CEE 3205 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

CONTENT
1) Shallow foundation 4 weeks
2) Retaining Walls 3 weeks
3) Deep Foundations 4 weeks

Assignment

Test: At end of Chapter 2 15%

Practical 20%

Continuous Assignments 15%

What is Foundation Engineering?

This is the branch of Civil Engineering that employs scientific method to determine, evaluate and
apply interrelationship between geological environment and engineered works.

So practical contest geotechnical engineering encompasses valuation, design and construction

involving earthwork materials.

Types of Foundations

The foundation can be divided broadly into two categories:

(i) Sallow.
(ii) Deep.

Subdivision in each Category can be made and for the purpose of classification the following
types can be considered.

1. Spread or Pad footing

These are shallow foundations which can support a single column. Generally, they are used
only on relatively steep soils with relatively support rigid structures or these which
tolerate a reasonable amount of differential settlement.
2. Strip footing.

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 These are shallow foundations which support a wall or several columns (the later type is
often termed as combined footing). They are used in soil deposits of low to medium
compressibility to control differential settlement.
3. Mat or Raft Foundation.
These are shallow foundations which cover the entire area beneath the structure and
support all the walls and columns. They are used where continuous or spread footings would
cover 50% or more of the area and thus it becomes more economical to use a continuous mat.
These foundations are relatively rigid and can be used to reduce differential settlement and to
bridge areas of local weakness or high compressibility.
4. Piles.
These are deep foundations of relatively small Cross- sectional area and are often grouped to
support load of a single column or a wall.

5. Piers and caissions.

Pier foundation is a type of deep foundation, which consists of a cylindrical column of
large diameter to support and transfer large superimposed loads to firm strata below.
Caissons are watertight structures made up of wood, steel or reinforced concrete built
above the ground level and then sunken into the ground.

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 Figure Caissons foundation
Piers usually have a solid cross – section. The term caisson refers to a foundation consist
of hollow box or chamber which may be subsequently filled with sand and this type of
foundation used to support a very large loads in soft soils e.g. 500 tonnes or more. They’re
essentially large diameter piles and usually analyzed as although they generally have
much greater lateral capacity than conventional piles.
6. Compensating or floating foundation.
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 This is a shallow to the medium depth foundation in which the weight of the building is
approximately equal to the full weight of the soil removed from the site building. It
usually consists of monolithic box type of structure which will require water proofing if
the water table is near to the surface.
The fundamental concept involve in design of such foundation is need to minimize the
net changes in effective stress that occur in the soil as result of excavation and
construction. A quite steep foundation element generally results and therefore good
control of differential settlements is usually possible. Friction piles may be used in
conjunction with this type of foundation if the floating foundation is not sufficient to
support the load without excessive settlement or differential settlement.

7. Sand piers and stone columns.

These are generally deep foundations formed when sand or gravel is placed (compacted)
into other auger holes to form stiffer piers structures in the hoist soil.

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 They do not only stiffened and strengthened the soil layer but also helps to speed up
consideration in clay soils.

Requirements for Suitability/ satisfactory foundation

1. Foundation including the underlying soils and a rock must be adequately safe against the
failure which could result in sudden collapse of the structure.
2. During the life of the structure the foundation must not suffer undue settlement or
different settlement which could damage the structure or impair its useful function.

The foundation must be feasible both technically and economically and practical to construct

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Responsibility of a Foundation Engineer

In general a foundation engineer is responsible for making recommendation regarding the design and
construction of the foundation. In order to do this, suitable information must be gathered to assist in
design process.

Information is usually gathered in five different categories.

1. Site condition and environment

2. Subsurface soil and local condition and the ground water levels.
3. Structural requirements and the foundation loads
4. Building codes
5. Construction costs and the local foundation practice

The end result of the engineering studies generally includes recommendations for

1. Type of foundation required to support the structure

2. Treatment of the ground floor slab whether it can be a slab on ground (earth support) or
must be a structural slab (framed slab) which transfers floor loads to the footing, piles,
pier or caissons which support the structure
3. Foundation drainage or water proofing.
4. Design criteria to be used for structural design of the foundation elements including
where applicable. Allowable soil pressures, pile loading, foundation depth, lateral earth
pressures etc.
5. Treatment of construction problems related to the soils and foundations including
excavating and filling, slope stability, dewatering, protection of adjacent structures etc.
6. Inspection during construction
The foundation engineer is also responsible for advising his client of the relative costs
and anticipated performance of alternative for foundation systems.

Factors affecting foundation selection

The selection of suitable foundation system often requires an analysis and synthesis of available
data, preparation of preliminary designs and estimates of construction costs and evaluation of
construction problems.

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The factors listed below may affect the selection and are provided as the check lists

1. Structural requirements and the foundation loads

a) Type of structure and its useful life.
b) Magnitude, distribution and type of load
c) Allowable settlement and differential settlement
d) Foundation and the floor elevations.

2. Site conditions and environmental factors

a) Topography

3. Soil and ground water conditions

a) Strength and compressibility of soil and rock layers
b) Swelling soils
c) Existing fill
d) Ground level and effect of changes
e) Corrosion and chemical effects.

1.2 THE ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Consider the simplest case of a shallow foundation subjected to a central vertical load. The footing
is founded at a depth Df below the ground surface [Fig. 1.1(a)]. If the settlement of the footing is
recorded against the applied load, Q , load-settlement curves, similar in shape to a stress-strain
curve, may be obtained as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b).

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Figure 1.1 Typical load-settlement curves

The shape of the curve depends generally on the size and shape of the footing, the
composition of the supporting soil, and the character, rate, and frequency of loading.
Normally a curve will indicate the ultimate load Qu that the foundation can support. If the
foundation soil is a dense sand or a very stiff clay, the curve passes fairly abruptly to a peak value
and then drops down as shown by curve Cl in Fig. 1.1(b). The peak load Qu is quite pronounced in
this case.

On the other hand, if the soil is loose sand or soft clay, the settlement curve continues to descend on
a slope as shown by curve C2 which shows that the compression of soil is continuously
taking place without giving a definite value for Qu . On such a curve, Qu may be taken at a point
beyond which there is a constant rate of penetration.

Bearing capacity of soils

The following terms are used in bearing capacity problems.

Ultimate bearing capacity qu

This is the value of the average contact pressure between the foundation and soils which will
produce shear failure in soil.

Net ultimate bearing capacity qnu

This is the net increase in pressure at the base of the foundation that causes shear failure of the
soil and is equal to the gross pressure-over burden pressure.

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Overburden pressure = Dfɤs ɤs= unit weight of soil

Df= Depth of soil A= area of foundation

𝑄
Gross pressure =𝐴

qnu = gross pressure - ɤs Df

𝑄
= 𝐴 - Dfɤs

Net safe bearing capacity qns

This is the net soil pressure that can be safely applied to the soil considering only shear failure. It
is obtained by dividing net ultimate capacity by suitable factor of safety this:

q nu
qns =
F

Where:

F= factor of safety against bearing capacity which is usually taken as 3.

Gross/allowable safe bearing capacity qs

This is the mass gross pressure which the soil can carry safely without shear failure.

qs = Net safe bearing capacity + origin overburden pressure

qs = qns + ɤs Df

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 qnu
qs = + Dfɤs
F

Net safe settlement pressure qnp

This is the net pressure which the soil can carry without exceeding allowable settlement. The
maximum settlement pressure varies from 25mm to 40mm for individual bearing pressure.

Net allowable bearing pressure qna (same as Net safe bearing capacity)

This is the net bearing pressure which can be used for design of foundations. As requirement of
the design of the foundations that there should be no shear failure and more over settlement
should be within the limits.

qna = qns , if qnp > qns

then qna = qnp, if qns> qnp

gross and net footing pressure

The gross and net footing pressure at the base of footing can be found at the following:

a) Foundation back filled

Q +Wf
Gross pressure =
A

The figure above shows the footing subjected to superimposed load Q, if the weight of the
footing and soil above is is Wf , the gross footing pressure is given by
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 Q +Wf
Gross pressure = = qg--------------------------------------------(i)
A

Where A = Area of base of footing

Equation (i) can be written as

Weight of concrete foundation = ɤcDcA

weight of soil = ɤs(Df – Dc) A

𝑄+ ɤcDcA + ɤs(Df – Dc) A

gross pressure qg = 𝐴

where:

ɤc = unit weight of concrete

Dc = thickness of foundation

Df = depth of foundation

ɤs = unit weight of the soil

Net footing pressure qn = gross footing pressure – overburden pressure

Over burden pressure = ɤsDf

qn = qg – ɤsDf

Q
= + ɤsDc + ɤcDc + ɤs(Df – Dc) - ɤsDf
A

Q
qn = + ɤcDc - ɤsDc
A

Q
= + Dc(ɤc - ɤs)
A

If the difference between the unit weight of soil and unit weight of concrete is negligible.

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 Q
qn = ≤ qna ɤc = 24KN/m3
A

ɤs = 22KN/m3

b) Foundation not back filled

The footing beneath the basements are not backfilled, for such footings the gross pressure is
given by

Q
qg = + Dc ɤc+ tfɤc
A

tf = thickness of the ground slab

The net footing pressure becomes

qn = qg - Df ɤs

Q
= + Dc ɤc+ tfɤc - Df ɤs
A

And the thickness Dc and tf are small in comparison with depth in the third term and can be
ignored and the equation becomes

Q
qn = - Df ɤs
A

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for safe design

Net footing pressure = or < Net allowable pressure i.e

qn ≤ qna

Q
- Df ɤs ≤ qna
A

Q
≤ qna + Df ɤs
A

Types of Failure in Soil

Experimental investigations have indicated that foundations on dense sand with relative
density greater than 70 percent fail suddenly with pronounced peak resistance when the
settlement reaches about 7 percent of the foundation width. The failure is accompanied by
the appearance of failure surfaces and by considerable bulging of a sheared mass of sand as
shown in Fig. 1.2(a). This type of failure is designated as general shear failure by Terzaghi
(1943).

Foundations on sand of relative density lying between 35 and 70 percent do not show a sudden
failure. As the settlement exceeds about 8 percent of the foundation width, bulging of sand starts
at the surface. At settlements of about 15 percent of foundation width, a visible boundary of
sheared zones at the surface appears. However, the peak of base resistance may never be
reached. This type of failure is termed local shear failure, Fig. 1.2. (b), by Terzaghi (1943).

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Figure 1.2 Modes of bearing capacity failure (Vesic, 1963)

Foundations on relatively loose sand with relative density less than 35 percent penetrate into
the soil without any bulging of the sand surface. The base resistance gradually increases
as settlement progresses. The rate of settlement, however, increases and reaches a
maximum at a settlement of about 15 to 20 percent of the foundation width. Sudden jerks
or shears can be observed as soon as the settlement reaches about 6 to 8 percent of the
foundation width. The failure surface, which is vertical or slightly inclined and follows the
perimeter of the base, never reaches the sand surface. This type of failure is designated as
punching shear failure by Vesic (1963) as shown in Fig. 1.2(c).

1.3 TERZAGHIS BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

He gave general theory for the bearing capacity of the soil under strip footing making the
following assumptions:

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 1) The base of footing is rough
2) The footing is laid at shallow depth ie Df ≤ B
3) Shear strength of the soil above the base of the footing is neglected. The soil above the
base is replaced by uniform surcharge ɤs Df.
4) The load on the footing is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
5) The footing is long ie. The ratio of length to the width is infinity

𝐿
=∞
𝐵

6) The shear strength of the soil is governed by Mohr- coulomb equation.

Ԏ = c + 𝛿tan Ø

Figure 1.3 General shear failure surface as assumed by Terzaghi for a strip footing

At the base of the footing is rough, the soil in the wedge ABC immediately beneath the footing is
prevented from undergoing any lateral yield.

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The soil in this wedge (zone 1) remains in the state of elastic equilibrium. It behaves as if it were
a part of footing itself.

It is assumed that the angles CAB and ABC are equal to the angle of shear resistance Ø of the
soil.

The sloping edges AC and BC of the soil wedge CBA bear against radial shear zone CBD and
CAF (zone II).

The curves CD and CF are arcs of logarithmic spiral.

The two triangle zones BDE and AFG are the Rankine passive zone.

The failure zones will not extend above the horizontal planes passing through the base AB of the
footing.

In other wards the shear resistance of the soil located above the base of the soil located above the
base of the footing is neglected and the effect of the soil is taken as equivalent to the surcharge of

q= ɤs Df .

because of this assumption, Terzaghis theorem is only valid for shallow foundations (Df ≤ B) in
which the term ɤs Df is relatively small.

The loading conditions are similar to that of the retaining walls under pressure test.

The failure occurs when the down ward pressure exerted by the loads in the soil adjoining the
soil wedge = the approved pressure.

Down ward forces

Down ward forces = B x qu (load from column)

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 𝐵
H = tan Ø
2

1
Area of a triangle = 2 bh ie. From triangle ABC

1 𝐵
A= Bx x tan2 Ø
2 2

B2
= tan Ø
4

Weight of soil in wedge = A. ɤs

B2
= tan Ø . ɤs
4

The total of downward forces are due to load from the column and weight of the wedge

B2
= Bqu + tan Ø . ɤs
4

The upward forces

The upward forces are the vertical component of the resultant passive pressure pp and cohesion c|
acting along the inclined places BC and AC.

Resultant force = pp (same direction)

Resultant passive pressure is inclined at < Ø | to the surface of the wedge is vertical.

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Cohesion

C| -KN/m2

Cohesion = C1L

Resultant of cohesion= 2 C1Lsin Ø

𝐵
Substituting for L =
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø

𝐵
Resultant = 2c12 cos ∅1. sin Ø

= c1Btan Ø 1

The total upward force = 2(pp) + c1 Btan Ø 1

For stability total down ward force = Total upward force

ɤs
Bqu + B2 4 tan Ø = 2(pp) + c1 tan Ø 1

ɤs
qu x B = 2(pp) + c1 tan Ø 1 - B2 4 tan Ø

The resultant passive pressure Pp on the surface CB and CA constitutes the following three
components.

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 1) The component (PP) ɤ which is produced by the weight of the shear zone BCDE.
2) Assuming the soil has cohesion less (c| =0) and neglecting the surcharge q component
(pp) which is produced by component c| of the soil assume the soil is weightless ɤ = 0 and
neglecting the surcharge q.
3) The component (PP)q which is produced by surcharge q assuming the soil is cohesion less
and weightless.
The three components (PP) ɤ, (PP) c and (PP)q are obtained by assuming different surfaces
of failures although their respective failure surfaces are different from the actual failure
surfaces develops for footing on the soil processing weight and cohesion and also having
surcharge.
The results can be superimposed without introducing much error thus resultant passive
pressure pp is taken equal to the sum of 3 components.

2(pp) = 2[(PP) ɤ + (PP) c + (PP)q ]

ɤs
qn x B = 2[(PP) ɤ + (PP) c + (PP)q ] + c1B tan Ø 1 - B2 4 tan Ø 1

2[(PP) c + c1B tan Ø 1] = c1 x Bx Nc

Where Nc = Bearing capacity factors

ɤs 1
2(PP) ɤ - B2 4 tan Ø 1 = B2 2 ɤN ɤ

2(PP)q = Df ɤBNq

1
qu x B = C1B Nc + Df ɤBNq + 2B2 ɤN ɤ

1
qu = C1Nc + Df ɤNq + 2B ɤN ɤ

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where Qult = ultimate load per unit length of footing, c = unit cohesion, /the effective unit weight
of soil, B = width of footing, D,= depth of foundation, Nc , Nq and N𝛾 are the bearing capacity
factors. They are functions of the angle of friction, ∅.

Table 1.1 gives the values of Nc, Nq and N𝛾 for various values of ∅ and Fig. 1.4 gives the same
in Graphical Form

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Table 1.1 Bearing capacity factors of Terzaghi

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Figure 1.4 Terzaghi's bearing capacity factors for general shear failure

Equations for Square, Circular, and Rectangular Foundations

Terzaghi's bearing capacity for strip foundation has been modified for other types of
foundations by introducing the shape factors. The equations are:

Ultimate Bearing Capacity for Local Shear Failure

The reasons as to why a soil fails under local shear have been explained earlier. When a soil fails
by local shear, the actual shear parameters c and ∅ are to be reduced as per Terzaghi (1943).
The lower limiting values of c and ∅ are:

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The equations for the lower bound values for the various types of footings are as given below.

where 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 and 𝑁𝛾 are the reduced bearing capacity factors for local shear failure. These
factors may be obtained either from Table 1.1 or Fig. 1.4 by making use of the friction angle ∅

Ultimate Bearing Capacity qu in Purely Cohesionless and Cohesive Soils Under General
Shear Failure.

The above equations can be modified to give equations for cohesionless soil (for C= 0) and cohesive
soils (for ∅= 0) as follows.

It may be noted here that for C = 0, the value of Nc = 0, and for ∅=0, the value of NC = 5.7 for a strip
footing and Nq = 1.

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Similar types of equations as presented for general shear failure can be developed for local shear
failure also.

Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity and Safety Factor

The net ultimate bearing capacity qnu is defined as the pressure at the base level of the foundation in
excess of the effective overburden pressure. The net qnu for a strip footing is

Similar expressions can be written for square, circular, and rectangular foundations and also for local
shear failure conditions.

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SKEMPTON’S BEARING CAPACITY FACTOR NC

For saturated clay soils, Skempton (1951) proposed the following equation for a strip foundation.

The Nc values for strip and square (or circular) foundations as a function of the Df/B ratio are given
in Fig. 1.5. The equation for rectangular foundation may be written as follows

Figure 1.5 Skempton's bearing capacity factor NC for clay soils

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Effect of water on bearing capacity

The theoretical equations developed for computing the ultimate bearing capacity qu of soil are
based on the assumption that the water table lies at a depth below the base of the foundation
equal to or greater than the width B of the foundation or otherwise the depth of the water
table from ground surface is equal to or greater than (Df+ B). In case the water table lies at any
intermediate depth less than the depth (Df+ B), the bearing capacity equations are affected due to
the presence of the water table. Equation needs modifications.

Two cases may be considered here.

Case 1. When the water table lies above the base of the foundation

Case 2. When the water table lies within depth B below the base of the foundation

Water table located above the base of the footing

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The bearing capacity factors NC, Nq and Nɤ are the same as that of the strip footing

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Table, the values of NC, Nq and N𝛾 and Meyerhof (M), Hansen (H) and Vesic (V) Factors

Examples 1

Example 1.2

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If the soil in example above fails by local shear failure, determine the net safe bearing pressure. All
the other data given in the above example remains the same.

Example 1.2

If the water table in above example rises to the ground level, determine the net safe bearing
pressure of the footing. All the other data remain the same. Assume the saturated unit weight of the
soil 𝛾sat = 18.5 kN/m3.

Example 1.3

If the water table in above occupies any of the positions (a) 1.25 m below ground level or
(b) 1.25 m below the base level of the foundation, what will be the net safe bearing pressure?

Example 2.1

A rectangular footing of size 3 x 6 m is founded at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface in a

homogeneous cohesionless soil having an angle of shearing resistance ∅= 35°. The water table is at
a great depth. The unit weight of soil 𝛾= 17kN/m3. Determine: (1) the net ultimate bearing capacity,
(2) the net allowable bearing pressure for Fs = 3, and (3) the allowable load Qa the footing can
carry. Use Terzaghi's theory.

Example 2.1

If the soil in example 2.1 is cohesionless (c = 0), and fails in local shear, determine (i) the
ultimate bearing capacity, (ii) the net bearing capacity, and (iii) the net allowable bearing pressure.
All the other data remain the same.

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Meyerholf bearing capacity theory

He gave general theory of bearing capacity for strip footing of any depth. He considered the
failure mechanism similar to that assumed by Terzaghism model but extended the failure
surfaces above foundation level. He made improvement on the general formular for the ultimate
bearing capacity of the strip foundation to cater the effect of foundation Shape and inclination
of the load on its bearing capacity. i.e

∅
Where 𝑵∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 ( + 𝟒𝟓)
𝟐

Shape factor (Hansen’s)

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Depth factor

Inclination factor

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)

Determination ᾳ

𝐻 𝐻
tan ᾳ = 𝑉 ᾳ=tan-| 𝑉

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

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Foundation ENG. UCU, NOTES compiled by Mr. Zzigwa Marvin Tel: 0775984782/ 0706318760
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Example 1

Strip footing of width 3.0m is founded at the depth of 2m below the ground surface in a (c-
d) soil having c=30kpa, ɸ=36° and saturated unit weight of 18KN/m3. The soil below the
base is submersed determine the ultimate capacity of the soil.

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Given

ɤsat = 18KN/m3

c=3.0kpa

ɸ= 36°

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

Step 1

Bearing capacity factors

Ø
Nq = tan2(45 + | 2 )eπtanɸ

36
= tan2(45 + )eπtan36
2

=37.71

Nc = (Nq – 1)cot Ø |

= (37.71 – 1)cot36

=50.53

Nɤ = (Nq – 1)tan1.4ɸ

= (37.71 – 1)tan(1.4x36)

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= 44.37

Step 2

Shape factors

𝐵 Nq
Sc = 1 + 𝐿 x
Nc

=1

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

=1

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

=1

Step 3

Depth factors

Z 2
= = 0.67 <1
B 3

Z Z
Dc = 1 + 0.4 tan-| < 1.0
B B

=1 + 0.4 x 0.67

= 1.268

Z
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2
B

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= 1 + 2tan36(1-sin36)2 x 0.67

Dq = 1.165

Dɤ = 1.0

Step 4

Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

H=0

V=0

Ic = Iq = 1

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

Iɤ = 1

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

qu = (30x50.53x1x1x1.268) + (2x18x37.71x1x1x1.165) + 0.5(18-9.81)x3x44.37x1x1x1

qu = 4081.8KN/m2

𝑞𝑢 − 𝐷𝑓ɤ
qnu = 𝐹

= 4081.8-2x18

= 4045.8 KN/m2

q nu 4081.8−36
qns = = = 1348.6 KN/m2
F 3

qs = qns + Dfɤ

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NB

Safe bearing capacity qs is the one used in geotechnical engineer and structures for design.

Ie.

qu − Dfɤ
qs = + Dfɤ
𝐹

Example 2

Determine the ultimate capacity of strip foundation 1.2m wide having depth of foundation 1.0m
take ɸ at 35°, ɤ = 18KN/m3, C| = 15KN/m2.

Solution

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

step 1

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Bearing capacity factors

Ø
Nq = tan2(45 + | 2 )eπtanɸ

35
= tan2(45 + )eπtan35
2

=33.294

Nc = (Nq – 1)cot Ø |

= (33.294 – 1)cot35

=46.1

Nɤ = (Nq – 1)tan1.4ɸ

= (33.294 – 1)tan(1.4x35)

= 37.15

Step 2

Shape factors

𝐵 Nq
Sc = 1 + 𝐿 x
Nc

=1

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

=1

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

=1

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Step 3

Depth factors

Z 1
= = 0.833 < 1
B 1 .2

Z Z
Dc = 1 + 0.4 tan-| < 1.0
B B

=1 + 0.4 x 0.833

= 1.33

Z
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2
B

= 1 + 2tan35(1-sin35)2 x 0.833

Dq = 1.212

Dɤ = 1.0

Step 4

Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

H = 105KN

V = 330KN

Ic = Iq = 1

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

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 105
tanᾳ = 330

105
ᾳ = tan-|[330] = 17.65°

17.65 2
Ic = Iq = (1 - ) =0.646
90

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

17.65 2
= (1 - ) = 0.246
35

Since there is no water, there’s no need to modify the equation. Water  5m, modification
is done when the water is near foundation.

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

qu = (15 x 46.121x1x0.646 x1.33) + (1x18 x33.26 x1x0.646 x1) + (0.5 x1.2 x18 x37.5 x1x0.246 x1)

qu = 1161.83KN/m2

Example 3

The footing 2.5m2 carries pressure of 400KN/m2 at the depth of 1.0m on the sand. The saturated
unit weight of the sand is 200KN/m3 and unit weight above the water is 17KN/m3. The shear
strength parameters are c=0 and ɸ=40°.

Determine the factor of safety with respect to shear failure for the following cases:

a) Water table is 5m below the ground level

b) The water table is 1.0m below the ground level

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Solution

a) For ɸ=40°, assume general shear failure

From table 18.3, the values of Nc, Nq Meyerhof (u), Hassen (H)
Nc= 75.25, Nq= 64.1 and Nɤ =79.4

Since the water table is well below the base of the footing then there will be no effect of the
water table.

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

for the strip footing, the square footing becomes

qu = C| (1.2NC)ScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ (0.8Nɤ)IɤSɤDɤ

qu = 1.2C| NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.4ɤBNɤIɤSɤDɤ

shape factors

𝐵 Nq
Sc = 1 + 𝐿 x
Nc

1 64.1
= 1 + 1x
75.25

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= 1.85

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

1
= 1 + 1 tan40

= 1.84

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

1
= 1 – 0.4x1

=0.6

Depth factors

Z 2 .5
= =1  1
B 2 .5

Z Z
Dc = 1 + 0.4 tan-|  1.0
B B

=1 + 0.4 x 1

= 1.4

Z
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2
B

= 1 + 2tan35(1-sin40)2 x 1

Dq = 1.214

Dɤ = 1.0

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Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

40
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

= 0.31

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

ɸ=40, C=0

qu = 1.2C| NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.4ɤBNɤIɤSɤDɤ

qu = Df ɤ|Nq + 0.4ɤBɤ

qu = (17 x1x1x64.1) + (0.4 x17 x 2.5 x79.4)

qu = 2439.5KN/m2

Actual footing load qa=400KN/m2

qu 2439.5
Fs = = = 6.1
q a 400

b) Water table 1.0m below the ground

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qu = 1.2C| NC + Df ɤNq + 0.4ɤBNɤ

C=0

qu = 17x1x64.1 + 0.4(20-9.8)x2.5x79.4

= 1898.786KN/m2

qu 1898.786
Fs= =
qa 400

=4.75

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Example 4

In an insitu penetration test at 3.0m depth in granular soil save an average of NSPT= 15 (saturated
penetration test) elapse/ 30cm. the ground water at the depth 1.5m below the surface of the soil
which has ɤsat of 19.3KN/m3. Determine the correct value of N|

q= (Df -a) ɤ| + a ɤ

= 1.5(19.3-10) + 1.5 x 19.3

=43

Using cart or fig 8.13

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N’/N = 2.03

N’ =2.03 x 15 = 30.45.

N. B Standard penetration Test (SPT).

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Foundation ENG. UCU, NOTES compiled by Mr. Zzigwa Marvin Tel: 0775984782/ 0706318760
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Foundation ENG. UCU, NOTES compiled by Mr. Zzigwa Marvin Tel: 0775984782/ 0706318760
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Example 5

A strip footing of 3m wide is to be funded at a depth of 3m. Assuming that the characteristic
strength of soil is 19.3 kN/m3. Determine the settlement pressure qnp using safety factor F=2.5

Solution

N= 15

ɤ = 19.3KN/m3

q= Df ɤ

= 19.3 x 0.3 =57.9KN/m3

N’/N = ?

N = 15

From the chart 8.13

N’/N = 1.8 x 15 = 27

From chart 8.14

Settlement pressure (qnp) = 270.1

270.1
Safe settlement pressure = = = 108.04
2.5
n

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c) What will be the total weight which the footing can carry in case of a square footing of 3m x
3m.

𝑄
qact = 𝐴 ≤ qsnq

𝑄
= 3𝑥3 = 108.4

Q= 108.04 x 9 = 972.36KN

d) What will happen with the safe settlement pressure if the ground water table goes up
1.5m below surface?

qu= (Df -a) ɤ| + a ɤ

ɤ| = ɤsat - ɤw

= 19.3 – 9.81 = 9.49

qu = (Df -a) ɤ| + a ɤ

= (3.0-1.5)9.49 + 1.5 x 19.3

= 43.185KN/m2

From table 8.13

N’/N = 2.05

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N’ = 2.05 x 15 = 31

Also from table 8.14

Settlement pressure qnp = 33.3

33.3
Safe settlement pressure = = 13.32
2.5

The settlement pressure reduces as the water table goes below the surfaces by 0.5Df ie

108.04 >>>13.32.

Example 6

A strip foundation of 2m wide is founded at a depth of 4m below the ground surface. Determine
the safe bearing capacity of soil given that the soil is clay C’=10KN/m3, the unit weight of the
soil is 20KN/m3.

Solution

C’=10KN/m2 , ɤ = 2010KN/m3 , F= 3.

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

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from table 18.3, the values of NC, Nq and Meyerhof (M), Hansen (H) and Vesic (V) factors.

ɸ= 0, Nc = 5.14, Nq = 1.0, Nɤ = 0

Shape factors

𝐵 Nq
Sc = 1 + 𝐿 x , L=∞
Nc

=1

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

=1

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

=1

Depth factors

Z 4
= = 2 >1
B 2

Z Z
Dc = 1 + 0.4 tan-| < 1.0
B B

4
=1 + 0.4 x tan-|
2

= 1.443

Z
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2
B

4
= 1 + 2tan36(1-sin0)2 x tan-|
2

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Dq = 1

Dɤ = 1.0

Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

H=0

V=0

Ic = Iq = 1

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

Iɤ = 1

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

qu = (10x5.14x1x1x1.443) + (20x4x1x1x1x1)

qu = 154.1702KN/m2

𝑞𝑢 − 𝐷𝑓ɤ
qnu = 𝐹

qnu = 154.1702-20x4

= 74.1702 KN/m2

Safe bearing capacity (qs)

q nu 74.1702
q(s) = + 𝐷𝑓ɤ = + 20x4
F 3

= 104.7234 KN/m2

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ECCENTRICALLY LOADED FOUNDATIONS

Foundations are sometimes subjected to moments in addition to the loads. The distribution of the
footing pressure is not limited in this case.

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Equation may also be used for one way eccentricity by putting either ex = 0, or ey = 0.

𝑃 𝑀
Where: qmax = 𝐴 + 𝑍

𝑃 𝑀
qmin = 𝐴 − 𝑍

𝑃 6𝑒
(1 − ) = 0
𝑏𝑙 𝑙

M = Pe

BL2
Z=
6

A =BL

𝑃 6
− 𝑃𝑒. 2 = 0
𝑏𝑙 𝑏𝑙

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𝑃 6𝑒
(1 − ) = 0
𝑏𝑙 𝑙

𝑃
≠0
𝑏𝑙

6𝑒
1− =0
𝐿

𝐿
emin ≤ 6

The factor of safety for eccentrically loaded foundations against the bearing capacity failure can
be determined by using the method given by Meyerholf as below.

Step 1

Determine the eccentricity along the width

𝑚
eb ≤ 𝑝

Step 2

Determine the effective width of the footing

B| = B – 2eb

Step 3

Determine effective size of the footing as Lx B|

In the above case the eccentricity has been assumed only along the width however, if the
eccentricity is also in a longitudinal direction along the length. The eccentricity along the length
𝑚
is given by eL = 𝑝

Step 4

The effective length of the footing L| = L-2eL

and the effective size of the footing is given by L| X B|

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step 5

The ultimate bearing capacity may be obtained by using

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

The total ultimate load is computed as

Qu = qu(B|L|)

Step 6

Factor of safety is given by ultimate load divide by applied load

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Fs = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Non Homogenous soils beneath the foundation.

H 11 + H 2 2 + H 33
 av =
H1 + H 2 + H 3

ɤ1𝐻1 + ɤ2𝐻2 + ɤ3𝐻3

ɤ𝑎𝑣 =
H1 + H 2 + H 3

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 H 1C1 + H 2 C 2 + H 3C3
C av =
H1 + H 2 + H 3

FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT AND SOIL COMPRESSION

The civil Engineer has to solve the problem.

1) To accurately project of the total settlement.

2) To accurately project the rate at which the value of the total settlement will be acting.
When the soil is subject to an increase in compressive stress due to a foundation load, the
resulting compression consists of elastic primary and secondary compression. (Course
work: With worked Examples, do a write up on how to determine the rate of
consolidation. Handle in in groups of four with individual contribution clearly stated,
two weeks from today. (10 marks)

Elastic compression

This is usually taken as occurring immediately after application of the foundation load. Its
vertical component causes vertical movement of the foundation (immediate settlement) that in
case of partially saturated soils. It is mainly due to expansion of gases and elastic bending and
orientation of the soil particles.

Primary compression

Sudden application of foundation load, besides causing elastic compression, creates a state of
excess hydrostatic pressure in saturated soils. This excess pore pressure values can only be
classified by the gradual expansion of water through the voids of the soil which results into the
volume change that is time dependent.

The soil experiencing such volumetric change is said to be consolidating and the vertical
component of the change is called consolidation.

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Secondary compression

The volume changes that are more or less time dependent of excess secondary compression, the
volume changes apparently due to a form of elastic flow resulting into displacement of the soil
particle.

Settlement under load

Foundation settlement under load can be classified into types.

1) Immediate (elastic settlement) ∆Hi

it takes place during or after the construction of structure. It is due to distortions with
in the foundation soils.

2) Consolidation settlement ∆Hc

This component of settlement occurs due to gradual expansion of water from the
voids of the soil.

3) Secondary consolidation settlement ∆Hs

This component of settlement is due to secondary settlement. It occurs after the
completion of primary consolidation. It can be determined.
Total settlement ∆H = ∆Hi + ∆Hc + ∆Hs

Immediate settlement

It occurs in both cohesive and cohesion less soils.

In cohesive soils
The immediate settlement of flexible foundation is given by

(1 −  2 ) I f
∆Hi= qB
E
Developed from the elastic increase where :
q = uniform contact pressure

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 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
q= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

B= width of the footing

E= modulus of elasticity of the soil
 = Poisson’s ratio
If = Influence factor depending upon the dimensions of foundation.

For saturated clays, 𝜇=0.5, and E is to be obtained under undrained conditions as discussed earlier.
For soils other than clays, the value of ^ has to be chosen suitably and the corresponding value of E
has to be determined. Table below gives typical values for 𝜇 as suggested by Bowles (1996).

Table : Typical range of values for Poisson's ratio (Bowles, 1996)

The values of F1 and F2 are given in Fig. 3.1a. The elastic settlement at any point N

(Fig. 3.1b) is given by

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Figure 3.1 Settlement due to load on surface of elastic layer (a) F1 and F2 versus H/B (b)
Method of estimating settlement (After Steinbrenner, 1934)

To obtain the settlement at the center of the loaded area, the principle of superposition is
followed. In such a case N in Fig. 3.1b will be at the center of the area when B1 = B4 = L2 = B3 and B2
= L1. Then the settlement at the center is equal to four times the settlement at any one corner. The
curves in Fig 3.1a are based on the assumption that the modulus of deformation is constant with
depth.

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Skempton (1951) suggests the values of Ip or If in table 3.2

Example 1
Reinforced concrete foundation of dimensions 20mx40m exerts uniform pressure of
200KN/m2 on the same infinite soil layer.
(E= 50KN/m2,  = 0.5)
Determine the value of immediate settlement under foundation

Solution
(1 −  2 ) I
∆Hi= qB
E
q= 200 KN/m2
B= 20m (LxB) = 40x20m

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  = 0.5
E= 50KN/m2
𝐿 40
= 20 = 2.0
𝐵

I = 1 (from table 3.2)

(1 − 0.5 2 ) x1
∆Hi= 200 x1000 x 20
50 x10 6
= 0.06m
=60mm

In cohesion less soils

The immediate settlement is computed using the same empirical approach proposed by
Schmerffman and Hartman 1978

𝑧=𝐵 𝐼𝑧
∆Hi = C1C2[𝑞– q] ∑𝑧=0 ∆𝑍
𝐸𝑠
Where C1 = collection factor for depth of foundation embedment

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 𝑞
C1 = 1 - 0.5
𝑞– q

C2 = collection factor for creep in the soils.

C2= 1 + 0.2log10 (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠/0.1)
𝑞 = pressure at the level of foundation (𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡 )

q= surcharge = ɤDf
Es = modulus of elasticity of the soil
Iz= strain influence factor
The value of Iz at the depth z=0, 0.5B and 2B are 0.1, 0.5 and 0.0 respectively.

For rectangular foundation with L/B ratio ≥ 10. The values at the depth z=0; B and 4B are
respectivity equal to 0.35, 0.5 and 0.0.

For the intermediate values of L/B ratio between 1.0 ;and 10 linear interpolation can be made.

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 Es can be determined from the standard penetration number schmertmann 1970.

Example

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Procedure for computation of immediate settlement

-Divide soil layers in to several layers of thickness ∆𝑧 upto the depth z=2B (for square footing),
and z= 4B (for rectangular footing). Compute the immediate settlement using

𝑧=𝐵 𝐼
∆Hi = C1C2[q| – q] ∑𝑧=0 ∆𝑍
𝐸𝑆

and considering the corresponding values of Es and Iz. The required immediate settlement is
equal to the sum of settlement of all individual small layers.

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Consolidation settlement ∆Hc

Consolidation settlement occurs in saturated clay soils when they are subjected to increased
loads caused by foundation pressure.

Behavior of saturated soils under pressure

When the pressure  1 is applied to the saturated soil sample of a unit cross section area. The
pressure is shared by solid particles and water as

− −
 1 =   +

Where
−

 = effective stress
−

 = pore water pressure

Initially after the application of pressure, the entire load is taken by water. The
pressure developed in water called the excess hydrostatic pressure = applied pressure.
−
The pressure taken by the solid particles (effective stress)  =0
−
Thus 0 + = 

The excess hydrostatic pressure developed after application of the load sets up
hydraulic gradient and the water starts escaping from the void.
The whole pressure is eventually transferred to the solids of the soil as effective space
−
and excess water pressure becomes 0 ie  1 =  

As the effective stress increases the volume of soil decreases. The decrease in volume
is a change in void ratio. The decrease in void ratio with time as the effective stress
increases can be shown in the curve below

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 Variation of void ratio with time

e0 = initial void ratio

e1 = final void ratio after effective load transfer.
If the applied pressure is increased to  z , it will correspond to the final void ratio ez.
the curve can then be drawn between the final void ratio and corresponding effective
spaces for different load increment

The reduction of volume is due to equilibrium of water from voids under excess
hydrostatic pressure and this is a primary consolidation.

One dimensional consolidation

In many instances, the settlement of the structure is due to presence of one or more
layers of soft clay located between the layers of the sand or stiffer clay the adhesion
between the soft clay and stiffer layers almost completely prevents the lateral
movement of soft layers. The theory developed on the basis of this assumptions
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 theorem. This condition can be simulated in the laboratory by confined compression
test or consolidation test.

Clay layers sandwiched between sand layers if it can be arranged in the laboratory
lateral expansion = lateral compression and that no immediate settlement will be one
dimensional with all the strain occurring in the vertical direction. The consolidation
of clay layers supporting the foundation [where the dimensions are greater than the
layer thickness is essentially one dimensioned.

Consolidation test (Oedometer test)

• The sample 75mmØ and 20mm thick is eucajed in steel cutting ring.
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 • The porous discs circulated with air free- water are placed on the top of and below
the sample which is then inserted in the oedometer.
• The vertical load then applied and the resulting compression measured by means
of dial gauge at intervals of time readings being taken until the sample has
achieved full consolidation (24hrs).
• The further load increments are then applied and the procedure repeated until the
full space range expected in the insitu has been covered by the test.

• The test samples generally flooded with water soon after the application of the first load
increment to prevent pore suction.
• After the sample has consolidated under its final load increment the pressure is reversed
in the stages at 2hr intervals and the sample is allowed to expand.
• After the loading has been completely removed, the final thickness of the sample can be
obtained from which it is possible to calculate the void ratio of the soil for each stage of
consolidation under the load increment.

An e-p curve is drawn

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 If the mass of the soil of volume V1 is compressed to volume V2

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 V1 = 1 + e1
V2 = 1 + e2
Volumetric change
V1 − V2
=
V1

(1 + e1 ) − (1 + e2 )
=
(1 + e1 )

e1 − e2
=
1 + e1
From the slope of e-p curve

e1 − e2
Slope =
p1 − p 2
de
=
dp

The coefficient of volume compressibility

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Mv = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

If h1 = original thickness of sample

h2 = final thickness of sample
Then V1 = AH1
V2 = AH2

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 V1 − V2 AH1 − AH 2
Volumetric change = =
V1 AH1

A( H 1 − H 2 )
=
AH1

H1 − H 2
=
H1
But H1 – H2 = ∆𝐻
H
=
H1

e1 − e2 H
Thus =
1 + e1 H1

e1 − e2
But from Slope (a) =
p1 − p 2

e1 − e2
a=
P
a P = e1 − e2

e1 − e2
volumetric change =
1 + e1
adp
=
1 + e1
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Mv = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

adp 1
= .
1 + e1 dp
a
Mv = m2/MN
1 + e1

Total settlement Sc = Mv. dp H

∆Hc = Mv. dp H

Valuation of consolidation settlement from compression index Cc

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 The virgin consolidation curve from natural process of consolidation of clay.
The virgin curve

From the graph e- logp curve.

e1 − e2
Slope =
log p1 − log p 2
Slope = compression index
e1 − e2
Cc =
log p1 − log p 2
e
=Cc
log p1 − log p 2

p 
e = Cc log  1 
 p2 
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 H e1 − e2
Also from =
H1 H e1
H e
=
H 1 1 + e1

H (1 + e1 )
e =
H1

H (1 + e1 ) p 
= cc log  1 
H1  p2 
  P1  
 c c log   
H =   P2   H
 1+ e 
 
 

Cc p 
= . log  1 .H
1+ e  p2 
E = eo (at beginning of test)

  P1  
 c c log   
H c =   P2   H
 1+ e 
 
 
In terms of stresses

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 e1 − e2
Slope =
log  − log(  +  )
e
a=
− log(  +  ) − log  
e
=
  +  
− log  
  
Cc = a
e
Cc =
  +  
− log  
  
  +  
e = −C c log  
  
H e1 − e2
But =
H1 H e1
e1 – e2 = ∆𝑒

  +  
C c log  
H
=   
H1 1 + e1

H1 = H
e1 = e0

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 H Cc   +  
= log  
H 1 + e0   

From the strength of materials.

∆𝐿
𝜀= 𝐿

∆𝐿 = 𝜀𝐿 𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Cc   +  
H = log  H
1 + e0   
Cc   +  
𝜀= log  
1 + e0   
H = 𝜀𝐻

Also coefficient of volumetric change

 Hc
Mv = but  =
 H
Hc
Mv =
H
Hc = MvH∆𝛿

Compression ratio Cc =
  +  
log  
  
cc
Cc =
1 + e0
Empirical relationship for determination of compression index Cc
Terzaghi and peck 1948
The approximate relationship between liquid limit of normal consolidation clay and its
compression index
Cc = 0.009(WL – 10%)
Where WL = Liquid limit (%)

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 Skempton’s formular 1944
For remoulded clays
Cc = 0.007(WL – 10%)

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Example

A soft normally consolidated clay layer is 15m thick with the natural moisture content of 45%.
The clay has saturated unit of 17.2KN/m3 the specific gravity of 2.6 and the liquid limit of 65%.
The foundation load will subject to the center of the layer to the vertical stress increase of
10KN/m2. Determine an approximate value for settlement of foundation if the ground water level
is at the surface of the clay.

Solution

clay layer ɤsat = 17.2KN/m3

ɤw = 9.81 KN/m3
Effective stress determined from mid layer

Effective stress = (ɤsat - ɤw) 𝐻2

= (17.2-9.81) x 7.5

𝛿 = 55.4 KN/m2

Δ𝛿 = 10KN/m2

Cc   +  
ΔΗ = log  H
1 + e0   
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e0 =WsGs

=0.45 x 2.65

=1.21

Cc= 0.009(WL-10%) using Terzaghi

= 0.009(65-10)

=0.495

=0.5

0.495  55.43 + 10 
ΔΗ = log   x15
1 + 1.21  55.43 

=0.242m

=242mm

Note

The method is best used for rough settlement analysis for small structures. For large structures
and important structures consolidation tests will be carried out.

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∆𝛿 Effective stresses

At Point (0)

∆𝛿 = 0, z=0

At Point (1)

∆𝛿 = 0 + 1(17.2 − 9.81) = 7.39KN/m2

At point (2)

∆𝛿 = 7.39 + 2(17.2 − 9.81) = 14.78KN/m2

At point (3)

∆𝛿 = 14.78 + 1(17.2 – 9.81) = 22.17KN/m2

Point 𝛿𝑉 Z/B I ∆𝛿 = 𝑞𝐼 Hi 𝜀𝑖 ΔΗ=

𝜀𝑖 Hi
0 0 0 1.0 10 0 -
1 7.39 0.5 0.7 7 2 0.072
2 14.78 1.5 0.12 1.2 2 0.0176
3 22.17 2.0 0.1 1 0 0.0056 17.9

Cc   +  
𝜀𝑖 = log  
1 + e0   
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Cc = 0.5, e0 =1.21

0.5 7.39+7
𝜀1= 1+1.21 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 0.072
7.39

0.5  14.78 + 1.2 

𝜀1= log   = 0.0176
1 + 1.21  14.78 

0.5  22.17 + 1.0 

𝜀3= log   = 0.0056
1 + 1.21  22.17 

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Example 2

A square footing of 3x3m is to be founded at the depth of 1m in the soil profile. Determine
settlement of the footing if the bearing capacity is greater than the actual bearing pressure.

S = settlement

Δ𝐻𝑐 = Sactual (qadm) > qactual (allowable) Sallow ≤ 5𝑐𝑚

Increase in vertical stress/ pressure or initial vertical stress.

𝑄 1350
∆𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = 150KN/m2
3𝑥3

Effective overburden pressure

At Point (0)

∆𝛿 = 1.8𝑥16.9 + (20.3 − 9.81) = 40.91KN/m2

At Point (1)

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∆𝛿 = 40.91 + 1(17.9 − 9.81) = 49KN/m2

At point (2)

∆𝛿 = 49 + 2(17.9 − 9.81) = 65.18KN/m2

At point (3)

∆𝛿 = 65.18 + 2(17.9 – 9.81) = 81.36KN/m2

At point (4)

∆𝛿 = 81.36 + 2(17.9 − 9.81) = 97.54KN/m2

At point (5)

∆𝛿 = 97.54 + 1(17.9 – 9.81) = 105.63KN/m2

Point 𝛿𝑉 Z/B I ∆𝛿 = 𝑞𝐼 Hi 𝜀𝑖 ΔΗ=

𝜀𝑖 Hi
0 40.91 0.6 0.628 94.2 - 0.088
1 49 0.93 0.39 58.5 2 0.058 0.116
2 65.18 1.60 0.164 24.6 2 0.024 0.048
3 81.36 2.27 0.084 12.6 2 0.01 0.020
4 97.54 2.93 0.053 17.95 2 0.0058 0.0116
5 105.63 3.27 0.045 6.75 - 0.0045 ΔΗ
= 0.1956

ΔΗ = 19.56cm

Note: I is determined from the graph.

Cc   +  
𝜀𝑖 = log  
1 + e0   
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Cc = 0.36, e0 =1.13

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 0.36  4.91 + 94.2 
𝜀0= log   = 0.088
1 + 1.13  40.91 

0.36  49 + 58.5 
𝜀1= log   = 0.058
1 + 1.13  49 

0.36  65.18 + 24.6 

𝜀2= log   = 0.024
1 + 1.13  65.18 

0.36  81.36 + 12.6 

𝜀3= log   = 0.01
1 + 1.13  81.36 

0.36  97.54 + 7.95 

𝜀4= log   = 0.0058
1 + 1.13  97.54 

0.36  105.63 + 6.75 

𝜀5= log   = 0.0045
1 + 1.13  105.63 

ASSIGNMENT

A square footing of size 2x2m is to be founded at a depth of 1.5m, below with a soil profile
below. Determine the settlement of the square footing if the safe bearing capacity is greater than
the actual bearing pressure. qadm> qactual

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Sallow ≤ 5𝑐𝑚

If the allowable settlement is exceeded, what new design do you propose?

Note subdivide the layer stratum into two layers

SOLUTION

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
q= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

1500
= = 375KN/m2
2𝑥2

Effective overburden pressure at the mid layers

At Point (0)

∆𝛿 = 1.0𝑥16 + (20.1 − 9.81) = 31.435KN/m2

At Point (1)

∆𝛿 = 31.435 + 1(19.5 − 9.81) = 41.125KN/m2

At point (2)

∆𝛿 = 41.125 + 2(19.5 − 9.81) = 60.505KN/m2

At point (3)

∆𝛿 = 60.505 + 2(19.5 – 9.81) = 70.195KN/m2

Point 𝛿𝑉 Z/B I ∆𝛿 = 𝑞𝐼 Hi 𝜀𝑖 ΔΗ=

𝜀𝑖 Hi
0 31.435 0.5 0.70 262.5 0 0.142 0
1 41.125 1.0 0.34 127.5 2 0.09 0.18
2 60.505 2.0 0.10 37.5 2 0.031 0.062
3 70.195 2.5 0.07 26.25 0 0.020 0
ΔΗ=

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 0.242
ΔΗ=24.2𝑚𝑚

Note: I is determined from the graph.

Cc   +  
𝜀𝑖 = log  
1 + e0   
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Cc = 0.36, e0 =1.13

0.31  31.435 + 262.5 

𝜀0= log   = 0.142
1 + 1.12  31.435 

0.31  41.125 + 127.5 

𝜀1= log   = 0.09
1 + 1.12  41.125 

0.31  60.505 + 37.5 

𝜀2= log   = 0.031
1 + 1.12  60.505 

0.31  70.195 + 26.25 

𝜀3= log   = 0.020
1 + 1.12  70.195 

Since qadmin = ΔΗc = 24.2cm >>> qact = 5cm

The proposed design is pile foundation.

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DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Principle design of shallow foundations.

Procedure

Step 1

• Test the soils- determine C, ɸ and ɤ, plasticity, (consolidation compressive index Cc) and
void ratio e0.

Step 2

Use a standard penetration test to determine the bearing capacity of the soil.

For cohesion less soils, find the safe bearing capacity.

• Determine the size of the footing B X L and check qact ≤ qall.

• Check allowable settlement pressure

qnp > qact

also Sallowable > Sact

• Use tables or codes of practice the actual values are compared with allowable values.
• If the values are not within the allowable limits then the safe bearing capacity will be
revised and process repeated.

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Example 1

Design a rectangular shallow footing for the data below explaining all steps of design and choose
sizes. The factor of safety against the bearing capacity is 3.0

Fine sand

Silt ɤ = 18KN/m3

C=0

NSPT =25

G.W.T > 10m

Find actual eccentricity eact

M col + Hh − VE
eact =
V

H= 200KN

h= 0.6m

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Mcol = 240KNm

V=500KN

E=0.4

240+200𝑥0.6−500𝑥0.4
eact = 500

= 0.32

𝐿
eallowable =
6

eact ≤ eallow

𝐿
eact ≤ 6

𝐿
0.32 ≤ 6

L ≥ 0.32𝑋6

= 1.92

Adjusted L=2m

2
eallow = 6

2𝐿
N.B, the width of the footing is B = 3

2𝑋2
B= = 1.33
3

Adjusted B = 1.5

Obtain contact pressure

V 6VeL 6Veb
qact =  
A bl 2 Lb 2

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 V 6VeL 6Veb
=  
A bL2 Lb 2

P M
q= 
A Z

eb= 0 since moment is one

V  6eL 
qact = 1
bL  L 

Contact pressure

500  6 X 0.32 
qact = 1
1.5 X 2  2 

= 166.67(1±0.96)

Qact max= 166.67 x 1.96 =326.67

Qact min = 166.67 x 0.04 = 6.67

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

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q= Zɤ

= 3.5 X 18

=63

From table 8.13

𝑁′
= 1.7
𝑁

N| = 1.7 x 25 =42.5

From the figure 3.34

∅ = 36.4°

Determine the bearing capacity factors

Step 1

Bearing capacity factors

Ø
Nq = tan2(45 + | 2 )eπtanɸ

36.4
= tan2(45 + )eπtan36.4
2

=39.73

Nc = (Nq – 1)cot Ø |

= (39.73 – 1)cot36.4

=47.76

Nɤ = (Nq – 1)tan1.4ɸ

= (39.73 – 1)tan(1.4x36.4)
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= 47.76

Step 2

Shape factors

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

1.5
=1+ tan36.4
2

=1.553

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

1.5
= 1 – 0.4x 2

=0.7

Step 3

Depth factors

Z 2
= = 1.33>1
B 1 .5

Z 
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2 tan-1 x
B 180

2 
= 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sin36.4)2 tan-1 x
1.5 180

Dq = 1.23

Dɤ = 1.0

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Step 4

Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

H = 200

V = 500

21.8 2
Ic = Iq = (1 - ) = 0.57
90

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

21.8
Iɤ = (1 - 36.4)2

Iɤ = 0.16

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

qu = 0 + (2x18x39.73x1.55x0.57x1.233) + 0.5x1.5x18x47.76x0.7x0.16x1

qu = 1630.3KN/m2

𝑞𝑢 − 𝐷𝑓ɤ
qnu = 𝐹

= 1630.3-2x18

= 1594.3 KN/m2

q nu 1594.3
qns = = = 531.43 KN/m2
F 3

qs = 𝑞𝑢 + 𝐷𝑓ɤ

=531.43+2x18

qs =567.43 KN/m2 > qact= 326.67KN/m2 okay

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obtain safe settlement pressure

N= 43, B=1.5m

From fig 8.14

qs =567.43 KN/m2 > qact= 326.67KN/m2 okay

qnp =530 KN/m2 > qact= 326.67KN/m2 okay

B XL =1.5x2x2m deep

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Example 2

Design a rectangular shallow footing for the data shown in the figure below and the factor of
safety =3.0

Sand gravel silt

N’SPT = 19 (1-6m)

C=0

ɤ = 18.5KN/m3

GWL > 6m

Find the actual eccentricity eact

M col + Hh − VE
eact =
V

H= 200KN

h= 0.6m

Mcol = 240KNm

V=500KN

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E=0.4

195+105𝑥0.5−330𝑥0.5
eact = 330

= 0.25

𝐿
eallowable = 6

eact ≤ eallow

𝐿
eact ≤ 6

𝐿
0.25 ≤ 6

L ≥ 0.25𝑋6

= 1.5

Adjusted L=1.8m

2
Eallow = 6

eadm ≤ eact

2𝐿
B= 3

2𝑋1.8
B= = 1.0
3

Adjusted B = 1.2m

Size of footing = 1.8m x 1.2m

Obtain contact pressure

𝑉 6𝑉𝑒𝑙 6𝑉𝑒𝑏
qact = 𝐴 ± ±
𝑏𝑙2 𝐿𝑏 2

𝑉 6𝑉𝑒𝑙 6𝑉𝑒𝑏
= ± ±
𝐴 𝑏𝑙2 𝐿𝑏 2

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 P M
q= 
A Z

𝑉 6𝑒𝑙
qact = 𝑏𝑙 [1 ± ]
𝐿

Contact pressure

330  6 X 0.25 
qact = 1
1.2 X 1.8  1.8 

Qact max= 280KN/m2

Qact min = 25.46 KN/m2

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

q= Zɤ

ɸ=?

Z= 1.5+1.2 =2.7, B=1.2

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q=2.7x18.5 = 49.9 KN/m2

= 50 KN/m2

=63

From table 8.13

𝑁′
= 1.9
𝑁

N| = 1.9 x 19 =36.1

From the figure 3.34

∅ = 35°

Determine the bearing capacity factors

Step 1

Bearing capacity factors

Ø
Nq = tan2(45 + | 2 )eπtanɸ

35
= tan2(45 + )eπtan35
2

=33.29

Nɤ = (Nq – 1)tan1.4ɸ

= (33.29 – 1)tan(1.4x35)

= 37.13

Step 2
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Shape factors

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

1.2
= 1 + 1.8 tan35

=1.47

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

1.2
= 1 – 0.4x1.8

=0.73

Step 3

Depth factors

Z 1 .5
= = 1.25>1
B 1 .2

Z 
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2 tan-1 x
B 180

1 .5 
= 1 + 2tan35 (1-sin35)2 tan-1 x
1.2 180

Dq = 1.10

Dɤ = 1.0

Step 4

Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

H = 105

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V = 330

105
tan𝛼 = 330

𝛼 = 17.65°

17.65 2
Ic = Iq = (1 - ) = 0.65
90

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

17.65 2
Iɤ = (1 - )
35

Iɤ = 0.25

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

qu = 0 + (1.5x18.5x33.29x0.65x1.1x1.47) + (0.5x1.2x18.5x37.13x0.73x0.25x1)

qu = 1046.18KN/m2

𝑞𝑢 − 𝐷𝑓ɤ
qnu = 𝐹

= 1046.18-1.5x18

= 1018.43 KN/m2

q nu 1018.43
qns = = = 339.48 KN/m2
F 3

qs = 𝑞𝑢 + 𝐷𝑓ɤ

=339.48+1.5x18.5

qs =367.23 KN/m2 > qact= 280KN/m2 okay

obtain safe settlement pressure

N= 36.1, B=1.2m

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From fig 8.14

qnp =461 KN/m2 > qact= 280KN/m2 okay

Example 3

A column 400 x 400mm carries a dead load of 500KN and imposed 500KN. The moment of
500KNm is applied to the column and the vertical load is acting at a distance 300mm from the
center line of the column. The depth of the base is 700mm and horizontal load of 400KN is
applied at distance 700mm above the level of the base.

Design a rectangular base to support and resist the loads from the column if the settlement is to
be limited to not more than 50mm.

The base is found in a fine deposit of sand at the depth of 1.5m. The saturated unit weight of the
soil is 21 KN/m3 and above the water table, the unit weight is 17 KN/m3.

The water table is 1m below the base of the foundation, a standard penetration test carried out at
the depth of 2.5m, gave an N value of 20 (NSPT = 20). Explain all the steps of design and choose
F=3.

Fine deposit sand

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ɤsat= 21KN/m3

ɤ= 17KN/m3

Sallow ≤ 50mm

Design load= 1.4GK + 1.6QK

=1.4x500 + 1.6x300

=1180KN

Find the actual eccentricity

𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑙+𝐻ℎ−𝑉𝐸
eact= 𝑉

H=400KN

h= 0.7

Mcol = 500KNm

V=1180KN

e=0.3

500+400𝑥0.7−800𝑥0.3
eact= 1180

eact = 0.96

𝐿
eallowable = 6

eact ≤ eallow

𝐿
eact ≤ 6

𝐿
0.96 ≤ 6

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L ≥ 0.96𝑋6

= 5.76

Adjusted L=6.0m

6
eallow = 6 = 1.0

eadm ≤ eact

2𝑋6
B= = 4.0
3

Adjusted B = 4.2m

Size of footing = 4.2m x 6.0m

𝑉 6𝑒𝑙
qact = 𝑏𝑙 [1 ± ]
𝐿

Contact pressure

1180  6 X 0.96 
qact = 1
4.2 X 6  6 

Qact max= 90.75KN/m2

Qact min = 1.87 KN/m2

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qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

q= Zɤ

ɸ=?

Z= 1.5+1.2 =2.7, B=1.2

q=5.7x17 = 96.9KN/m2

= 97 KN/m2

From table 8.13

𝑁′
= 1.3
𝑁

N| = 1.3 x 20 =26

From the figure 3.34

∅ = 35.4°

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Determine the bearing capacity factors

Step 1

Bearing capacity factors

Ø
Nq = tan2(45 + | 2 )eπtanɸ

35.4
= tan2(45 + )eπtan35.4
2

=35

Nɤ = (Nq – 1)tan1.4ɸ

= (35 – 1)tan(1.4x35.4)

= 39.89

Step 2

Shape factors

𝐵
Sq = 1 + 𝐿 tanɸ

4.2
=1+ 6
tan35.4

=1.5

𝐵
Sɤ = 1 – 0.4x 𝐿

4.2
= 1 – 0.4x 6

=0.72

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Step 3

Depth factors

Z 1 .5
= = 0.36<1
B 4 .2

Z 
Dq = 1 + 2tanɸ(1-sinɸ)2 tan-1 x
B 180

1.5 
= 1 + 2tan35.4(1-sin35.4)2 tan-1 x
4.2 180

Dq = 1.1

Dɤ = 1.0

Step 4

Inclination factors

ᾳ
Ic = Iq = (1 - 90)2

H = 400

V = 1180

400
tan𝛼 = 1180

𝛼 = 18.7°

18.7 2
Ic = Iq = (1 - ) = 0.63
90

ᾳ
Iɤ = (1 - ɸ)2

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 18.7
Iɤ = (1 - 35.4)2

Iɤ = 0.22

qu = C|NCScIcDc + Df ɤ|NqSqIqDq + 0.5B ɤ |NɤIɤSɤDɤ

Df ɤ = 𝑏ɤ+(𝐵−𝑏)ɤ′
𝐵

ɤ’ = ɤsat - ɤ0

ɤ0 = ɤwater

ɤ’ = 921-10) = 11KN

Df ɤ = 1𝑥21+(4.2−1)𝑥11
4.2

= 13.38KN/m3

qu =17𝑥1.5𝑥35𝑥1.5𝑥0.63𝑥1.18 + 0.5𝑥13.38𝑥4.2𝑥39.89𝑥0.72𝑥0.22𝑥1

qu = 1350.81KN/m2

𝑞𝑢 − 𝐷𝑓ɤ
qnu = 𝐹

= 1350.81-17x1.5

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= 1325.31 KN/m2

q nu 1325.31
qns = = = 441.77 KN/m2
F 3

qs = 𝑞𝑢 + 𝐷𝑓ɤ

= 441.77+17x1.5

qs =467.27 KN/m2 > qact= 90.75KN/m2 okay

obtain safe settlement pressure

N= 26, B=4.2m

From fig 8.14

qnp =243 KN/m2 > qact= 90.75KN/m2 okay

footing is satisfactorily with respect to net pressure.

ASSIGNMENT

Consider the data given on the footing below is the design reliable in the case that safe bearing
capacity of the soil foundation qadm = 340KN/m2

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Foundation ENG. UCU, NOTES compiled by Mr. Zzigwa Marvin Tel: 0775984782/ 0706318760
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Foundation ENG. UCU, NOTES compiled by Mr. Zzigwa Marvin Tel: 0775984782/ 0706318760
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Foundation ENG. UCU, NOTES compiled by Mr. Zzigwa Marvin Tel: 0775984782/ 0706318760
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