Chapter 6

Crushers

6.1 INTRODUCTION the crushing plant. Undersize material tends to pack the
voids between large particles in the crushing chamber,
Crushing is the first mechanical stage in the process of and can choke the crusher, causing damage, because the
comminution in which a principal objective is the libera- packed mass of rock is unable to swell in volume as it
tion of the valuable minerals from the gangue. Crushing is broken.
is typically a dry operation that is performed in two- or Crushing may be in open- or closed-circuit, depending
three-stages (i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary crushing). on the required product size distribution. Two basic crush-
Lumps of run-of-mine ore as large as 1.5 m across are ing flowsheets are shown in Figure 6.1: (a) the older style
reduced in the primary crushing stage to 10
20 cm in (“traditional”) 3-stage crushing circuit ahead of a rod
heavy-duty machines. mill, and (b) the more modern open-circuit primary crush-
In most operations, the primary crushing schedule is ing prior to SAG milling with crushing and recycling of
the same as the mining schedule. When primary crushing “critical size” material (see Chapters 5 and 7 for discus-
is performed underground it is normally a responsibility of sion on “critical size”). Both flowsheets show the primary
the mining department; for primary crushing at the surface crusher is in open circuit. Figure 6.1(a) shows the second-
it is customary for the mining department to deliver the ary crusher operating in open-circuit while the tertiary
ore to the crusher and for the mineral processing depart- crusher is closed with the screen undersize feeding the
ment to crush and handle the ore from this point through rod mill. In open-circuit crushing there is no recycle of
the successive ore-processing stages. Primary crushers are crusher product to the feed. Open-circuits may include
commonly designed to operate 75% of the available time, scalping ahead of the crushers with undersize material
mainly due to interruptions caused by insufficient crusher from the screen being combined with the crusher product,
feed and mechanical delays (Lewis et al., 1976; which is then routed to the next operation. If the crusher
McQuiston and Shoemaker, 1978; Major, 2002). is producing rod mill (or ball mill) feed, it is good
Primary crusher product from most metalliferous ores practice to use final stage closed-circuit crushing in which
can be crushed and screened satisfactorily, and subsequent the undersize from the screen feeds the mill. The crusher
crushing consists of one or two size-reduction stages with product is returned to the screen so that any over-size
appropriate crushers and screens (Major, 2002). In three- material is recirculated. To meet the tonnage and product
stage circuits, ore is reclaimed from ore storage with size requirements there may be more than one secondary
secondary crushing product typically ranging from and tertiary crusher operating in parallel with the feed
3.7
5.0 cm, and tertiary crushing further reducing the ore split between the units. The various circuits are illustrated
to ca. 0.5
2 cm in diameter. The product size is deter- by Major (2002).
mined by the size of the opening at the discharge, called One of the main reasons for closing the circuit is the
the set or setting. The reduction ratio is the ratio of feed greater flexibility given to the crushing plant as a whole.
size to product size, often with reference to the 80% The crusher can be operated at a wider setting if
passing size, that is, reduction ratio 5 F80/P80. If the ore necessary, thus altering the size distribution of the prod-
tends to be slippery and tough, the tertiary crushing stage uct, and by making a selective cut on the screen, the fin-
may be substituted by coarse grinding. On the other hand, ished product can be adjusted to give the required
more than three size-reduction stages may be required if specification. There is the added factor that if the material
the ore is extra-hard, or in special cases where it is impor- is wet or sticky (potentially due to climatic conditions) it
tant to minimize the production of fines (Major, 2009). is possible to open the setting of the crusher to prevent
Vibrating screens are sometimes placed ahead of sec- the possibility of packing, and by this means the through-
ondary or tertiary crushers to remove undersize material put of the machine is increased, which will compensate
(i.e., scalp the feed), thereby increasing the capacity of for the additional circulating load. Closed-circuit

Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 123
124 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.1 Example crushing flowsheets feeding a: (a) rod mill, and (b) SAG mill with a “recycle” (pebble) crusher to size reduce “critical size” material.

operation also allows compensation for wear that takes

place on liners, and generally gives greater freedom to
meet changes in requirements from the plant.
Surge bins precede the primary crusher to receive
dumped loads from ships or trucks and should have
enough storage capacity to maintain a steady feed to the
crusher. In most mills the crushing plant does not run for
24 h a day, as hoisting and transport of ore is usually car- FIGURE 6.2 Jaw-crusher types.
ried out on two shifts only, the other shift being used for
drilling and blasting. The crushing section must therefore
duty scalping screens (grizzlies). There are two main types
have a greater hourly capacity than the rest of the plant,
of primary crushers in metalliferous operations: jaw and
which is run continuously. Crushed ore surge capacity is
gyratory crushers, although impact crushers have limited
generally included in the flowsheet to ensure continuous
use as primaries and will be considered separately. Scalping
supply to the grinding circuit. The obvious question is,
is typically associated with jaw crusher circuits and can be
why not have similar storage capacity before the crushers
included to maximize throughput.
and run this section continuously also? Apart from the fact
that it is cheaper in terms of power consumption to crush
at off-peak hours, large storage bins are expensive, so it is 6.2.1 Jaw Crushers
uneconomic to have bins at both the crushing and grinding
stages. It is not practical to store large quantities of run-of- The Blake crusher was patented by E.W. Blake in 1858 and
mine (ROM) ore, as it consists of a large range of particle variations in detail on the basic form are found in most of
sizes and the small ones move down in the pile and fill the the jaw crushers used today. The patent states that the stone
voids. This packed mass is difficult to move after it has breaker “consists of a pair of jaws, one fixed and the other
settled. ROM ore should therefore be kept moving as movable, between which the stones are to be broken.” The
much as possible, and surge bins should have sufficient jaws are set at an acute angle with one jaw pivoting so as to
capacity only to even out the flow to the crusher. swing relative to the other fixed jaw. Material fed into the
jaws is repetitively nipped and released to fall further into
the crushing chamber until the discharge aperture.
Jaw crushers are classified by the method of pivoting
6.2 PRIMARY CRUSHERS the swing jaw (Figure 6.2). In the Blake crusher, the jaw
Primary crushers are heavy-duty machines, used to reduce is pivoted at the top and thus has a fixed receiving area
ROM ore down to a size suitable for transport and for feed- and a variable discharge opening. In the Dodge crusher,
ing the secondary crushers or AG/SAG mills. The units the jaw is pivoted at the bottom, giving it a variable feed
are always operated in open circuit, with or without heavy- area but fixed delivery area. The Dodge crusher is
 Crushers Chapter | 6 125

FIGURE 6.3 Double-toggle jaw crusher: (a) functional diagram, and (b) cross section.

restricted to laboratory use, where close sizing is required. Consider a large piece of rock falling into the mouth
The Universal crusher is pivoted in an intermediate posi- of the crusher. It is nipped by the jaws, which are moving
tion, and thus has a variable delivery and receiving area. relative to each other at a rate depending on the size of
There are two forms of the Blake crusher: double the machine (and which usually varies inversely with the
toggle and single toggle. size). Basically, time must be given for the rock broken at
In double-toggle Blake crushers, the oscillating move- each “bite” to fall to a new position before being nipped
ment of the swinging jaw is effected by vertical move- again. The ore falls until it is arrested. The swing jaw
ment of the pitman, which moves up and down under the closes on it, quickly at first, and then more slowly with
influence of the eccentric (Figure 6.3). The back toggle increasing power toward the end of the stroke. The frag-
plate causes the pitman to move sideways as it is pushed ments fall to a new arrest point as the jaws open and are
upward. This motion is transferred to the front toggle gripped and crushed again. During each “bite” of the
plate, which in turn causes the swing jaw to close on the jaws, the rock swells in volume due to the creation of
fixed jaw, this minimum separation distance being the voids between the particles. Since the ore is also falling
closed set (or closed side setting). Similarly, downward into a gradually reducing cross sectional area of the crush-
movement of the pitman allows the swing jaw to open, ing chamber, choking of the crusher would soon occur if
defining the open set (or open side setting). it were not for the increasing amplitude of swing toward
The important features of the machine are: the discharge end of the crusher. This accelerates the
material through the crusher, allowing it to discharge at a
1. Since the jaw is pivoted from above, it moves a mini-
rate sufficient to leave space for material entering from
mum distance at the entry point and a maximum dis-
above. This is termed arrested or free crushing as
tance at the delivery. This maximum distance is called
opposed to choked crushing, which occurs when the vol-
the throw of the crusher, that is, the difference
ume of material arriving at a particular cross section is
between the open side and closed side settings.
greater than that leaving. In arrested crushing, crushing is
2. The horizontal displacement of the swing jaw is great-
by the jaws only, whereas in choked crushing, particles
est at the bottom of the pitman cycle and diminishes
break one other. This inter-particle comminution can lead
steadily through the rising half of the cycle as the
to excessive production of fines, and if choking is severe
angle between the pitman and the back toggle plate
can damage the crusher.
becomes less acute.
The discharge size of material from the crusher is con-
3. The crushing force is least at the start of the cycle,
trolled by the open side set, which is the maximum open-
when the angle between the toggles is most acute, and
ing of the jaws at the discharge end. This can be adjusted
is strongest at the top of the cycle, when full power is
by using toggle plates of the required length. The back
delivered over a reduced travel of the jaw.
pillow into which the back toggle plate bears can be
Figure 6.3 shows a cross section through a double- adjusted to compensate for jaw wear. A number of manu-
toggle jaw crusher. Jaw crushers are rated according to facturers offer jaw setting by hydraulic jacking, and some
their receiving area, that is, the gape, which is the dis- fit electro-mechanical systems, which allow remote
tance between the jaws at the feed opening, and the width control (Anon., 1981).
of the plates. For example, a 1,220 3 1,830 mm crusher A feature of all jaw crushers is the heavy fly-wheel
has a gape of 1,220 mm and a width of 1,830 mm. (seen at the back of Figure 6.3(b)) attached to the drive,
126 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

cast iron or steel, connected with tie-bolts. It is commonly

made in sections so that it can be transported underground
for installation. Modern jaw crushers may have a main
frame of welded mild steel plate.
The jaws are usually constructed from cast steel and
fitted with replaceable liners, made from manganese steel,
or “Ni-hard,” a Ni-Cr alloyed cast iron. Apart from reduc-
ing wear, hard liners are essential to minimize crushing
energy consumption by reducing the deformation of the
surface at each contact point. The jaw plates are bolted in
sections for simple removal or periodic reversal to equal-
ize wear. Cheek plates are fitted to the sides of the crush-
ing chamber to protect the main frame from wear. These
are also made from hard alloy steel and have similar lives
to the jaw plates. The jaw plates may be smooth, but are
often corrugated, the latter being preferred for hard, abra-
sive ores. Patterns on the working surface of the crushing
members also influence capacity, especially at small
settings. The corrugated profile is claimed to perform
FIGURE 6.4 Cross section of single-toggle Nordbergs C Seriest jaw
crusher (Courtesy Metso). compound crushing by compression, tension, and shearing.
Conventional smooth crushing plates tend to perform
crushing by compression only, though irregular particles
which is necessary to store energy on the idling half of under compression loading might still break in tension.
the stroke and deliver it on the crushing half. Since the Since rocks are around 10 times weaker in tension than
jaw crusher works on half-cycle only, it is limited in compression, power consumption and wear costs should be
capacity for its weight and size. Due to the alternate load- lower with corrugated profiles. Regardless, some type of
ing and release of stress, jaw crushers must be rugged and pattern is desirable for the jaw plate surface in a jaw crusher,
require strong foundations to accommodate the vibrations. partly to reduce the risk of undesired large flakes easily slip-
In single-toggle jaw crushers (Figure 6.4) the swing ping through the straight opening, and partly to reduce the
jaw is suspended on the eccentric shaft, which allows a contact surface when crushing flaky blocks. In several
lighter, more compact design than with the double-toggle installations, a slight wave shape has proved successful. The
machine. The motion of the swing jaw also differs from angle between the jaws is usually less than 26 , as the use of
that of the double-toggle design. Not only does the swing a larger angle causes particle to slip (i.e., not be nipped),
jaw move toward the fixed jaw under the action of the which reduces capacity and increases wear.
toggle plate, but it also moves vertically as the eccentric In order to overcome problems of choking near the
rotates. This elliptical jaw motion assists in pushing rock discharge of the crusher, which is possible if fines are
through the crushing chamber. The single-toggle machine present in the feed, curved plates are sometimes used.
therefore has a somewhat higher capacity than the The lower end of the swing jaw is concave, whereas the
double-toggle machine of the same gape. The eccentric opposite lower half of the fixed jaw is convex. This
movement, however, increases the rate of wear on the jaw allows a more gradual reduction in size as the material
plates. Direct attachment of the swing jaw to the eccentric nears the exit, minimizing the chance of packing. Less
imposes a high degree of strain on the drive shaft, and as wear is also reported on the jaw plates, since the material
such maintenance costs tend to be higher than with the is distributed over a larger area.
double-toggle machine. The speed of jaw crushers varies inversely with the
Double-toggle machines are usually used on tough, size, and usually lies in the range of 100
350 rpm. The
hard and abrasive material. This being said, single-toggle main criterion in determining the optimum speed is that
crusher do see use (primarily in Europe) for heavy-duty particles must be given sufficient time to move down
work on tough taconite ores, and it is often choke fed, the crusher throat into a new position before being
since the jaw movement tends to make it self-feeding. nipped again.
The throw (maximum amplitude of swing of the jaw)
is determined by the type of material being crushed and is
Jaw-crusher Construction usually adjusted by changing the eccentric. It varies from
Jaw crushers are heavy-duty machines and hence must be 1 to 7 cm depending on the machine size, and is highest
robustly constructed. The main frame is often made from for tough, plastic material and lowest for hard, brittle ore.
 Crushers Chapter | 6 127

The greater the throw the less danger of choking, as mate- 6.2.2 Gyratory Crushers
rial is removed more quickly. This is offset by the fact
that a large throw tends to produce more fines, which Gyratory crushers are principally used in surface-
inhibits arrested crushing. Large throws also impart higher crushing plants. The gyratory crusher (Figure 6.5) con-
working stresses to the machine. sists essentially of a long spindle, carrying a hard steel
In all crushers, provision must be made for avoiding conical grinding element, the head, seated in an eccen-
damage that could result from uncrushable material enter- tric sleeve. The spindle is suspended from a “spider”
ing the chamber. Many jaw crushers are protected from and, as it rotates, normally between 85 and 150 rpm, it
such “tramp” material (often metal objects) by a weak sweeps out a conical path within the fixed crushing
line of rivets on one of the toggle plates, although auto- chamber, or shell, due to the gyratory action of the
matic trip-out devices are now common. Certain designs eccentric. As in the jaw crusher, maximum movement of
incorporate automatic overload protection based on the head occurs near the discharge. This tends to relieve
hydraulic cylinders between the fixed jaw and the frame. the choking due to swelling. The gyratory crusher is a
In the event of excessive pressure caused by an overload, good example of arrested crushing. The spindle is free
the jaw is allowed to open, normal gap conditions being to turn on its axis in the eccentric sleeve, so that during
reasserted after clearance of the blockage. This allows a crushing the lumps are compressed between the rotating
full crusher to be started under load (Anon., 1981). The head and the top shell segments, and abrasive action in a
use of “guard” magnets to remove tramp metal ahead of horizontal direction is negligible.
the crusher is also common (Chapters 2 and 13). With a gyratory crusher, at any cross section there
Jaw crushers are supplied in sizes up to 1,600 mm are in effect two sets of jaws opening and shutting like
(gape) 3 1,900 mm (width). For coarse crushing applica- jaw crushers. In fact, the gyratory crusher can be
tion (closed setB300 mm), capacities range up to ca. regarded as an infinitely large number of jaw crushers
1,200 t h21. However, Lewis et al. (1976) estimated that each of infinitely small width, and, as consequence, the
the economic advantage of using a jaw crusher over a same terms gape, set, and throw, have identical meaning
gyratory diminishes at crushing rates above 545 t h21, and in the case of the gyratory crusher. Since the gyratory,
above 725 t h21 jaw crushers cannot compete. unlike the jaw crusher, crushes on full cycle, it has a
higher capacity than a jaw crusher of the same gape,

FIGURE 6.5 Gyratory crusher: (a) functional diagrams, and (b) cross section and overhead view (Courtesy FLSmidth).
128 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

roughly by a factor of 2.5
3, and is usually favored in The last ten years or so have seen advances in
plants handling large throughputs: in mines with crush- increased installed power which, without increasing
ing rates above 900 t h21, gyratory crushers are always crusher size, has increased capacity (Erikson, 2014).
selected. Other innovations have been in serviceability, and mea-
Gyratory crushers are identified by the size of the gape surement of wear components (Erikson, 2014).
and the size of the mantle at the discharge. They range in
size up to ca. 1,600 mm 3 2,900 mm (gape 3 mantle diam-
Gyratory Crusher Construction
eter) with power consumption as high as 1,200 kW and
capable of crushing up to ca. 10,000 t h21 at a discharge The outer shell of the crusher is constructed from heavy
open side setting up to 240 mm. steel casting or welded steel plate, with at least one con-
Large gyratories typically dispense with expensive structional joint, the bottom part taking the drive shaft for
feeding mechanisms and are often fed direct from trucks the head, the top, and lower shells providing the crushing
(Figure 6.6). They can be operated with the head buried chamber. If the spindle is carried on a suspended bearing,
in feed. Although excessive fines may have to be as in most primary gyratories, then the spider carrying the
“scalped” from the feed (more common in jaw crushing bearing forms a joint across the reinforced alloyed white
circuits), the trend in large-capacity plants with gyratory cast-iron (Ni-hard) liners or concaves. In smaller crushers,
crushers is to dispense with grizzlies. This reduces capital the concave is one continuous ring bolted to the shell.
cost of the installation and reduces the height from which Large machines use sectionalized concaves, called staves,
the ore must fall into the crusher, thus minimizing dam- which are wedge-shaped, and either rest on a ring fitted
age to the spider. Choked crushing is encouraged to some between the upper and the lower shell, or are bolted to
extent as rock-to-rock crushing in primary stages reduces the shell. The concaves are backed with some soft filler
the rock-to-steel crushing required in the secondary material, such as white metal, zinc, or plastic cement,
crushers, thus reducing wear (McQuiston and Shoemaker, which ensures even seating against the steel bowl.
1978). Choke feeding of a gyratory crusher has been The head consists of the steel forgings, which make
claimed beneficial when the crusher is followed by SAG up the spindle. The head is protected by a mantle (usually
mills, as their throughput is sensitive to the mill feed size of manganese steel) fastened to the head by means of nuts
(Simkus and Dance, 1998). Operating crushers under on threads which are pitched so as to be self-tightening
choke feeding conditions gives more even wear and during operation. The mantle is typically backed with
longer crusher life. zinc, plastic cement, or epoxy resin. The vertical profile
is often bell-shaped to assist the crushing of material that
has a tendency to choke. Figure 6.7 shows a gyratory
crusher head during installation.
Some gyratory crushers have a hydraulic mounting
and, when overloading occurs, a valve is tripped which
releases the fluid, thus dropping the spindle and allowing
the “tramp” material to pass out between the head and the
bowl. The mounting is also used to adjust the set of
the crusher at regular intervals to compensate for wear on
the concaves and mantle. Many crushers use simple
mechanical means to control the set, the most common
method being by the use of a ring nut on the main shaft
suspension.

6.2.3 Crusher Capacity

Because of the complex action of jaw and gyratory
crushers, formulae expressing their capacities have never
been entirely satisfactory. Crushing capacity depends on
many factors, such as the angle of nip (i.e., the angle
between the crushing members), stroke, speed, and the
liner material, as well as the feed material and its initial
particle size. Capacity problems do not usually occur in
FIGURE 6.6 Truck dumping ore into a primary gyratory crusher the upper and middle sections of the crushing cavity, pro-
(Courtesy Sandvik). viding the angle of nip is not too great. It is normally the
 Crushers Chapter | 6 129

the capacity. For instance, if it is required to crush

material of a certain maximum diameter, then a gyratory
having the required gape would have a capacity about
three times that of a jaw crusher of the same gape. If high
capacity is required, then a gyratory is the answer. If,
however, a large gape is needed but not capacity, then the
jaw crusher will probably be more economical, as it is a
smaller machine and the gyratory would be running idle
most of the time. A guiding relationship was that given
by Taggart (1945): if t h21 , 161.7 3 (gape in m2), use a
jaw crusher; conversely, if the tonnage is greater than this
value, use a gyratory crusher.
There are some secondary considerations. The capital
and maintenance costs of a jaw crusher are slightly less
than those of the gyratory but they may be offset by the
installation costs, which are lower for a gyratory, since it
occupies about two-thirds the volume and has about two-
thirds the weight of a jaw crusher of the same capacity.
The circular crushing chamber allows for a more compact
design with a larger proportion of the total volume being
accounted for by the crushing chamber. Jaw-crusher foun-
dations need to be much more rugged than those of the
FIGURE 6.7 Crusher head during installation (Courtesy FLSmidth). gyratory, due to the alternating working stresses.
In some cases, the self-feeding capability of the gyra-
tory compared with the jaw results in a capital cost sav-
discharge zone, the narrowest section of the crushing ing, as expensive feeding devices, such as the heavy-duty
chamber, which determines the crushing capacity. chain feeders (Chapter 2), may be eliminated. In other
Broman (1984) describes the development of simple cases, the jaw crusher has found favor, due to the ease
models for optimizing the performance of jaw and gyra- with which it can be shipped in sections to remote loca-
tory crushers. The volumetric capacity (Q, m3 h21) of a tions and for installation underground.
jaw crusher is expressed as: The type of material being crushed may also deter-
mine the crusher used. Jaw crushers perform better than
Q 5 BSsUcotaUkU60n (6.1)
gyratories on clay or plastic materials due to their greater
where B 5 inner width of crusher (m); S 5 open side set- throw. Gyratories have been found to be particularly
ting (m); s 5 throw (m); a 5 angle of nip; n 5 speed of suitable for hard, abrasive material, and they tend to give
crusher (rpm); and k is a material constant which varies a more cubic product than jaw crushers if the feed is lami-
with the characteristics of the crushed material, the feed- nated or “slabby.”
ing method, liner type, etc., normally having values
between 1.5 and 2.
For gyratory crushers, the corresponding formula is:
6.3 SECONDARY/TERTIARY CRUSHERS
Q 5 ðD 2 SÞπSsUcotaUkU60n (6.2)
Secondary crushers are lighter than the heavy-duty, rug-
where D 5 diameter of the head mantle at the discharge ged primary machines. The bulk of secondary/tertiary
point (m), and k, the material constant, normally varying crushing of metalliferous ores is performed by cone
between 2 and 3. crushers. Since they take the primary crushed ore as feed,
the maximum feed size will normally be less than 15 cm
in diameter and, because most of the harmful constituents
6.2.4 Selection of a Jaw or Gyratory Crusher in the ore, such as tramp metal, wood, clays, and slimes
As noted, in deciding whether a jaw or a gyratory crusher have already been removed, it is much easier to handle.
should be used, the main factor is the maximum size of Similarly, the transportation and feeding arrangements
ore which the crusher will be required to handle and the serving the crushers do not need to be as rugged as in the
throughput required. Gyratory crushers are, in general, primary stage. Secondary/tertiary crushers also operate
used where high capacity is required. Jaw crushers tend to with dry feeds, and their purpose is to reduce the ore to a
be used where the crusher gape is more important than size suitable for grinding (Figure 6.1(a)). Tertiary crushers
130 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.8 Cone crusher: (a) functional diagram, and (b) cross section (Courtesy Metso).

are, to all intents and purposes, of the same design as with plastic cement, or zinc, or more recently with an
secondaries, except that they have a closer set. epoxy resin.
Unlike a gyratory crusher, which is identified by the
dimensions of the feed opening and the mantle diameter,
6.3.1 Cone Crushers a cone crusher is rated by the diameter of the cone man-
The cone crusher is a modified gyratory crusher, and tle. Cone crushers are also identified by the power draw:
accordingly many of the same terms including gape, set, for example, the Metso MP1000 refers to 1,000 HP
and throw, apply. The essential difference is that the (746 kW), and the FLSmidth XL2000 refers to 2,000 HP
shorter spindle of the cone crusher is not suspended, as in (1,491 kW). As with gyratories, one advance has been to
the gyratory, but is supported in a curved, universal increase power draw (Erikson, 2014). The largest unit is
bearing below the gyratory head or cone (Figure 6.8). the Metso MP2500 recently installed at First Quantum
Major suppliers of cone crushers include Metso (GP, HP, Minerals’ Sentinel mine in Zambia with capacity of 3,000
and MP Series), FLSmidth (Raptors Models) and to 4,500 t h21 (Anon., 2014). The increase in cone crusher
Sandvik (CS- and CH-series, developed from the Allis capacity means they better match the capacity of the pri-
Chalmers Hydrocone Series), who manufacture a variety mary gyratories, simplifying circuits, which in the past
of machines for coarse and fine crushing applications. could see several secondary and especially tertiary cone
Power is transmitted from the source to the countershaft crushers in parallel (Major, 2002).
through a V-belt or direct drive. The countershaft has a The throw of cone crushers can be up to five times
bevel pinion pressed and keyed to it, and drives the gear on that of primary crushers, which must withstand heavier
the eccentric assembly. The eccentric has a tapered, offset working stresses. They are also operated at much higher
bore and provides the means whereby the head and main speeds (700
1,000 rpm). The material passing through
shaft follow an eccentric path during each cycle of rotation. the crusher is subjected to a series of hammer-like blows
Since a large gape is not required, the crushing shell rather than being gradually compressed as by the slowly
or bowl flares outwards, which allows for the swell of moving head of the gyratory crusher.
broken ore by providing an increasing cross sectional The high-speed action allows particles to flow freely
(annular) area toward the discharge end. The cone crusher through the crusher, and the wide travel of the head cre-
is therefore an excellent arrested crusher. The flare of the ates a large opening between it and the bowl when in the
bowl allows a much greater head angle than in the gyra- fully open position. This permits the crushed fines to be
tory crusher, while retaining the same angle between the rapidly discharged, making room for additional feed. The
crushing members. This gives the cone crusher a high fast discharge and non-choking characteristics of the cone
capacity, since the capacity of gyratory crushers is crusher allow a reduction ratio in the range 3:1
7:1, but
roughly proportional to the diameter of the head. this can be higher in some cases.
The head is protected by a replaceable mantle, which The classic Symons cone crusher heads were produced
is held in place by a large locking nut threaded onto a col- in two forms depending on the application: the standard
lar bolted to the top of the head. The mantle is backed (Figure 6.9(a)) for normal secondary crushing and the short-
 Crushers Chapter | 6 131

FIGURE 6.9 Cone crushers: original (a) standard, (b) short-head, and modern (c) secondary, and (d) tertiary cone crushers ((c) and (d) Courtesy Metso).

head (Figure 6.9(b)) for fine, or tertiary duty. They differ arrangement of springs or by a hydraulic mechanism.
mainly in the shape of their crushing chambers. The standard These allow the bowl to yield if uncrushable “tramp” mate-
cone has “stepped” liners, which allow a coarser feed than in rial enters the crushing chamber, so permitting the offend-
the short-head, and delivers a product varying from ca. 0.5 ing object to pass. (The presence of such tramp material is
to 6 cm. The short-head has a steeper head angle than the readily identified by the noise and vibration caused on its
standard, which helps to prevent choking from the much passage through the chamber.) If the springs are continually
finer material being handled. It also has a narrower feed activated, as may happen with ores containing many tough
opening and a longer parallel section at the discharge, and particles, oversize material will be allowed to escape from
delivers a product of ca. 0.3
2.0 cm. Contemporary second- the crusher. This is one of the reasons for using closed-
ary (Figure 6.9(c)) and tertiary (Figure 6.9(d)) cone crusher circuit crushing in the final stages. It may be necessary to
designs have evolved and geometry varies depending on the choose a screen for the circuit that has apertures slightly
ore type, feed rate, and feed and product particle size. larger than the set of the crusher (Example 6.1). This is to
The parallel section between the liners at the discharge reduce the tendency for very tough particles, which are
is a feature of all cone crushers and is incorporated to slightly oversize, to “spring” the crusher, causing an accu-
maintain a close control on product size. Material passing mulation of such particles in the closed-circuit and a build-
through the parallel zone receives more than one impact up of pressure in the crushing throat.
from the crushing members. This tends to give a product The set on the crusher can easily be changed, or
size dictated by the closed set rather than the open set. adjusted for liner wear, by screwing the bowl up or down
The distributing plate on the top of the cone helps to by means of a capstan and chain arrangement or by
centralize the feed, distributing it at a uniform rate to the adjusting the hydraulic setting, which allows the operator
entire crushing chamber. An important feature of the to change settings even if the equipment is operating
crusher is that the bowl is held down either by an annular under maximum load (Anon., 1985). To close the setting,
132 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

Example 6.1 TABLE EX 6.1 Crusher Product Gradation

For the circuit Figure ex 6.1 and the given data: Table (wt% passing particle size for given c.s.s.)a
1. Which cone crusher would you select?
2. What is the feed rate to the screen? Particle size, mm C.S.S., mm

Given data: 8 10 13 16
Fresh feed to the circuit (N) 5 200 t h21
20 100 100 100 90
Fraction finer than screen opening (n) 5 20%
Screen opening (aperture) 5 13 mm 13 100 90 80 64
Screen efficiency (EU, see Chapter 8) 5 90% 10 100 80 64 54
Crusher closed side setting (c.s.s) 5 10 mm
8 93 68 55 45
Crusher options:
7 74 60 50 40
Crusher Model Crusher Capacity t h21 6 68 50 45 35
(10 mm c.s.s.)
5 60 45 38 30
Model #1 140
175
Model #2 175
220 4 50 38 32 24

Model #3 260
335 3 40 30 26 18
a
Based on Metso Crushing and Screening Handbook, 5th Edn.
Note: In Figure ex 6.1, upper case variables denote
solids flow rates, t h-1, and lower case variables the fraction
less than the screen opening, % (Table ex 6.1).

 
then, re-arranging UR 5 1
r
1
EU 2n
From the crusher product gradation table provided:
r 5 0:9ð90%Þði:e:; % 2 13 mm for c:s:s: 5 10 mmÞ
Thus solving for R (5O) where U (5N) 5 200 t h21:
R


200 5 0:9 0:9 2 0:2
1 1

R 5 202.5 t h21
From the crusher capacity data, choice is model #2.
Part 2
Feed rate to the screen F 5 N 1 R 5 402.5 t h21
This illustrates the approach to crusher sizing (as well as
giving an exercise in identifying the balances). The
FIGURE EX 6.1 Typical closed circuit final crushing stage.
approach is described in detail in Mular and Jergensen
(1982) and Mular et al. (2002). Crusher suppliers, of course,
have propriety methods of selecting and sizing units for a
given duty.
Solution
Part 1
Solve for circulating load, R/U as follows:
Mass balances:
the operator opens a valve which pumps hydraulic oil to
Across circuit N 5 U
the cylinder supporting the crusher head. To open the set-
Across crusher O 5 R
Around screen F 5 O 1 U
ting, another valve is opened, allowing the oil to flow out
of the cylinder. Efficiency is enhanced through automatic
Ff 5 Oo 1 Uðassume u 5 1Þ tramp iron clearing and reset. When tramp iron enters the
U crushing chamber, the crushing head will be forced down,
EU 5
Ff causing hydraulic oil to flow into the accumulator. When
At feed node to screen F 5 N 1 R 5 U 1 R the tramp iron has passed from the chamber, nitrogen
Ff 5 Nn 1 Rr 5 Un 1 Rr pressure forces the hydraulic oil from the accumulator
By dividing by U FfU 5n1 U
Rr
back into the supporting hydraulic cylinder, thus restoring
R
substituting Ff 5 U/EU E 5 n 1
1
Ur the original setting.
 Crushers Chapter | 6 133

Wet Crushing 6.3.2 The Gyradiscs Crusher

In 1988 Nordberg Inc. introduced wet tertiary cone crushing The Gyradiscs crusher is a specialized form of cone
at a Brazilian lead-zinc mine (Karra, 1990). The Water crusher, used for producing finer material, which has
Flush technology (now supplied by Metso) uses a cone found application in the quarrying industry (primarily
crusher incorporating special seals, internal components, sand and gravel) for the production of large quantities of
and lubricants to handle the large flow of water, which is sand at economic cost.
added to the crusher to produce a product slurry containing The main modification to the conventional cone
30
50% solids by weight, that can be fed directly to ball crusher is a shorter crushing member, with the lower one
mills. The flushing action permits tighter closed side set- being at a flatter angle (Figure 6.11). Crushing is by
tings (Major, 2009). Such technology has potential for the inter-particle comminution by the impact and attrition of
crushing of sticky ores, for improving productivity in exist- a multi-layered mass of particles.
ing circuits, and for developing more cost-effective circuits. The angle of the lower member is less than the angle
However, the presence of water during crushing can of repose of the ore, so that when at rest the material does
increase the liner wear rates, depending on the application. not slide. Transfer through the crushing zone is by move-
ment of the head. Each time the lower member moves
away from the upper, material enters the attrition chamber
Wear from the surge load above. When reduction begins,
Maintenance of the wear components in both gyratory and material is picked up by the lower member and is moved
cone crushers is one of the major operating costs. Wear outward. Due to the slope, it is carried to an advanced
monitoring is possible using a Faro Arm (Figure 6.10), position and caught between the crushing members.
which is a portable coordinate measurement machine. The length of stroke and the timing are such that
Ultrasonic profiling is also used. A more advanced system after the initial stroke the lower member is withdrawn
using a laser scanner tool to profile the mantle and con- faster than the previously crushed material falls by
cave produces a 3D image of the crushing chamber gravity. This permits the lower member to recede and
(Erikson, 2014). Some of the benefits of the liner profiling return to strike the previously crushed mass as it is fall-
systems include: improved prediction of mantle and con- ing, thus scattering it so that a new alignment of parti-
cave liner replacement; identifying asymmetric and high cles is obtained prior to another impact. At each
wear areas; measurement of open and closed side settings; withdrawal of the head, the void is filled by particles
and quantifying wear life with competing liner alloys. from the surge chamber.
At no time does single-layer crushing occur. Crushing
is by particle on particle, so that the setting of the crusher
is not as directly related to the size of product as it is on
the cone crusher. When used in open circuit, the
Gyradiscs will produce a product of chippings from
about 1 cm downwards, of good cubic shape, with a satis-
factory amount of sand, which obviates the use of blend-
ing and re-handling. In closed circuit, they are used to

FIGURE 6.10 Faro Arm (FARO, FAROARM, and the Faro Blue color
are registered trademarks of FARO Technologies Inc. r 2006 FARO FIGURE 6.11 Comparison of the Gyradisc and a conventional cone
Technologies Inc. All Rights Reserved). crusher (Adapted from Nordberg, n.d.).
134 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

produce large quantities of sand. They may be used in During the approach phase, materials are subjected to
open circuit on clean metalliferous ores with no primary compression, up to 10
50 MPa. During the separation
slimes to produce an excellent ball-mill feed. Feeds of phase, fragmented materials pass further down in the
less than 19 mm may be crushed to about 3 mm (Lewis chamber until the next compression cycle. The number of
et al., 1976). cycles is typically 4 to 5 before discharge. During these
cycles the cone rolls on a bed of stressed material a few
millimeters thick, with a rotation speed of a 10
20 rpm.
6.3.3 The Rhodaxs Crusher This rotation is actually an epicyclical movement, due to
The Rhodaxs crusher is another specialized form of cone the lack of sliding friction between the cone and the feed
crusher, referred to as an inertial cone crusher. Developed material. The unbalanced masses rotate at 100
300 rpm.
by FCB (now Fives fcb) Research Center in France, the The following three parameters can be adjusted on the
Rhodaxs crusher is claimed to offer process advantages Rhodaxs crusher: the gap between the cone and the ring,
over conventional cone crushers and is based on inter- the total static moment of unbalanced masses, and the
particle compression crushing. It consists of a frame sup- rotation speed of these unbalanced masses.
porting a cone and a mobile ring, and a set of rigid links The combination of the latter two parameters enables
forming ties between the two parts (Figure 6.12). The the operator to fix the required fragmentation force easily
frame is supported on elastic suspensions isolating the and quickly. Two series of machines have been developed
environment from dynamic stresses created by the crush- on this basis, one for the production of aggregates (maxi-
ing action. It contains a central shaft fixed on a structure. mum pressure on the material bed between 10 and
A grinding cone is mounted on this shaft and is free to 25 MPa), and the other for feeds to grinding (25
50 MPa
rotate. A sliding sleeve on this shaft is used to adjust the maximum pressure on the material bed). Given the design
vertical position of the cone and therefore the setting, of the machine (relative displacement of two non-imposed
making it simple to compensate for wear. The ring struc- wear surfaces), the product size distribution is independent
ture is connected to the frame by a set of tie rods. The of the gap and wear. These are distinct advantages over
ring and the cone are made of wear resistant steel. conventional cone crushers, which suffer problems with
One set of synchronized unbalanced masses transmits a the variable product quality caused by wear.
known and controlled crushing force to the ring when the
masses rotate. This fragmentation force stays constant even
6.3.4 A Development in Fine Crushing
if the feed varies, or an unbreakable object enters the crush-
ing chamber. The Rhodaxs is claimed to achieve reduction IMP Technologies Pty. Ltd. has recently tested a pilot-
ratios varying from 4 to more than 30 in open circuit. The scale super fine crusher that operates on dry ore and is
relative positions of the unbalanced masses can be changed envisaged as a possible alternative to fine or ultra-fine
if required, so the value of the crushing force can thus be grinding circuits (Kelsey and Kelly, 2014). The unit
remotely controlled. As feed particles enter the fragmenta- includes a rotating compression chamber and an internal
tion chamber, they slowly advance between the cone and gyrating mandrel (Figure 6.13). Material is fed into the
the moving ring. These parts are subjected to horizontal cir- compression chamber and builds until the gyratory motion
cular translation movements and move toward and away of the mandrel is engaged. Axial displacement of the
from each other at a given point. compression chamber and the gyratory motion of

FIGURE 6.12 (a) Schematic of the Rhodax crusher, and (b) principle of operation (Adapted from Portal, 2007).
 Crushers Chapter | 6 135

the mandrel result in fine grinding of the feed material. In shims which cause the spring-loaded roll to be held back
one example, a feed F80 of 300 µm was reduced to P80 of from the fixed roll. Unlike jaw and gyratory crushers,
8 µm, estimated to be the equivalent to two stages of where reduction is progressive by repeated nipping action
grinding. This development is the latest in a resurgence in as the material passes down to the discharge, the crushing
crushing technology resulting from the competition of process in rolls is one of single pressure.
AG/SAG milling and the demands for increased commi- Roll crushers are also manufactured with only one
nution energy efficiency. rotating cylinder (Figure 6.14(b)), which revolves toward
a fixed plate. Other roll crushers use three, four, or six
cylinders, although machines with more than two rolls are
6.3.5 Roll Crushers rare today. In some crushers the diameters and speeds of
Although not widely used in the minerals industry, roll the rolls may differ. The rolls may be gear driven, but this
crushers can be effective in handling friable, sticky, fro- limits the distance adjustment between the rolls. Modern
zen, and less abrasive feeds, such as limestone, coal, rolls are driven by V-belts from separate motors.
chalk, gypsum, phosphate, and soft iron ores. The disadvantage of roll crushers is that, in order for
Roll crusher operation is fairly straightforward: the reasonable reduction ratios to be achieved, very large rolls
standard spring rolls consist of two horizontal cylinders are required in relation to the size of the feed particles.
that revolve toward each other (Figure 6.14(a)). The gap They therefore have the highest capital cost of all crushers
(closest distance between the rolls) is determined by for a given throughput and reduction ratio.
The action of a roll crusher, compared to the other
crushers, is amenable to a level of analysis. Consider a
spherical particle of radius r, being crushed by a pair of
rolls of radius R, the gap between the rolls being 2a
(Figure 6.15). If μ is the coefficient of friction between
the rolls and the particle, θ is the angle formed by the tan-
gents to the roll surfaces at their points of contact with
the particle (the angle of nip), and C is the compressive
force exerted by the rolls acting from the roll centers
through the particle center, then for a particle to be just
gripped by the rolls, equating vertically, we derive:
   
θ θ
C sin 5 μC cos (6.3)
2 2
Therefore,
 
θ
μ 5 tan (6.4)
2
FIGURE 6.13 The pilot-scale IMP super fine crusher (Courtesy IMP
Technologies Pty. Ltd.).

FIGURE 6.14 Roll crushers: (a) double, and (b) single roll crusher ((b) Courtesy TerraSource Global).
136 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

The coefficient of friction between steel and most ore Unless very large diameter rolls are used, the angle of
particles is in the range 0.2
0.3, so that the value of the nip limits the reduction ratio of the crusher, and since
angle of nip θ should never exceed about 30 , or the parti- reduction ratios greater than 4:1 are rare, a flowsheet may
cle will slip. It should also be noted that the value of the require coarse crushing rolls to be followed by fine rolls.
coefficient of friction decreases with speed, so that the Smooth-surfaced rolls are usually used for fine crush-
speed of the rolls depends on the angle of nip, and the ing, whereas coarse crushing is often performed in rolls
type of material being crushed. The larger the angle of having corrugated surfaces, or with stub teeth arranged
nip (i.e., the coarser the feed), the slower the peripheral to present a chequered surface pattern. “Sledging” or
speed needs to be to allow the particle to be nipped. For “slugger” rolls have a series of intermeshing teeth, or
smaller angles of nip (finer feeds), the roll speed can be slugs, protruding from the roll surfaces. These dig into
increased, thereby increasing the capacity. Peripheral the rock so that the action is a combination of compres-
speeds vary between about 1 m s21 for small rolls, up to sion and ripping, and large pieces in relation to the roll
about 15 m s21 for the largest sizes of 1,800 mm diameter diameter can be handled. Toothed crushing rolls
upwards. (Figure 6.16) are typically used for coarse crushing of
The value of the coefficient of friction between a par- soft or sticky iron ores, friable limestone or coal, where
ticle and moving rolls can be calculated from: rolls of ca. 1 m diameter are used to crush material of
  top size of ca. 400 mm.
1 1 1:12v
μk 5 μ (6.5) Wear on the roll surfaces is high and they often
1 1 6v have a manganese steel tire, which can be replaced
where μk is the kinetic coefficient of friction and v the when worn. The feed must be spread uniformly over
peripheral velocity of the rolls (m s21). From Figure 6.15: the whole width of the rolls in order to give even wear.
  One simple method is to use a flat feed belt of the
θ R1a same width as the rolls.
cos 5 (6.6)
2 R1r Since there is no provision for the swelling of broken
Equation 6.6 can be used to determine the maximum ore in the crushing chamber, roll crushers must be “star-
size of rock gripped in relation to roll diameter and the vation fed” if they are to be prevented from choking.
reduction ratio (r/a) required. Table 6.1 gives example Although the floating roll should only yield to an
values for 1,000 mm roll diameter where the angle of nip uncrushable body, choked crushing causes so much pres-
should be less than 20 in order for the particles to be sure that the springs are continually activated during
gripped (in most practical cases the angle of nip should
not exceed about 25 ).

FIGURE 6.16 Toothed single roll crusher (Courtesy McLanahan

FIGURE 6.15 Forces acting on a particle in crushing rolls. Corporation).

TABLE 6.1 Maximum Diameter of Rock Gripped in Crushing Rolls Relative to Roll Diameter
Roll diameter (mm) 1,000 Reduction ratio 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum size of rock gripped (mm) 30.9 23.0 20.4 19.1 18.3
 Crushers Chapter | 6 137

crushing, and some oversize escapes. Rolls should there- The first commercial installation began operation in
fore be used in closed circuit with screens. Choked 1985 to grind cement clinker (McIvor, 1997). Since then,
crushing also causes inter-particle comminution, which HPGR technology has seen wide use in the cement,
leads to the production of material finer than the gap of limestone and diamond industries and has recently been
the crusher. implemented in hard rock metalliferous operations (Morley,
The capacity of the rolls can be calculated in terms of 2010). Researchers have noted that the high pressure
the ribbon of material that will pass the space between the exerted on the particle bed produces a high proportion of
rolls. Thus theoretical capacity (Q, kg h21) is equal to: fines and particles with micro-cracks and improved mineral
liberation, which can be advantageous for subsequent com-
Q 5 188:5NDWsd (6.7)
minution or metallurgical processes (Esna-Ashari and
where N is the speed of rolls (rpm), D the roll diameter Kellerwessel, 1988; Clarke and Wills, 1989; Knecht, 1994;
(m), W the roll width (m), s the density of feed material Watson and Brooks, 1994; Daniel and Morrell, 2004).
(kg m23), and d the distance between the rolls (m). Unlike conventional crushers or tumbling mills, which
In practice, allowing for voids between the particles, employ impact and attrition to break particles, the HPGR
loss of speed in gripping the feed, etc., the capacity is employs inter-particle crushing in the bed, and as such the
usually about 25% of the theoretical. particle packing properties of the feed material play a role
in determining breakage. Feed that is scalped (fines
removed) prior to the HPGR is termed “truncated.” The
6.4 HIGH PRESSURE GRINDING ROLLS removal of fines impacts HPGR operation, as coarse parti-
cles tend to have a greater impact on roll wear, and the
The pressure exerted on the feed particles in conventional
elimination of fines creates a less compact bed, which
roll crushers is in the range 10
30 MPa. During the
reduces the inter-particle breakage action. To ensure
1970
80s, work by Prof. Schönert of the Technical
proper bed, formation the units should be choke fed the
University of Clausthal, Germany led to the development
entire length of the rolls.
of the High-Compression Roller Mill, which utilized
The HPGR product typically comprises fines and por-
forces from 50
150 MPa (Schönert, 1979, 1988; McIvor,
tions of compacted cake referred to as “flakes”
1997). The units are now commonly termed High
(Figure 6.18). Depending on flake competency, the
Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) and employ a fixed and
product may require subsequent deagglomeration (ranging
movable roll to crush material. A hydraulic pressure sys-
from a mild pre-soaking to modest attritioning) to release
tem acts on pistons that press the movable roll against a
the fines (van der Meer and Grunedken, 2010). It has
material bed (density .70% solids by volume) fed to the
been shown that the specific energy consumption for
rolls (Figure 6.17). The roll gap can be adjusted depending
compression and ball mill-deagglomeration is
on the feed particle size and application.

FIGURE 6.17 High pressure grinding rolls (Adapted from Napier-Munn et al., 1996; Courtesy JKMRC and The University of Queensland).
138 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.18 Example flake product from an HPGR (Used with permission, van der Meer and Gruendken, 2010, Minerals Engineering, copyright
Elsevier).

FIGURE 6.19 HEXADURs (a) standard roll surface, (b) pre-conditioned surface, and (c) surface after use retaining autogenous wear layer
(Courtesy Köppern, Germany).

FIGURE 6.20 Studded roll surface: (a) new surface, and (b) surface with autogenous wear layer between studs ((b) Used with permission, van der
Meer and Maphosa, 2012, J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall, copyright SAIMM).

considerably less than that of ball mill grinding alone. (especially in hard rock applications), because of their
The typical comminution energy in an HPGR unit is improved wear-resistant characteristics. Most surfaces
2.5
3.5 kWh t21, compared to 15
25 kWh t21 in ball employ an autogenous wear layer, that is, crushed feed mate-
mill grinding (Brachthauser and Kellerwessel, 1988; rial is captured and retained on the roll surface in the inter-
Schwechten and Milburn, 1990). stices between the studs (Figure 6.19(c) and Figure 6.20(b)).
HPGRs were originally designed to be operated with HPGRs can be operated in open- or closed-circuit
smooth rolls. The HEXADURs surface is commonly used depending on the application. Closed circuits may employ
in cement applications (Figure 6.19). The pre-conditioned wet or dry screening or air classification, although classi-
surface design incorporates tiles with varying thicknesses, fication equipment is not a necessity in certain applica-
which enhances feed intake. Studded roll surfaces tions. Due to roll geometry, the press force exerted at the
(Figure 6.20) have become standard in the new designs roll edges is less than in the center, resulting in a coarser
 Crushers Chapter | 6 139

rocks where comminution is by impact rather than com-

pression. The moving parts are “beaters,” which transfer
some of their kinetic energy to the ore particles upon con-
tact. Internal stresses created in the particles are often
large enough to cause them to shatter. These forces are
increased by causing the particles to impact upon an anvil
or breaker plate.
There is an important difference between the states of
materials crushed by pressure and by impact. There are
internal stresses in material broken by pressure that can
later cause cracking. Impact causes immediate fracture
with no residual stresses. This stress-free condition is par-
ticularly valuable in stone used for brick-making, build-
ing, and roadmaking, in which binding agents (e.g., tar)
are subsequently added. Impact crushers, therefore, have
a wider use in the quarrying industry than in the metal-
mining industry. They may give trouble-free crushing on
FIGURE 6.21 Diagram of HPGR operation (Adapted from van der
ores that tend to be plastic and pack when the crushing
Meer and Gruendken, 2010).
forces are applied slowly, as is the case in jaw and gyra-
tory crushers. These types of ore tend to be brittle when
the crushing force is applied instantaneously by impact
crushers (Lewis et al., 1976).
Impact crushers are also favored in the quarry industry
because of the improved product shape. Cone crushers
tend to produce more elongated particles because of their
ability to pass through the chamber unbroken. In an
impact crusher, all particles are subjected to impact and
the elongated particles, having a lower strength due to
their thinner cross section, would be broken (Ramos
et al., 1994; Kojovic and Bearman, 1997).

6.5.1 Hammer Mills

Figure 6.23(a) shows the cross section of a typical ham-
mer mill. The hammers (Figure 6.23(b)) are made from
manganese steel or nodular cast iron containing chromium
carbide, which is extremely abrasion resistant. The
breaker plates are made of the same material.
The hammers are pivoted so as to move out of the
path of oversize material (or tramp metal) entering the
crushing chamber. Pivoted (swing) hammers exert less
FIGURE 6.22 Example of an HPGR with “edge” recycle in a crushing force than they would if rigidly attached, so they tend to
circuit (Adapted from van der Meer and Gruendken, 2012). be used on smaller impact crushers or for crushing soft
material. The exit from the mill is perforated, so that
edge product (Figure 6.21). Splitters can be used to material that is not broken to the required size is retained
separate the edge product for recycle (van der Meer and and swept up again by the rotor for further impacting.
Grunedken, 2010). Figure 6.22 shows an example of edge There may also be an exit chute for oversize material
material recycle using a splitter in a crushing application which is swept past the screen bars. Certain design con-
at a copper flotation plant. figurations include a central discharge chute (an opening
in the screen) and others exclude the screen, depending
on the application.
6.5 IMPACT CRUSHERS
The hammer mill is designed to give the particles
Impact crushers (e.g., hammer mills and impact mills) velocities of the order of that of the hammers. Fracture is
employ sharp blows applied at high speed to free-falling either due to impact with the hammers or to the
140 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.23 (a) Diagram of a hammer mill, and (b) close-up of hammers ((b) Courtesy Sandvik).

subsequent impact with the casing or grid. Since the parti-

cles are given high velocities, much of the size reduction
is by attrition (i.e., particle on particle breakage), and this
leads to little control on product size and a much higher
proportion of fines than with compressive crushers.
The hammers can weigh over 100 kg and can work on
feed up to 20 cm. The speed of the rotor varies between 500
and 3,000 rpm. Due to the high rate of wear on these
machines (wear can be taken up by moving the hammers on
the pins) they are limited in use to relatively non-abrasive
materials. They have extensive use in limestone quarrying
and in the crushing of coal. A great advantage in quarrying
is the fact that they produce a relatively cubic product.
A model of the swing hammer mill has been developed
FIGURE 6.24 Impact mill.
for coal applications (Shi et al., 2003). The model is able to
predict the product size distribution and power draw for
given hammer mill configurations (breaker gap, under-screen
orientation, screen aperture) and operating conditions (feed cubic particles. The impact plates are reversible to even out
rate, feed size distribution, and breakage characteristics). wear, and can easily be removed and replaced.
The impact mill gives better control of product size
than does the hammer mill, since there is less attrition.
The product shape is more easily controlled and energy is
6.5.2 Impact Mills
saved by the removal of particles once they have reached
For coarser crushing, the fixed hammer impact mill is often the size required.
used (Figure 6.24). In these machines the material falls tan- Large impact crushers will reduce 1.5 m top size
gentially onto a rotor, running at 250
500 rpm, receiving a ROM ore to 20 cm, at capacities of around 1500 t h21,
glancing impulse, which sends it spinning toward the impact although units with capacities of 3000 t h21 have been
plates. The velocity imparted is deliberately restricted to a manufactured. Since they depend on high velocities for
fraction of the velocity of the rotor to avoid high stress and crushing, wear is greater than for jaw or gyratory
probable failure of the rotor bearings. crushers. Hence impact crushers are not recommended for
The fractured pieces that can pass between the clear- use on ores containing over 15% silica (Lewis et al.,
ances of the rotor and breaker plate enter a second chamber 1976). However, they are a good choice for primary
created by another breaker plate, where the clearance is crushing when high reduction ratios are required (the ratio
smaller, and then into a third smaller chamber. The grind- can be as high as 40:1) and the ore is relatively non-
ing path is designed to reduce flakiness and to produce abrasive.
 Crushers Chapter | 6 141

FIGURE 6.25 (a) Cross section of Barmac VSI Crusher, and (b) rock on rock crushing action in the chamber (Courtesy Metso).

FIGURE 6.26 Example Canica VSI crusher internal chamber configurations: (a) Rock on Rock, (b) Rock on Anvil, and (c) Shoe and Anvil
(Courtesy Terexs Mineral Processing Systems).

6.5.3 Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) Crushers into a highly turbulent particle “cloud” contained
within the crushing chamber, where reduction occurs
Barmac Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher primarily by rock-on-rock impact, attrition, and
Developed in New Zealand in the late 1960s, over the years abrasion.
it has been marketed by several companies (Tidco, Svedala,
Allis Engineering, and now Metso) under various names
(e.g., duopactor). The crusher is finding application in the Canica Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher
concrete industry (Rodriguez, 1990). The mill combines This crusher developed by Jaques (now Terexs Mineral
impact crushing, high-intensity grinding, and multi-particle Processing Solutions) has several internal chamber con-
pulverizing, and as such, is best suited in the tertiary crush- figurations available depending on the abrasiveness of
ing or primary grinding stage, producing products in the the ore. Examples include the Rock on Rock, Rock on
0.06
12 mm size range. It can handle feeds of up to Anvil and Shoe and Anvil configurations (Figure 6.26).
650 t h21 at a top size of over 50 mm. Figure 6.22 shows a These units typically operate with 5 to 6 steel impellers
Barmac in a circuit; Figure 6.25 is a cross-section and or hammers, with a ring of thin anvils. Rock is hit or
illustration of the crushing action. accelerated to impact on the anvils, after which the bro-
The basic comminution principle employed involves ken fragments freefall into the discharge chute and onto
acceleration of particles within a special ore-lined rotor a product conveyor belt. This impact size reduction pro-
revolving at high speed. A portion of the feed enters the cess was modeled by Kojovic (1996) and Djordjevic
rotor, while the remainder cascades to the crushing et al. (2003) using rotor dimensions and speed, and rock
chamber. Breakage commences when rock enters the breakage characteristics measured in the laboratory. The
rotor, and is thrown centrifugally, achieving exit veloci- model was also extended to the Barmac crushers
ties up to 90 m s21. The rotor continuously discharges (Napier-Munn et al., 1996).
142 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.27 (a) A Bradford breaker during installation (casing not installed), and (b) internal view from the discharge end of the breaker showing
screen plates and lifters (Courtesy TerraSource Global).

6.6 ROTARY BREAKERS have been constructed, and in-pit crushing units have
been used, which allow relatively cheap ore transportation
Where large tonnages of coal are treated, the rotary coal by conveyor belts, rather than by trucks, to a fixed
breaker (commonly termed the Bradford breaker) can be crushing station (Griesshaber, 1983; Frizzel, 1985; Utley,
used (Figure 6.27(a)). This is similar to the cylindrical 2009). The in-pit units are either fixed plants at the pit
trommel screen (Chapter 8), consisting of a cylinder edge or semi- or fully-mobile units in the pit. A mobile
1.8
4.5 m in diameter and length of about 11/2 to 21/2 times crusher is a completely self-contained unit, mounted on a
the diameter, revolving at a speed of about 10
18 rpm. frame that is moved by means of a transport mechanism
The machine is massively constructed, with perforated either in the open pit as mining progresses or through differ-
walls, the size of the perforations being the size to which ent mineral processing plants as required. Depending on the
the coal is to be broken. The ROM coal is fed into the crusher size, the mobile unit can be used to support primary
rotating cylinder, at up to 1,500 t h21 in the larger or secondary crushing stages or to process the critical size
machines. The machine utilizes differential breakage, the pebbles from a SAG mill. Semi-mobile units can include
coal being much more friable than the associated stones gyratories, being the crusher of choice for throughputs over
and shales, and trash such as wood or steel from the 2,500 t h21. Fully-mobile units typically use jaw, hammer,
mine. The resulting small particles of coal fall through or roll crushers, fed directly or by apron feeders, at rates of
the holes, while the larger lumps of coal are transported up to 1,000 t h21.
by longitudinal lifters (Figure 6.27(b)) within the cylinder Crushing plants may be housed with the rest of the
until they reach a point where they slide off the lifters and milling plant but today are often a separate facility, one
fall to the bottom of the cylinder, breaking by their own reason being to better control dust. Two possible
impact, and fall through the holes. The lifters are inclined flowsheets were illustrated in Figure 6.1 to provide feed
to give the coal a forward motion through the breaker. to rod (or ball mill) or to an AG/SAG mill. In some cases,
Shale and stone do not break as easily, and are usually the crushing circuit is designed not only to produce mill
discharged from the end of the breaker, which thus cleans feed, but also to provide media for autogenous grinding
the coal to a certain degree and, as the broken coal is (Wills, 1983). Crushing plants are characterized by exten-
quickly removed from the breaker, produces few coal sive use of conveyors and the energy for transport is a
fines. Although the rotary breaker is an expensive piece consideration in selecting the type of circuit.
of equipment, maintenance costs are low, and it produces Two possible flowsheets for a crushing plant produc-
positive control of top size product. ing ball mill feed are shown in Figure 6.28. The circuit
Esterle et al. (1996) reviewed the work on modeling in Figure 6.28(a) is a “conventional” design and is typi-
of rotary breakers. The work was based at three open pit cal in that the secondary feed is scalped and the second-
coal mines in Central Queensland, Australia, where 3 m ary product is screened and conveyed to a storage bin,
diameter breakers were handling ROM coal. rather than feeding the tertiary crushers directly. The
intermediate bins allow good mixing of the secondary
screen oversize with the circulating load, and regulation
6.7 CRUSHING CIRCUITS AND CONTROL of the tertiary crusher feed, providing more efficient
Efforts continue to improve crusher energy efficiency and crushing. Note the tertiary circuit is an example of
to reduce capital and operating costs. Larger crushers crushers operating in parallel. The circuit is adaptable to
 Crushers Chapter | 6 143

FIGURE 6.28 (a) Three-stage crushing circuit for ball mill feed, and (b) crushing circuit including HPGR ((a) Adapted from Motz, 1978;
(b) Adapted from Rosario et al., 2009).

automatic feed control to maintain maximum power uti- dump to the crushers. Steel can tear a conveyor belt lead-
lization (Mollick, 1980). Figure 6.28(b) shows a circuit ing to downtime and often is undetected as it is hidden
including an HPGR stage. Rosario et al. (2009) provide beneath ore on the conveyor after the crusher.
a selection of possible crushing circuits that plant The operating and process control objectives for sec-
designers can contemplate. ondary and tertiary crushing circuits differ from one plant
Advances in instrumentation and process control to the next. Typically, the main objective is to maximize
hardware have made the implementation of computer crusher throughput at some specified product size which
control more common in crushing circuits. often requires ensuring, as best as possible, choke feed in
Instrumentation includes ore level detectors, oil flow the crusher and a properly selected closed side setting.
sensors, power measurement devices, belt scales, vari- Due to an increase in power cost and availability at a
able speed belt drives and feeders, blocked chute detec- number of operations, the efficient use of power is
tors, and particle size measurement devices (Horst and becoming a more dominant issue. Numerous variables
Enochs, 1980; Flintoff et al., 2014). An early example of affect the performance of a crusher, but only three—ore
the importance of automatic control is the crushing plant feed rate, crusher set, and, in some cases, feed size—can
at Mount Isa in Australia, where the output increased by be adjusted (with the exception of a water flush crusher
over 15% after controls were introduced (Manlapig and or HPGR where additional degrees of freedom exist).
Watsford, 1983). Lynch (1977) has described case studies of automatic
Supervisory control systems are not usually applied to control systems for various applications. When the pur-
primary crushers, the instrumentation basically being used pose of the crushing plant is to produce feed for the grind-
to protect them. Thus lubrication flow indicators and ing circuit, the most important objective of the control
bearing temperature detectors may be fitted, together with system is to ensure a supply of crushed ore at the rate
high and low level alarms in the chamber under the required by the grinding plant. The fineness of the crusher
crusher. Vision systems are increasingly being used on product is maintained by the selection of screens of the
both the feed and discharge of primary crushers to guide appropriate aperture in the final closed circuit loop.
when changes in the discharge setting are required. The most effective way of maximizing throughput is
Additionally, various systems, including vision, are being to maintain the highest possible crusher power draw, and
explored to detect metal (steel bars, etc.) in the truck this has been used to control many plants. A benefit of
144 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

automated control is the ability to better regulate the feed In those circuits where the crushers produce a saleable
to the crusher and therefore lessen the variability of the product (e.g., road-stone quarries), the control objective is
power draw, enabling the system to run closer to the usually to maximize the production of certain size frac-
power limit without fear of an overshoot. This alone can tions from each ton of feed. Since screen efficiency
result in increased efficiency of over 2% in increased decreases as circulating load increases, producing a finer
throughput. There is an optimum closed side setting for product size, circulating load can be used to control the
crushers operating in closed circuit that provides the product size (Chapter 8). This can be effected by control
highest tonnage of finished screen product for a particular of the crusher setting using a hydraulic adjustment system
power or circulating load limit, noting that the feed (Flavel, 1977, 1978; Anon., 1981).
tonnage to the crusher increases at larger closed side set- The required variation in crusher setting can be deter-
tings. The power draw can be maintained by the use of a mined by the use of mathematical models of crusher per-
variable speed belt feeding the crusher, although this is formance (Lynch, 1977; Napier-Munn et al., 1996), from
not common due to the control challenges of managing empirical (historical) data, or by measuring product size
the belt. More common is control of the feeders deposit- on-line. Image processing based systems for the continu-
ing the ore onto the feed belt from a bin or stockpile. This ous measurement of fragmentation size for use throughout
provides the necessary flexibility while greatly simplify- the crushing circuit have been in use in the mining indus-
ing overall control. try since the mid-1990s and have now become best prac-
Typical control algorithms are based on supervisory tice (Chapter 4). These systems measure, on a real time
control that manages feed versus the power draw and/or a basis, the size of the ore on a belt or a feeder. Currently
combination of power draw and level in the crusher bowl. four systems are in use: PRC from Portage Technologies
These algorithms incorporate expert systems for overall Inc., Split-Online from Split Engineering, WipFrag from
strategy and model predictive controllers to provide a WipWare Inc., and VisoRock from Metso. An example of
predictable feed rate. In situations where the size deliv- the screen capture from a moving conveyor belt is shown
ered from individual feeders is known, another degree of in Figure 6.29 (see also Chapter 4).
freedom for control is added, the incorporation of feeder Additional loops are normally required in crushing cir-
bias and selection. Uneven feed from the bin or stockpile cuits to control levels in surge bins between different
combined with the long time delays inherent in the dis- stages. For instance, the crusher product surge bins can be
tance between the feed stock and crusher, reduce the effi- monitored such that at high level feed is increased to
cacy of traditional control and have driven the industry to draw down the bins.
embrace more advanced expert, model-based and multi- The importance of primary crusher control on SAG
variable control. At the same time, the software and tech- mill performance at Highland Valley Copper was well
nology for these solutions has become more accessible to recognized, and through the use of image analysis, HVC
the plants, resulting in robust solutions. was able to quantify the effect, and thereby regulate
Operations under choked conditions also require sens- crusher product size through a combination of feed rate
ing of upper and lower levels of feed in the crusher by and setting control (Dance, 2001). Figure 6.30 illustrates
mechanical, nuclear, sonic, vision, or proximity switches. the effect of primary crusher product size on the SAG
Operation at high power draw (choked conditions) leads mill throughput. Tracking the crusher product through the
to increased fines production, such that if the increased stockpile network, as the amount of medium size material
throughput provided by the control system cannot be (50
125 mm) increased, the amount of this material in
accommodated by the grinding plant, then the higher the feed to the SAG mill increased, as measured 24 hours
average power draw can be used to produce a finer prod- later (the 124 hours key in the figure). This size material
uct. In most cases, high throughput increases screen load- constitutes SAG mill critical size in this operation and, as
ing, which decreases screening efficiency, particularly for expected, as the amount fed to the SAG mill increased
the particles close to the screen aperture size. This has the the tonnage decreased, for one of the SAG mills from
effect of reducing the effective “cut-size” of the screen, 2,000 to 1,800 t h21. This change in amount of medium
producing a finer product (see also Chapter 8). Thus a size material was caused by an increase in the amount in
possible control scheme during periods of excess closed the feed to the primary crusher, resulting from a period of
circuit crushing capacity or reduced throughput require- higher energy blasting, which reduced the amount of 1
ment is to increase the circulating load by reducing the 125 mm. Because in this operation the medium size mate-
number of screens used, leading to a finer product. The rial passed through the crusher virtually unchanged, the
implementation of this type of control loop requires accu- increase was reflected in the crusher product. It is neces-
rate knowledge of the behavior of the plant under various sary to understand these interacting factors to effect con-
conditions. trol and maximize the throughput of the circuit.
 Crushers Chapter | 6 145

FIGURE 6.29 Screen capture of Portage PRCs (Courtesy Portage Technologies Inc.).

Blake, E.W., 1858. Machine for Crushing Stone. US Patent No.

US20542.
Brachthauser, M., Kellerwessel, H., 1988. High pressure comminution
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