Journal of Applied Biotechnology and Bioengineering

Review Article Open Access

A review on lignin sources and uses

Abstract Volume 7 Issue 3 - 2020
The efficient use of renewable resources has become a driving force for the worldwide
industry aiming to improve the competitiveness. Considering the available natural raw
Rafael Eloy de Souza,1 Fernando José Borges
materials, the lignin present in the lignocellulosic biomass such as trees, is the unique Gomes,1 Edvá Oliveira Brito,1 Roberto
natural polymer that presents aromatic rings in its constitution. In this way, this review Carlos Costa Lelis,1 Larisse Aparecida Ribas
details the structure of native lignin as well as the technical lignin, including information Batalha,1 Fernando Almeida Santos,2 Dalton
on the characteristics that this polymer must have for the most promissory applications as Longue Junior3
feedstock for bioproducts. Approximately 50 million tons of lignin are produced worldwide 1
Forestry Products Department, Federal Rural University of Rio
annually, of which 98% to 99% is incinerated to produce energy and steam in the pulp mills. de Janeiro, Brazil
Only a small fraction of the lignin, derived mainly from the sulfite pulp mill is recovered 2
Biorefinery Studies Center, State University of Rio Grande do
commercially in a biorefinery concept. There are many opportunities for producing high Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
value-added products from technical lignin, mainly considering the pulp mills growing,
3
Forest Engineering Course, State University of Southwest
and environmental restrictions using non-renewable raw materials. The currently trend Bahia, Brazil
have shown that technical lignin sources may also be used as feedstock for phenol derived
Correspondence: Fernando José Borges Gomes, Federal Rural
products, technical carbons, fuels, and adhesives. On the other hand, there are some
University of Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Km 7 Seropédica-Rio de
technological hurdles must be overcome to make these uses feasible.
Janeiro, Brazil, Zipcode 23.897-000, Tel +55 21 26814985,
Email
Keywords: bioproducts, biorefinery, lignocellulosic biomass, technical lignin
Received: April 29, 2020 | Published: May 22, 2020

Introduction syringyl and p-hydroxyphenyl units.4 In all cases of biomass types

these monomers are linked among them without defined repeating
The French chemist Anselme Payen was the first that treated the units. The purpose of this brief review is to summarize the different
wood with nitric acid and sodium hydroxide, in 1838, obtaining two types of technical lignin that are obtained in the market and the main
distinct substances, which one was called cellulose and the second pathways to treat this lignin for further application to get high value-
one, with a high carbon content, where cellulose was soaked, being added products.
called “encrusting material”. This was considered the milestone in
the history of lignin. Later, in 1865, Schulze named this “encrusting
material” of lignin, from the latin Lignum, which means wood. In
1868, E. Erdmann noted that the constituents of lignin were aromatic
compounds.1 Benedikt and Bamberger in 1890 demonstrated that in
this lignified wood material there were also other functional groups
such as methoxyl lignin is found in a large volume in the cell wall
of lignocellulosic materials, such as wood, being a highly branched Figure 1 Monolignol species: (A) p-coumaryl alcohol (H unit), (B) coniferyl
and amorphous biomacromolecule, and its composition can be diverse alcohol (G unit), (C) sinapyl alcohol (S unit).
depending on the vegetal source.2 The lignin chemical structure is
originated from the three hydroxycinnamyl alcohols (monolignols)
called p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol,
which differ only regarding the degree of methoxylation at the C3
and C5 positions of the aromatic ring. The p-hydroxyphenyl (H
unit) do not have any methoxyl group in the carbon C3 and C5 of
the aromatic ringle, guaiacyl (G unit) presents methoxyl group in the
carbon C3, syringyl (S unit) presents methoxyl group at carbon C3
and C5 (Figure 1).3 
During the biological lignification process of plant species, the
phenolic structure formed by the precursor alcohols is linked together,
giving rise to a complex, three-dimensional structure formed by a
wide variety of bonds. The main one is β-O-4 ether bonds (Figure
2). The composition and lignin content may vary from species to
species and may also be influenced by the environment. Hardwood
lignin consists mainly of guaiacyl and syringyl units and low levels
of p-hydroxyphenyl. Conifer lignin has higher levels of guaiacyl Figure 2 Main linkage in a hardwood lignin: β-O-4 ether bonds.
units and low levels of p-hydroxyphenyl. Grasses comprise guaiacyl,

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Industrial sources of the technical lignin acid  hydrolysis  reactions. During the sulfite process, the lignin is
cleaved, forming a sulfonated compound, which have a variety
Technical lignin is originated as a bioproduct from different of functional groups providing unique colloidal properties.6
pretreatments or separation process where lignocellulosic biomasses Lignosulfonates lignin are soluble in water, high molecular weight,
are used as raw material such as for pulp or second-generation ethanol higher ash content than kraft lignin, about 4–8%. It has been used as
production. Depending on the used process for isolating the technical a colloidal suspensions, stabilizers, dispersants, binders, detergents,
lignin its chemical properties such as composition, molecular adhesives and components of feed, surfactants, and additives for
weight, molecular structure may be impaired generating different cements.14 
types of lignin, with different types of applications in biorefinery
platforms. They also differ in physical properties such as solubility, Soda lignin
hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of lignin. Because of these
differences, each technical lignin must be considered individually.5,6 The soda-based processes are an interesting delignification
The pulp mill is the main commercial source of lignin. The pulping process, because they are compatible with the existing kraft pulping
processes are used to individualize the wood fibers in an extraction technology, being based on the same process conditions and principles,
processes that depending on the technology applied, may occur in but they are a sulfur free process. The main chemical applied in the
acid, alkaline media or using organic solvents. In all the processes the soda pulping process is the sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Soda lignin
lignin is progressively broken into low molecular weight fragments.7 is quite different from kraft lignin and lignosulfonates due to sulfur-
The main commercial processes are kraft, sulfite, soda, and organos free. Another different feature is the presence of vinyl ethers.6 Soda
solve (pilot scale). Depending on the used process a significant lignin has been applied for production of phenolic resins, dispersants,
degradation and change the structure of the native lignin may occur, polymers synthesis.14 It also can be applied in area such as animal
with a reduction in the amounts of aliphatic OH groups, β-O-4, and nutrition due to sulfur-free.15 On the other hand, the pulp mills using
β-β bonds. It is also possible to generate degraded products such as soda pulping process are becoming rarity, due to its low pulp yield
phenolic hydroxyl groups, carboxylic acids, and carbonyl groups.8 performance.16
Therefore, the structure of the technical lignin is typically dependent Organosolv lignin
on the extraction method, as well as from the raw material of origin
(softwood, hardwood, or grasses).9 Organosolv delignification process aims to isolate the lignin
from the carbohydrates in the lignocellulosic biomass using organic
Kraft lignin solvents for solubilizing the lignin. It is also interesting for many
Aiming to remove the lignin form the lignocellulosic materials, bioproducts application for being possible a sulfur free processes
the kraft process is based on the use of a mixture of alkaline cooking depending on the used solvents.17 Lignin extracted by organosolv
chemicals, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide (Na2S), process may have high purity, chemical reactivity, sulfur free and
called white liquoras main reagent, at high temperature (140-170°C). no toxicity. It depends on the pretreatment condition, which it is
Following the delignification process, a resultant black liquor obtained. It has a homogeneous structure, almost like native lignin,
containing degraded lignin, oxidized inorganic compounds, and other low molecular weight, and polydispersity.6  Some studies show that
organic materials which coming from the lignocellulosic material increased severity in organosolv processes leads to a reduction in
used as feedstock may is a source of the technical lignin.6 The kraft molar mass of extracted lignin by 36 to 56% compared to untreated
lignin obtained through the kraft pulping process, being isolated from lignin. In addition, reduction of aliphatic hydroxyl group content,
the kraft black liquor by acidification, is highly condensed with strong increase of syringyl phenolic units and condensed phenolic structures
ether bonds and high number of C-C bonds. Due to the chemical can be observed.17 Organossolve lignin has high solubility in organic
reagents used during the kraft pulping process, kraft lignin may have solvents and almost insoluble in water, because they are very
some impurities in its structure, such as sulfur. These impurities hydrophobic. To recover organosolv lignin from the solvent, it must
present in its structure may make its use unfeasible due to the venous be precipitated, which typically involves adjust of concentration, pH
nature of sulfur, or even prevent the action of catalysts.6 Kraft lignin and temperature.18
has a large number of phenolic hydroxyls due to breakage of -aryl Industrial lignin extraction
bonds during cooking. Oxidative conditions during the delignification
process can cause formation of quinone and catechol structure, as Lignin is one of the most abundant renewable carbon resources. It
well as the increase of carboxylic groups.10,11 Kraft lignin has a small is widely available on earth attracts much interest and can be obtained
content of ash and carbohydrate.5 It also has aliphatic thiol groups, at relatively low cost.19 Lignin is the only renewable natural aromatic
low molecular weight and high polydispersity.12 Facing the reality of biopolymer that can be a candidate to replace phenol, an aromatic
the industries report that, with the growing production of cellulose polymer which is from petroleum, a non-renewable resource. It is
pulp, a larger amount of lignin kraft has been generated and the fact a promissory compound for being an eco-friendly substitute for
that the industries cannot consume all the produced black liquor, aromatic chemical from petroleum.20 Native lignin has been studied for
many studies about they are being made for conversion into high decades and the challenger around the isolation process still unclear.
value-added products.13 Isolation and purification methods may cause structural modification
in different levels, depending on the process used to it. In paper and
Lignosulfonate lignin pulping process, many impurities are present in technical lignin
It is the lignin obtained from the sulfite pulping process. In and high condensed structures are formed. It can hinder conversion
the pulping process, a mix of alkaline earth metal sulfite performs process later.21
the delignification of wood, reacting with  lignin  to produce  a Lignin extraction process from black liquor is the first step for the
water soluble  sulfonated system, where the lignin is degraded by use of lignin, as it aims to recover valuable organic materials from the

Citation: Souza RE, Gomes FJB, Brito EO, et al. A review on lignin sources and uses. J Appl Biotechnol Bioeng. 2020;7(3):100‒105.
DOI: 10.15406/jabb.2020.07.00222
 Copyright:
A review on lignin sources and uses ©2020 Souza et al. 102

waste. The acidification process has been considered as an efficient sulfomethylation, hydroalkylation, amination, and nitration can be
and economical process for the isolation of lignin from black liquor.13 an option to change chemical reactivity of lignin. Understanding
Among the processes of black liquor acidification for lignin extraction lignin behavior under different chemical treatments will help to
is the LignoBoost process. In this process, lignin is precipitated by obtain a lignin with desirable properties for specific applications as
lowering the pH to about 9 to 10.5 by CO2 injection. Then, the lignin demonstrated by Ganewatta (Figure 3). This has been a huge challenge
precipitated is filtered. The reduction of pH of black liquor can result for the researchers.28
in a H2S in the process. The precipitated lignin (slurry) is redispersed
in a tank with acid filtrate which is generated at a subsequent stage of
filtration. At this stage, the pH and temperature of the precipitation
and mixing tanks are the same, but the acid concentration gradients
in the wash (second filtration) stage are low. After the second stage
of filtration, the precipitated lignin is crushed and dried to form
lignin powder. In the LignoBoost process, the change in lignin pH,
ionic strength and solubility will occur in the slurry and not in the
precipitates, which helps the properties of the precipitated lignin.22
Precipitation yield can be increased with a greater decrease in pH,
but would result in higher CO2 gas consumption, which would
increase the operational cost.23 Problems related with conversion of
lignin must be surmounted to achieve desirable products, including
characterization of lignin and its derivatives, lignin depolymerization
and product upgrading. What affect structure of lignin are biomass
sources, fractionation methods and fractionation severity.24  Figure 3 Different pathway for chemical treatment on lignin described by
Ganewatta et al.27
Depolymerization condition of lignin is high reactive and it
leads to an uncontrollable side reaction, including repolymerization High value-added product from lignin
or condensation to form new structure.21 Technical lignin obtained
Most of lignin produced in pulp industries as byproduct is burned
by soda, sulfite or kraft pulping process are usually less reactive
for energy power. Although energy power is necessary for industry,
than native lignin, because the reactive β-O-4 ether linkage were
burning lignin in order to produce heat, it is not only harmful to the
replaced by recalcitrant C-C bonds due the acid or alkali treatment.25
environment, but also a waste of resource.29,30 Opportunities for lignin
Complementing this information, analysis that seeks to describe and
use for different purposes exist, but there are many challenges. The
characterize this lignin are extremely significant aiming at possible
main valuable products potentially obtained from lignin are polymers,
applications for this material and its polymerization properties. In
mixed phenols, mixed aromatic alcohols, mixed organic acids, mixed
this review, a hardwood kraft lignin is described in Table 1, where
hydrocarbons, mixed quinones, mixed benzylic aldehydes, aromatics
the results came from the research projects developed by the research
pyrolysis oil, alkyl benzenes, carbon fibers and activated carbon.21
group using a kraft lignin extracted from an industrial black liquor.
In order to get high added-value applications for materials, lignin
Table 1 Characterization of an industrial eucalypt Kraft lignin (KL) has been mixed with different types of polymers. However, its high
complexity structure and reactivity make it difficult. Monitoring
 
Total Carbohydrates Ash
Polydispersity its behavior and its miscibility with other polymers is crucial to
Lignin (%) (%) (%) figure out its compatibility and understand the structure property
Eucalypt relationship.31 Chemical modification of lignin is required to achieve
94 3.4 2.6 3.1
kraft lignin better properties in lignin-polymer blend, such as: resins, polymers,
surfactants, adsorbing agent, nucleating agent, thermal stabilizer, UV
Lignin activation blocker, carbon fibers, super capacitor for energy storage, biomedical
Although lignin has a variety of functional groups (hydroxyl, and pharmaceutical applications, flame retardant and biocide.32
methoxyl, carbonyl and carboxyl groups), its use is limited due to
Resins
the presence of one or even two methoxyl groups in its structure,
which makes it difficult to use in some products due to its low Among most resin used in wood adhesive industry, phenol-
reactivity. To circumvent this limitation, several studies have been formaldehyde is commonly used due to its good performance in water
done to increase lignin’s chemical reactivity by modifying its and weather resisting, and high mechanical strength. Phenol and
structure. These modifications consist of increasing the reactivity formaldehyde are both from petrol, so their prices vary with oil price.
of hydroxyl groups or changing the nature of chemical active sites. Moreover, phenol and formaldehyde are toxic and carcinogenic.33 As
For this, different pathways of chemical modification have been alternative, lignin-phenol-formaldehyde adhesives may be
investigated to improve lignin reactive.26 For the chemical reaction synthesized, since the lignin presents phenol groups in its structure. In
of esterification, alkylation or etherification, hydroxypropylation with this case, lignin is partially or completely used as substitute to phenol
epoxides, urethanization via isocyanate or non-isocyanate routes, the in the resin formulation.34 To make lignin appropriate to be used
presence of aliphatic hydroxyl groups and aromatic units facilitates as adhesives for wood panels, several properties of lignin must be
the reaction.27 Phenolation is considerate one of the most promising considerate, being its chemical heterogeneity is a limiting factor.35 In
modification methods to improve the reactivity of lignin increasing general, the lignin is isolated from the lignocellulosic biomass using
the phenolic hydroxyl group, to increase reactive sites for aromatic different chemical processes, aiming to solubilize and precipitate this
substitution reactions.28 In the aromatic units, chemical reaction as polymer, but during these processes the lignin structure is strongly

Citation: Souza RE, Gomes FJB, Brito EO, et al. A review on lignin sources and uses. J Appl Biotechnol Bioeng. 2020;7(3):100‒105.
DOI: 10.15406/jabb.2020.07.00222
 Copyright:
A review on lignin sources and uses ©2020 Souza et al. 103

affected, e.g., reducing its molecular weight and functional groups, environment-friendly and potential economic than from guaiacol. For
such as phenol content.6,35 Many studies have been done to improve the this, the main challenge is to purify the kraft lignin for using in vanillin
synthesis lignin-phenol-formaldehyde and its applicability. Preparing products, since the vanillin can be sold as natural aroma just if the
lignin-phenol-formaldehyde resins substituting 40 wt% of phenol by base material and the process are natural. Hence, numerous strategies
pine kraft lignin, found good results in plywood improving the water are being developed to use biotechnology to produce vanillin using
absorption, thickness swelling and mechanical properties like flexural kraft lignin.50
strength, elastic modulus and relative impact energy.36
Lignosulfonates
Technical carbon
Kraft lignin is also being tested as coagulant and dispersants.
Due to lignin has high carbon content and aromaticity, it has been Due to low solubility at neutral pH and limited charge density, kraft
studied as precursor for production of functional materials such as lignin has received chemical treatment to improve it.51 Sulfonation
activated carbon, activated carbon fiber, carbon catalyst, electrodes for process has been applied to lignin so it can be used as coagulant or
electrochemical applications. It can also be used to produce a range of dispersant. Treat kraft lignin by phenolation followed sulfonation of
structural carbon materials such as carbon fibers and carbon black.37 sodium sulfite and sulfuric acid. In their experiment lignin presented
Among all these applications, carbon fiber and activated carbon are good performance as coagulant for dye removal from their simulated
the most valuable product for technical lignin. The study for this solution. However, sodium sulfite lignin required higher dosage,
application has been growing rapidly.38 According to Grand View because it has lower charge density than sulfuric acid lignin.52 In a
Research Inc. (2019) the USA market are expecting a boost of the study treating lignin chemically with sulfuric acid and sodium sulfite,
demand for lightweight material, such as carbon fiber.39 Carbon fiber it improved the solubility across the range of pH when compared with
presents excellent mechanical properties, low weight, high thermal, non-treat lignin. According to its results, the authors found favorable
able to conduct heat and electricity and shows chemical stability in the results to use modified lignin as dispersant.53
absence of oxidizing agents making this material very attractive for
transportation industry, sporting goods, and large structures as turbine Conclusion
blades.40,41 The use of carbon fiber in aircraft allow the manufacture There are many opportunities for producing high value-added
of a lighter aircraft and high strength as well as it can be used to products from technical lignin, mainly considering the pulp mills
produce multifunctional structural parts capable of de-icing or protect growing, and environmental restrictions using non-renewable raw
aircraft wings from thunder due to its property of good electrical materials. On the other hand, there are still many challenges to be
conductivity.42 Currently, about 90% of commercial carbon fiber overcome in order to make lignin an industrially applicable feedstock.
production, polyacrylonitrile is used as precursor. Polyacrylonitrile
is a synthetic polymer derived from petroleum that represents half Acknowledgments
the cost of producing carbon fiber, making this a cost-limitation for
carbon fiber applications.43,44 Financial support provided by the Brazilian Agencies CAPES,
CNPq and FAPERJ are gratefully acknowledged.
Lignin has an attractive attention to replace polyacrylonitrile in
the carbon fiber manufacturing due to its high carbon content, as well Conflicts of interest
as its bioavailability and low cost. Another advantage is the high
carbon yield during carbonization and the absence of toxic gases There is no conflict of interest in publishing the article.
during the carbonization of polyacrylonitrile.45 The major challenge
for this use is due to the intrinsic heterogeneity characteristic of lignin
Funding
such as different molecular weight, diverse chemical linkages, and None.
many functional groups making the lignin a heterogeneous polymer.
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DOI: 10.15406/jabb.2020.07.00222
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Citation: Souza RE, Gomes FJB, Brito EO, et al. A review on lignin sources and uses. J Appl Biotechnol Bioeng. 2020;7(3):100‒105.
DOI: 10.15406/jabb.2020.07.00222