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Heat and
Thermodynamics
Physics | Class 11
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 HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
Heat : .

" "

It is
Energy in transit due to temperature
difference . when heat
transferdecreases takes
place the ,

the
temperature of one
body and

temperature of the other

body increases ,
except
in
particular
a case where
phase transition takes

place .

# Zeroth law
of thermodynamics and temperature : .

IfB a
system A is in thermal
equilibrium with system
and the thermal with
system B is in
equilibrium
then thermal
system c ,
systems A and c are in

equilibrium with each other .

The common
property of these systems in thermal
equilibrium is the
temperature Thus the temperature of
.

a
system is the
property which determines whether
or not
system a is in thermal
equilibrium with
other
systems
.
Three
different scales
of temperatures : -

d) The Celsius Scale : -

The interval between the lower

fixed point and the

upper fixed point in Celsius
scale divided
is into Loo
equal parts .
Each division
of
the scale called Celsius ( Ic) At
degree
is as one .

normal pressure ,
the
melting of ice is
Oc ( lower
fixed point) boiling point of
and the water is

( upper
fixed point) of
Laic the Celsius Scale

(a) The Fahrenheit scales At normal

pressure ,
the
32°F
melting point of ice is
regarded as and the

boiling point of water as 212°F . The interval b/w

( 32°C) ( 212 f)
.

lower
the
divided
and the
fixed point
upper
is into
equal 280 parts Each division of .

degree Fahrenheit ( )
this scale is called one IA

③ The Reaume scale : -

At normal
pressure ,
the
and the
melting point of ice is
regarded as OR
boiling point of water as 8093 The interval
.

b/w the lower ( OR) and the

upper ( 8093) fixed
 division
points is divided into 80
equal parts . Each

is called IR .

# Conversion of temperature from one scale to

another : -

To convert
temperature from one scale to another
relation
following is used

÷o=aE Foto -

f- =

f_g32_ Ry =

Egthe what
temperature at which get
: -

is the we

both the
same
reading on
centigrade and

Fahrenheit scale ?

Sat ?
If t.es the
required temperature
.

then I - t.az
geo 180

or t -
- -
40

so the
required temperature is -40°C or -40°F .
Thermal Expansion : -

increases
Tf temperature of a
body ,
the
amplitude
molecular vibration increases which intern
of intermolecular
increases
separation .
So ,
change in

temperature produces change

in the overall volume

of body .

Thermal
expansion of an isotopic object may be

treated as a
photographic enlargement .
so ,

if there

plate Coe inside )

is a hole in a

(
cavity a
body
the area
of hole or volume
of cavity) will

increase when a
body expands on
heating just ,

the hole ( or cavity) were solid the

as
if of
same material .

Also expansion of a area ( or

volume)
of a
body will be
independent of
shape and size of hole ( or
cavity ) .

increased
when temperature is the
size of the

body also increases , in

general y . di be the

linear
expansion of
the rod
of length L, due
to increase in
temperature do .
 did L and all x do or DL = A Ld O

where d is the
coefficient of linear
expansion
or
I ¥ =

! ado ;

( where
In
{ ÷) DO DO
or =L -
- O -
Oo dies a
,

constant )

{ ))
In =L DO
÷ =L
or or =L DO
It -
g

as Al is
very
small , we
neglect the
higher
order terms .

↳ to ( Itd DO) or AL = Lo L DO

linear
i .

Coefficient of expansion a =
DI
lo AO

Similarly for expansion

,
in area

A = Ao ol [ It FDOT DA =
Ao B DO

i .
Co -

efficient of area
expansion B =

AAA .
DO
Similarly for expansion
,
in volume ,
V Vol It
YDO ] ol AV Vo YAO
- -
-
-

Coefficient of volume
expansion f- be
°

• .

Vo AO

Relation b/w d, B and

Y
Assuming isotropic material a :p
:y= I -2 :3
'

( Isotopic material is the material which has

in all the three x. y and
uniform properties g
directions)

case of contained
In
liquid in a container , both

the
liquid as well as container
expand .

i.
Relative expansion of liquid with respect to

container is
given by yr=Y
-

Ye

# Variation of Density with temperature : .

For a substance volume

given mass of a mass x
-

,
-

density vopo Vtft Constant= =

"
Itt Yao )
foot =¥=y¥og
•
's E- to

ft -
Po [I -

y boy ,
( neglecting higher order terms )
# Thermal Stars : -

b/w two
when a rod is held
rigid supports and
the
temperature is allowed to
change ,
the
rigid
support prevents the sod
from expanding or

rod
contracting Then stars is
produced in the
.

which is called thermal stars .

Thermal
expansion ( if the rod were
face ) ,
Aha Lao -

i. Thermal stars = strain

xY=(?÷)y=ay( Do )
# kinetic
Theory of Gases : -

Gases made
up of tiny particles consisting of
are ,

molecules ,
atoms or even ions (sometimes) which

retain the chemical properties of the

sample of
which
they are
composed .

The kinetic model

theory of gases develops a
of
the molecular behavior which should result in

the observed behavior of ideal

gas
an .
# Ideal Gas : -

Any gas which

obeys gaswhere
law Pt n RT is

called ideal tf universal

gas
as
gas
an ,

constant and R= 8.3151mA K An ideal is

gasseal
. .

theoretical model
a
simple of a
gas
.
No
ideal Real
gas is truly .

gas approaches the ideal

low
gas
behavior at
pressures
and
high
temperatures .

# Assumptions :
4) Molecules ( whose
size is
extremely small in
to b/w them)
comparison the
separation , mores
randomly
in all directions .

(a) Molecules exert no

appreciable force on one another

during
the of the container
or on walls
except
collision .

③ All collisions b/w the molecules or with the wall

elastic
of the container are
perfectly .

④ The duration of a collision is

negligible in
comparison
b/w
to the time
spent by a molecule collisions .
f) In and distribution
steady state , the
density the

of
molecules with
different velocities are
independent
direction and time This
of position ,
.

assumption is
justified if the no .

of
molecules is
large
very motion
.

molecules laws
(6) The
obey Newtons
of .

to
The
assumptions of kinetic theory are close
the real situation at low densities and
high
temperature .

EgvolumeCalculate af molecules in
: the
gas af
no a
-

like I and pressure I -2×1071 Nlm '

and

temperature Hook .

( Ginn Bo Hyman constant

:
-
=
2:32 X 10.2331k )
Sofi -

Ginn that , P -
.
I 2x
-
107 Nlm) V -
- I like F- hook
,
.

No -

of molecules ( n ) -

p¥=G.2xl07N/mYC2lite)20→m#
G. Jfk) ( Hook )
38×10
-
"

n = 2×104
It concept of Gas :
pressure
-

According to kinetic
theory of gases of molecules
of
directions The
a
gas
more
randomlycollide in
with
all .

but
molecules not another
only one

also wall the vessel

with the
of containing .
A

molecule momentum to the wall

imparts a certain

the
against of
when it collides the wall

momentum is
container .
Since rate of change of
in
proportional to the
force Therefore
.

,
each collision

molecule the wall

the exerts a
force on
of the
container . Thus the walls of the container
experience
a
steady force . This
force per unit area is

called the the i the

of gas
e
pressure pressure
-
.

of
a
gas
is
equal to the momentum
imparted
second the walls the
per per unit area
of of
container molecules
by the .
# Pressure ideal :

of gas
an -

consider ideal enclosed in cubical vessel

gas
an a

of edge
L .

velocity
molecule with
considering a
moving .

T -

-
Tat Ty tv→z ; pit
/ / faces
hit =
Fifth Is
up →

face 2 E. ,
VI
"

E T
where vx , Vy and uz are
components of velocity
along x
, y and
g
axis
respectively .

The momentum molecule collision

change in
of a on

with
faces
AP = C- mvx) -
( mud - Linux

i. Momentum
imparted to the wall =2mvx

Time b/w two successive collisions on

faced ,

At =
21
Vx
Rate at which momentum is
imparted to the wall ,

by a molecule of = is plat = must 1L .

due to
Total
force on the
face I all the molecules

f- =
Emvx
'
IL = MIL Six -
C)
As Svt Evs C:
Evyh molecules
randomly in
'

=
= more

all the directions)

EVE =

Is ( uit Vy't VE ) Ev
-
-

f-
3- my Eve g- MEI ENI
were N= total no .

of molecules in the
sample

Now ,
pressure =f;_=÷ MY 9¥
f-
f- PENT mist
or where e -

,
-

or
pig put ,
F =

ENI is the mean

square speed
.
# Mean speed Average
is
speed :

arithmetic
or .

average speed
Mean or the mean

at
of
the
speeds of molecules in gas
a a

given temperature Consider

gas having
a n
.

molecules . let v. , vz .
. .
. . -
un be the speeds of
given by
molecules . . Then ,
the mean speed is

T = V , tvzt - - t un
-

from Maxwell
Boltz man statistics ,

8=1781 Am
- d)

where Ties absolute

temperature of the gas and

is the molecule K te Bo
m mass
of gas ,
Hyman
constant .

Rms
speed :
fsvjd.IE/m:I.tIEIII.--Tj
-

sties
defined as vom -

-
 here Ns molecules hare
speed v,
,
Na molecules
hate
speed Va ,
- -
- - - -

Since P
¥ my rims
-
-

moles rims
If we take n
of a
gas PV=÷n
,
. M

( PV
RTT
o
: - n

rims
: n RT
GL n M
-

- .
•

where tf Universal constant 8-324 Jtmol K

gas
-

.
=

or vans =
-
Ca )
, M

Calculate
Eg temperature
: - the at which mrs

is
velocity af Soa molecules the same as that af
molecules
02 at 27°C . Molecular
weights of oxygen
and Sulphur di oxide -

are 32 and 64
respectively .

Satin for
oxygen ,

T= ( 27 t 273 ) K =3 K

Molecular weight of oxygen M 32

-

ms
velocity af Oz molecule at 27°C .
 =f
Vms
M

f33Re 32
- Ci )

let ¥ be the
temperature at which the sms

velocity af so , is also vans .

let T be the
absolute
corresponding temperature .

For 802 ,
M= 64
Then ,
vms - Cii)

Ci ) and Cii )
Equating egg we
get ,

F- Goo k
or 273ft = 600

or ,
t =
( Goo 2737
-
=
327°C

He Most probable speed :

-

The is that
most probable speed speed with
which molecules
the maximum no .

of more in a

given gas
at a
given temperature .
It is
denoted
by Ump
from Bo statistics ,
Maxwell
Hyman
Ump
fait Ciii )
-
-
-

from Ci ) Cii) and Ciii) that

the
egg ,
it
follows
< T C Vms
vamp

# kinetic and Temperature

Energy : -

consider one mole of a

gas Y
.
M and V be its

and volume
mass
respectively ,
the
pressure
the is
exerted
by gas given by
p 3- My Toms
-
-

PV
13 Moms
oh ,
=

Mims (: PV 2T
÷
or , RT RT,
'

=
= n -
-

Mv3ms Ci )
Ia
Oh =

Ig RT - -
- -

,
 The translational kinetic
ie .

average energy per

molecule is
gram of
the
gas equal to 3zRt

Dividing both sides of eggs by N ,

we
get
Ig In rims 3z¥yT =

's
where N
Avogadro
-
no .

Cii )
M
Iz mums 33kt = - -
- -
- - -
- -

where ( mass af molecule

of gas)
My = m one

constant
Fa -

K Boltz man
Thus , the translational kinetic
average energy
per
molecules is
equal to
3g KT

fam clear
of Cii ) ,
it is that mean kinetic
energy
to the
of a molecule
directly
is
proportional
absolutes temperature of gas
a .
# kinetic Inter
patios of temperature on

kinetic random is the internal

energy of motion

energy ,
given by
KE int =

2£ m.vn?ns=Ign.M3Rmt=-3zn.RT
•
i KE int AT

where n = no .

of moles
of a
gas
This means
temperature of
a
body depends
its internal KE At absolute
on .

zero
becomes
temperature KE int
zero .

Number :
#
Avogadro's -

The no .

of molecules in one
gram
mole
af
a substance is called
Avogadro b
Ck te
no . or the

no .

of atoms in 12
gms of
called

Avogadro no . It is denoted
by N .

N =
G. 0225 X 1023 .
HE Boyle 's Law : .

At
giros temperature the pressure of
a a
,

given mass of gas

is
inversely proportional
a

's This known law

to its volume .
is as
Boyle .

i e -

.
PV = constant

# Chaste 's Law : -

At volume
given pressure the
of given mass
a

to absolute temperature
of gas
is
proportional its .

This is known as chaste 's law

constant
i. e
f-
=
.

IF Gay Lussac 's law ( law of Pressure) : .

At volume
a
given ,
the
pressure of a given
to its
mass of a
gas
is
proportional
absolute
temperature .
This is called law
of
pressure .

constant
i. e
if =
.
.
 's law :
#
Avogadro
.

volumes
Equal of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain equal no of .

Consider two
gases hating
molecules .
the same

temperature pressure and volume first gas

,
.

contains my molecules each

of mars m and , ,

gas contain na molecules

the second each
of ,

and be the
Y
mass ma .
c
, can oms

velocities of the two

gases
.

Then P= Cl )
,

Is mini E -

and CI Ca )
P
Iz mange
- -
-

from egg 414121

(
or min ,
-

ef = man sci - G)
Since Ties both
same

translation
for
HE
the
gases
molecule
therefore
is
average per same
.

each
for gas
.

Macie
'

(4)
2-2 Iz
°

• . mic , = -
 ③ t ①
from egg
n
,
=
M2
This
proves Avogadro's law

# Dalton's
"
law of Partial Pressure : -

Total exerted mixture

pressure by of
an

ideal which do not interact with each other

gas
to the their individual
is
equal "
sum
of
pressures .

P =p
• o
,
t
Pat - - -
- - -

IF Graham's law of Diffusion : -

At
any specified temperature and pressure ,
the
relative two
rates of diffusion of gases are

to the
inversely proportional square
roots
of
their densities .

Fa E Eee
-
-
-

(since rate of diffusion depend upon the

velocity
the molecules)
of gas
He and
specific heats at constant volume

pressure Ccp
and a) : -

molar heat
The
capacities of a
gas
are
defined
the heat mole of the
given per gas per
as

unit rise in the

temperature the molar heat
volume
capacity at constant denoted
by Cv , the

Cv
(FIT )
=

constant volume

And molar at
the heat
capacity constant
denoted
pressure ,
by Cp ,
B

CP
(Fft)
'

constant
pressure
where is the in
n amount
of the
gas
no .

of
moles The unit heat
of specific capacity is
.

Tlkg -

K whereas the molar heat

capacity is

Jlmol -
K .

Eg 0.32g
:
of oxygen is
kept in a
rigid
-

and heated find the amount heat

container is .

of
 to 350C
needed to rise the
temperature from 25°C .

The molar heat

capacity of oxygen
at constant
volume is 2031 mot -
K .

Sol ? -
The molecular
weight of Oxygen 32g lmol = .

The amount of the in moles is

gas
he 0.32 = 0-01 mot .

-32
The amount heat needed is
of
=
n Cu DT

=
Co -
od) x Cao ) x ( go)
= 2 O J
.

# ( Cp -
Cv = R) Proof
do = du = dw - - - -

Ci )
let the be heated at constant P
gas pressure .

of gas is moles The in

The amount n
change is
.

volume is du and
temperature dt
change
in

Then dw= P du - - -
- Ci )
And def =
ncp dt - -
- -
Ciii )
 and Ciii )
Putting Cii ) in Ci ) ,
we
get
ncp DT -
du t Pdv - - - -
.
Civ )
constant volume
let heat do be
supplied at
Then dW= Pdr =
0

Because du = O

and do = ncvdt -
-
-
- .
(v )
from Ci ) and Cv ) we
get
ncvdt = du . .
. . Cui )
subtracting from Civ) we
get
n Ccp -
cu ) DT -

.
Pdu

ideal Ph RT
for gas
n

which PdV=nRdT
gives
n ( Cp -

cu ) dT=nRdT

Cp -

Cv =
R -
- - -

Cv )

of freedom
Degrees : -

is the
The
degrees of freedom of a
particle
no .

of independent motions , which the

particle
can
undergo .
 Law af equipartition of Energyabsolute : -

for a
system
in
equilibrium at
temperature
associated
average energy per particle
T, the

degree of freedom is Ig KT
with each where k ,

is
Boltzmann 's constant
.

The internal
energy of an ideal gas is entirely
the kinetic its molecules
energy af
.

Internal mole of an ideal

energy of
:
gas
o one ,

having f degrees of freedom

' '
.

A- N Xf 's
XIzkT= Idf RT, NE
Avogadro No R kN
-
-
.

The
specific heat of the
gas
at constant
volume Cu
days flat
=
=

Cp cut R
Ia Rt R
(feat 2) R
.
- -
- -
-
-
. .

y=¥=HzzdR=It¥
Ratio of the two heats
specific
i .
 A molecule monoatomic has
of gas f- only 3

( translational )
degrees af freedom -
3 .

•
: Cv =
Ia k
-

Iz R

Cp -

( fz +2413=-5 Rj Y =
It
# = 5/3 = 2-66

A molecule
of diatomic
gas has 5
degrees of
(3 translational and rotational) at
freedom 2-
-

ordinary atmospheric temperatures ( because the

vibrational modes excited ) The moment

are not .

of
about line the two atoms
inertia the
joining
rotational
is
negligibly
about that
small
axis
.

is
Hence the
energy
zero .

f- = 5

Cv
Ia te Ia R
-
-

Cp ( feat 's) R Z R
-

-
-
-

Y It
f- If =L 40
= .
=
Note :
very high temperatures if
-
At ,
vibrational

mode is also considered then f -

-
t .

A molecule of triatomic or
polyatomic gas has
(3 translational
6
degrees of freedom and 3

rotational)
f- =

Cv
Ia 12=313
-
-

Cp -
-

( fats) 12=413
Y Itf g- =L 33
=
= -

However ,
if the atoms of the molecule are

arranged in one line ( like the molecule

of cod then

the
degrees of freedom
are
only 5 and its Cu ,
Cp
t values will be similar to those af the
y
diatomic
gases
.
 Eg : -
How
many degrees freedomof have the
gas
molecules under standard conditions
,

tf the
gas
velocity af
'

density is 2.3
kglm and the sound
in it is V = 330 m/s .

Sorin : v.

fifty or
y
=

If f be the no .

of degree of freedom ,
then

F-
Ig µv÷p
= = 5

(: 105 Nlm m/s )

3kg 1ms
'
P 2.023 =L V 330
.

X
f
- -
- -
-

, ,

# Internal
Energy : -

internal the
The
energy of a system
is sum
of
kinetic and molecules
potential energies of the
It does include the overall
of the
system .
not

kinetic the
energy of system
.

# Internal energy of ideal o

gas
-

internal
In case of an ideal
gas no
force of
Hence the molecular
interaction exists .

potential energy
 the molecules te So the internal
of gas zero ,
energy
.

wholly kinetic nature

of the ideal gas
is in .

kinetic
According to kinetic interpretation the ,

molecules
energy of gas depends only upon
temperature Hence .

,
the internal
energy of an ideal

gas depends only

the the
upon temperature of
i.e V f RTI 2
gas n
-

. -

Where f is the no .

of degrees of freedom of gas

molecule .

Eg : -
One mole of an ideal monatomic
gas
is taken

doubled
at a
temperature of 300K .

Its volume is

constant find the

keeping its
pressure .

change in

internal
energy .

Sofi Since constant

pressure
-

y÷
vats
YI
i. :
=

f
Tf . Goo k
V¥T
i = 2 Ti =

;
 (60-30)=450 K
i AU
fzn RAT
3g I R
= . = -
-
.

# Concept of mean
free path : .

Mean of molecule is
free path a in a
gas
the distance travelled the molecule
average by
b/w two successive collisions .

It is denoted
by
X .

y di ,
da -

kN be the
free paths travelled
by
the molecules in N successive collisions ,
then ,
mean
free path X=htdat------
N

# Expression for mean

free path
: -

let that molecule is in

us assume
only one

motion and all other molecules are at rest .

let d molecule
be the diameter of each .

Stationary → * n

molecule i

Moving →
"

; . . .
. - -
Ld
- - - - - - -
- -
i
t
molecule
.
.

I, i

i t

stationary →
i'
.
-
-
i

molecule
e- e -
H
 travelled
If l is the distance
by the
moving
molecule , the
moving molecule shall make a

collision with all those molecules whose centers

be inside a volume ad'd .

molecules
Suppose , n B the no .

of per
unit volume

in the
gas
.

Then collisions of molecules in volume

no .

of = no .

Adhd -
-

n Adil
Now a -
distanutrarelled or , D= d-
nad 'd
no .

of collisions

t -

1- - ②
'
nad

Since all the molecules in random

are
moving
the chances collision
motion ,
so ,
of a
by a

molecule
greater Taking thees into
is . account ,

to be T2 times
mean
free path can be shown
egg 43
less than that in
given .
•
'

o X =
I -
se ,
Fanad .

or ,
d =m_
Fard '
Mn

X=M_ -
(3)
Fat dy
the
where mn
=p =

density of gas
.

RT
Again since , PV =

P
Rut Ny x# XT KT
-

=
-
n
-

n = P1 KT
Putting this value
af n in
egg (2)
X =kI
-

o
o

'
52 Ad p
 THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEM AND
ITS SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM

Any portion of Universe which is

"
,
" "
considered

separate forms system

"
as , a .

These three
are
types of systems : -

d)
Open : G exchange of
-
matter and
energy
surrounding
takes with the
places .

② closed :
g exchange of matter
energy takes
place
-

but no
exchange of .

③ Isolated : and
-

If no
exchange of matter
energy
takes place .

Parameter
Thermodynamic : -

The which describe the matter

variables state
of
egg pressure ,
volume ,
temperature
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium : -

A
system
is in
thermodynamic equilibrium if every
thermodynamic parameter has the value same

through out the system .

first law of
heat
Thermodynamics
to the and Dw to
in

Sf do is

work done by
given system
then Do the
the
system written
change
,

in internal be as
energy can

DV =
Dcf -
DW

This law of conservation

is the
of energy .
It
can be stated in
differential form def d ,
- w = du

and
form data date
time rate -

days =

Note in
Heat taken is
*
supplied to the system as
positive
and taken
heat
rejected by the system is as

negative .
* work done
by the
system
is
positive and work
done on
they system is
negative .

*
change in internal
energy depends upon
initial

and
final states
of all
the
system
.

* Av ncvdt
=

for processes .

Joule 's law : -

thermo
It States that the work by
done a -

dynamical system is
directly proportional to the
heat
produced .

wad
W= TO

mechanical heat
where J is called
equivalent of
Heal
and T is
equal to 4.184 .

Work Done in

gas ( or
the
work done
by the
system ) over

calculated
surroundings can be as

dw= Pdu
o : w -
-

I! Pdu
 ^

Here dw.es elemental work

!
r -

done
by pressure P,
of the
÷ ⇐

system ,
during elemental
change ,

in volume DV .

done in the AB is to
Work process equal
the area under the AB curve and V -
axis
.

diatomic
Eg Two moles
of
ideal te taken
:

gas
-
a

const Its
through the
process
PK .

temperature is

increased Tok to 2 Tok And the work done

from .

?
by the
system Here
Sorin W -
-
fpdv , PT -
pit, =
Pata -
c ( constant)
•
: PT -

-
c; P.PL = c

NR

i .
P' v =

ncR P=h
i. Spdv =
MY ,
Fu
du =
father -
TY )
)
=L
( ftp.tv-t#TVJ--2nRCT2-T7-4RTo
 Calorimetry Principle of Calorimetry
: -
: .

When two
objects having different temperatures
are
brought in contact heat flows from the hot
,

object to the cold object If the system is .

sufficiently thermally isolated from its surrounding

Heat lost by the hot
object heat gained by =

cold
the
object .

latent Heat CD in
latent heat is
defined as amount of heat absorbed

released
or
by
body during the change of
state

while its
temperature remaining constant Heat .

absorbed or released
during change of state .

f- mL where mfs mass

of body and Lts latent
heat .

latent heat of fusion : -

to its
The heat
supplied to a substance change
constant
state at
temperature is called latent
 heat of latent heat of
fusion . The
fusion of ice

is 80kcal
1kg .

Heat capacity : -

If
a
quantity AS of heat raises the
temperature
of a
body through DT, then heat
capacity is
given by
µ .

# SIK
AT

The heat
capacity of a
body is
numerically
to raise
equal quantity of
to the heat
required
its
temperature by unity .

is the to
Specific Heat It heat
required raise
: -

2°C
the
temperature by or 10K
for a unit may

of the
body
.

C -1
MDT
In the related with heat and thermo
problems
-

ideal
usually work with
dynamics we
gases
molal
and
require specific heat
.

i. Molar heat
capacity G- NDTdef where n no
of moles
-
- . .

In differential form f-
In (off )=zfd t1(dd¥)
process dependent
since DW is ,
the molas heat

capacity is process dependent .

If the volume of
a
gas of
mass m es
kept
constant and heat D8 is to it, and the
given
then
temperature rises
by DT
, ,
the heat
capacity
volume is
at constant
expressed as

a
CEST) =L IF
-
-

. →

y the
pressure of gas of mass
a m te
kept
constant and heat ace is to it and
given ,

by then
temperature rises DT, molar heat

capacity at constant
pressure
is
expressed as
 ↳ =

(n?L op = In # the p dat -

cut R

Relation b/w Cp and Cv is , Cp -

Cu -
-

and Petit 's law

Dulong : -

The mole
specific heat per of 6 chemically
a
pure"
This
approximately cat mole K
"

crystalline solid is
law
.

Dulong and Petit

is known as 's .

Variation
of specific
heat
of solids with
temperature .

According to
Dulong and Petit b law ,
the molar

heat be
specific of every
solid
equal to
must

6cal . But the result is

approximately equal to 6cal .

At various
temperatures specific ER *
, . . . .
. . .
.
. .

r
.

quantity T
heat is not aconstant .

a
Instead ,
it varies with

temperature only and at a

* T

specific temperature depending

→

nature Variation Cv with

upon
the
of the af T
 it drawn
material ,
approaches 6 If a graph . is

b/w the
temperature and the Cv for a solid, we

actually get the result .

Eqn af State : -

A relation b/w
pressure ,
volume and
temperature
for a
system is
is called its
egg of state . The state

known terms
of system completely in
of its

pressure ,
volume and
temperature eg for ,
.
n mole

of an ideal
gas ,
the
egg of state is

PV =
n RT.

walls
Van der
Egg af States .

for a real
gasthe
the
egg of state is
different from
ideal is
an
gas ,
size of a molecule not
negligible
the
average isseparation
to btw them
in
comparison .

Also molecular attraction

the
account , Vander
not
negligible taking
these two into Waals Desired
facts
.

the state real

for following of for a

gas
.
 ( Pt aunt) Cr -
nb ) -
n RT

t constant
where a b are small
positive force of
attraction btw the molecules f b is related to the
total volume
of the molecules

phase : Real under

appropriate conditions
gases of
-

temperature and
pressure can
liquefy
or
solidify
in
eg
.

at 2 atm
pressure ,
wake exist
liquid form
b/w 0 to Saic solid below 0°C f abok
,
vapour
forms of
water called
( ooo These different its
'

are

phases At Lai under a atm the

pressure ,

system
.

can be in
equilibrium with a
part of it
liquid
and Oc
vapour Similarly
water the rest . at
,

under 2 atm ice and water

pressure liquid
can co -
exist in
equilibrium . Thus , in
equilibrium
state hate two Coe ) phases
a
system can more .
 p p
calm) calm)
1^218 473 OI

÷:;ms
-
- -
- - - - - - - - - -

,
;
- - - -
- - - - - -

'

Solid liquid i
,
.

"

i i
i t
g 566
0.02 374 Tac)
31.2
TC
-

(water) co -
(a) if ,

A divides the
Phase Diagrams : .

phase diagram
solid
plane into
P the
region
t
region vapour
-

a ,

and the liquid region

.
The
regions separated are

by the
representing
curses
liquid the solid -

equilibrium ( melting liquid vapour equilibrium

-

( boiling ) and solid vapour equilibrium ( sublimation) -

The where meet is called

point these curves

the
triple point C solid
liquid vapour equilibrium)
-
-

The P water and

diagrams for
-
T coz are

shown in
fig
.
 Processes :
Thermodynamic
.

Quasi Static
-

Process : -

Quasi static
process infinitely
is slow
an
process
-

that remains in
such the
system equilibrium with
the
surroundings throughout In this
process the
.

and
pressure temperature of the environment can
differ from
system only infinitesimally
the -

Isobaric process : -

A taking place at constant is

process pressure
called isobaric
an
process
.

for eg. ,
the
boiling
water to steam the
of in an
open pot
or

freezing of water to ice

taking place at a

isobaric
constant
atmospheric pressure are
processes
.

In this
process ,
the work done is
equal to

PAV .

Tso choric
process
: -

A process taking place at constant volume is

called an Eso choric DV=0)

process ,
 work done , dW= PdV= O

internal
change
.

Net in Au = DO
o .

energy ,

Adiabatic Process : .

initial state
when a
system from passes
to an i

final f through
that
a state
process such a

heat
no
flows into out
of the system or ,

then the is called adiabatic

process .

Such when
process can occur the
system is
a

thermally insulated
from the
surroundings or ,

that there
when the
process is
very rapid so

is little time to into

or no
for the heat
flow
out the
of
system8=0
or .

As heat
supplied ,

internal
change
i. Net in Do Dw
energy
= -

does its
ie .
the
system work at the cost
of own

internal in adiabatic
energy an
process
.

for an adiabatic do O
process
-
-

dot Pdu =O - -
-
-
①
 ideal du ncvdt ②
for an
gas
-
- -

also PV =
n RT =
dT=PddP - (3)
nth

② ③ CD
substituting of t in
egg

nCv(PdVn¥VdP_)tPdV= O →
(£+2) Pdvtcuzvd P'
'
'
O

Cppdvtcv VdP=0
¥(d tdfd=0
y In Vt In P -
-
O PVY =
K ( constant)

yinitial
an ideal
gas expands adiabatically from
volume Vi to
final volume Uf then ,

work done
w pdv
o

: Pvt = K ( constant)

= 's mark
IF # f÷ ¥] .
-

÷ Kitty .
-

7.1.13
 W =
PiVi-PfVf_
Y 2 -

Since Pitti =
n Rti

Pf Vt -
n Rtf .
°

.
w=nR(Ti-Tf)
Y I
-

Adiabatic Relations : .

i ) Pvt = Constant → Pi Vik Pf Uft

Cii) Pvt
P=nRTV
= Constant as

VY constant
nR
i .
=

d
TV Y
I
Constant Vit 1- Tf Vril
- -

Ti
-

or =
→

Ciii put =
constant as

V=npRt .
:P
(npRIJ= constant

' Y
TY constant
-

or .
P =

t Y Y
Pfd
-
-

Ti Pi =
Tf
Eg A certain at
atmospheric pursue is
:

gas volume
compressed adiabatically so that its

becomes
half of its original volume .

?
Calculate
in
dyne Ginny 2.4
'

the
resulting pressure cm -
.

Sorin Initial volume , vs V

Gay)
-

final volume Vz= V12

Initial
pressure P, = 76 cm
of mercury
-2
column
P , -76×13.6 X 981
dyne cm

final 12=9
pressure .

Since ,
Paul = P, uil

Y
PEP,
( via )Y =P,

13=2.7×106 dyne
-2
cm

Isothermal Process : .

when a
system undergo as a
process
under
the condition that its
temperature remains

to be
constant , then the said
is
process
 "
isothermal
"
.

Such when the

system
occur is
a
process can

contained in a
perfectly conducting chamber

very slowly
and the is carried out
process ,
so

heat
that there is
forsufficient time
exchange
As the
temperature of the system remains constant

( F- constant) constant
,
i.e .
pv= .

For an ideal the internal

depends only
gas ,
energy
on the
temperature
i. du -
O do = dw .

ideal volume
y an
gas expands from initial vito

final volume Vf at constant

temperature ,
the
work done

w -
-

tpdv =
n Rt
!! dive C '

: Pkn RT)

w NRT In
µ÷) W NRT In
( fi )
- -

;
-
-
 free expansion :
-

( ) expands
g system in such that
a
gas leases the way
a ,
a

heat enters ( adiabatic

system
no or

process) and also work is done

no
by or on the
then te called the
system ,
the
expansion free
expansion .

Consider adiabatic versed with

rigid
an walls

divided into two One and

parts .

containing a
gas
evacuated
the other . when the
partition is
suddenly
broken , the rushes into the vacuum and
gas
expands freely .

internal
i. Net
Uf Ui
change in

DO
energy
O and
-
=
Dcf -
W as - W

i . Ui =
Uf
The initial and
final internal
energies
are
equal
in
face expansion .
 and Adiabatic Processes
Slope of Isothermal
for an Isothermal
process "

¢
PV = constant
Pd Vt Vdp
Differentiating O
-
-

isothermal

adiabatic
or = -1 ,

isothermal V

for adiabatic
an
process
put = constant

Differentiating a#
outfit)adiabatic -7¥
The adiabatic
slope of the
for given pressure f
volume Y the isothermal
is times the
slope af ,

both
of them
being negative
.

Cyclic Process : -

when a
particular system passes through various
initial and
processes such that the
final States
are the same ,
then the combination of such

is called
processes cyclic process
a .

for since
AV O a
cyclic pro cus
= .

Au =
DI W -

.
'

. O =D -
W

or DO = W, over a
cyclic process

Process :
Efficiency of a
Cyclic .

Efficiency of a
cycle is the ratio
of the work
done to the heat
supplied
Workday
efficiency of a
cycle =

Heat
supplied
let ideal the
going through
consider
gas
us an

cycle
If I , and da be the heat
supplied ,
while Cfs is

prompt
heat
me
rejected in the

o,
I
do
¥atie
,
'

Ts
 Workday
Efficiency
.

.
.
=

Heat
Supplied
= (O ,
t da ) -
Cfs =L -
I
( O to, ,
0 +02
,

÷ ( w -
-

O)
for
a
cyclic process .

Heat
engine
:

Heat heat used

engine for converting
is a device
into mechanical A heat
energy energy engine
.

the
consists
essentially of following parts .

C) Source Heat the

of reservoir : .
It is
supplier
heat
of energy .

Cii ) sink or Cold Reservoir in That heat which has not

work is to
been converted into
sejected the sink .

Liii) working substance : It

quantity
. absorbs a certain

heat the
of from source , converts a
part of it
into work and heat to
It is
rejects the
remaining
the sink taken
.

through a
cyclic operations .

Heat
"
Engine
"

soiree → i'
Q t .
.
i
"
.

ED 975

di
Block Heat
diagram of Engine
Efficiency
:
-
It is
defined as the ratio
of the net
external work
by the engine during
done
cycle one

to the heat absorbed

from the source during that
cycle . It is denoted
by n
.

i -
e .

if = We
8 ,

where external
the
w is the net work done
by
engine during and O, is the heat
one
cycle
absorbed that
from the source
during cycle
.

to its
Since the
working substance returns initial
state
after completing one
cycle therefore there is
no
change in internal
energy
.

Therefore , by applying first law

of thermodynamics ,

we
get
Cf ,
-

Cfa =
W

where dats the amount of heat

rejected
to the
sink i.e .

Ide
y
-
-

q =L -
I
g,
for value of di the smaller the value
given
a ,

heat
of Da , the higher is the
efficiency of the

engine
.

Carnot's Ideal It heat

Heat
engineall
: -
is an ideal
which is
engine free from the
imperfections
actual
of an engine It consists
essentially af
.

the
following parts .
 SOURCE 4
It'll
substance
%
CT, )
STAND
§ SINK §
⇐ CTD ¥
Carnal's Ideal Heat
Engine
C) Source : It -

serves as source
of heat .
It is
maintained at a constant
high temperature Tik .

thermal
It has
infinite capacity .

Cii ) sink : It
-

is a cold
body maintained at constant

low
temperature Tak . It also has
infinite thermal

capacity .

Ciii)
Insulating stand in It is a
perfectly non -

conducting pad .
Civ) It
cylinder : has
perfectly conducting is non
- -

but bottom
wall is
perfectly conducting It .

and
fitted with
perfectly non
conducting frictionless
-

piston over which some

weights are
placed One .

mole ideal enclosed in the

of an
gas
is
cylinder .

This ideal
gas
acts as the
working substance .

The
working subjected to the following
substance is

four successive
reversible
operations so to as

complete a reversible cycle This cycle is called .

Carnot's
cycle .

volume
let the
pressure ,
and
temperature be P. ,

v, and T,
respectively .

The state of the working

substance is
represented by the
point A in the
P V
diagram
-

ACP .
. VD T, ( Rih)
^
F
"

T
:
""÷!,↳
d
,
b C
. "

v -
 Operation ( Isothermal Expansion)
1 : -

The
cylinder containing the working substance is
placed in contact with the heat source So that .
,

the
gas acquires
the constant
temperature T of ,

the source Now the is allowed to expand

gas ,
.

draws heat
slowly .

Therefore ,
it
from the source

and
through its conducting base the
piston slowly
out Piston slowly
mores
of the cylinder mores
.

to maintain
temperature at T Thus gas
the .

expands isothermally from the initial state A

( kik)
(
final along8
P ,v , )
,
to the state B the

isothermal AB at
temperature T .

If ,
be

amount
gas from
heat absorbed
the
of by the

the and be the work done

source W,
by it
.

Then ,

I, =
W,
=PdV= Rtl ne
Vj = area Abba A -
( t)
 ( Adiabatic Expansion ) :
Operation 11 .

removed
The cylinder is now
from the source and

is
placed in
insulating stand
contact with the .

The
gas
is
completely thermally isolated from
the
surroundingsto The gas expands adiabatically
.

from volume Va ↳ till its temperature falls

to Tak The .

pressure fall from Pato B This .

expansion is represented by the curve Bc in

the
given fig .

The work done by the is

gas
wa - Pdu
¥2 ( T Te
) Area BC Cb B
=
,
K) -
- - -

Operation ( Isothermal Compression)t

-

111

Now , the cylinder is placed the sink and the on

gas compressed isothermally until the pressure

and volume becomes Py and Vy respectively as

shown in the PV
diagram by the isothermal
curve CD .
The heat da developed in compression
absorbed by the work
is the sink .

Y Ws be
done the then
gas
on

Ccd DC (3)
÷
da -

Ws =
Rtl nee = Asea -

Operation Iv
compression) :
( Adiabatic .

Now , the cylinder is placed the

is
insulating on

stand and the

gas compressed adiabatically
till it attains Pi volume V, and
pressure ,

This
temperature T,
again
.

compression is
represented
Work done the
by the curve DA . on
gas
.

WE PdV=
¥2 ( T -

I)= Area AD da A -
⑨

Net work done w

by the
working substance

during one
cycle .

w= work done by the work done the

gas on
gas
-

W= Wit wz -

Ws -
We =
Wi -
Wg
=
area ABCD A
 Efficiency of carrots
cycle : .

The
efficiency of Carnot 's heat
engine
is
given by
E
n -
I -

Is ,

from egill 4 ③

E. =¥ ⑤
-

ene (
The B and C lie the adiabatic
points I
on same

Tavi
"
T Vil (6)
-

°
-
,
-

• .

A and D lie the adiabatic

The
points I "
on same

Vil ft)
-

T, Tally
-
-

o o =

CD CH
from egg
t

I
¥ =

Vy

from egg ⑤ of ¥
-
-
 I I
.

if
= -

• .

T,

Therefore ,

i) efficiency is
independent of the nature of the

working substance .

ii ) It depends upon the heat

the
temperatures of
and
source sink
only .

Refrigerators heat
pumps
or : -

A
refrigerator is reverse
of
heat
engine
a .

In
refrigerator working
a substance extracts
da cold
heat
from the reservoir at
temperature
Ta .
Some external work w te done on it

and heat I, is released to the hot reservoir

at
temperature T, .
A heat
pump is the same

as a
refrigerator .

As heat is to be removed
from the sink at lower

temperature , an amount of work

equal to 0 -02
,
is
performed by the
compressor of the
refrigerator
to and then to
remove heat
from sink
reject
the total heat d. = ( dat O ,
-
da) to the source

through the radiator

fixed at its back .

Heat 0, t a Cold
← ←
Reservoir Reservoir
T,
T2

coefficient of Performance : -

It is
defined as the ratio
of the
quantity
demoted cycle contents
of heat
per
to
from the

done
of the
refrigerator the work by the

external to remove it It the denoted

agency
.

by
Pgjws B
OWI 0¥02
-
=

P =
1-
O,
-

I
q
 For Carnot's
a
cycle ,

F. # :P
÷
-
= .
-

I
Tz
-

p =
Tse
T, -

T2

coefficient of Performance cannot be

infinite ,

Reversible Process : -

It is that which be retraced in

process can

direction that the and

the
opposite so
system
the
surroundings pass through exactly the same

direct
state at each
stage as in the
process .

Eg If
: -

some work is done

by the
system
in the

amount done
direct
process ,
the same
of work is
the in the
system
on reverse
process .

In order that be reversible , it

a
process may
should
satisfy the
following conditions : .

4) The process should

proceed at an
extremely
slow that
rate so the
following requirements
are met .

(a) The should remain in mechanical

system
equilibrium ,

(b) The should

system remain in chemical
equilibrium
d) The should in thermal
system remain
equilibrium
(a) No dissipative forces should be
present .

Irreversible Process : -

It is the which is reversed,

process
not
exactly
i -

e .
the
system
does not
pass through the same

intermediate state in the direct

as
process .

is
Every process in nature an irreversible
process
def "AU chemical reactions are irreversible
flow
E) of current
through a conductor is an

irreversible
process .
Second law of Thermodynamics : -

47 Kelvin -
Plank Statement : -

It is to construct
impossible an
engine operating
,

in a cycle ,
which will
produce no effect other

than
extracting heat
from a reservoir and
performing an
equivalent amount
of work .

② Clausius Statement : -

It is impossible to heat
flow from make a

body at lower
temperature to a body at a
a

higher temperature without doing external work

substance
on the
working .

These two statements are

equivalent The . second

to
law of thermodynamics
is
applicable only a

cyclic which the returns to

system
in
process
its
original state
after a
complete cycle of
changes
second
.

that
The law
implies no heat
engine can
hare to 1
efficiency n equal or no
refrigerator
can have
coefficient of performance
a
equal
to
infinity .

Carnot 's Theorem : -

heat
No
engine working
btw
given temperatures
hate than that of
efficiency greater b/w
can a

reversible
engine working the same
temperatures .

HEAT TRANSFER
There are three modes
of Heat Transfer : -

4) CONDUCTION : -

Heat
energy
is
transferredthe ( usually through
solids ) to
from one
part of material medium
other without
transferring the material

particles .

(2) CONVECTION 8-

Heat
energy
is
transferred ( usually through
)
gases by
and movement the
liquids bulk of
particles from one
point to another ( Due . to

gravity and buoyant force) .

§) RADIATION : -

Heat
energy
is
transferred by electromagnetic
wares even in absence
of medium .

Thermal Conduction : -
Consider a slab
of
with
uniform cross -
section A
of length x,

lateral
surface
insulated .

let
face of
one the
slab be maintained at
temperature Oz and
the other at 02 .

O, 02
Heat
?
flow →

I
In
steady state if , do amount of heat
time It,
crosses
through any cross -
section in

then
DO d
I

AA and
at ×
 KACQ
AS
or =

thermal
Where k is the co
efficient of conductivity
-

material slab
of
the
of the .

For a small thickness DX

along the direction
is do
of
heat
flow whose
temperature difference .

DI =
-
KA da
dt DX

Quantity dad is called the

temperature gradient
and minus
sign indicates that
dad is
negative along
direction heat
the of flow .

from law
Ohm's
if current

y
,
→

I
flows through a conductor
II.
at
potential difference #
Cv ,
-

VD ,
then

Vi -

Va =
IR
 viz date =Cy
or or
I =

FE
where , R -

resistance of conductor ,
r -

conductivity
of the material ,
X -

length of conductor
A- area
of cross -
conductor
section
of the ,

so -

quantity of charge flowing through any

cross - section in time At .

thermal
Rewriting the
egg for conduction ,
Rth NK A
COI
-

date - . .

IF Heat
dd¥
→

transfer rate

The called thermal resistance Rth

quantity ¥ is .

Accretion
of Ice
: -

consider a
layer of ice
of thickness X . The air

and
temperature is -
Oc water
temperature
below the ice is 0°C .
 Oc
Temperature of
n
air
-

Tex
-

water
Temperature of

unit sectional
if
ice
considering Crais area
of
-

dx
layer thickness dt
a of grows
in time ,

The heat layer

given by
this
=
mass x latent heat = I -

dx.pt
where p =
density of ice ,

latent
L heat
of fusion of ice
=
.

If
this
quantity of heat is conducted
upwards
through the ice
layer in time dt .

;÷xdxz÷xD
i. dx e. L
.
-
K dt time tame t
,

Cxi
RADIATION
-

: -

coefficient of Absorption Reflection and Transmission : ,

.

The coefficient of absorption or absorptive power

 a' of body is the ratio of the
quantity of
'
a

absorbed Oa to the
heat radiation by the
'
body
quantity of radiation
body
'
heat O incident on the

in the same time .

a= De

The coefficient of reflection or

reflective power
'

body is
defined ratio
the
'
r
of a as the
of
heat radiation the
quantity of ' '
reflected by
heat radiation
quantity of
'

body the
'
Or to y
the
body
incident the time
r=¥
on in same

The coefficient of transmission

of body heat is
' '
t a

defined
transmitted
as the
the
ratio
of
'
the
'
quantity of
to
by body At the
quantity of
heat radiation of incident on the
body in the
same time .

1- = At
0

By Principle of conservation
of Energy
D= @ at Ort Ot
 both
Dividing sides
by 9
I = at rtt

Emissive E :
power
-

The emissive denotes the radiated

power energy
unit time the
per per
unit area
of surface .

Emissivity e : -

is
Emissivity of
a
surface
the ratio
of
the
to the emissive
emissive
power of
the
surface
power of black
body at the same
temperature .

Emissivity feminine power of the

surface)
E = ÷

( Emissive
power of black body at the same
temperature)
Black
Body : -

A black is which absorbs

perfectly body
one

radiation
completely all the ,
of
whatever ware -

length ,

incident on it .
 Kirchoff 's law : -

that the
It States ratio of the emissive
power
to
the
absorption power for radiation
of a
given
waielength is
for the same all bodies at the same

temperature and is equal to the emirs in power

,

of
a
perfectly black body at that temperature
¥ Ea Konstanty =

Provost
theory of Exchange :-

Every body is
continuously emitting radiant
energy
in all directions at a rate
depending only on the
nature
of its
surface
and its
temperature ,
and
also
absorbing
it is
energy from
radiant all

surrounding bodies at a rate depending its on

and the
surface temperature of the surrounding
bodies Thus there is continuous
exchange of This
heat
.

energy b/w a
body and its
surrounding .
is
also known as Provost
theory of exchanges .
Stefan's law
of Radiation :
-

The total radiant

energy emitted E per unit time
by a black
body of surface area A is proportional
to the
fourth power
"
of its absolute
temperature .

EAT
't
E TAT constant
Stefan
or e
r -

's

foe a
body '
which is not a black
body
E = er AT e -

emissivity of the
body
Using knockoff 's law
E'
etoody =
black
a
body
body
or EoATI =
a
TAT Y

Oes E =
a

have the
Emissivity and
absorption power same value

Net loss of thermal E-

energy
If a
body of surface
area A te
kept at absolute

temperature T in a
surrounding of temperature Totino
Then emitted unit time
the
energy Y by the
body per
E =
E TAT

And absorbed time

by
energy "
per
unit the
body
to = ETA To

Net, loss thermal unit time

i .

of energy per
DE = E- Eo = ETA (T
'
-

To 4)

Newton 's laws

of cooling : -

for small
a
temperature difference btw body and a

its
surrounding the rate of cooling of the body is
,

directly proportional to the temperature difference .

If a
body of surface area A te kept at absolute
temperature T in a
surrounding of temperature To Host
Then net thermal unit
loss
of energy per
time

daff = Er A (T '
-
To 4)
the small
If the
temperature difference
{ Tot DT) 4- To }
{ (ftp.I/- }
" '
i. F- To t DT = ERA = ERA To To
 = Er ATM
{ It
47¥ t higher powers af q÷ -

gig
( DTKCS To )
'
=
4erATo DT -
t )
rate loss heat at
Now , af of temperature T

DI
daff me Ca)
-

= -

dt

ooo MC
dat =
-
4 Et ATP (T -

)
To

date -4emAc ddtI (T )

To KCF To)
-
= - =

k=4eoATo3mc
where

data ( T Tol ;
-

ftp.I.gs-4eomf-TP-ojdt
Spectral Distribution of Energy in Black
body
Radiation : -

The distribution of energy among

the various ware -

lengths in black
body radiation was studied
by
Lumina and
things heim using electrically
,
heated
chamber with a small
aperture , acting as the
obtained
black
body The
information is as such
.

"

Am, dmz Am , A

4) At a constant
temperature T, when ware
length t
increased the emitted Ex
is ,
energy first increases ,
reaches a maximum and then decreases i.e .
at a

spectral radiancy Eats

particular temperature ,
the

maximum at a
particular wavelength dm ( )
say
a

⑥ As the temperature increases ,

the maximum

radiancy of energy occurs at shorter

wavelength i. e .

dm T .
-

b
,
where b is a constant .
This is called
 law
Wein 's displacement
b-- 0.293 cm -

Kelvin

③ As the enclosed
temperature rises ,
the area by the

increasing
curve
goes on .

Simple Radiation correction : -

In
experiments on
calorimetry and a solid is heated

very high temperatureThe

to a introduced into a

liquid in the calorimeter .

final temperature
of the mixture is noted
after stirring liquid the .

due to
loss
of heat conduction is
minimized by
keeping the calorimeter on
pointed supports and
surrounding it
by non
conducting materials Heat
- .

loss is
calorimeter
by radiation inside the
minimized
However
by the
surface in
spite of
inner .

,
all

heat due to
the loss of radiation can not be
stopped .

correction to observed
Radiation is
applied the

temperature for accurate results .

 Radiation correction by half time method In the .

experiment of finding the specific heat of a solid

by method of mixture the initial temperature 0 of
,

the
liquid is measured The hot solid is dropped in
.

'
and the time t
required by the mixture
'
the mixture

to attain the maximum

temperature Oa is
after
time
( Ha) The radiation correction
is noted .

given by is

final temperature of the

DO = Oa
-

03 .
The corrected
'

mixture is by Oz Oat DO
given
-

Wien's Displacement law : -

It States that the the

product of the
wavelength of
and the
maximum emission
corresponding absolute

temperature of
Am T=b
the block
body is
always constant
.

i. e .

where b is constant and its value is 2.9×153 mok ,

and Imax with

in SI
system
is the
wavelength
radiation
maximum
energy af .
 Solar constant Cbi .

It is the amount of heat

energy
received
per
second
per
unit area
of a
perfectly black
surface
placed at a mean distance
of the Earth the
from
sun , in the absence
of Earth 's
atmosphere ,
the

surface being
held
perpendicular to the direction
of
value
of solar
the sun 's The constant
rays
.

' t
is Wm Zoe 2 cat
-
-

1388 cm min

surface temperature of Sun : -

Energy falling second in one on the unit area

Earths held normal to sums

of surface
the
rays
is called solar constant s .

Experimentally
?
S B

to
found be
equal to 2388 Wm let R be the

radius the sun and be the radius

of r
of
Earth 's orbit around the sun .
Let E be the
emitted sun second unit
energy by the
per per
Then , the total emitted the sun
area .

energy by
second REX E This
falling
in 4 a- is
one
energy
= . on
 to
a
sphere of radius
equal the radius
of the
Earth 's orbit around Sun
the ie . on a
sphere of
tear
surface area .

The unit 4 a- RYE Exit

energy falling per area -
-

4TH
=

constant S
By definition ,
this is solar

TTY
EyR÷
i e-
.
S= But E -
-

to law
According Stefan
's : -

""

otic '=f fgx×J

T T-
S -
-

or or

108M
2
Now ,
-

S = 1388 Wm
, K= 6.96 X ,

8=2.496 X 10
"
m ,
0=5-68 X 10-8 SI units

Thereforethe , on
substituting
these values ,
temperature
sun is
of
F- 5791K