JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

BSC ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.

SCH 2310

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT.

RIRWAYE BRIAN.

SCP213-0165/2018
Discuss 5 parameters that are used to measure the quality of drinking water.

Water quality determines the ‘goodness’ of water for particular purposes for example drinking
water. Water quality tests will give information about the health of the water. Parameters that are
frequently sampled or monitored for water quality include temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH,
conductivity, ORP, and turbidity. However water monitoring may also include measuring total algae,
ISEs (ammonia, nitrate, chloride), or laboratory parameters such as BOD, titration, or TOC.

a)Turbidity.

Turbidity is the cloudiness of water. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It is
caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate
materials in water. Turbidity in drinking water is aesthetically unacceptable, which makes the water
look unappetizing

The effects of turbulence are:

It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses.

The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield them from
the disinfection process.

Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases, reducing its
growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish catching method.

Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead,
cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides.

The amount of available food is reduced because higher turbidity raises water temperatures in light
of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the concentration of the
dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold
water.

Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity

(b) Temperature.

Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature .
Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are
temperature dependent. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in
water. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable Temperature of a
waterway is significant because it affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. The amount
of oxygen that will dissolve in water increases as temperature decreases. Water at OoC will hold up
to 14.6 mg of oxygen per litre, while at 30oC it will hold only up to 7.6 mg/L. Temperature also
affects the rate of photosynthesis of plants, the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, rates of
development, timing and success of reproduction, mobility, migration patterns and the sensitivity of
organisms to toxins, parasites and disease. Life cycles of aquatic organisms are often related to
changes in temperature. Temperature ranges for plants and animals can be affected by manmade
structures such as dams and weirs and releases of water from them.

C) PH.

PH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative logarithm
of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic
or a basic solution. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. Acidic water
contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions. pH ranges
from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7
indicates a base solution. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a
pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas. Safe ranges of pH
for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need. There are two
methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods .Excessively
high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste bitter and
decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional
chlorine. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve
metals and other substances. Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and
plants that live in the water .The effects of pH on animals and plants can be summarized as follows:

Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from
even a slight change .

Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish
and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes.

Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few
animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11.

Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to
contaminants. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population
throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain.

The effects of pH on other chemicals in water can be summarized as follows:

Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water
(lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved
in water.

A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect
aquatic plants and animals. For instance, ammonia is relatively harmless to fish in neutral or acidic
water. However, as the water becomes more alkaline (the pH increases), ammonia becomes
progressively more poisonous to these same organisms.
d) Dissolved oxygen (DO)

The amount of oxygen in water, to a degree, shows its overall health. That is, if oxygen levels are
high, one can presume that pollution levels in the water are low. Conversely, if oxygen levels are
low, one can presume there is a high oxygen demand and that the body of water is not of optimal
health. Apart from indicating pollution levels, oxygen in water is required by aquatic fauna for
survival. In conditions of no or low oxygen availability, fish and other organisms will die. Oxygen
enters water as a result of two processes: 1. Diffusion - diffusion of oxygen into water is accelerated
when the water turbulence is increased (moving through rapids and waterfalls) and when there is a
strong wind blowing. Additionally, oxygen will diffuse into cold water at a higher rate than it will into
warm water. 2. Photosynthesis - during daylight hours, aquatic plants use the sun’s energy to create
energy they can use for growth. A by-product of this process is oxygen which is released into
surrounding water. When the level of Dissolved Oxygen is above or below these ranges, the
waterway will become increasingly stressed.

(e) Nutrients.

The three main plant nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Of these, only phosphorus
is tested by Water watch groups. Nutrient levels in Australian waters are naturally very low.
However, due to human impacts these levels are often too high, resulting in algal blooms and
excessive growth of water-plants including weed species such as Water Hyacinth and Slavonia. The
effects of consistently high levels of nutrient levels are:

• water bodies choked with vegetation or algae - often weed species; • changes in aquatic flora and
fauna composition. This is often a change to a monoculture, that is a change to a system dominated
by a single plant species;

• increased fluctuations of dissolved oxygen levels. This places stress on aquatic fauna;

• An increase in total organic load, resulting in odours and reduced aesthetic quality. PHOSPHATES:
are often the limiting nutrients in Australian environments. Therefore, high phosphate levels could
lead to the problems described above. The main sources of phosphorus in local catchments are:

• Sediments from rocks and soil; • effluent from waste water treatment plants and on site sewage
disposal units;

• Detergents and fertilisers that have been washed down drains or that have run off from properties
due to poor land management practices and storm water pollution;

• decaying organic matter.

f) Faecal Coliforms.

Faecal Coliforms are naturally occurring bacteria found in the intestines of all warm blooded animals
(including humans) and birds. The presence of Faecal Coliforms is an indicator of contamination by
sewage waste. Faecal Coliforms indicate a risk to human health. They are not pathogenic (disease
causing) but indicate that pathogenic bacterial and viruses may be present. Faecal Coliforms can
enter streams and rivers via:

• Sewer and septic systems

• feed lot and dairy run-off

• Run-off from broad acre farming

• Storm water

• Livestock defecating directly into the water

Primary contact refers to activities where you are completely immersed in water, e.g. swimming.
Faecal Coliforms should not exceed 150/100 mL. Secondary contact refers to activities where you
come into contact with water but are not completely immersed in it. Faecal Coliforms should not
exceed 1000/100 mL.

g) Alkalinity

The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all titratable bases .
The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime and soda
needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in conditioning the boiler feed water)
Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions
(HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the
following equation, the possibility of OH− and HCO3− ions together are not possible because they
react together to produce CO32− ions Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid
solution (H2SO4 of 0.02 N) using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).The high
levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or chemical pollution.
Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity
in natural waters provide a buffering action that protects fish and other aquatic organisms from
sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had
natural alkalinity, a neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH
of the lake water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity
should be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.

Using appropriate examples, discuss 5 ways in which the quality of drinking water supply can be
enhanced.

1)Improve sanitation facilities by providing toilets and latrines that flush into a sewer or safe
enclosure.
2) Promote good hygiene habits through education. Proper hand washing with soap and water can
reduce diarrhea cases by up to 35 percent.
3) Implement rainwater harvesting systems to collect and store rainwater for drinking or recharging
underground aquifers. Build wells to extract groundwater from underground aquifers.
4) Provide home water-treatment capability through the use of filters, solar disinfection, or
flocculants, to make drinking water safe.
5) Promote low-cost solutions, such as chlorine tablets or plastic bottles that can be exposed to
sunlight, to improve water quality.