LECTURE NOTES

ELECTRICAL SAFETY AND WIRING

1. Safety measures in electrical system, types of wiring:
The electrical wiring must be installed correctly and safely in accordance with electrical
regulations and standards. If the electrical wiring is carried incorrectly or without confirming to
any standard, devices could damage or leads to the malfunctioning of device which further
causes for the reduction of device life.

Several factors have to be considered before the actual installation work to be done for
residential, commercial or industrial wiring. These factors include type of building construction,
type of ceiling, wall and floor construction, wiring methods, installation requirements, etc.
Let us discuss electrical wiring basics, i.e., the concept of electrical wiring, steps involved,
methods followed and common types of electrical wiring in brief.

1.1. Electrical Safety: Before starting any installation work, first and foremost thing is the
concern of safety of the personnel. Electricity is dangerous, direct or indirect contact of electrical
equipment or wires with the power turned ON can result serious injuries or sometimes even
causes to death. Follow the below steps to maintain the safety at the workplace.

1. Always use safety equipment like goggles, gloves, shoes, etc. and avoid the direct contact
with live or energized circuits.
2. Have the skills and techniques to distinguish the exposed live parts of the electrical
equipment.
3. Disconnect the source supply while installing or connecting wires.
4. The power supplied to the installation must be controlled on the main switchboard which
should consist of circuit breaker.
5. Conductive tools and materials must be kept at a safe distance from live parts of the
circuit or equipment.
6. Use non-conductive hand tools for which they are rated to perform electrical work. If
they are used for voltage (or current) rating other than rated, the insulation strength of the
tool breakdown and causes electric shock.

1.2. Types of Electrical Wiring Systems: The state electricity board provides the electric
supply up to the outside the consumer’s premises. The consumer has to take the connection from
that point to the main switchboard at home.
From the main switchboard, various types of electrical loads such as fans, lights, room coolers,
and refrigerators are connected through the wires. There are different types of wirings used for
connecting the loads to the mains which can be used for house electrical wiring as well as
industrial electrical wiring. Some of these are discussed below.
 Cleat wiring
 Wooden casing and capping wiring
 CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
 Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring

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 Conduit wiring
There are additional types of conduit wiring according to Pipes installation (Where steel and
PVC pipes are used for wiring connection and installation).
 Surface or open  Conduit type
 Recessed or concealed or underground type Conduit

1.2.1. Cleat Wiring

This system of wiring comprise of ordinary VIR or PVC insulated wires (occasionally, sheathed
and weather proof cable) braided and compounded held on walls or ceilings by means of
porcelain cleats, Plastic or wood.
Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system therefore it is not suitable for domestic
premises. The use of cleat wiring system is over nowadays.

Advantages of Cleat Wiring:

 It is simple and cheap wiring system
 Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or army camping
 As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, Therefore fault in cables can
be seen and repair easily.
 Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.

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 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration and addition.
 Inspection is easy and simple.

Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:

 Appearance is not so good.
 Cleat wiring can’t be use for permanent use because; Sag may be occurring after
sometime of the usage.
 In this wiring system, the cables and wiring is in open air, therefore,
oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain, chemical and acidic effect may damage the cables and
wires.
 it is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect , risk of fire and wear & tear.
 it can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
 There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
 it can’t be used in important and sensitive location and places.
 It is not lasting, reliable and sustainable wiring system.

1.2.2. Casing and Capping wiring:

Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past but, it is considered
obsolete this days because of Conduit and sheathed wiring system. The cables used in this kind
of wiring were either VIR or PVC or any other approved insulated cables.
The cables were carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing is made up of a strip
of wood with parallel grooves cut length wise so as to accommodate VIR cables. The grooves
were made to separate opposite polarity. the capping (also made of wood) used to cover the
wires and cables installed and fitted in the casing.

Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:

 It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.
 It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.

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 Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing..
 It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
 No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing & capping.

Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:

 There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
 Not suitable in the acidic, alkalis and humidity conditions
 Costly repairing and need more material.
 Material can’t be found easily in the contemporary
 White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.

1.2.3. Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS):

Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape cables are used in
this kind of wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are chemical proof,
water proof, steam proof, but are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on
well seasoned and straight teak wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.
The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips (buckle clip)
already fixed on the batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10cm for horizontal runs
and 15cm for vertical runs.

Advantages of Batten Wiring

 Wiring installation is simple and easy
 cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
 Paraphrase is good and beautiful

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 Repairing is easy
 strong and long-lasting
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system

Disadvantages of Batten Wiring

 Can’t be installed in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
 High risk of fires
 Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because, the wires are openly
visible to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
 Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
 Only suitable below then 250V.
 Need more cables and wires.

1.2.4. Lead Sheathed Wiring:

The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR and covered with an outer
sheath of lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheath given protection
to cables from mechanical damage, moisture and atmospheric corrosion.
The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth at the point of
entry to protect against electrolytic action due to leaking current and to provide safety in case the
sheath becomes alive. The cables are run on wooden batten and fixed by means of link clips just
as in TRS wiring.

1.2.5. Conduit Wiring:

There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation
1. Surface Conduit Wiring
2. Concealed Conduit Wiring

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.

1.2.5.1. Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring method,
they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed then with the
help of rawal plugs.

1.2.5.2. Concealed Conduit wiring

If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called concealed
conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the
help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. Obliviously, It is the most
popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring system nowadays.

In conduit wiring, steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of
pipe hooks (surface conduit wiring) or buried in walls under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are
afterwards drawn by means of a GI wire of size if about 18SWG.

In Conduit wiring system, The conduits should be electrically continuous and connected to earth
at some suitable points in case of steel conduit. Conduit wiring is a professional way of wiring a
building. Mostly PVC conduits are used in domestic wiring.

The conduit protects the cables from being damaged by rodents (when rodents bites the cables it
will cause short circuit) that is why circuit breakers are in place though but hey! Prevention is
better than cure. Lead conduits are used in factories or when the building is prone to fire
accident. Trunking is more of like surface conduit wiring. It’s gaining popularity too.

It is done by screwing a PVC trunking pipe to a wall then passing the cables through the pipe.
The cables in conduit should not be too tight. Space factor have to be put into consideration.

Types of Conduit
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 Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed and surface conduit
wiring) which are shown in the above image.
 Metallic Conduit
 Non-metallic conduit

Metallic Conduit:
Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.
There are two types of metallic conduits.
 Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
 Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)

Non-metallic Conduit:
A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is flexible and easy to
bend.

Size of Conduit:
The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37,
50, and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 inch in diameter.
Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems
 It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
 Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
 No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
 Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
 Repairing and maintenance is easy.
 There is no risk of damage the cables insulation.
 it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
 It can be used even in humidity, chemical effect and smoky areas.
 No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic pipes).
 It is reliable and popular wiring system.
 Sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.

Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional earthing for
metallic pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
 Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
 Installation is not easy and simple.
 Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing system)
 Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.

1.3. Comparison between Different Wiring Systems:

Below is the table which shows the comparison between all the above mentioned wiring systems.

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2: Difference between grounding and earthing, Basic principles of earthing

To understand the difference between Neutral, Ground and Earth, we must understand the need
of these things first.

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2.1. Neutral:
Neutral is return path for an AC circuit which is supposed to carry current in normal condition.
This current may be because of many reasons, primarily because of phase current imbalance and
some time because 3rd and 5th harmonics also.

There may be others reasons too but the magnitude of this current is in fraction of phase current
and in few case it can be even double of phase current. So Neutral wire is always assumed to be
charged (in active circuit). This neutral wire is given to ground (by grounding) to make the
second terminal of neutral wire at zero potential.

2.2. Earth or Ground:

Earth or Ground is for safety concerns against leakage or residual currents on the system via
least resistance path. While phase and neutral is connected to main power wiring, earth may be
connected to body of equipment or to any system which in normal condition doesn’t carry
current but in case of some insulation failure, is supposed to carry some minor current.

This current is not directly coming from live or phase wire, but is from secondary links which
was not in touch with live system in normal condition. This current is usually much lesser than
main line current or phase current and mostly is in order of mA. But this leakage current is good
enough to kill someone or may risk fire. Such current are being provided a low resistance path
and sent to earth via earth wire.

Because of the difference in application we never mix grounding of neutral and earth. However
both are made grounded (of-course the process may be different). If both will be mixed then the
earth wire which is not supposed to carry any current in normal condition , may have some
charges across and will become hazardous.

Note: Difference between Earthing and Grounding.

There is no different between Earthing and Grounding but these are the same terms used for
Earthing or Grounding.

Grounding is the commonly word used for earthing in the North American standards like
IEEE, NEC, ANSI and UL etc while, Earthing is used in European, Common wealth
countries and Britain standards like IS and IEC etc.
In simple words, Earthing and Grounding are synonyms. Both are smiler words used for the
same thing

To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the earth
(ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.

In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth plate
or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor wire (which
has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or grounding.

To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as metallic
covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry current to the

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 earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a power supply system to the
earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of electrical energy.
 
2.2.1. Need of Earthing or Grounding. Why Earthing is Important?
The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution, fire due to
earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the potential of a current
carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its designed insulation.
When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage of
electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of installations or failure
in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge accumulates on it. If a person
touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.
To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be earthed so
as to transfer the charge directly to the earth.

Below are the basic needs of Earthing.

 To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances from
leakage current.
 To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
 To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
 To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
 To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

2.2.2. Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing:

 Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via conductor to the
buried plate in the earth is known as Earth.
 Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring system connected to the earth
through earth electrode, it is known as earthed device or simple “Earthed”.
 Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is
connected to the earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or resistance/Impedance, It is
called “solidly earthed”.
 Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for
electrical earthing system. It is known to be Earth Electrode. Earth electrodes are in different
shapes like, conductive plate, conductive rod, metal water pipe or any other conductor with
low resistance.
 Earthing Lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between Earth
electrode and Electrical installation system and devices in called Earthing lead.
 Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor wire, which is connected among different
electrical devices and appliances like, distribution board, different plugs and appliances etc. in
other words, the wire between earthing lead and electrical device or appliance is called earth
continuity conductor. It may be in the shape of metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic
sheath or flexible wire.
 Sub Main Earthing Conductor: A wire connected between switch board and
distribution board i.e. that conductor is related to sub main circuits.

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 Earth Resistance: This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth in Ω
(Ohms). Earth resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances of earth continuity conductor,
earthing lead, earth electrode and earth.

2.2.3. Points to be earthed:

Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute of Electrical Engineers)
regulations,
 Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug sockets and 4-pin power plug should be efficiently and
permanently earthed.
 All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any electric supply line or
apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC cables, iron clad switches, iron
clad distribution fuse boards etc should be earthed (connected to earth).
 The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of all transformers
used for controlling energy should be earthed by two separate and yet distinct connections
with the earth.
 In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the generating station.
 Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by connecting at least
one strand to the earth wires.

3: Components of earthing system:

A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic components.

 Earth Continuity Conductor

 Earthing Lead
 Earth Electrode

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3.1. Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire
That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of electrical
installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches, distribution
boards, Switches, fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of electrical machines
such as, motors, generators, transformers and the metallic framework where electrical devices
and components are installed is known as earth wire or earth continuity conductor as shown in
the above fig.
The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE rules, resistance
between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the end) should not be
increased than 1Ω. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should be less than 1Ω.
Size of the Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire depends on the cable size used in
the wiring circuit.

Size of  Earth Continuity Conductor

The cross sectional area of the Earth Continuity Conductor should not be less than the half of
the cross sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring installation.

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Generally, the size of the bare copper wire used as earth continuity conductor is 3SWG. But keep
in mind that, don’t use less than 14SWG as earth wire. Copper strip is also can be used as earth
continuity conductor instead of bare copper wire but don’t go for it until manufacture
recommend it.

3.2.Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint

The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or earth
plate is called earthing joint or “Earthing lead”. The point where earth continuity conductor and
earth electrode meet is known as “connecting point” as shown in the above fig.
Earthing lead is the final part of the earthing system which is connected to the earth electrode
(which is underground) through earth connecting point.

There should be minimum joints in earthing lead as well as lower in size and straight in the
direction.

Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for high
installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the copper wire.
A hard drawn bare copper wire is also used as an earthing lead. In this method, all earth
conductors connected to a common (one or more) connecting points and then, earthing lead is
used to connect earth electrode (earth plat) to the connecting point.

To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead to connect
the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use two earth electrodes
or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be considered that the two earth
leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents but both paths should work properly to
carry the fault current because it is important for better safety.

Size of the Earthing Lead

The size or area of earthing lead should not be less than the half of the thickest wire used in the
installation.
The largest size for earthing lead is 3SWG and the minimum size should not be less than 8SWG.
If 37/.083 wire is used or the load current is 200A from the supply voltage, then it is

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recommended to use copper strip instead of double earthing lead. The earth lead connection
methods is shown in the above fig.

3.3.Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate

A metallic electrode or plate which is buried in the earth (underground) and it is the last part of
the electrical earthing system. In simple words, the final underground metallic (plate) part of the
earthing system which is connected with earthing lead is called earth plate or earth electrode.
A metallic plate, pipe or rode can be used as an earth electrode which has very low resistance
and carry the fault current safely towards ground (earth).

Size of Earthing Electrode

Both copper and iron can be used as earthing electrode.
The size of earth electrode (In case of copper)
2×2 (two foot wide as well as in length) and 1/8 inch thickness.. I.e. 2’ x 2’ x 1/8”.
(600x600x300 mm)
In case of Iron
2’ x2’ x ¼” = 600x600x6 mm

It is recommended to bury the earth electrode in the moisture earth. If it is not possible, then put
water in the GI (Galvanized Iron) pipe to make possible the moisture condition.
In the earthing system, put the earth electrode in vertical position (underground) as shown in the
above fig. Also, put a 1 foot (about 30cm) layer of powdered charcoal and lime
mixture around the earth plate (don’t confuse with earth electrode and earth plate as both are the
same thing).

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This action makes the possible increase in the size of the earth electrode which leads a better
continuity in the earth (earthing system) and also helps to maintain the moisture condition around
earth plate.

Earth Plate or Earth Electrode Size for Small installation

In small installation, use metallic rod (diameter = 25mm (1inch) and length = 2m (6ft) instead of
earth plate for earthing system. The metallic pipe should be 2 meter below from the surface of
ground. To maintain the moister condition, put 25mm (1inch) coal and lime mixture around the
earth plate.
For effectiveness and convenience, you may use the copper rods 12.5mm (0.5 inch) to 25mm (1
inch) diameter and 4m (12ft) length. We will discuss the installation method of rod earthing
latter.
Books:
1:Basic Electrical Engineering by DP Kothari and IJ Nagrath(Third edition; Tata McGraw Hill)
2:Basic Electrical Engineering by DC Kulshreshtha (Revised 1st edition; McGraw Hill)
3:Basic Electrical Engineering by VN Mittal & Arvind Mittal (Second edition; McGraw Hill)

Weblink:
1: http://www.electricaltechnology.org
2: http://www.electronicshub.org

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