Experimental

Modal Analysis

Modal Analysis 1
Copyright© 2003
Brüel & Kjær All Rights Reserved
 f(t)
SDOF and MDOF Models
m x(t)

c k Different Modal Analysis

Techniques

Exciting a Structure

Measuring Data Correctly

= + + +⋅⋅⋅+
Modal Analysis Post
Processing

Modal Analysis 2
 Simplest Form of Vibrating System
Displacement
Displacement
d = D sinωnt
D

Time

T Frequency
1
T

m
Period, Tn in [sec]
k 1
Frequency, fn= T in [Hz = 1/sec]
n

k
ωn= 2 π fn =
m

Modal Analysis 3
Mass and Spring

time

m1
k
ωn = 2πfn =
m + m1 m

Increasing mass
reduces frequency

Modal Analysis 4
Mass, Spring and Damper

time

Increasing damping
reduces the amplitude m

k c1 + c2

Modal Analysis 5
Basic SDOF Model

f(t)

m x(t)

c k

M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx (t ) = f (t )
&x&( t ) = Acceleration Vector
M = mass (force/acc.)
x& ( t ) = Velocity Vector
C = damping (force/vel.)
K = stiffness (force/disp.) x( t ) = Displacement Vector
f (t ) = Applied force Vector

Modal Analysis 6
 SDOF Models — Time and Frequency Domain
F(ω) H(ω) X(ω)

|H(ω)| 1 1
ω2m ωc
f(t) 1
k

m x(t)
ω
c k ∠ H(ω) ω0 = √ k/m
0º ω
– 90º
– 180º

X (ω ) 1
f (t ) = m&x&(t ) + cx& (t ) + kx (t ) H (ω ) = =
F (ω ) − ω 2m + jωc + k

Modal Analysis 7
Modal Matrix
⎧ X 1 (ω )⎫ ⎧ ⋅ ⎫
⎪ X (ω )⎪ ⎡ H11 (ω ) H 21 (ω ) ⋅ ⋅ H1n (ω )⎤ ⎪
⋅ ⎪
⎪ 2 ⎪ ⎢ ⋅ H 22 (ω ) ⋅ ⎥ ⎪ ⎪
Modal Model (
⎪X3 ω ⎪ ) ⎢ ⎥ ⎪ F3 (ω )⎪
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⋅ H 23 (ω ) ⋅ ⎥⎨ ⎬
(Freq. Domain) ⎪ ⋅ ⎪ ⎢ ⋅ ⋅ ⎥
⎥⎪ ⋅ ⎪
⎪ ⋅ ⎪ ⎢ ⎪ ⋅ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢⎣ H n1 (ω ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ H nn (ω )⎥⎦ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ n ⎭
X (ω ) ⎩ ⋅ ⎭

⋅
⋅
X4
X3
X2
X1
H22
F3
H21

Modal Analysis 8
MDOF Model
Magnitude

1+2

d1+ d2
2 1
Frequency
m
d1
Phase
Frequency
dF 0°
1 2
-90°
1+2

-180°

Modal Analysis 9
Why Bother with Modal Models?

Physical Coordinates = CHAOS Modal Space = Simplicity

Γ1

Rotor 1 q1

2σ1 ω01
2

Bearing Bearing Γ2

1 q2

Foundation 2σ 2 ω02
2
Γ3

1 q3

2σ3 ω03
2

Modal Analysis 10
Definition of Frequency Response Function
F(f) H(f) X(f)

F H X

f ∠H f f

H(f ) = X(f )
F(f )
H(f) is the system Frequency Response Function
F(f) is the Fourier Transform of the Input f(t)
X(f) is the Fourier Transform of the Output x(t)

Modal Analysis 11
Benefits of Frequency Response Function

F(f) H(f) X(f)

z Frequency Response Functions are properties of linear

dynamic systems

z They are independent of the Excitation Function

z Excitation can be a Periodic, Random or Transient function

of time

z The test result obtained with one type of excitation can be

used for predicting the response of the system to any other
type of excitation

Modal Analysis 12
Different Forms of an FRF

Compliance Dynamic stiffness

(displacement / force) (force / displacement)

Mobility Impedance
(velocity / force) (force / velocity)

Inertance or Receptance Dynamic mass

(acceleration / force) (force /acceleration)

Modal Analysis 13
Alternative Estimators

F(f) H(f) X(f) H( f )= X ( f )

F( f )

H1( f ) = GFX ( f )
GFF ( f )

H 2 ( f ) = GXX ( f )
GXF ( f )

G XX GFX
H3( f ) = ⋅ = H1 ⋅ H 2
GFF GFX

2
GFX G G* H
γ ( f )=
2
= FX ⋅ FX = 1
GFF ⋅GXX GFF GXX H 2

Modal Analysis 14
Which FRF Estimator Should You Use?
Accuracy
G XX GFX
Definitions: H1( f ) = GFX ( f ) H 2 ( f ) = GXX ( f ) H3( f ) = ⋅
GFF ( f ) GXF ( f ) GFF GFX

Accuracy for systems with: H1 H2 H3

Input noise - Best -
Output noise Best - -
Input + output noise - - Best
Peaks (leakage) - Best -
Valleys (leakage) Best - -

User can choose H1, H2 or H3 after measurement

Modal Analysis 15
 f(t)
SDOF and MDOF Models
m x(t)

c k Different Modal Analysis

Techniques

Exciting a Structure

Measuring Data Correctly

= + + +⋅⋅⋅+
Modal Analysis Post
Processing

Modal Analysis 16
Three Types of Modal Analysis

1. Hammer Testing
– Impact Hammer ’taps’...serial or parallel measurements
– Excites wide frequency range quickly
– Most commonly used technique

2. Shaker Testing
– Modal Exciter ’shakes’ product...serial or parallel measurements
– Many types of excitation techniques
– Often used in more complex structures

3. Operational Modal Analysis

– Uses natural excitation of structure...serial or parallel measurements
– ’Cutting’ edge technique

Modal Analysis 17
Different Types of Modal Analysis (Pros)
z Hammer Testing
– Quick and easy
– Typically Inexpensive
– Can perform ‘poor man’ modal as well as ‘full’ modal
z Shaker Testing
– More repeatable than hammer testing
– Many types of input available
– Can be used for MIMO analysis
z Operational Modal Analysis
– No need for special boundary conditions
– Measure in-situ
– Use natural excitation
– Can perform other tests while taking OMA data

Modal Analysis 18
Different Types of Modal Analysis (Cons)
z Hammer Testing
– Crest factors due impulsive measurement
– Input force can be different from measurement to measurement
(different operators, difficult location, etc.)
– ‘Calibrated’ elbow required (double hits, etc.)
– Tip performance often an overlooked issue
z Shaker Testing
– More difficult test setup (stingers, exciter, etc.)
– Usually more equipment and channels needed
– Skilled operator(s) needed
z Operational Modal Analysis
– Unscaled modal model
– Excitation assumed to cover frequency range of interest
– Long time histories sometimes required
– Computationally intensive

Modal Analysis 19
Frequency Response Function
[m/s²] Time(Response) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

80

40

FFT Output Motion Response

H= = =
-40

-80

0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m

Input Force Excitation

[s]

Output
[m/s²] Autospectrum(Response) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

Input 10

100m Frequency Response H1(Response,Excitation) - Input (Magnitude)

[(m/s²)/N]
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
Inverse Impulse Response h1(Response,Excitation) - Input (Real Part)
[(m/s²)/N/s]

⇒
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
10m 2k

FFT
10

1m 1k
0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k
[Hz]
0
100m

-1k
[N] Autospectrum(Excitation) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer -2k
1 0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k 0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m
[Hz] [s]
100m

10m

1m

100u
0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k
[Hz]

Frequency Domain Time Domain

[N]

200
Time(Excitation) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
FFT
100

-100

-200
0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m
[s]

Modal Analysis 20
Hammer Test on Free-free Beam
Roving hammer method:
z Response measured at one point
z Excitation of the structure at a number of points
by hammer with force transducer
z FRF’s between excitation points and measurement point calculated
z Modes of structure identified
Amplitude First
e Mode
tanc Second
Di s Mode
Third
Mode
Freq Beam
uenc
y Acceleration
Force
Force
Freq Force
Force
uenc Force l
y Dom Force
Force oda ain
a in V Force
Force M om iew
ie w Force
Force D V
Force

Modal Analysis 21 Press anywhere

to advance animation
Measurement of FRF Matrix (SISO)

One row
z One Roving Excitation
z One Fixed Response (reference)
SISO

X1 H11 H12 H13 ...H1n F1

X2 H21 H22 H23 ...H2n F2
X3 = H31 H32 H33...H 3n F3
: : :
Xn Hn1 Hn2 Hn3...Hnn Fn

Modal Analysis 22
Measurement of FRF Matrix (SIMO)

More rows
z One Roving Excitation
z Multiple Fixed Responses (references)
SIMO

X1 H11 H12 H13 ...H1n F1

X2 H21 H22 H23 ...H2n F2
X3 = H31 H32 H33...H 3n F3
: : :
Xn Hn1 Hn2 Hn3...Hnn Fn

Modal Analysis 23
Shaker Test on Free-free Beam
Shaker method:
z Excitation of the structure at one point
by shaker with force transducer
z Response measured at a number of points
z FRF’s between excitation point and measurement points calculated

z Modes of structure identified

Amplitude First
e
tanc Mode Second
Di s Mode
Third
Mode
Freq Beam
uenc
y Acceleration

Freq
uenc l
y Dom oda ain
a in V
ie w M om iew
D V
White
noise ∝ Force
excitation

Modal Analysis 24 Press anywhere

to advance animation
Measurement of FRF Matrix (Shaker SIMO)

One column
z Single Fixed Excitation (reference)
z Single Roving Response SISO
or
z Multiple (Roving) Responses SIMO
Multiple-Output: Optimize data consistency

X1 H11 H12 H13 ...H1n F1

X2 H21 H22 H23 ...H2n F2
X3 = H31 H32 H33...H 3n F3
: : :
Xn Hn1 Hn2 Hn3...Hnn Fn

Modal Analysis 25
Why Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output ?
z Multiple-Input: For large and/or complex structures more
shakers are required in order to:
– get the excitation energy sufficiently distributed
and
– avoid non-linear behaviour

z Multiple-Output: Measure outputs at the same time in

order to optimize data consistency

i.e. MIMO

Modal Analysis 26
Situations needing MIMO
z One row or one column is not sufficient for determination of
all modes in following situations:

– More modes at the same frequency (repeated roots),

e.g. symmetrical structures

– Complex structures having local modes, i.e. reference

DOF with modal deflection for all modes is not available

In both cases more columns or more rows have to be

measured - i.e. polyreference.
Solutions:
– Impact Hammer excitation with more response DOF’s
– One shaker moved to different reference DOF’s
– MIMO

Modal Analysis 27
 Measurement of FRF Matrix (MIMO)
More columns
z Multiple Fixed Excitations (references)
z Single Roving Response MISO
or
z Multiple (Roving) Responses MIMO

X1 H11 H12 H13 ...H1n F1

X2 H21 H22 H23 ...H2n F2
X3 = H31 H32 H33...H 3n F3
: : :
Xn Hn1 Hn2 Hn3...Hnn Fn

Modal Analysis 28
 Modal Analysis
Operational (classic):
Modal AnalysisFRF = Response/Excitation
(OMA): Response only!
[m/s²] Time(Response) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
80

40

-40

-80

0 40m 80m 120m

[s]
160m 200m 240m
FFT Frequency Domain Time Domain
Output [m/s²] Autospectrum(Response) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
10

1 Inverse
100m

Frequency Response H1(Response,Excitation) - Input (Magnitude)

[(m/s²)/N]
FFT [(m/s²)/N/s]
Impulse Response h1(Response,Excitation) - Input (Real Part)
10m
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer

⇒
2k
1m 10
0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k 1k
[Hz]

100m

-1k

Input
[N] Autospectrum(Excitation) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
1 -2k

0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k 0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m
100m [Hz] [s]

Natural Excitation 10m

1m
Frequency Impulse
100u

0 200 400 600 800

[Hz]
1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k
Response Response
Function Function

[N]

200
Time(Excitation) - Input
Working : Input : Input : FFT Analyzer
FFT
100
Output Vibration Response
H(ω) = = =
0

Input Force Excitation

-100

-200
0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m
[s]

Modal Analysis 29
 f(t)
SDOF and MDOF Models
m x(t)

c k Different Modal Analysis

Techniques

Exciting a Structure

Measuring Data Correctly

= + + +⋅⋅⋅+
Modal Analysis Post
Processing

Modal Analysis 30
The Eternal Question in Modal…

F1
a

F2

Modal Analysis 31
 Impact Excitation
Measuring one row of the FRF matrix by
moving impact position

H11(ω) H12(ω) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ H15(ω)

⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
#5 ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
Accelerometer #4 ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
#3 ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
#2 ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
#1

LAN

Force
Transducer Impact
Hammer

Modal Analysis 32
Impact Excitation
a(t)

t
z Magnitude and pulse duration depends on:
– Weight of hammer
– Hammer tip (steel, plastic or rubber)
– Dynamic characteristics of surface
– Velocity at impact

z Frequency bandwidth inversely proportional to the pulse duration

a(t) 1 GAA(f) 1
2 2

t f

Modal Analysis 33
Weighting Functions for Impact Excitation
Criteria
z How to select shift and length
for transient and exponential
windows:

Transient weighting of the input signal

Exponential weighting
of the output signal

z Leakage due to exponential time

weighting on response signal is well
defined and therefore correction of the
measured damping value is often possible

Modal Analysis 34
Compensation for Exponential Weighting
b(t)
With exponential Window function
1
weighting of the Original signal
output signal, the
measured time
constant will be too
short and the
calculated decay Time
constant and
Weighted signal
damping ratio
therefore too large shift Length = τ W
Record length, T

Correction of decay constant σ and damping ratio ζ:

σ σm σ W
σ = σm − σ W ζ= = − = ζm − ζ W
ω0 ω0 ω0
1
Correct Measured σW =
value value τW

Modal Analysis 35
Range of hammers
Description Application

12 lb Sledge Building and

bridges

3 lb Hand Large shafts

Sledge and larger
machine tools
1 lb hammer Car framed
and machine
tools
General Components
Purpose, 0.3
lb
Mini Hammer Hard-drives,
circuit boards,
turbine blades

Modal Analysis 36
Impact hammer excitation

z Advantages:
– Speed
– No fixturing
– No variable mass loading
– Portable and highly suitable for
field work
– relatively inexpensive

z Disadvantages
– High crest factor means
possibility of driving structure
into non-linear behavior
z Conclusion
– High peak force needed for
– Best suited for field work large structures means
possibility of local damage!
– Useful for determining shaker
and support locations – Highly deterministic signal
means no linear approximation

Modal Analysis 37
 Shaker Excitation
Measuring one column of the FRF matrix by
moving response transducer

H11(ω) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
Accelerometer H21(ω) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
#5 ⋅
#4 ⋅
#3 ⋅
#2 H51(ω) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
#1
Force
Transducer

LAN

Vibration Power
Exciter
Amplifier

Modal Analysis 38
 Attachment of Transducers and Shaker
Force
a F Transducer Shaker
Accelerometer mounting:
z Stud Accelerometer

z Cement
z Wax
z (Magnet) Properties of Stinger
Axial Stiffness: High
Bending Stiffness: Low
Force Transducer and Shaker:
z Stud Advantages of Stinger:
z No Moment Excitation
z Stinger (Connection Rod)
z No Rotational Inertia Loading
z Protection of Shaker
z Protection of Transducer
z Helps positioning of Shaker

Modal Analysis 39
 Connection of Exciter and Structure
Force Transducer
Measured structure Slender Exciter
stinger

Accelerometer

Force and acceleration measurements unaffected by stinger compliance, but ...

Minor mass correction required to determine actual excitation
Fm
Fs
&&
Fs = (m + M) X
Structure

&&
Fm = M X
Tip mass, m
Piezoelectric Shaker/Hammer m+M
material mass, M Fs = Fm
M

Modal Analysis 40
 Shaker Reaction Force

Reaction by Reaction by Example of an

external support exciter inertia improper
arrangement
Structure
Suspension

Structure
Suspension

Exciter
Exciter Suspension
Support

Modal Analysis 41
Sine Excitation
a(t)
A
RMS
A
Crest factor = RMS = 2
Time

B(f1)
z For study of non-linearities,
e.g. harmonic distortion

z For broadband excitation: A(f1)

– Sine wave swept slowly through
the frequency range of interest
– Quasi-stationary condition

Modal Analysis 42
Swept Sine Excitation

Advantages
z Low Crest Factor
z High Signal/Noise ratio
z Input force well controlled
z Study of non-linearities
possible
Disadvantages
z Very slow
z No linear approximation of
non-linear system

Modal Analysis 43
Random Excitation
a(t)

Time

Random variation of amplitude and phase

⇒ Averaging will give optimum linear
estimate in case of non-linearities

System
Output
GAA(f), N = 1 GAA(f), N = 10 B(f1)

A(f1)
Freq. Freq. System
Input

Modal Analysis 44
Random Excitation
z Random signal:
– Characterized by power spectral density (GAA) and
amplitude probability density (p(a))
a(t)

p(a) Time

z Can be band limited according to frequency range of interest

GAA(f) Baseband GAA(f) Zoom

Freq. Freq.
Frequency Frequency
range range
z Signal not periodic in analysis time ⇒ Leakage in spectral estimates

Modal Analysis 45
Random Excitation

Advantages
z Best linear approximation of system
z Zoom
z Fair Crest Factor
z Fair Signal/Noise ratio

Disadvantages
z Leakage
z Averaging needed (slower)

Modal Analysis 46
Burst Random
z Characteristics of Burst Random signal :
– Gives best linear approximation of nonlinear system
– Works with zoom

a(t)

Time

Advantages
z Best linear approximation of system
z No leakage (if rectangular time weighting can be used)
z Relatively fast

Disadvantages
z Signal/noise and crest factor not optimum
z Special time weighting might be required

Modal Analysis 47
Pseudo Random Excitation
z Pseudo random signal:
– Block of a random signal repeated every T
a(t)

Time
T T T T

z Time period equal to record length T

– Line spectrum coinciding with analyzer lines
– No averaging of non-linearities
System
Output
GAA(f), N = 1 GAA(f), N = 10
B(f1)

A(f1)
Freq. Freq. System Input

Modal Analysis 48
 Pseudo Random Excitation
z Pseudo random signal:
– Characterized by power/RMS (GAA) and amplitude probability density (p(a))
a(t)

p(a)
T T T T Time

z Can be band limited according to frequency range of interest

GAA(f) Baseband GAA(f) Zoom

Freq. Freq.
Freq. range Freq. range

Time period equal to T

⇒ No leakage if Rectangular weighting is used

Modal Analysis 49
Pseudo Random Excitation

Advantages
z No leakage
z Fast
z Zoom
z Fair crest factor
z Fair Signal/Noise ratio
Disadvantages
z No linear approximation of
non-linear system

Modal Analysis 50
Multisine (Chirp)
For sine sweep repeated every time record, Tr

Time
Tr
A special type of pseudo random signal where
the crest factor has been minimized (< 2)

It has the advantages and disadvantages of

the “normal” pseudo random signal but with a
lower crest factor
Additional Advantages:
– Ideal shape of spectrum: The spectrum is a flat
magnitude spectrum, and the phase spectrum is smooth
Applications:
– Measurement of structures with non-linear behaviour

Modal Analysis 51
Periodic Random
A combined random and pseudo-random signal giving
an excitation signal featuring:
– No leakage in analysis
– Best linear approximation of system
A A A B B B C C C

Pseudo-random signal
changing with time:
T T T
transient response
steady-state response
Analysed time data:
(steady-state response) A B C

Disadvantage:
z The test time is longer than the test time
using pseudo-random or random signal

Modal Analysis 52
Periodic Pulse
Special case of pseudo random signal
Rectangular, Hanning, or Gaussian pulse with user definable
Δ t repeated with a user definable interval, Δ T

Δt ΔT Time

The line spectrum for a

sin x
Rectangular pulse has a x
shaped envelope curve
1/Δ t Frequency
z Leakage can be avoided using rectangular time weighting
z Transient and exponential time weighting can be used to increase
Signal/Noise ratio
z Gating of reflections with transient time weighting
z Effects of non-linearities are not averaged out
z The signal has a high crest factor

Modal Analysis 53
Periodic Pulse

Advantages Disadvantages

z Fast z No linear approximation of

z No leakage non-linear system
(Only with rectangular weighting) z High Crest Factor
z Gating of reflections z High peak level might excite
(Transient time weighting) non-linearities
z Excitation spectrum follows z No Zoom
frequency span in baseband z Special time weighting might
z Easy to implement be required to increase
Signal/Noise Ratio . This can
also introduce leakage

Modal Analysis 54
Guidelines for Choice of Excitation Technique

z For study of non-linearities: Swept sine excitation

z For slightly non-linear system: Random excitation

z For perfectly linear system: Pseudo random excitation

z For field measurements: Impact excitation

z For high resolution field measurements: Random impact excitation

Modal Analysis 55
 f(t)
SDOF and MDOF Models
m x(t)

c k Different Modal Analysis

Techniques

Exciting a Structure

Measuring Data Correctly

= + + +⋅⋅⋅+
Modal Analysis Post
Processing

Modal Analysis 56
Garbage In = Garbage Out!
A state-of-the Art Assessment of Mobility Measurement Techniques
– Result for the Mid Range Structure (30 - 3000 Hz) –
D.J. Ewins and J. Griffin
Feb. 1981

Transfer Mobility Transfer Mobility

Central Decade Expanded

Frequency Frequency

Modal Analysis 57
Plan Your Test Before Hand!
1. Select Appropriate Excitation
– Hammer, Shaker, or OMA?

2. Setup FFT Analyzer correctly

– Frequency Range, Resolution, Averaging, Windowing
– Remember: FFT Analyzer is a BLOCK ANALYZER!

3. Good Distribution of Measurement Points

– Ensure enough points are measured to see all modes of interest
– Beware of ’spatial aliasing’

4. Physical Setup
– Accelerometer mounting is CRITICAL!
– Uni-axial vs. Triaxial
– Make sure DOF orientation is correct
– Mount device under test...mounting will affect measurement!
– Calibrate system

Modal Analysis 58
 Where Should Excitation Be Applied?

Xi Re sponse " i "

Hij = =
Fj Excitation " j "

Driving Point 1 j {X} = [H]{F}

Measurement 2
i
i=j ⎧ X 1 ⎫ ⎡H11 H12 ⎤ ⎧F1 ⎫
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⋅⎨ ⎬
⎩ X 2 ⎭ ⎣H21 H22 ⎦ ⎩F2 ⎭

Transfer j
Measurement X 1= H11 ⋅ F1 + H12 ⋅ F2
i≠j X 2 = H21 ⋅ F1 + H22 ⋅ F2
i

Modal Analysis 59
Check of Driving Point Measurement
Im [Hij]
z All peaks in

⎡ X( f ) ⎤ ⎡X& (f ) ⎤ ⎡X&& ( f ) ⎤
Im ⎢ ⎥, Re ⎢ ⎥ and Im ⎢ ⎥
⎣ F( f ) ⎦ ⎣ F ( f ) ⎦ ⎣ F ( f ) ⎦
Mag [Hij]

z An anti-resonance in Mag [Hij]

must be found between every
pair of resonances

Phase [Hij]
z Phase fluctuations must be
within 180°

Modal Analysis 60
Driving Point (DP) Measurement
The quality of the DP-measurement is very important, as the
DP-residues are used for the scaling of the Modal Model

DP- Considerations: DP- Problems:

– Residues for all modes – Highest modal coupling, as all
must be estimated modes are in phase
accurately from a single – Highest residual effect from
measurement rigid body modes

Ιm ⏐Aij⏐ Log Mag⏐Aij⏐ Measured

ω
=
Re ⏐Aij⏐ Without rigid
body modes
ω
ω

Modal Analysis 61
Tests for Validity of Data: Coherence
2
GFX ( f )
Coherence γ 2( f ) =
GFF ( f ) G XX ( f )

– Measures how much energy put in to the

system caused the response
– The closer to ‘1’ the more coherent
– Less than 0.75 is bordering on poor coherence

Modal Analysis 62
Reasons for Low Coherence

Difficult measurements:
z Noise in measured output signal
z Noise in measured input signal
z Other inputs not correlated with measured input signal

Bad measurements:
z Leakage
z Time varying systems
z Non-linearities of system
z DOF-jitter
z Propagation time not compensated for

Modal Analysis 63
Tests for Validity of Data: Linearity
X1 = H·F1 X1+X2 = H·(F1 + F2)
Linearity ⇒
X2 = H·F2 a·X1 = H·(a· F1)

H(ω)

F(ω) X(ω)

– More force going in to the system will equate to

more response coming out
– Since FRF is a ratio the magnitude should be
the same regardless of input force

Modal Analysis 64
Tips and Tricks for Best Results
z Verify measurement chain integrity prior to test:
– Transducer calibration
– Mass Ratio calibration
z Verify suitability of input and output transducers:
– Operating ranges (frequency, dynamic range, phase response)
– Mass loading of accelerometers
– Accelerometer mounting
– Sensitivity to environmental effects
– Stability
z Verify suitability of test set-up:
– Transducer positioning and alignment
– Pre-test: rattling, boundary conditions, rigid body modes, signal-to-noise ratio,
linear approximation, excitation signal, repeated roots, Maxwell reciprocity,
force measurement, exciter-input transducer-stinger-structure connection

Quality FRF measurements are the foundation of

experimental modal analysis!

Modal Analysis 65
 f(t)
SDOF and MDOF Models
m x(t)

c k Different Modal Analysis

Techniques

Exciting a Structure

Measuring Data Correctly

= + + +⋅⋅⋅+
Modal Analysis Post
Processing

Modal Analysis 66
From Testing to Analysis
H( f )
Measured
FRF

Frequency
Curve Fitting
(Pattern Recognition)

H( f )

Modal Analysis

Frequency

Modal Analysis 67
From Testing to Analysis

H( f )

Modal Analysis

Frequency

f(t) f(t) f(t)

m x(t) m x(t) m x(t)
SDOF Models
c k c k c k

Modal Analysis 68
 Mode Characterizations

All Modes Can Be Characterized By:

1. Resonant Frequency
2. Modal Damping
3. Mode Shape

Modal Analysis 69
Modal Analysis – Step by Step Process
1. Visually Inspect Data
– Look for obvious modes in FRF
– Inspect ALL FRFs…sometimes modes will show up in one
FRF but not another (nodes)
– Use Imaginary part and coherence for verification
– Sum magnitudes of all measurements for clues
2. Select Curve Fitter
– Lightly coupled modes: SDOF techniques
– Heavily coupled modes: MDOF techniques
– Stable measurements: Global technique
– Unstable measurements: Local technique
– MIMO measurement: Poly reference techniques
3. Analysis
– Use more than 1 curve fitter to see if they agree
– Pay attention to Residue calculations
– Do mode shapes make sense?

Modal Analysis 70
Modal Analysis – Inspect Data
1. Visually Inspect Data
– Look for obvious modes in FRF
– Inspect ALL FRFs…sometimes modes will show up in one
FRF but not another (nodes)
– Use Imaginary part and coherence for verification
– Sum magnitudes of all measurements for clues
2. Select Curve Fitter
– Lightly coupled modes: SDOF techniques
– Heavily coupled modes: MDOF techniques
– Stable measurements: Global technique
– Unstable measurements: Local technique
– MIMO measurement: Poly reference techniques
3. Analysis
– Use more than 1 curve fitter to see if they agree
– Pay attention to Residue calculations
– Do mode shapes make sense?

Modal Analysis 71
Modal Analysis – Curve Fitting
1. Visually Inspect Data
– Look for obvious modes in FRF
– Inspect ALL FRFs…sometimes modes will show up in one
FRF but not another (nodes)
– Use Imaginary part and coherence for verification
– Sum magnitudes of all measurements for clues
2. Select Curve Fitter
– Lightly coupled modes: SDOF techniques
– Heavily coupled modes: MDOF techniques
– Stable measurements: Global technique
– Unstable measurements: Local technique
– MIMO measurement: Poly reference techniques
3. Analysis
– Use more than 1 curve fitter to see if they agree
– Pay attention to Residue calculations
– Do mode shapes make sense?

Modal Analysis 72
 How Does Curve Fitting Work?
z Curve Fitting is the process of estimating the Modal
Parameters from the measurements

2σ
z Find the resonant
|H|
frequency
– Frequency where small
R/σ excitation causes a
large response

z Find the damping

ω – What is the Q of the
ωd peak?
0 z Find the residue
Phase – Essentially the ‘area
-180 under the curve’
Frequency

Modal Analysis 73
Residues are Directly Related to Mode Shapes!

* z Residues express the

Rijr Rijr
Hij (ω) = ∑ Hijr = ∑ + strength of a mode for each
r r jω − p r jω − pr* measured FRF

z Therefore they are related

Second
to mode shape at each
Amplitude First Mode measured point!
e Mode
tanc
Dis
Third
Mode
Freq Beam
uenc
y Acceleration
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force

Modal Analysis 74
SDOF vs. MDOF Curve Fitters
z Use SDOF methods on LIGHTLY COUPLED modes

z Use MDOF methods on HEAVILY COUPLED modes

z You can combine SDOF and MDOF techniques!

SDOF MDOF
(light coupling) (heavy coupling)
|H|

Modal Analysis 75
Local vs. Global Curve Fitting
z Local means that resonances, damping, and residues are
calculated for each FRF first…then combined for curve
fitting

z Global means that resonances, damping, and residues are

calculated across all FRFs

|H|

Modal Analysis 76
Modal Analysis – Analyse Results
1. Visually Inspect Data
– Look for obvious modes in FRF
– Inspect ALL FRFs…sometimes modes will show up in one
FRF but not another (nodes)
– Use Imaginary part and coherence for verification
– Sum magnitudes of all measurements for clues
2. Select Curve Fitter
– Lightly coupled modes: SDOF techniques
– Heavily coupled modes: MDOF techniques
– Stable measurements: Global technique
– Unstable measurements: Local technique
– MIMO measurement: Poly reference techniques
3. Analysis
– Use more than one curve fitter to see if they agree
– Pay attention to Residue calculations
– Do mode shapes make sense?

Modal Analysis 77
Which Curve Fitter Should Be Used?
Frequency Response Function
Hij (ω)

Real Imaginary

Nyquist Log Magnitude

Modal Analysis 78
Which Curve Fitter Should Be Used?
Frequency Response Function
Hij (ω)

Real Imaginary

Nyquist Log Magnitude

Modal Analysis 79
Modal Analysis and Beyond

Experimental
Modal Analysis

Dynamic Model
based on
Modal Parameters

F
Structural Response
Modification Simulation

Hardware Modification Simulate Real

Resonance Specification World Response

Modal Analysis 80
Conclusion
z All Physical Structures can be characterized by the simple
SDOF model

z Frequency Response Functions are the best way to

measure resonances

z There are three modal techniques available today:

Hammer Testing, Shaker Testing, and Operational Modal

z Planning and proper setup before you test can save time
and effort…and ensure accuracy while minimizing
erroneous results

z There are many curve fitting techniques available, try to

use the one that best fits your application

Modal Analysis 81
Literature for Further Reading
z Structural Testing Part 1: Mechanical Mobility Measurements
Brüel & Kjær Primer

z Structural Testing Part 2: Modal Analysis and Simulation

Brüel & Kjær Primer

z Modal Testing: Theory, Practice, and Application, 2nd Edition by D.J.

Ewin
Research Studies Press Ltd.

z Dual Channel FFT Analysis (Part 1)

Brüel & Kjær Technical Review # 1 – 1984

z Dual Channel FFT Analysis (Part 1)

Brüel & Kjær Technical Review # 2 – 1984

Modal Analysis 82
Appendix: Damping Parameters

2σ
3 dB bandwidth Δf3 dB = , Δω3 dB = 2σ
2π

1 Δf3 db Δω3 dB
Loss factor η= = =
Q f0 ω0

η Δf3 dB Δω3 dB
Damping ratio ζ= = =
2 2f0 2ω0

Δω3 dB
Decay constant σ = ζ ω0 = π Δf3 dB =
2

f0 ω0
Quality factor Q= =
Δf3 dB Δω3 dB

Modal Analysis 83
Appendix: Damping Parameters
h( t ) = 2 ⋅ R ⋅ e − σt ⋅ sin (ω d t ) , where the Decay constant is given by e-σt
∇
~
The Envelope is given by magnitude of analytic h(t): h( t ) = h2 ( t ) + h 2 ( t )

e − σt
1 h(t)
Decay constant σ=
τ
1
Time constant : τ= Time
σ
σ 1 The time constant, τ, is
Damping ratio ζ= =
ω0 2πf0 τ determined by the time it
1 takes for the amplitude to
Loss factor η = 2⋅ζ =
πf0 τ decay a factor of e = 2,72…
1 or
Quality Q= = πf0 τ
η 10 log (e2) = 8.7 dB

Modal Analysis 84