Chaired advisory
 Army Alpha – committee on
intelligences test for classification of military
selection and placement personnel
of military personnel o Army General Classification Test
 Army Beta Test –  Selection and placement
nonverbal intelligence of military personnel
test for assessment of  1970
illiterate recruits o B.F Skinner
o John B. Watson  Behavioral modification in
 Perceptual and motor organization
tests for pilots
Employment of I/O Psychologist
o Henry Gantt
 Increasing efficiency with  They are found in different fields
cargo ships were built, o College and Universities –
repaired and loaded teach and conduct research
o Thomas Edison o Consulting Firms – help
 163 item knowledge test organizations to organize
 Between the Wars (1919-1940) plans and be productive by
o Bureau of Salesmanship forming plans that includes
Research selection of workforce,
 Walter Bingham designing systems, and
 Carnegie Institute of enhancing worklife
Technology o Private and public sector
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Similar duties as  Considerations in Conducting

consultants but in Research
different o Hypothesis – a prediction
environments that can be tested to answer
a research question
Education Requirements and Types of
o Theory – systematic set of
Programs
assumptions regarding the
 Graduate Record Exam (GRE) – cause and nature of behavior
graduate school version of SAT o Literature Reviews –
 Terminal master’s degree programs  Journals – articles
–Graduate programs that only offers written by
a master’s degree researchers directly
 Internship – A situation in which a reporting results of a
student works for an organization, study
either for pay or as a volunteer, to  Trade Magazines –
receive practical work experience. articles written by
 Practicum – A paid or unpaid professional writers
position with an organization that who have developed
gives a student practical work expertise in a given
experience. field
 Dissertation – A formal research  Magazine –
paper required of most doctoral periodicals to inform
students in order to graduate. o Location of the Study
 Laboratory Research
Research in I/O Psychology
– controlled
 Why Conduct Research?  External
o Answering Questions and validity – a
Making Decisions disadvantage
 Extensive use of  Field Research –
research and research out on the
statistics field
 Increased employee  Loses control
satisfaction, with variables
productivity, and  Informed Consent is
fewer accidents needed in conducting
o Research and everyday life research
 Research can be  Institutional Review
applied to everyday Boards – monitor
life such as in research to ensure
commercials and etc. ethical treatment
o Common Sense is often  Research Method to be used
Wrong o Experiments
 Conducting research  To know cause-effect
to know facts instead relationships of
of taking gut feeling variables
information  Manipulation –
alteration of a
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

variable by an  Decisions on size,

expirementer composition and
 Independent Variable method of selecting
– manipulated subjects
 Dependent Variable –  Small
measured variable organization –
 Experimental Group – use of all
receives the employees
experimental  Large
treatment organization –
 Control Group – don’t selected
receive the treatment employees
o Quasi-experiments –  Random Sample –
experimenter either doesn’t every member is
manipulate the independent relevant and has
variable or in which subjects equal chance of being
are not randomly assigned to choses
conditions  Convenience sample
o Archival Research – using – nonrandom; easily
previously collected data or available
records to answer research  Random assignment
question – random unbiased
o Surveys – ask questions to a assignments of the
certain topic subjects
o Meta-analysis – statistical  Running the Study
method of reaching o To ensure the data are
conclusions based on collected in an unbiased
previous research fashion
 Effect size – amount o Debrief – informing the
of change caused by subjects about the
an experimental experiment after the
manipulation experiment
 Mean effect size –  Statistical Analysis
average of the effect o After collection of data they
sizes for all studies are analyzed statistically
o Correlation coefficient o Help determine how
 Coefficient resulting confident are we with results
from performing a o To determine strength
correlations that o Correlation – statistical
indicates the procedure to measure
magnitude and relationship between
direction of a variables
relationship  Intervening variables
o Practical significance – – third variable that
actual impact of study on can explain the
human behavior relationship of
o Subject Samples variables
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

Ethics in I/O Psychology possess the

necessary
 Dilemmas that are found in I/O
knowledge, skills, and
fields
abilities to carry
 Situations that require personal
requirements
judgments
3. Training
 Rely on morals and personal
4. Person – Power Planning
values
 Working mobility
 Types of Dilemmas
 Peter Principle – promoting
o Type A
employees until they
 High level of eventually reach highest
uncertainty as to potential
what is right or 5. Performance Appraisal
wrong  Source of employee
 No best solution training and
 Both positive and counselling
negative 6. Job Classification
consequences  Determining pay
o Type B levels, transfers, and
 Rationalizing promotions
 Difference 7. Job Evaluation
between right and  Determine worth of a
wrong is much job
clearer 8. Job Design
 Choosing a  To determine the
solution that is optimal way in which
most a job should be
advantageous performed
Chapter 2: Job Analysis and Evaluation 9. Compliance with legal
guidelines
Job analysis  Decisions must be
based on job related
1. Work analysis
information through
2. Gathering and analyzing information
job analysis
about:
10. Occupational Analysis
 Work
 Job Analysis
 Condition where it is
Interview – obtaining
performed
information about a
 Characteristics
job by talking to a
needed to perform
person performing it
 Importance of Job Analysis
1. Writing Job Descriptions Writing a Good Job Description
 2-5 page summary of
the tasks and job  Job Title
involved in analysis o Describes nature of job
2. Employee selection o Assists selection and
 Determines whether a recruitment of employee
particular applicant
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o Affects perceptions of the o Internal department

status and worth of job  Human resources
 Brief Summary  Compensation
o Paragraph length  Training
description of nature and  Engineering
purpose of job o Internal task force
 Work Activities o Supervisors
o Lists the tasks and activities o Employees
which the worker is involved o Consultants
 Organize by o Interns/class projects
dimensions  How often should a job description
 Task Statements be updated?
 Tools and equipment used o more significant changes in
o Lists all the tools and a job = the more the job
equipment used to perform description should be
tasks updated
 Job Context o Job crafting: informal
o Describes work environment changes that employees
 Work schedule make in their jobs to better
 Degree of fit their interests and skills
supervision  Which employees should
 Ergonomic participate?
information o Choices
 Work Performance  All employees: for
o Describes how an organizations with
employee’s performance is relatively few people
evaluated in each job
o What work standards are o Potential differences
expected  Job competence,
o Evaluations (when, who. Race, Gender,
What) Education level,
 Compensations Information Viewpoint
o Information on salary,  What types of information should be
position, compensable obtained?
factors used to determine o Types of requirements:
salary  Formal
 Job Competencies (Specifications)  Informal
o KSAOs necessary to be o Level of specificity
successful at the job
o Before hiring: employee Conducting a job analysis
selection  Step 1: Identify tasks performed
o After hiring: training purpose o Gathering existing
information
Preparing for a job analysis o Interviewing subject-matter
experts (SMEs)
 Who will conduct the analysis?
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 SMEs: people who  read and understood

are knowledgeable by a person with the
about the job same reading ability
 Individual  should be written in
 Group or SME the same tense
conference  tools and equipment
 Ammerman used to complete the
technique: job task
experts identifies the  not be competencies
objectives and  not be a policy
standards to be  make sense by itself
needed to reach by  If decision making is
the ideal worker involved, level of
o Observing incumbents authority should be
 Observations: useful indicated
job analysis methods o Step 3: Rate task
 Advantage: lets the statements
job analyst see the  Task analysis: rate
worker do the job each task statement
 Disadvantage: very on the frequency and
obtrusive the importance or
o Job participation: job analyst criticality of the task
performs the job being being performed
analyzed  Tasks can be rated
 Step 2: Write task statements on a variety of scales
o Task inventory: o Necessary scales
questionnaire containing a  Frequency
list of tasks each of which  Importance
the job incumbent rates on a o Step 4: Determine essential
series of scales such as KSAOs
importance and time spent  Competencies)
 Required elements  Knowledge: body of
 Action: what information needed
is done to perform a task
 Object: to  Skill: proficiency to
which the perform a learned
action is done task
 Optional elements  Ability: basic capacity
 Where, where for performing a wide
, how, when it range of tasks,
is done acquiring a
o Characteristics of well- knowledge, or
written task statements developing a skill
 One action should be  Other characteristics:
done to one object personality,
willingness, interest,
and motivation and
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

such tangible factors  One of the most

as licenses, degrees, standardized job
and years of methods
experience  Acceptable levels of
 Competency reliability
modeling:  A particular position
competencies are can be compared
tied to an through computer
organization’s analysis with
strategic initiatives thousands of other
and plans rather than positions.
to specific tasks o CONS:
o Can be identified using  Difficult to
structure methods understand
 Job Components  Not proven very
Inventory (JCI) sensitive when
 Threshold Traits covering all the jobs
Analysis (TTA)  Having a large
 Fleishman Job amount of
Analysis Survey (F- information about a
JAS) job yields the same
 Critical Incident results as having
Technique (CIT) little information.
 Personality-Related  Job Structure Profile (JSP)
Position o Revised version of the PAQ
Requirements Form o Major changes from the
(PPRF) PAQ includes item content
o Step 5: Selecting tests to tap and style, and new items to
KSAOs increase the discriminatory
power of intellectual and
Using other job analysis methods:
decision making
Methods providing general information dimensions.
about worker activities  Job Elements Inventory (JEI)
o Similar to PAQ but easier to
 Position Analysis Questionnaires read.
(PAQ) o Scores from JEI and PAQ
o Structured job analysis
are very similar.
method produced by  Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
McCormick. o Rates the extent to which a
o The level of analysis is
job incumbent is involved
general. Difficult to use for with functions of data,
functions such as training or people, and things.
performance appraisal. o Once the SMEs identify
o PROS:
these functions, they will
 Inexpensive and assign a percentage of time
takes relatively little the incumbent will spends
time to use. on data, people, and things.
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

An analyst will then assign o Used to discover actual

points to these 3 functions. incidents of job behavior that
differentiates a job’s
Methods providing information about tools
success.
and equipment
 Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA)
 Jobs Component Inventory (JCI) o Only available by hiring a
o Concentrates on worker particular consulting firm, it
requirements for performing is not commercially
a job. available.
o The only job analysis o A 33-item questionnaire that
method containing a identifies traits necessary to
detailed section on tools and successfully perform a job.
equipment. o Short, reliable, and can
correctly identify important
Methods providing information about the traits.
work environment  Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-
 AET JAS)
o Translates to “ergonomic job o Jobs are rated on the basis
analysis procedure”. of the abilities needed to
o A job analyst uses this to perform them.
obtain information about the o Easy to use, reliable, and it
work environment. is supported by years of
research.
Methods providing information about o More detailed, commercially
competencies available, available in
 Occupational Information Network several languages, and can
(O*NET) be completed online.
o In the USA, it is a national  Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)
job analysis system created o A 132-item inventory that
by their federal government taps the extent to which a
to replace the Dictionary of job involves these eight
Occupational Titles (DOT). types of adaptability:
o Developers understood that  Handling
jobs can be viewed in four emergencies or crisis
levels: economic, situations
organizational, occupational,  Handling work stress
and individual.  Solving problems
o Includes information about creatively
 Dealing with
the occupation and the
uncertain and
worker characteristics
unpredictable work
needed for success in the
situations
occupation.
 Learning work tasks,
 Critical Incident Technique
technologies, and
o Uses written reports of good
procedures
and bad employee behavior.
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Demonstrating o PAQ is the most

interpersonal standardized; CIT is the
adaptability least standardized.
 Demonstrating o CIT takes the least amount
cultural adaptability of job analyst training; task
 Demonstrating analysis takes the most.
physically oriented o PAQ is the least costly
adaptability method; CIT cost the most.
 Personality-Related Position o PAQ takes the least amount
Requirements Forms (PPRF) of time to complete; task
o Helps determine the analysis takes the most.
personality requirements for o Task analysis has the
a job. highest-quality results; TTA
o Taps 12 personality has the lowest.
dimensions that fall under o Task analysis reports are the
the “Big 5” (OCEAN) longest; job elements
 Performance Improvements reports are the shortest.
Characteristics (PIC) o CIT has been rated the most
o Determine which of the useful; PAQ is the least.
seven main personality traits o Task analysis gives the best
is necessary to perform a overall job picture; PAQ
job. gives the worst.
Evaluation of methods
 Worker-oriented methods, like the Part 2: job evaluation
CIT, JCI, and TTA, are best used for Job Evaluation
employee selection and
performance appraisal.  The process of determining the
 Job-oriented methods, like Task monetary worth of a job.
Analysis, are best for work design  It is done once a job analysis has
and writing job descriptions. been completed
 Acceptable job analysis should use  typically done in two stages:
up-to-date sources, be conducted
Determining internal pay equity
by experts, use a large number of
job incumbents, and cover the  Internal pay equity: comparing jobs
entire range of worker activities and within an organization to ensure
qualifications. that the people in jobs worth the
 Specific tasks are more reliable most money are paid accordingly.
than ratings of general work
activities. Step 1: Determining Compensable Job
 Comparative research that has Factors.
been conducted between these  Compensable Job Factors: factors
methods has focused on opinions of that differentiate the relative worth
job analysts. Thus, these research of each job.
findings are based on users’  These factors include the following:
opinions: o Level of responsibility
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o Physical demands does not count time-offs,

o Mental demands benefits and etc.
o Education requirements  Comparable Worth
o Training and experience o The idea that jobs requiring
requirements the same level of skill and
o Working conditions responsibility should be paid
the same regardless of
Step 2: Determining the Levels of Each supply and demand.
Compensable o
Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights Chapter 4: Employee Selection: Recruiting
because some factors are more important and Interviewing
than others.
Employee Recruitment
 Wage Trend Line:
o A line that represents the Recruitment
ideal relationship between  Attracting people with the right
the number of points that a qualification to apply for a job
job has been assigned and
the salary range for that job. 2 Types of Recruitment

Determining external pay equity 1. External Recruitment

 From outside the company
 The worth of a job is compared to  New employees
other organizations .External pay 2. Internal Recruitment
equity is important to attract and  Within the company
retain employees.  Transferring or promoting
 Salary Surveys: someone
o A questionnaire sent to other  Source of motivation
organizations to see how  Noncompetitive
much they are paying their  Move to
employees in positions higher
similar to those in the positions as
organization sending the they gain
survey. It is used to experience
determine external equity. and
 Market Position: knowledge
o An organization can decide  Competitive
where it wants to be in  Applicants
relation to the compensation compete for
policies of other companies. positions
It is most important in a
good economy where jobs Modes of Recruitment
are plentiful, and applicants 1. Media Advertisements
have several job options.  Newspaper Ads
 Direct Compensation:  Declining method
o The amount of money paid  Least Effective
to an employee, although it Method
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Respond up with undesirable

1. Calling applicants
2. Apply in  Executive Search Firms
person  “Headhunters”
3. Send Resume  Recruits for higher-
ads paying, non-entry
4. Blind Box level positions
 Writing recruitment ads  Charge fees on
 Contains realistic organizations rather
information than on applicant
 Detailed description 5. Referrals
of job  Most effective recruitment
 Include selection method
process  Current employees
 Electronic Media recommend family members
 TV Recruitment – and friends for specific job
commercials openings
 Radio Recruitment –  Provides employees with
can reach different financial incentives
types of audiences  E.R. are more likely to be
and can easily target hired and have longer tenure
desired audience  3 months stay at least of
2. Point of Purchase Method employee to be able to refer
 Job vacancy notices posted  Those referred by the
3. Recruiters employee tend to be the
 Campus Recruiters same in terms of race,
 Recruiters sent to gender, national origin, etc.
colleges which can pose some
 Virtual Job fairs – use problems
of internet to visit 6. Direct Mail
companies  Provide an email address or
 Outside recruiters phone number through which
 Make profit from the applicants can directly
recruitment activities contact the recruiter
4. Employment Agencies and Search  Used to recruit those who are
Firms not actively seeking a job
 Employment agencies (passive job seekers)
 Advantage: lesser  Especially useful for
load on HR positions involving
department or no one specialized skills
in the company has  This increases the availability
skills to recruit and of the organization/company
select employees to applicants
 Disadvantage: lesser 7. Internet
control on recruitment  Fast growing source of
process and may end recruitment
 Employer-Based Websites
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Lists available job  Companies seek potential

openings and applicants from nontraditional
provides information populations
about itself and the 12. Recruiting Passive Applicants
minimum  Identify hidden talents and
requirements needed convince to apply
 Applicants can upload  Recruiters build relationships
resumes, answer with associations
questions designed to
Evaluating the Effectiveness
screen out applicants,
then take 1. Examine number of applicants
employment tests. 2. Cost per applicant
 Job boards 3. Look at number of qualified
 Lists job openings for 4. Cost per qualified
hundreds or 5. Look at the minorities and women
thousands of that applied and hired
organizations and
resumes for millions Realistic Job Previews
of applicants  Involves giving an applicant a
 Larger organizations demonstration and briefing of the
opt to use this pros and cons of job
medium of  Expectation Lowering Procedure
recruitment o Form of RJP that lowers an
 Less cost
applicant’s expectations
 Specific to a
about a job
particular industry or
o company's effort to be honest
skill set
and trustworthy about their
8. Social Media
work and environment
 Differ in audiences reached
 Recruiter search specific Effective Employee Selection
skills with desired skills and Techniques
experience
9. Job Fairs  3 qualities
 Done in 3 ways 1. Valid
 Booths 2. Cost-effective
 Organizations in one 3. Reduce the chance of legal
place consequences
 Organization in one Employment Interviews
place
10. Special Recruit Populations  Method of selecting employees
 Increasing Applicant Diversity where an interviewers asks
 Recruit questions to the applicant
underrepresented  3 main factors
groups such women 1. Structure
and minorities  Determined by the
11. Nontraditional Populations source of question,
where applicants are
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

asked the same  Telephone

question answers are interviews
scored based on a  Video
system Conference
 Structured Interview Interviews
 Questions are  Written
based on job Interviews
analysis
Advantages of Structured Interviews
 Same
questions =  Job relatedness of interview
scored the questions
same  Standardized scoring
 Unstructured  More valid
Interview  Incremental validity
 Applicants are
not asked with Problems with Unstructured Interviews
the same  Poor Intuitive Ability
questions o Intuition is poor predictor of
2. Style
employee success
 Determined by the
 Lack of Job Relatedness
number of
o Questions asked by the
interviewees and
interviewer are not related to
interviewers
the job
 One – on – one – one
 Primacy effects
applicant = one
o First impressions
interviewer
 Contrast Effects
 Serial Interviews –
o Performance of previous
series of single
interviews applicant influence
 Return Interviews - evaluation
series of single  Negative Information Bias
interviews for one o Negative information has
applicant by different more weight than positive
heads of office at the information
company, but  Interviewer- interviewee similarity
scheduled on o Bias
different dates  Interview appearance
 Group Interviews –  Nonverbal Cues
multiple applicants o Factors such as eye contact
answering questions posture that are not
in the same interview associated with actual words
3. Medium spoken
 Extent to which they
Determining the KSAOs to Tap in the
are done in person
Interview
 Face to face
interviews  Conduct a thorough job analysis
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Identify best way to measure an  contains a list of key issues

applicants to perform task that SMEs decided
 should be included in the
Creating Interview Questions (Creating a
ideal answer to an interview
Structured Interview)
question
1. Clarifier  for each key issue that is
 interview questions based on mentioned in an answer, the
the information given on the applicant gets a point
resumé or application  key issues can be weighted
2. Disqualifier so that the more important
 answering these questions issues get more points
wrong will disqualify an
Conducting the Interview
applicant from further
consideration  build rapport
3. Skill-level determiner  explain process and agenda
 designed to tap as  ask questions
applicant's knowledge or  score and take notes
skill, as to gauge their level  provide information about the job
4. Future-focused question
During the interview
 asks applicants what they
would do in a specific  exhibit confidence through nonverbal
situation cues
5. Past-focused question  don’t be afraid to ask questions but
 questions focus on past don’t ask salary
behaviors on past jobs  dress in conservative solid colors
6. Organizational-fit questions
 taps how well an applicant's After the Interview
personality and values will fit  immediately write a brief letter or
with the organizational email thanking the interviewer
culture  for interviewers, always keep you
Creating a Scoring Key for Interview applicants informed
Answers (Creating A Structured Writing a Cover Letter
Interview)
Cover Letters
1. Right/Wrong Approach
 answers are yes or no  accompanies a resume or job
questions and are given a application
point if correct  should not be longer than one page
 usually for skill-level o Salutation
determiner questions  Full name of the
2. Typical Answer Approach person whom the
 compares the applicant's letter is addressed
answer to "benchmark  Company name and
answers" or the standard address
answers from applicants o Paragraphs
3. Key-Issues Approach  opening paragraph
should be one or two
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

sentences long and 3. Psychological résumé

should mention the  Contains the strength of the
fact that your resume chronological and functional
is close to the job you résumés
are applying for, and  Begins with a brief mention
how you know about of your strengths to
the job opening strengthen the first
 the second paragraph impression of the applicant
should state the  organizational framework of
reasons why you are about your education and
qualified for the job experience and highlight
 the last paragraph positive qualities
closes your letter and  Only lists the best and not
should provide everything the applicant has
information on how to done
reach you
Chapter 5: Employee Selection:
o Signature
Referencing and Testing
 Personally sign your
letter, include your Predicting Performance using references
name, address, and and letters of recommendations
phone number below
your signature Reference

Writing a Résumé  Expression of confirming the

accuracy of information provided by
Résumés a
o Written checklist
 Summarizes an applicant’s
o Applicant’s ability
professional and educational
background o Previous performance
 History of your life or an o Work habit
advertisement of your skills o Character
 Characteristics of effective resumes o Potential for future success
 Reference Check
Types of Résumés o Processing of confirming
1. Chronological résumé accuracy of information from
 Useful for applicants whose applicant
previous jobs are related to  Letter of Recommendation
the job they are pursuing o Letter of expressing an
 Jobs are listed in order, from opinion about the applicant
most to least recent
Reasons for using references and
2. Functional résumé
recommendation
 Jobs are grouped by function
or skills required to perform 1. Confirming details on a resume
 for applicants who are either  Confirm the truthfulness of
changing their careers or the information presented by
have gaps in their work the applicant
histories
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Resume fraud – intentional o Involves the knowledge and

placement of wrong use that information
information on resume o Cognitive Ability Test
2. Checking for discipline problems – o Wonderlic Personnel Test –
check whether applicant has a widely used
history of discipline problems  Perceptual Ability
3. Discovering New Information about o Measure processes such as
the applicant spatial ability, perception
 Predicting future and etc.
performance  Psychomotor Ability
4 main problems of references and o Finger dexterity and motor
recommendations coordination
 Physical Ability
1. Leniency o Physical strength such as
 Negligent Reference – stamina and etc.
organization’s failure to meet
duty to supply relevant Predicting Performance using
information about employer Applicant’s skill
and employee’s potential for
 Work Samples – applicant performs
legal trouble
actual job-related tasks
2. Knowledge of the applicant
 Assessment centers – selection
3. Problem with reliability
technique characterized by the use
 lack of agreement between
of multiple assessments method
people who provide
references Predicting Performance using Applicant’
4. Extraneous Factors Skill
 Letters more important than
1. In-basket Technique
actual content
 Assessment center exercise
Predicting Performance using Applicant designed to stimulate the
Training and Education types of information that
comes with the job
 Needed education background for
2. Simulations
the applicant and its asset to the
 Backbone of the assessment
position
center to see the applicant in
Predicting Performance using Applicant action
Knowledge 3. Work Samples
 Doesn’t involve situational
 Job Knowledge Test exercise
o Designed to measure how 4. Leaderless Group Discussion
much the applicant knows  Given job related problem to
about the job solve
5. Business Games
Predicting Performance using Applicant
 Allow the applicant to
Ability
demonstrate different
 Cognitive Ability attributes
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

Predicting Performance using Prior  Medical Exams

Experience
Rejecting Applicants
 Experience Ratings
 applicants must be notified if they
o Past experience will predict
are hired or not
future experience
 Biodata
o Selection method that
considers applicant’s life Chapter 6: Evaluation Selection Techniques
and Decisions
Predicting Performance using
Personality, Interest and Character Characteristics of Effective Selection
Techniques
 Personality Inventories
o Psychological assessment Reliability
that examines applicant’s  consistency of a test
personality  free from error
o Test of normal personality
 Theory Based Test Test-Retest Reliability
 Statistically Based  extent which administration of the
Test same test will lead to similar results
 Empirically based  temporal stability – consistency of
Test scores
o Test of Psychopathology  r coefficient in alternate forms: 0.89
 Projective Test
 Objective Test Alternate Forms Reliability
 Test Inventory  extent to which 2 forms of the test
o Tap vocational interest are same
o Vocational Counselling  if the test are to be taken twice
 Integrity Test
o Predict tendency to steal or Counterbalancing
merchandise 1. method of controlling order effects
o Polygraph
o Voice Stress Analyzer Internal reliability
 Conditional Reasoning Test 2. more homogenous = higher internal
o Designed to reduced faking validity
 Credit History 1. Split-half method
 Graphology  Easiest
o Handwritten analysis  Divides the test in odd or
even nmbers
Predicting Performance Limitations due
2. Coefficient Alpha
to Medical and Psychological Problems
 Used for test with
 Drug Testing interval/ratio scales
o Indicates whether an 3. Kuder-Richardson Formula 20
applicant has recently used  Used for test with
drug dichotomous items
 Psychological Exams  R coefficient – 0.81
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

4. Spearman Brown Prophecy Formula Synthetic Validity

 Used to correct reliability
 Validity is inferred on the basis of a
coefficients from split half
match between job components and
method
tests
Scorer reliability
Construct Validity
 Scorers agree to the test score
 Measures construct it purports to
Evaluating reliability of Test measures
 Correlating test scores from other
 Sources of reliability coefficient
tests
o Own data
 Convergent – same construct
o Test manual  Discriminant – different construct
o Journal articles
o Test compendia Known Group Validity

Validity  Not used much

 Test given to 2 groups who are
 Degree to which inferences from different with the trait in question
scores on tests or assessments are
justified Face Validity

Content Validity  Test appears to be valid

 Give confidence to examiners
 Test items sample the contents that
they supposed to measure Barnum Statements

Criterion Validity  Statements that are general but

seems to be applied to anyone
 Test score is statistically related to
some measure or a criterion Cost – efficiency
 Concurrent Validity  If tests have similar validities
o Correlates test scores with
measures of job performance Computer Adaptive Testing
with those currently working  Test done on a computer which
in the organization adapts the difficulty level or
 Predictive Validity questions
o Compared to a later date
with a measure of job Establishing the Usefulness of a
performance Selection Device

Restricted Range Taylor – Russell Tables

 Performance scores that makes it  Percentage of future employees who

difficult to obtain validity coefficient will be successful on the job
o Test Criterion
Validity generalization o Selection Ratio
 Extent to which inferences from test o Base Rate
scores from one organization can be
Proportion of Correct Decisions
applied to another organization
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Compares the percentage of times a Differential Validity

selection decision was accurate
 Predicts a criterion of 2 groups but is
Lawshe Tables better for one of the 2
 Determine the probability for future Multiple Regression
success per individual
 Statistical procedures which scores
o Test Criterion
are weighted according to how well
o Selection Ratio
test predicts the criterion
o Base Rate
Hiring Decision
Utility Formula
1. Top Down Selection – based on test
 Method of ascertaining the extent to scores
which an organization will benefit 2. Compensation Approach – high
from selection system scores for one test can compensate
o Brodgen-Cronbach-Gleser for a lower one
Utility Formula – compute 3. Rule of Three – public sector
money of an organization if it  Names top 3 and some
use a particular test authority will choose one
 Test Criterion 4. Passing Score – reduces adverse
 Selection Ratio impact and increases flexibility
 Base Rate 5. Multiple cut-off approach – must
 Standard deviation of meet or exceed passing score on
performance in more than 1 test
dollars 6. Multiple hurdle approach –
 Mean standards applicants must pass a test before
predictor score of being allowed to take the next
selected applicants 7. Banding – statistical test based on
Determining the Fairness of a Test SEM

Measurement Bias
 Group differences in scores that are
unrelated to the construct measures
Adverse Impact
 Protection of class being negatively
affected at a high rate than majority
Predictive Bias
 Predicted job success favors one
group over other
Single Group Validity
 Characteristic of a test that
significantly predicts a criterion for
one class of people
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

The performance appraisal process is

divided in 10 steps.
Step 1: Determine the Reason for
Evaluating Employee Performance
 Determination is important because
some techniques may or may not be
applicable for others
Chapter 7: Evaluating Employee
Forced- Choice Rating Scale
Performance
 Method of performance appraisal
The Performance Appraisal Process
wherein a supervisor is given
behaviors and forced to choose
which is most typical
Common Goals
1. Providing Employee Training and
Feedback
o to improve employee
performance by feedback
o Performance Appraisal Review –
excellent way to meet and
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

discuss with employees about training and employee development

their strengths and weaknesses instead of promotion/termination
2. Determining Salary Increase decisions
o To provide a fair basis on the  Multiple-source feedback –
salary increase employee receives feedback from
o Must be numerical sources such as clients,
3. Making Promotion Decisions subordinates, peers
o Fair to promote who deserves
Sources of feedback
the position
o Peter Principle – organizations 1. Supervisors – most common; see
tend to promote good employees the end result of the employee
until they reach the level at 2. Peers – sees the actual behavior;
which they are not competent those who work directly with the
o Makes sure the employees are employee
evaluated in different dimensions 3. Subordinates –
that are similar to the new  upward feedback; can
position provide a different view about
4. Making Termination Decisions supervisor’s behavior
o To determined what is the course  feedback is hard to obtain
of action in terminating an due to possible backlash
employee from supervisor
5. Conducting Personnel Research  can be reliable if the
o Accurate measure of supervisor is open to his/her
performance must be used to employees
determine the effectiveness of 4. Customers –
the training  organizations value their
o Not the most important reason feedback; can be in a form of
but still important compliment to manager or
complaints
Step 2: Identity Environmental and  secret shoppers – evaluate
Cultural Limitations the service
5. Self-appraisal – employee evaluate
 To identify the factors that could
his/her own performance; can be
affect the system
accurate if it will not be used for
 Situations wherein the evaluations
administrative purposes of raises
will be done properly
and promotions
 Ex: use of peer ratings in a cohesive
environment Step 4: Select the Best Appraisal
Methods to Accomplish Your Goals
Step 3: Determine Who Will Evaluate
 To select a performance criteria and
 To obtain accurate evaluation of the
appraisal methods for you to
performance, other sources can be
accomplish goals
used to provide feedback
 360-degree feedback – feedback is Decision 1: Focus of the Appraisal
obtained from sources such as Dimensions
supervisors, subordinates, and
peers; usually used as source of  Trait Focused Performance
Dimensions –
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o concentrates on employees Decision 3: Use of Employee

attributes as dependability, Comparison, Objective Measure, or
honesty, and courtesy Ratings
o can be a bad idea because it
 Whether to evaluate performance by
could provide poor feedback
comparing employees with one
o Traits are personal,
another
employee might become  Employee Comparisons – to
defensive reduce leniency, employees are
 Competency-Focused compared to one another instead of
o Concentrate on employee’s rated individually
knowledge, skills, and o Rank order – employees are
abilities ranks from best to worst
o Easy to provide feedback o Paired comparison – form of
and suggest necessary steps ranking in which employees
to correct deficiencies to be ranks are compared to
 Task-Focused Performance one pair at a time
Dimensions o Forced Distribution Method –
o Organized by similarity of
predetermined percentage of
tasks that are performed employees are placed in to a
o Concentrated on tasks that number of performance
occur together and visualize categories
the performance of employee  Objective Measures –
o Ex: testimonies o Quantity of work – measure
 Goal-Focused Performance job performance by counting
Dimensions the number of relevant job
o To organize the appraisal on behaviors
the basis of the goals to be o Quality of work – evaluate
accomplished by the performance by measuring
employee quality of work done
o Help to let employee  Quality – comparing a
understand behaviors that job behavior with a
are expected standard
 Contextual Performance – the effort  Error – deviation from
to get along with peers, improve standard
organization, and perform tasks that o Attendance – looking at the
are not included in the job per se attendance of employee;
Decision 2: Should Dimensions Be absenteeism, tardiness, and
Weighted tenure
o Safety – no occupational
 After determining the dimension, accidents, do not cost the
are other dimensions important organization as much money
than others? as those who break rules,
 Differential weighting of equipment
dimensions makes sense but  Ratings of Performance
some organizations weight all o Most commonly used option
performance dimensions equally
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o Graphic Rating Scale - o Feedback from behavior-

rating employee performance based methods are easier to
on an interval or ratio scale give
o Behavioral Checklist – o How performance appraisal
consists of list of behaviors, methods can affect employee
expectations or results for trust and job satisfaction
each dimensions; taking the o Courts are more concerned
task statements from job in the due process afforded
description by a performance appraisal
 Result-focused system than technicality
statements – what
employee Step 5: Train Raters
accomplished as a  To become aware or rating errors
result of what she did and how to avoid them
 Contamination – flaw  To improve effectiveness
of result focused  Frame-of-reference training –
statements; criterion provides raters with job-related
score is affected by information, practice and examples;
things other than to communicate with definition of
those under the effective performance
control of the  Explain performance appraisal
employee system to employees
o Comparison with Other
employees – comparing the Step 6: Observe and Document
employee’s level of Performance
performance with others.  Observe employee behavior and
 Average, below document critical incidents
average, above  Critical incidents – supervisor
average records employee behaviors that
o Frequency of Desired were observed on the job and rates
Behaviors – rated based on the employee on the basis of that
frequency which they occur record
 Always, almost  Documentations help in recalling
always, often, never behaviors
o Extent to which  If no documentations, they tend to
organizational expectations recall:
are met – best approach; o First impressions – recall
behaviors meet expectations behaviors that are consistent
of the organization with their first impressions
 Evaluation of Performance o Recent behavior – most
Appraisal Methods recent behavior that occurred
o Behavioral checklists have during evaluation period
advantages than graphic o Unusual or extreme
rating scales because behaviors
employees are involved in o Behavior consistent with the
creating them; fair
supervisor’s opinion -
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

behaviors that confirms dimension that follows it on

opinion of someone the rating scale
 Help in reviewing performance rating o Contrast Errors –
with employees performance rating one
 Documentations defend against person receives can be
legal actions taken against it by an influenced by the
employee who was terminated or performance of a previously
denied a raise or promotions evaluated person
 Employee Performance Record –  Assimilation – raters
standardized use of critical-incident base ratings of
technique employee from
previous period
Step 7: Evaluate Performance
 Low Reliability Across Raters
 Obtaining and Reviewing o Raters commit rating errors
Objective Data – review data o Raters have different
relevant to the employee standards
(attendance, quality, quantity etc.) o Raters may see different
 Reading Critical Incident Logs – behaviors by the same
read critical incidents written for an employee
employee  Sampling Problems
 Completing the Rating Form o Recency effect – evaluator is
o Assign performance designed to cover all
appraisal ratings behaviors that taken place
o Distribution Errors – rating during previous 6 mos. to a
errors in which rater will use year. Recent behaviors are
only a certain part of rating given more weight evaluation
scale when evaluating o Infrequent Observation –
employee supervisors do not see most
 Leniency error – rater of an employee’s behavior
gives employees high  Cognitive Processing of Observed
ratings regardless of Behavior
performance o Observation of behavior –
 Central Tendency employee’s behavior that has
Error – rater been observed is not
consistently rates guaranteed to be recalled
employees in the during review
middle of the scales o Emotional State – amount of
 Strictness Errors – stress under operation of
consistent low ratings supervisor affects
o Halo Errors – rater allows performance rating
either a single attribute or an o Bias – raters who like
overall impression of an employee are being lenient;
individual the affect towards employee
o Proximity Errors – error when may interfere with cognitive
rating made is only on one processing of actual
dimension that affects the performance
rating made on the
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

Step 8: Communicate Appraisal Result to o Goal of

Employees understanding
and improving
 Supervisor spends time with
performance
employee to tell them about scores
 Best begun with
they received during the most recent
employee communicating
evaluation period
her own ratings and
 Best scenario: no complaints; worst:
justification
lawsuit
 Supervisor
Techniques to make performance communicates ratings
appraisal interview more effective and reasons
 Avoid negative feedback
1. Prior to the interview  Negative sandwich:
 Allocating time – positive – negative –
supervisor and employee positive
must have time to  Discuss why evaluations
prepare for the review are not perfect
 Scheduling the Interview  Acknowledgement of
– location should be in a external reasons for poor
neutral place that performance
ensures privacy and  Find solutions for
allows supervisor and problems
employee to face one  Goals should be mutually
another; at least once set for future
every six month; performance and
convenient time behavior
 Preparing the Interview –
supervisor should review Step 9: Terminate Employees
ratings and give reasons
 Personnel decisions
for those ratings;
employee should rate Employment-at-Will Doctrine
own performance
2. During the Interview  Opinion of courts in most states that
 Begin interview with small employers have the right to hire and
talks fire an employee at will and without
 Should communicate the any specific cause
ff.:  Limitations
o Role of o State Laws – fire employees
performance that breaks a rule or inability
appraisal to perform
o How it was o Provisions of Federal law or
conducted state law – can’t be fired
o Evaluation because female, nonwhite, or
over the age of 40
process
o Public policy/interest – not be
o Expectation that it
fired for exercising a legal
will be interactive
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

duty or refusing to violate the be given; must have a standard

law or professional ethics performance to be compared to
o Contracts – signed an 4. Reduction in Force – employees
employment contract can be lay off if in the best economic
stipulating particular period of interest of an organization
employment
The Termination Meeting
o Implied Contracts – EAW
Doctrine nullified if employer 1. Prior to the Meeting
implies than an employee  Prepare the meeting in which
has a job for life or can be decision will be
fired only for a certain communicated
reasons  Ensure legal process has
o Covenants of Good Faith and been followed
Fair Dealing – employers  Determine how much help
must still act in good faith the organization can give to
and deal fairly with the employee
employees  Schedule appropriate place
 Employment at will statements - and time for the meeting;
Statements in employment usually Monday or Tuesday
applications and company manuals 2. During Meeting
reaffirming an organization’s right to  Get to the point about
hire and fire at will terminating the employee
 Rationally state the reason
Legal Reasons for Terminating for the decision
Employees  Express gratitude
1. Probationary Period – period given  Gather personal belongings
to prove that they can perform well; and to be escorted out the
3-6 mos. door
2. Violation of Company Rules – 5 3. After the Meeting
factors to be considered  Supervisor should review the
a. Rule against particular facts
behavior exists  Be honest with other
b. If rule exist, orientations must employees of what happened
be made  Negative statements against
c. Ability of the employed to terminated employee’s must
prove that employee actually be avoided
broke the rule Step 10: Monitor the Legality and
d. The extent of the Fairness of the Appraisal System
implementation of the rule
e. Progressive Discipline –  Same legal standards as are
providing employees with employment tests and decisions
punishments of increasing  Performance ratings should be
severity as needed; for analyzed each rating period
tenured  Personnel decisions should be
3. Inability to Perform – need to prove analyzed to ensure discrimination
that employee could not perform the does not occur
job and progressive discipline must
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

Chapter 9: Employee Motivation

Motivation: The force that drives an

employee to perform well.

 It is important that employees be

both motivated by and satisfied with
their jobs

 Changes in work behavior are

thought to be affected by the amount
of effort an employee applies to her
work rather than applying that effort
to other aspects of life such as
family or hobbies

 Increase Motivation = Increase

Performance

Is An Employee Predisposed To A
Behavior?

 Organizational citizenship behaviors

(OCBs) - Behaviors that are not part of
an employee’s job
 Self-esteem - The extent to which a
person views him or herself as a
valuable and worthy individual
 Consistency theory - Korman’s theory
that employees will be motivated to
perform at levels consistent with their
levels of self-esteem
 employees who feel good about
themselves are motivated to
perform better
 The theory becomes somewhat
complicated in that there are three
types of self- esteem
a) Chronic self-esteem: The
positive or negative way in
which a person views
himself or herself as a
whole.

b) Situational self-esteem: The

positive or negative way in
which a person views him
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

c) or herself in a particular external factors as pay, promotion,

situation. and coworkers

d) Socially influenced self-  Extrinsic motivation: work

esteem - positive or motivation that arises from such
negative way in which a nonpersonal factors as pay,
person views him or herself coworkers, and opportunities for
based on the expectations advancement
of others
 Work Preference Inventory (WPI)
 If consistency theory is true, we -A measure of an individual’s
should find that employees with orientation toward intrinsic versus
high self-esteem are more extrinsic motivation
motivated, perform better, and rate
their own performance as being  A theory developed by McClelland
higher than employees with low (1961) - employees differ in the
self-esteem extent to which they are motivated
by the need for achievement,
 To increase self-esteem, affiliation, and power
employees can attend workshops
in which they are given insights into  Need for achievement: According
their strengths to trait theory, the extent to which a
person desires to be successful
 Outdoor experiential training
(challenge courses - participants  Need for affiliation: the extent to
learn that they are emotionally and which a person desires to be
physically strong enough to be around other people
successful and to meet challenges
 Need for power: according to trait
 Self-fulfilling prophecy: the idea theory, the extent to which a
that people behave in ways person desires to be in control of
consistent with their self- image other people

 Galatea effect: when high self- Are Employees Effectively Involved In

expectations result in higher levels Self-Regulating Behavior?
of performance
 Self-regulation: theory that employees
 Pygmalion effect: the idea that if can be motivated by monitoring their
people believe that something is own progress toward the goals they set
true, they will act in a manner and adjusting their behavior to reach
consistent with that belief. those goals

 Golem effect: when negative 1. Choose their goals and set levels
expectations of an individual cause for each goal
a decrease in that individual’s
performance 2. Plan how they will accomplish those
goals
 Intrinsic motivation: work
motivation in the absence of such 3. Take action toward accomplishing
the goals (goal striving)
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

4. Evaluate progress toward goal  High motivating potential score = higher

attainment and either maintain, levels of employee satisfaction and
revise, or abandon a goal performance

Have The Employee’s Values and  A discrepancy between an employee’s

Expectations Been Met? needs, values, and wants and what a
job offers = low levels of motivation and
 The extent to which we might select a satisfaction
work goal and apply energy toward that
goal is influenced by the discrepancy  Theory of motivation by Abraham
between what we want, value, and Maslow
expect and what the job actually
provides o Maslow believed that employees
would be motivated by and
 A discrepancy between what an satisfied with their jobs at any
employee expected a job to be like and given point in time if certain
the reality of the job can affect needs were met
motivation and satisfaction
o Maslow’s five major needs are
 Employees compare what the discussed as follows:
organization promised to do for them
(e.g., provide a computer, support 1. Basic biological needs
continued education) with what the
organization actually does 2. Safety needs

 Realistic job preview (RJP): a method of 3. Social needs

recruitment in which job applicants are
told both the positive and the negative
4. Ego needs
aspects of a job
5. Self-actualization needs
 Job characteristics theory: The theory
proposed by Hackman and Oldham that
suggests that certain characteristics of a  Needs theory - A theory based on the
job will make the job more or less idea that employees will be satisfied
satisfying, depending on the particular with jobs that satisfy their need
needs of the worker
 Problems with the Maslow’s theory:
 motivation potential if they allow
employees to use: 1. Too many

o a variety of skills (skill variety) 2. Some people do not progress up

the hierarchy as Maslow
suggests they do
o connect their efforts to an
outcome (task identification)
3. Predicts that once the needs at
one level are satisfied, the next
o has meaning, is useful, or is needs level should become most
appreciated by coworkers as important
well as by others in society (task
significance)
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 ERG theory: Aldefer’s needs theory, 4. Relevant

which describes three levels of
satisfaction: existence, relatedness, and  Properly set goals are
growth also relevant

 Two-factor theory: Herzberg’s needs 5. Time-bound

theory, postulating that there are two
factors involved in job satisfaction:  Goals work best when
hygiene factors and motivators there is a time frame for
their completion
o Hygiene factors: In Herzberg’s
two-factor theory, job-related Are Employees Receiving Feedback On
elements that result from but do Their Goal Progress?
not involve the job itself
 To increase the effectiveness of
o Motivators: In Herzberg’s two- goal setting, feedback should be
factor theory, elements of a job provided to employees on their
that concern the actual duties progress in reaching their goals
performed by the employee
 Feedback is constructive when it is
o Only the presence of both given positively with the goal of
motivators and hygiene factors encouraging and reinforcing
can bring job satisfaction and positive behavior
motivation
Are Employees Rewarded For Achieving
Do Employees Have Achievable Goals? Goals?

 To increase motivation, goal setting  Provide an incentive for employees to

should be used accomplish the goals set by an
organization
 Goal setting - A method of increasing
performance in which employees are  Incentives for a wide variety of
given specific performance goals to aim employee behaviors
for. Must be:
1. working over- time or on
1. Specific weekends

 Properly set goals are 2. making suggestions

concrete and specific
3. referring applicants
2. Measurable
4. staying with the company
 Properly set goals are (length-of-service awards)
measurable
5. coming to work (attendance
3. Attainable bonuses)

 Properly set goals are 6. not get- ting into accidents

high but attainable
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

7. performing at a high level  important to reward

employees for productive
work behavior

 Operant conditioning: humans learn to  Different employees have

behave in ways that will result in different values
favorable outcomes and learn not to
behave in ways that result in 4. Use of individual-based versus
unfavorable outcomes. group-based incentives

 employees are rewarded for not making  Incentives can be given

errors = more likely to produce high- for either individual
quality work (if not baka di maging performance or group
motivated) performance

 Six Factors To Determine  Individual incentive plans

Effectiveness of Program are designed to make
high levels of individual
1. Timing of the incentive performance financially
worthwhile, and the
 Research indicates that a research is clear that
reinforcer or a punisher is monetary incentives
most effective if it occurs increase performance
soon after the over the use of a
performance of the guaranteed hourly salary
behavior.
 The idea behind group-
 if the timing of the based, or organization-
incentive is too long, the based, incentive plans is
effectiveness of the to get employees to
incentive to improve participate in the success
performance will be or failure of the
hindered organization

2. Contingency of the  Rather than encouraging

consequences individual competition,
these plans reward
 Clear that the employee employees for reaching
understands the group goals
behaviors that brought
reward or punishment 5. Use of positive incentives
(rewards) versus negative
 The employee must be incentives (punishment)
told the purpose of the
consequence  Instead of rewarding
employees who do not
3. Type of incentive used miss work, we punish
those who do
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Instead of providing  A less practical way of equalizing the

monetary incentives for ratios would be to change the ratios of
high levels of other employees
performance, we
suspend employees for  motivation decreases when our
low levels of performance input/output ratios are lower than others’

6. Fairness of the reward system  Organizational justice: a theory that

(equity) postulates that if employees perceive
they are being treated fairly, they will be
o Another factor related to more likely to be satisfied with their jobs
motivation and job satisfaction is and motivated to do well
the extent to which employees
perceive that they are being Are Other Employees Motivated?
treated fairly
 Employees observe the levels of
Are Rewards And Resources Given motivation and satisfaction of other
Equitably? employees and then model those levels

 Equity theory: theory of job satisfaction  if an organization’s older employees

stating that employees will be satisfied if work hard and talk positively about their
their ratio of effort to reward is similar to jobs and their employer; new employees
that of other employees will model this behavior and be both
productive and satisfied
o Inputs - in equity theory, the
elements that employees put into Integration Of Motivation Theories
their jobs
 people come to a job with a
o Outputs - in equity theory, what predisposition toward motivation
employees get from their jobs

o Input/output ratio - the ratio of

how much employees believe  Discrepancy and needs theories: we
they put into their jobs to how will be motivated in our jobs if the job
much they believe they get from itself and the organization meet our
their jobs expectations and values and satisfy our
needs.
 According to the theory, employees
subconsciously list all their outputs and  Goal-setting theory: we find that
inputs and then compute an input/output employees who have, understand, and
ratio by dividing output value by input agree to goals will be more motivated
value. By itself, this ratio is not than those without goals or with unclear
especially useful goals

 employee’s ratio is lower than those of  Expectancy theory and goal-setting

others, he will become dissatisfied and theory: we know that the goals must be
be motivated to make the ratios equal in challenging but reasonable.
one or more ways
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Operant learning and expectancy

theories: it is clear that extrinsically
motivated people will be more motivated
if behavior results in a reward

 From these same two theories plus

discrepancy theory: the needs
theories, and the Premack Principle, we
know that the rewards must have value
Chapter 10: Employee Satisfaction and
to the employee to be motivating.
Commitment
 Equity theory: we know that rewards Job satisfaction
that are valued will be motivating only if
they are given in an equitable way.  The attitude employees have toward
their jobs.
Organization commitment
 The extent to which an employee
identifies with and is involved with an
organization.
Why Should We Care About Employee
Attitudes?
 Satisfied employees tend to be
committed to an organization.
 Employees who are satisfied and
committed are more likely to:
o Attend work
o Stay with an organization
o Arrive at work on time
o Perform well
o Engage in behaviors helpful
to the organization
o Not behave in
counterproductive ways
o Engage in ethical behavior
 Relationship between job satisfaction
and performance is NOT consistent
across people or jobs.
o Complex jobs: there is a
stronger relationship
between job satisfaction and
performance than for jobs of
low or medium complexity.
o Employees who have strong,
consistent beliefs about their
level of job satisfaction
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

(affective-cognitive have in finding

consistency): the another job.
relationship between job o Normative commitment
satisfaction and performance  Extent to which an
is much stronger than it is for employee feels an
employees whose job obligation to remain
satisfaction attitudes are not with an organization.
so well developed.
 Job satisfaction and organizational What Individual Differences Affect Job
commitment are related more to a Satisfaction?
desire to quit, miss work, or reduce Individual difference theory
effort than they are to actual behaviors.
 Some variability in job satisfaction is due
What Causes Employees to Be Satisfied to an individual’s personal tendency
with and Committed to Their Jobs? across situations to enjoy what she
 Work-related attitudes are multifaceted. does.
o Employees may be satisfied  Certain types of people will generally be
satisfied and motivated regardless of the
with one facet of work (e.g.,
type of job they hold.
pay) but not another (e.g.,
 For this theory to be true, it would be
coworkers).
essential that job satisfaction be
o Facets of job satisfaction
consistent across time and situations.
 Pay
 Supervision Genetic predispositions
 Coworkers
 Work  Job satisfaction may in part be
 Promotion genetically determined.
opportunities  Inherited personality traits such as
 3 motivational facets to organizational negative affectivity (tendency to have
commitment: negative emotions) are related to our
o Affective commitment tendency to be satisfied with jobs.
 Extent to which an  Some people will probably not be
employee wants to satisfied with any job.
remain with an  To increase overall level of job
organization and satisfaction in an organization: Hire only
cares about the those applicants who show high levels
organization. of overall job and life satisfaction.
o Continuance commitment Core self-evaluations
 Extent to which an
employee believes  Certain types of personalities are
she must remain with associated with the tendency to be
an organization due satisfied or dissatisfied with one’s job.
to the time, expense,  Four personality variables:
and effort she has 1. Emotional stability
already put into the 2. Self-esteem
organization or the 3. Self-efficacy - perceived ability to
difficulty she would master their environment)
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

4. Internal locus of control - Are Employees’ Job Expectations Being

perceived ability to control their Met?
environment; extent to which
 Employees come to a job with certain
people believe that they are
needs, values, and expectations.
responsible for and in control of
 Discrepancy theory
their successes or failures)
o If there is a discrepancy
 Positive affectivity - people with a
tendency to have positive emotions; between these needs,
tend to be more satisfied with their jobs values, and expectations and
than do people with a tendency to have the reality of the job,
negative emotions (negative affectivity). employees will become
dissatisfied and less
Culture motivated.
 Met expectations theory
 Workers in different countries have
o When an employee’s
different levels of job satisfaction.
expectations are not met, the
Intelligence results are:
 Lower job satisfaction
 Bright people = slightly lower job  Decreased
satisfaction than do less intelligent organizational
employees in jobs that are not complex. commitment
 In complex jobs: the relationship  Increased intent to
between intelligence and satisfaction is leave the organization
negligible.  When employees perceive that an
Are Employees Satisfied with Other organization has not fulfilled its
Aspects of Their Lives? promises and obligations
(psychological contracts), job
 Not only that job satisfaction is satisfaction and organizational
consistent across time but that the commitment go down and intentions
extent to which a person is satisfied with to leave the organization increase.
all aspects of life is consistent as well.  It is important to ensure not only that
 People who are satisfied with their jobs applicants have realistic job
= satisfied with life. expectations but that any promises
 Life satisfaction can influence job made to employees must be kept.
satisfaction in the vast majority of
people. Is The Employee a Good Fit with The Job
 An employee’s needs can be met in a and The Organization?
variety of nonwork activities such as  When employees consider how well
hobbies and volunteer work. they fit with a job or an organization,
 Wrong: to assume that a job must they consider the extent to which
satisfy all of a person’s need. their values, interests, personality,
 Correct: an organization should work lifestyle, and skills match those of
toward fulfilling those needs that it can their:
and should help employees find o Vocation
alternative avenues to meet their other
o Job
needs.
o Organization
o Coworkers
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o Supervisor 2. Job security

 Needs/supplies fit 3. Compensation/pay
o Extent to which the rewards,
Do Employees Enjoy Working with
salary, and benefits received
Supervisors and Coworkers?
by employees are perceived
to be consistent with their  Satisfaction with supervisors and
efforts and performance. coworkers was related to
 Employees who perceive a good fit organizational and team
with their organization, job, commitment, which in turn resulted
coworkers, and supervisor tend to: in:
o Be satisfied with their jobs o Higher productivity
o Identify with the organization o Lower intent to leave the
o Remain with the organization organization
o Perform better o A greater willingness to help
o Engage in OCBs
Are Coworkers Outwardly Unhappy?
 The better the fit between an
employee’s desired schedule and Social information processing theory
his actual schedule, the greater an
employee’s job satisfaction and o Also called social learning theory
organizational commitment. o States that employees model their
 Signs that indicate a job/person levels of satisfaction and motivation
mismatch: Employee from other employees.
o Does not seem excited when o Employees observe the levels of
first hired motivation and satisfaction of other
o Starts asking for some tasks employees and then model those
to be given to other levels.
employees o If an organization’s older employees
o Applies for other jobs in the work hard and talk positively about
organization their jobs and their employer, new
o Begins to ask for new employees will model this behavior
projects and be both productive and satisfied.
o Appears bored and o If veteran employees work slowly
unchallenged and complain about their jobs, so will
new employees.
Are The Tasks Enjoyable? o The social environment does have
an effect on employees’ attitudes
 Nature of the work itself
and behaviors.
o Considered by employees to
o Social pressures force individuals to
be a very important factor in
behave in ways that are consistent
their level of job satisfaction
with the norm.
o Ranked seventh
o Employers should take Are Rewards and Resources Given
innovative steps to make Equitably?
work more interesting.
 One factor related to both job
 Top three factors:
satisfaction and employee
1. Opportunity to use skills and
motivation is the extent to which
abilities
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

employees perceive that they are will more likely be satisfied

being treated fairly. with their jobs and motivated
 Equity theory to do well.
o States that employees will be o A more useful approach to
satisfied if their ratio of effort fairness issues.
to reward is similar to that of o Has three aspects:
other employees. 1. Distributive justice
o Our levels of job satisfaction  Perceived
and motivation are related to fairness of the
how fairly we believe we are decisions made in
treated in comparison with an organization.
others. 2. Procedural justice
o Based on this theory: The  Perceived
best way to keep employees fairness of the
satisfied would be to treat methods used by
them all fairly – paying the an organization to
most to those employees make decisions.
who contributed the most.  Employee might
o Difficult to implement for not completely
several reasons: disagree with the
 Practicality outcome, but they
 Employee’s might be upset
perception of inputs with the process.
and outputs 3. Interactional justice
determines equity, not  Perceived
the actual inputs and fairness of the
outputs. interpersonal
 To increase perceptions of equity, treatment that
organizations need: employees
o To do a better job of receive in an
explaining their organization.
compensation systems. o Perceived justice is related to
o To allow employees access several important factors:
to the salaries of other  Job satisfaction
employees.  Organizational commitment
o To make salary and  Performance
performance information  Trust
available to all employees.  Withdrawal (e.g., turnover,
 Even if equity theory were absenteeism)
completely accurate, maintaining a  Negative employee reactions
high level of employee satisfaction
would still be difficult. o It is essential that employers:
 Organizational justice  Be open about how decisions
o A theory that postulates that are made.
if employees perceive they  Take time to develop fair
are being treated fairly, they procedures.
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Involve employees in the decreases with task

process of how decisions will enlargement.
be made.  Job rotation and job enlargement
 Provide feedback to accomplish two main objectives:
employees who might not be o They challenge employees by
happy with decisions that are requiring them to perform
made. several different tasks. - Once
 Allow a process for appealing employees have mastered one
decisions. task, they can work toward
mastering another.
Is There a Chance for Growth and
o Job rotation helps to alleviate
Challenge?
boredom by allowing an
 Maslow thought that the need for employee to change tasks. -
growth and challenge (self- The boredom caused by
actualization) is important only after performing the same task every
low-level needs have been met. day should be reduced.
 To help satisfy employee self-  Job enrichment
actualization needs, organizations o Employees are given more
can do many things. responsibility over the tasks
and decisions related to their
 Job rotation job.
o Employees are given the o Employee assumes more
opportunity to perform several responsibility over the tasks.
different jobs in an organization.  Job characteristics theory
o Employee is given the same o Suggests that certain
number of tasks to do at one characteristics of a job will
time, but the tasks change from make the job more or less
time to time. satisfying, depending on the
 Job enlargement particular needs of the
o Employees are given more tasks worker.
to perform at the same time. o Enriched jobs are the most
o A job can be enlarged in two satisfying:
ways:  Allow a variety of
1. Knowledge enlargement skills to be used
 Employees are  Allow employees to
allowed to make complete an entire
more complex task rather than parts
decisions. of a task
2. Task enlargement  Involve tasks that
 Employees are have meaning or
given more tasks importance
of the same  Allow employees to
difficulty level to make decisions
perform.  Provide feedback
o Satisfaction increases with about performance
knowledge enlargement and  Job diagnostic survey
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o A measure of the extent to o Allowing employees to

which a job provides participate in making
opportunities for growth, decisions results in small
autonomy, and meaning. but significant increases in
performance and job
What can be done to enrich the typical
satisfaction.
factory worker’s job?
Integration of theories
 Give workers more
responsibility over their jobs. Individual-difference theories
For example, time clocks can be
 Each of us brings to a job an initial
removed so that the workers
tendency to be satisfied with life and
could assume more
its various aspects such as work.
responsibility for their
performance by keeping track of Discrepancy theories
their own hours.
 Show employees that their  We will remain satisfied with our job
jobs have meaning and that if it meets our various needs, wants,
they are meeting some expectations, and values.
worthwhile goal through their Intrinsic satisfaction theory and job
work. For example, encourage characteristics theory
employees to participate in a
training session in which they  More satisfied with our jobs if the
are shown how a particular tasks themselves are enjoyable to
product is used, who uses it, and perform.
the consequences that can result
Social learning theory
from poor manufacturing.
 Self-directed teams  More satisfied if our coworkers are
 quality circles satisfied.
 Employee groups that
meet to propose Equity and justice theories
changes that will  No matter how much we intrinsically
improve productivity like our work, we will become
and the quality of dissatisfied if rewards, punishments,
work life. and social interactions are not given
 Employees meet as a equitably.
group to discuss and
make Job characteristics theory and Maslow’s
recommendations level of self-actualization
about work issues.
 Lack of opportunity for growth,
 Increase job
challenge, variety, autonomy, and
satisfaction and
advancement will decrease
commitment for
satisfaction for many people.
employees in the
private sector but not
for those in public
agencies. Measuring Job Satisfaction and
Commitment
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 Job satisfaction is measured in one Measures of Commitment

of two ways:
o Standard job satisfaction  Allen & Meyer Survey - Has 24
inventories items, 8 each for the 3 factors of
o Custom-designed commitment:
satisfaction inventories o Affective Commitment
 Commitment is usually measured  Ex. I would be very
through: happy to spend the
o Standard commitment rest of my career in
inventories this organization.
o Continuance Commitment
Commonly Used Standard Inventories  Ex. It would be very
 Faces scale hard for me to leave
o Raters place a mark under a my organization right
facial expression that is most now, even if I wanted
similar to the way they feel to
about their jobs. o Normative Commitment
o Although this is easy to use,  I would feel guilty if I
it is no longer commonly left my organization
administered because it: now.
 Lacks sufficient detail  This organization
 Lacks construct deserves my loyalty.
validity Organizational Commitment
 Is so simple that Questionnaire (OCQ)
some employees
believe it is  15-item questionnaire
demeaning  Measures 3 commitment factors;
 Job Descriptive Index (JDI) acceptance of the organization’s
o Commonly used scale today, values & goals, willingness to work
recently revised in 2009 to help the organization, & a desire
o Consists of 72 job-related to remain with the organization
adjectives & statements that  Most people use this scale to
are rated by employees combine the factors to yield an
o Measure of job satisfaction overall commitment score
that yields scores on 5 Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS)
dimensions; supervision, pay,
promotional opportunities,  9-item survey
coworkers, & work itself  Measures 3 aspects of commitment;
 Minnesota Satisfaction identification, exchange, & affiliation
Questionnaire (MSQ)
Custom Designed Inventories
o Consists of 100 items that
yield scores on 20 scales  Has an advantage by asking
 Job In General (JIG) employees specific questions about
o Measure of the overall level their organization
of job satisfaction
Consequences of Dissatisfaction &
Other Negative Work Attitudes
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

Absenteeism - Missing work or leaving jobs  Measure absenteeism by counting

due to dissatisfaction the number of days missed,
instances, or frequency
Linking Attendance to Consequences
 Absenteeism can be decreased by
 Rewarding attendance and punishing setting attendance goals & by
absenteeism makes employees decide providing feedback
each day to whether they will or will not
Increasing Attendance by Reducing
attend work
Employee Stress
 Rewarding attendance, disciplining
absenteeism, & keeping accurate  The greater the job stress, the lower
attendance records job satisfaction & commitment
 Sources of stress include physical
Rewards for Attending
danger, boredom, overload, conflict
Financial Incentives & bad management practices
 Employers offer Employee
 Well pay - paying employees for Assistance Program (EAP) to help
their unused sick leave employees cope with stress &
 Financial bonus - employees with personal problems
perfect attendance receives a cash
bonus Increasing Attendance by Reducing
 Games – activities for prizes Illness

Time Off  Many employers are rewarding

employees whose body mass index,
Paid Time Off Program (PTO) cholesterol levels, and blood
 Also known as paid-leave bank pressure levels are within
(PBK) acceptable ranges to reduce both
 Vacation, holiday, sick days are absenteeism & health care costs
combined into one category-paid  The reward comes in the form of a
time off reduction in the employee’s monthly
 An employee who is seldom sick has health care premium
more days to use for vacation // long Reducing Absenteeism by Not Hiring
term illness, & the organization “Absence-Prone” Employees
saves money by reducing the total
number of unscheduled absences  One theory suggests that people
miss work due to a particular set of
Recognition Programs personality traits they possess
 Provide employees with perfect- Uncontrollable Absenteeism Caused by
attendance certificates, coffee mugs, Unique Events
plaques, lapel pins, watches, etc.
 HR Directors do not perceive these  Many times an employee misses
programs to be as effective as the work is because of events that are
other programs beyond management’s control
 Effective means of increasing  40% of absenteeism is unavoidable
attendance
Turnover
Clear Policies & Better Record Keeping
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 There is a negative correlation such good person/organization fit during

that higher turnover rates will result the selection interview, providing a
in lower organizational performance good work environment, provide
 Because some turnover is healthy opportunities to advance & grow,
for an organization, there is a U- etc.
shaped relationship between  Embeddedness - described as the
turnover and performance such that extent to which employees have
very low or very high levels of links to their jobs & community
turnover will result in lower
Counterproductive Behaviors
organizational performance, but a
moderate amount of turnover will  Dissatisfied employees, especially
result in higher performance those who are unable to change jobs
 The negative effect of turnover is are highly likely to engage in a
strongest when an organization’s variety of counterproductive
turnover rate is low, and this effect behaviors
then diminishes as turnover rates  Behaviors can be aimed at
climb individuals or aimed at the
 The effect of turnover on organization
organizational performance is  Behaviors aimed at an individual:
mediated by the strength of an gossip, negative politics,
organization’s HR efforts. harassment, incivility, workplace
 Turnover will most affect violence, & bullying
organizations that don’t invest in  Behaviors aimed at the organization:
their employees; least affect theft & sabotage
organizations that spend time and
money to develop their employees Lack of Organizational Citizenship
Behaviors
 OCBs are the “little things”
Reducing Turnover employees do to help the
organization even though they are
 Find out why employees are leaving,
not required to do
this is usually done by administering
 OCBs include staying late to finish a
attitude surveys & conducting exit
project, helping a coworker who is
interviews with employees who are
behind his/her jobs, mentoring a new
leaving
employee, etc.
 Salary surveys can also be useful
 Employees who are satisfied with
 Employee turnover is a process of
their jobs are more likely to “go the
disengagement from the
extra mile”
organization that can take days,
weeks, or months
 Leave their jobs for one of five
reasons: unavoidable reasons,
advancement, unmet needs,
escape, & unmet expectations
 Organizations can reduce turnover
by conducting realistic job previews
during recruitment stage, look for a
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

Chapter 12: Leadership

Personal Characteristics: Trait Theory
Leader Emergence
o postulates that certain types of
people will become leaders and
certain types will not
● Motivation To Lead
○ Affective identity motivation -
result of a desire to be in
charge and lead other
○ Noncalculative motivation -
result in personal gain
○ Social-normative motivation -
out of a sense of duty or
responsibility
Leader Performance
 postulates that certain types of people
will be better leaders than will other
types of people
● Traits - high self-monitors = better
leaders
○ Self-monitoring - tendency
to adapt one’s behavior to fit
a particular social situation
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

● Cognitive Ability – important for the structure their roles

leader to be not distracted in as well as the roles of
stressful situations their subordinates
○ Theory X leaders - believe
● Needs
that employees are
○ Need for power - desires to
extrinsically motivated and
be in control of other people
thus lead by giving directives
○ Need for achievement
and setting goals.
-desires to be successful
○ Leaders high in initiating
○ Need for affiliation -
structure
desires to be around other
■ Initiating structure -
people
extent to which
○ Leadership motive pattern
leaders define and
-pattern of needs in which a
structure their roles
leader has a high need for
and the roles of their
power and a low need for
subordinates.
affiliation
■ Under pressure:
○ Thematic Apperception
anxious, defensive,
Test (TAT) - projective per-
and dominant
sonality test; test takers are
● Team leadership - concerned with
shown pictures and asked to
both productivity and employee well-
tell stories
being; both task and person oriented
○ Job Choice Exercise (JCE)
● Impoverished leadership -
- objective test
concerned with neither productivity
● Gender – women are more effective
nor the well-being of employees;
as leaders in traditionally defined
neither task nor person oriented
situations as less masculine.
● Middle-of-the-road leadership
Women are more likely to engage in
-balanced orientation between
situations that needs high quality
people and tasks; moderate
leadership.
amounts of both orientations
● Task Versus Person Orientation
● How to measure: Leader
○ Person-oriented leaders
Orientation
■ act in a warm and
○ Leadership Opinion
supportive manner
Questionnaire (LOQ) - used
■ believe that
to measure a leader’s self-
employees are
perception of his or her
intrinsically motivated
leadership style
■ consult their
○ Leader Behavior
subordinates before
Description Questionnaire
making decisions
(LBDQ) - used to measure
■ Under pressure:
perceptions of a leader’s
socially withdrawn
style by his or her
○ Task-oriented leaders
subordinates
■ task-centered
● POOR LEADERSHIP
leaders - define and
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

○ lack of leadership training  Leader–member relations

○ cognitive deficiencies o refers to the extent to which
○ personality subordinates like a leader
■ Paranoid or  Leader Match
passive-aggressive o Fiedler’s training program
-has unconscious, o a training program that teaches
resentment and leaders how to change situations
anger. to match their leadership styles
■ high-likability floater Organizational Climate
- insecure and
seldom causes IMPACT theory
trouble and make no  developed by Geier, Downey, and
great performance Johnson
advances; usually  a theory of leadership
well-liked by his  states that there are six styles of
employees leadership and that each style is
■ narcissist effective in only a particular situation
-overconfident (organizational climates)
Interaction between Leader and Situation
6 Behavioral Styles - similar to the five
Fiedler’s contingency model bases of power by French and Raven

● by Fred Fiedler 1. Informational style

● a theory of leadership that states that  leader leads through
leadership effectiveness is dependent knowledge and information
on the interaction between the leader  most effective in a climate of
and the situation ignorance
 Ignorance
Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale
o Organizational
● a test used in conjunction with Fiedler’s climate in which
contingency model to reveal leadership important information
style and effectiveness is not available.
● Low-scoring LPC = task oriented 2. Magnetic style
● High-scoring LPC = person oriented
 leader has influence because
Favorableness of a Situation (Fiedler’s of his or her charismatic
contingency model) personality
 most effective in a climate of
 Task structuredness
despair
o refers to the extent to which
 Despair
tasks have clear goals and
o organizational climate
problems can be solved
 Leader position power characterized by low
o refers to the extent to which a morale
leader, by the nature of his or her 3. Position style
position, has the power to
reward and punish subordinates
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

 leaders influence others by ● Find a climate consistent with your

virtue of their appointed or leadership style.
elected authority ● Change your leadership style to
 most effective in a climate of better fit the existing climate
instability ● Change your followers’ perception of
 Instability the climate.
o organizational climate ● Change the actual climate.
in which people are
not sure what to do
Subordinate Ability - leader effectiveness
4. Affiliation style is influence by the abilities and attitudes of
 leaders care about others the leader’s followers and how these
 most effective in a climate of interact with the style and characteristics of
anxiety the leader
 Anxiety
o organizational climate Path–goal theory
in which worry  developed by House
predominates  theory of leadership stating that
leaders will be effective if their
behavior helps subordinates achieve
5. Coercive style
relevant goals
 leaders control reward and
punishment most effective in Behavioral Leadership Styles
a climate of crisis 1. Instrumental style - leader plans
 Crisis and organizes the activities of
o critical time or climate employees
for an organization in 2. Supportive style - leaders show
which the outcome to concern for their employees
a decision has 3. Participative style - leader allows
extreme employees to participate in decisions
consequences 4. Achievement-oriented style -
6. Tactical style leader sets challenging goals and
 person leads through rewards achievement
organization and strategy
 most effective in a climate of Situational leadership theory
disorganization
 Disorganization  Developed by Hersey and Blanchard
o climate in which the  Focuses on the relationship between
organization has the leader and follower
necessary knowledge  Theory of leadership stating that
and resources but effective leaders must adapt their style
does not know how to of leadership to fit both the situation and
efficiently use them the followers.
 Follower readiness
Four Leadership Strategies o most important follower
characteristic
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

o the ability and willingness to Specific Leadership Skills

perform a particular task
Leadership through Decision making
 directing approach -important behavior or skill for a leader to
o most effective leader behavior possess
o the leader directs the follower by
telling him what to do and how to  Vroom–Yetton Model
 theory of leadership that
do it
concentrates on helping a leader
 coaching approach
choose how to make a decision
o leaders explain and clarify how
 provide a flowchart which tells a
work should be done leader what process to go
o used with followers who are through to make a decision in a
willing to do the work but are not particular situation
sure how to do it
Leadership through Management by
 supporting approach
walking around (MBWA)
o leaders give emotional support
as well as opportunities for two-  effective leaders walk out of their
way communication offices, walking around, and
o used with followers already know meeting with and talking to
what to do but are not sure employees and customers about
whether they want to do it their needs and progress
 delegating approach Leadership through Power
o leaders delegate specific tasks
 to obtain more resources, dictate policy,
and let followers complete them
and advance farther in an organization
with minimal supervision or
 leader's power increases = increase in
guidance
influence
o used with followers who are both  Basic Types of Power
willing and able to perform the 1. Expert power - power that
task individuals have because they
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory have knowledge
 2 requirements: the
 leadership theory that focuses on the
knowledge must be
interaction between leaders and
something that others in
subordinates
an organization need and
 originally took its name from the
others must be aware
relationship between two people (dyad),
that the leader knows
the position of the leader above the
something
subordinate (vertical), and their
2. Legitimate power - power that
interrelated behavior (linkage)
individuals have because of their
 thus, it was originally called vertical
elected or appointed position
dyad linkage (VDL) theory
3. Reward power - involves having
 2 Groups: Subordinates
control over both financial
o in-group - high-quality
rewards
relationship with the leader
4. Coercive power - power that
o out-group - low-quality
comes from the leader’s capacity
relationship with the leader
to punish others
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

5. Referent power - power that  take the time to mentor

exists when followers can  coach their followers
identify with a leader and the
leader’s goals Characteristics
Leadership through Vision:  Vision - provide direction toward where
Transformational Leader they want the organization to go
Transactional leadership - leader focuses  Differentiation - somehow dif ferent
from their followers but similar enough
on task-oriented behaviors
to relate to and empathize with them
3 Dimensions  Values
 Transmission - able to communicate
1. Contingent reward dimension-
their vision and values to others
refers to leaders who reward
 Flaws - have a flaw and are aware of it
followers for engaging in desired
activity Leadership through Authenticity
2. Management by exception-active-
refers to leaders who actively  leadership theory stating that leaders
should be honest and open
monitor performance and take
corrective action when needed  desire to serve others rather than a
desire for self-gain
3. Management by exception-
passive - refers to leaders who do  self-awareness - need to understand
who they are (weakness & strengths)
not actively monitor follower
behavior and who take corrective Cultural Differences in Leadership:
action only when problems are Project GLOBE
serious
 Global Leadership and Organizational
Transformational leadership - visionary Behavior Effectiveness
leadership; leader changes the nature and  has two goals:
goals of an organization 1. discover differences and
3 Dimensions similarities in cultures
2. determine why these differences
1. Charisma exist
 leaders with high moral and
ethical standards
9 Dimensions
 have a strong vision of where
they want their followers to 1. Uncertainty avoidance - extent to
go which a culture avoids uncertainty by
 use enthusiasm to motivate using social norms and rituals
their followers 2. Power distance - extent to which
power is unequally shared
2. Intellectual stimulation
3. Social collectivism - extent to
 encourage change and open
which a culture encourages
thinking collective distribution of resources
 challenge the status quo 4. In-group collectivism - extent to
 appreciate diversity which individuals express pride in
3. Individual consideration their organizations and families
 encourage individual growth
ALDAY, ANGELI CAMILLE
2P2

5. Gender egalitarianism - extent to

which a culture tries to minimize
differences in gender roles and
prevent discrimination
6. Assertiveness - extent to which
individuals in a culture are assertive
and challenging in social relationship
7. Future orientation- extent to which
a culture plans for and invests in the
future
8. Performance orientation - extent to
which a culture encourages and
rewards improvement in
performance
9. Humane orientation - extent to
which a culture encourages and
rewards people for being fair, caring,
and giving

6 Main Leadership
1. Charismatic style - vision,
inspiration, integrity, and a
performance orientation.
2. Self-protective style - following
procedure, emphasizing status
differences, being self-centered, and
saving face
3. Humane style - being modest and
help- ing others
4. Team-oriented style - being
collaborative, building teams, and
being diplomatic
5. Participative style - getting the
opinions and help of others
6. Autonomous style - independent
and individualistic and making one’s
own decisions