ME165-3

SOLAR AND WIND UTILIZATION

Instructor:
Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
Week-1 Introduction to Solar Energy
26 NOVEMBER 2020
2020-2021 / 2T
 OBJECTIVES

 Describe the current energy demands and resources.

 Discuss
the discovery of the solar energy in power
generation.
 Discuss
the early applications of solar-mechanical
conversion.
 Discuss the applications of solar energy in the Philippines.
 INTRODUCTION

 Thesun is the only star of our solar system located at its

center. Energy from the sun in the form of solar radiation
supports almost all life on earth via photosynthesis and
drives the earth’s climate and weather.
 SolarEnergy is the energy produced directly by the sun
and collected elsewhere. The sun creates its energy thru
a thermonuclear process that converts about 650,000,000
tons of hydrogen to helium every second, and the process
creates heat and electromagnetic radiation.
 INTRODUCTION

 The heat remains in the sun and is instrumental in

maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The
electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, infra-red
light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams out into space in
all directions.
 INTRODUCTION

 Only a very small fraction of the total radiation produced

reaches the Earth. The radiation that reaches the earth is
the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used
today. The exception are geothermal energy, tidal
energy and nuclear energy. Even fossil fuels owe their
origins to the sun; they were once living plants and animals
whose life was dependent upon the sun.
 INTRODUCTION

 Thesun’s energy has been used by both nature

and humankind throughout time in thousand of
ways, from growing foods to drying clothes; it has
been deliberately harnessed to perform a number
of other jobs.
 Solar
energy is used to heat and cool buildings,
heat water for domestic and industrial uses, heat
swimming pools, power refrigerators, operate
engine and pumps, desalinate water for drinking
purposes, generate electricity, for chemistry
applications, and many more operations.
 BRIEF HISTORY AND OVERVIEW

 Asearly as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes,

reportedly used the reflective properties of bronze
shield to focus sunlight and to set fire to wooden ships
from the Roman Empire which were besieging
Syracuse. Although no proof of such a feat exists, the
Greek navy recreated the experiment in 1973 and
successfully set fire to a wooden boat at a distance of
50 meters.
 BRIEF HISTORY AND OVERVIEW

 Solar
power technology is not a recent advent, it
dates back to the mid 1800s to the industrial revolution
where solar energy plants were developed to heat
water which created steam to drive machinery.
 In
1839 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the
photovoltaic effect which explains how electricity can
be generated from sunlight.
 Heclaimed that "shining light on an electrode
submerged in a conductive solution would create an
electric current."
 BRIEF HISTORY AND OVERVIEW

 After a lot of research and developments after this

discovery, photovoltaic power continued to be very
inefficient.
 Photovoltaic
cells were used mainly for the purposes
of measuring light.
 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY

 Over 100 years later, in 1941, Russell Ohl invented the solar
cell, shortly after the invention of the transistor.
 These days, solar panels are becoming increasingly
efficient due to improvements in design technology.
 Solar
power is a rapidly developing energy source around
the world.
 The
potential for using the sun to directly supply our power
needs is huge, every day on Earth.
 This is due to the development of technology such as the solar panel, which
utilizes the energy channelling capacity of the photovoltaic cell
 SOLAR ENERGY
Philippine Energy Consumption

BILLION KWh 36.85 37.89 37.82 42.04 42.04 46.05 44.48 49.75 47.04 47.04 48.96 54.40 54.40
YEAR 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Source: www.indexmundi.com
SOLAR ENERGY
 SOLAR ENERGY

 Solar
energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been
harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-
evolving technologies.
 Solar
energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for
practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than
geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.
 Solar
energy technologies include solar heating, solar
photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture,
which can make considerable contributions to solving some of
the most urgent problems the world now faces.
 SOLAR ENERGY

 In2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development

of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will
have huge longer-term benefits.
 Itwill increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an
indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource,
enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating
climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise.
 These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the
incentives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared".
 SOLAR ENERGY

 Energy from the Sun - About half the incoming solar

energy reaches the Earth's surface.
 The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar
radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.
 Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the
rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses.
 SOLAR ENERGY

The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the
visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.
 SOLAR ENERGY

 Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb

solar radiation, and this raises their temperature.
 Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans
rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection.
 When the air reaches a high altitude, where the
temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds,
which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water
cycle.
 SOLAR ENERGY

 The latent heat of water condensation amplifies

convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such
as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
 Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps
the surface at an average temperature of 14°C.
 By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into
chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the
biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
 SOLAR ENERGY
 The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere,
oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules
(EJ) per year.
 In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used
in one year.
 Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in
biomass.
Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy
Consumption
Solar 3,850,000 EJ
Wind 2,250 EJ
Biomass 3,000 EJ
Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ
Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ
 SOLAR ENERGY

▪ The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the

planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much
as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-
renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined
uranium combined.
▪ Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around
the world, mostly depending on distance from the
equator.
 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES

Early Application of Solar-Mechanical

Conversion
 EARLY APPLICATION OF SOLAR-
MECHANICAL CONVERSION

The first large solar furnace built in 1774 by the French Chemist L. Lavoisier.
It was used to study the properties of metals by melting them by solar radiation in a very
pure environment. (Trombe 1955)
Source: A Short Historical Review Of Renewable Energy,
E. Delyannis1 and A. El-Nashar2
 EARLY APPLICATION OF SOLAR-
MECHANICAL CONVERSION

The Mouchot's solar power engine, as it was presented, in the 1778 Paris exhibition. The
collected solar energy, in the solar concentrator drives a steam engine to operate a
press. The press was used to print during the exhibition the "Sunshine Journal“ (Teller
1979).
Source: A Short Historical Review Of Renewable Energy,
E. Delyannis1 and A. El-Nashar2
 EARLY APPLICATION OF SOLAR-
MECHANICAL CONVERSION

Source: A Short Historical

Review Of
Renewable Energy,
E. Delyannis1 and A.
El-Nashar2

The concentrator used by Ericson, in 1883, to collect solar radiation for a

mechanical power system (Jordan 1955).
 EARLY APPLICATION OF SOLAR-
MECHANICAL CONVERSION

Solar Desalination
Solar distillation has been in practice for a long time.
The earliest documented work is that of an Arab
alchemist in the 15th century, reported by Mouchot in
1869. Mauchot has reported that the Arab alchemist
had used polished Damascus mirrors for solar distillation.
 EARLY APPLICATION OF SOLAR-
MECHANICAL CONVERSION

Types of Solar Energy

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either active
solar or passive solar depending on the way they capture,
convert and distribute solar energy.
 Activesolar technologies include the use of photovoltaic
panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy.
 Use pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful
outputs.
 Increase the supply of energy and are considered
supply side technologies
 EARLY APPLICATION OF SOLAR-
MECHANICAL CONVERSION
 Types of Solar Energy
 Passivesolar technologies include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing
properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
 Include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties,
designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing
the position of a building to the Sun.
 Passive solar relies on the inherent thermo-dynamic properties
of the system or materials to operate.
 They do not need external energy sources.
 Reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally
considered demand side technologies.
 SOLAR ENERGY

The Solar Bowl in Auroville,

India, concentrates sunlight Helios UAV in solar powered
flight Daylighting features such as this
on a movable receiver to oculus at the top of the
produce steam for cooking Pantheon, in Rome, Italy have
been in use since antiquity.

Greenhouses like these in the

Westland municipality of the
Netherlands grow vegetables,
fruits and flowers. Solar water heaters facing the
Sun to maximize gain.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

 Architecture and urban planning

 Agriculture and horticulture
 Transport and reconnaissance
 Solar thermal
 Water heating
 Heating, cooling and ventilation
 Water treatment
 Process heat
 Cooking
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

Electricity production
 Concentrated solar power
 Photovoltaics

 Others

Fuel production
 ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning

of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and
urban planning methods were first employed by the
Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward
the south to provide light and warmth.
The common features of passive solar architecture are
orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion,
selective shading and thermal mass. When these features
are tailored to the local climate and environment they can
This passive house designed produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable
specifically for the humid temperature range. The most recent approaches to solar
and hot subtropical climate.
design use computer modeling tying together solar
lighting, heating and ventilation systems in an integrated
solar design package. Active solar equipment such as
pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement
passive design and improve system performance.
 AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE

Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling

year-round production and the growth (in enclosed
environments) of specialty crops and other plants
not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive
greenhouses were first used during Roman times to
produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman
Greenhouses like these in emperor Tiberius.
the Westland, Netherlands
grow vegetables, fruits The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in
and flowers. Agriculture the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought
and horticulture seek to back from explorations abroad. Greenhouses
optimize the capture of remain an important part of horticulture today, and
solar energy in order to
optimize the productivity plastic transparent materials have also been used
of plants. to similar effect in poly tunnels and row covers.
 TRANSPORT AND RECONNAISANCE

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air
conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel
consumption.
Developments turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)
with the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in
the Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled
aircraft at 29,524 meters (96,864 ft) in 2001.
The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of
record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and
month-long flights are envisioned by 2010
 TRANSPORT AND RECONNAISSANCE

The Helios UAV, powered solely by Solar car Nuna3 race through a
photovoltaics, sets the altitude record for a 3,021 km (1,877 mi) course from
non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres Darwin to Adelaide.
(96,864 ft) in 2001.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Solar
thermal energy (STE) is an innovative technology for
harnessing solar energy for thermal energy (heat).
 Solar
thermal technologies can be used for water heating,
space heating, space cooling and process heat generation.
 Classification of solar thermal collectors:
 Low-temperature collectors
 Medium-temperature collectors
 High-temperature collectors
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Low-temperature collectors are generally installed to heat

swimming pools, although they can also be used for space
heating. Collectors can use air or water as the medium to
transfer the heat to their destination.
 Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates
but are used for heating water or air for residential and
commercial use.
 High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using
mirrors or lenses and are generally used for electric power
production.
 SOLAR THERMAL

Solar water heaters facing the

Sun to maximize gain.
 SOLAR THERMAL

▪ Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low

geographical latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to
70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up
to 60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems.
▪ The most common types of solar water heaters are
evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate
collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water;
and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to
heat swimming pools.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING

 Solar Water Heating

 Solarwater heating (SWH) or solar hot water (SHW) systems
comprise several innovations and many mature renewable
energy technologies that have been well established for many
years.
 SWH has been widely used in the United States, Greece,
Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Australia, Japan, Austria and China.
 SWH systems are designed to deliver hot water for most of the
year. However, in winter there sometimes may not be sufficient
solar heat gain to deliver sufficient hot water. In this case a gas
or electric booster is normally used to heat the water.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING

 System design requirements

The type, complexity, and size of a solar water heating system
is mostly determined by:
 The temperature and amount of the water required from the system.
 Changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation between
summer and winter.
 The changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle.
 The possibility of the potable water or collector fluid overheating.
 The possibility of the potable water or collector fluid freezing.
The minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or temperature of hot
water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water temperature are typically at their
lowest. The maximum output of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system
from becoming too hot.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING

4 Types of solar water heating systems

 Active and Passive System
 An active system uses an electric pump to circulate the heat-transfer fluid.
 A passive system has no pump.

Passive Active
 SOLAR WATER HEATING
 Direct and Indirect System
 Direct or open loop systems circulate potable water through the
collectors. They are cheaper than indirect system but can have
drawbacks:
They offer little or no overheat protection unless they have a
heat export pump.
They offer little or no freeze protection, unless the collectors are
freeze-tolerant.
Collectorsaccumulate scale in hard water areas, unless an ion-
exchange softener is used.
 Until the advent of freeze-tolerant solar collectors, they were not considered suitable for cold
climates since, in the event of the collector being damaged by a freeze, pressurized water lines will
force water to gush from the freeze-damaged collector until the problem is noticed and rectified.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING

 Indirector closed loop systems use a heat exchanger that

separates the potable water from the fluid, known as the "heat-
transfer fluid" (HTF), that circulates through the collector.
The two most common HTFs are water and an
antifreeze/water mix that typically uses non-toxic propylene
glycol.
Afterbeing heated in the panels, the HTF travels to the heat
exchanger, where its heat is transferred to the potable water.
Though slightly more expensive, indirect systems offer freeze
protection and typically offer overheat protection as well.
SOLAR WATER HEATING
 SOLAR WATER HEATING

 Passive Direct System

 An integrated collector storage (ICS or
Batch Heater) system uses a tank that
acts as both storage and solar
collector.
Batch heaters are basically thin
rectiliner tanks with a glass side
facing the position of the sun at
noon.

 They are simple and less costly than plate and tube collectors, but they sometimes
require extra bracing if installed on a roof (since they are heavy when filled with
water [400–700 lbs],).
 They suffer from significant heat loss at night since the side facing the sun is largely
un-insulated, and are only suitable in moderate climates.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING

 Passive (Thermosiphon)
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Heating, cooling and ventilation

 Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat
from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass
materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have
been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep
buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and
radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However
they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as
well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several
factors such as climate, day lighting and shading conditions. When
properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures
in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating
and cooling equipment.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Heating, cooling and ventilation

Solar House #1 of
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in the
United States, built in 1939,
used Seasonal thermal
energy storage for year-
round heating.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Solar Water Treatment

• Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves
exposing water-filled plastic polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for
several hours.
• Exposure times vary depending on weather
and climate from a minimum of six hours to
two days during fully overcast conditions.
• It is recommended by the World Health
Organization as a viable method for
household water treatment and safe storage.
• Over two million people in developing
Solar water disinfection countries use this method for their daily
drinking water.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Solar Water Treatment

 Solar
distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water
potable.
 The first recorded instance of this was by 16th century Arab
alchemists. A large-scale solar distillation project was first
constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas.
 The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2, could
produce up to 22,700 L per day and operated for 40 years.
Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or
greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-
wick, and multiple effect.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Solar Water Treatment

Small scale solar powered sewerage treatment plant

 SOLAR THERMAL
 Solar Cooking
 They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel
cookers and reflector cookers.
 The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in
1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a
transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will
typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C.
 Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated
container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector
cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to
focus light on a cooking container.
 These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C and above but require direct
light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.
 SOLAR THERMAL
 Solar Cooking

The Solar Bowl in

Auroville, India,
concentrates sunlight
on a movable receiver
to produce steam for
cooking.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Process Heat
 Solar
process heating systems are designed to provide large
quantities of hot water or space heating for nonresidential buildings.
 Evaporation ponds are shallow ponds that concentrate dissolved
solids through evaporation.
 The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one
of the oldest applications of solar energy.
 Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach
mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams.
 Altogether,
evaporation ponds represent one of the largest
commercial applications of solar energy in use today.
 SOLAR THERMAL
 Solar Salt Evaporation Pond

A salt pan worker in a salt evaporation pond in Tamil Nadu, India

 SOLAR THERMAL
 Process Heat (cont’d.)
 Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing
walls used for preheating ventilation air.
 UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C and
deliver outlet temperatures of 45-60 °C.
 The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years)
make them a more cost-effective alternative to glazed collection
systems.
 As of 2009, over 1500 systems with a combined collector area of
300,000 m² had been installed worldwide. Representatives
include an 860 m² collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee
beans and a 1300 m² collector in Coimbatore, India used for
drying marigolds.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC)

 SOLAR THERMAL

 Solar drying
 Solarthermal energy can be useful for drying wood for
construction and wood fuels such as wood chips for
combustion.
 Solar is also used for food products such as fruits, grains, and
fish.
 Crop drying by solar means is environmentally friendly as
well as cost effective while improving the quality.
 The less money it takes to make a product, the less it can be
sold for, pleasing both the buyers and the sellers.
 SOLAR THERMAL

 Solar drying . . . . . .
 Technologies in solar drying include ultra low cost pumped
transpired plate air collectors based on black fabrics.
 Solarthermal energy is helpful in the process of drying
products such as wood chips and other forms of biomass
by raising the heat while allowing air to pass through and
get rid of the moisture.[
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

 Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into

electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or
indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
 CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking
systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a
small beam.
 PV converts light into electric current using the
photoelectric effect.
CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

View of Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System from Yates Well Road,
San Bernadino County, California.
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

 The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to

efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the
dispatching of electricity over up to a 24 hour period.
 Sincepeak electricity demand typically occurs at
about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours
of thermal storage.
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

 Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the

1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP
installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the
largest solar power plant in the world.
 Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova
Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar
power station, both in Spain.
 The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the
United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park
in India, are the world’s largest photovoltaic plants.
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

 Concentrated Solar Power systems use lenses or mirrors and

tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
beam.
 The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a
conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating
technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic
trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling
dish and the solar power tower.
 Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light.
In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the
concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power
generation or energy storage.
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Concentrated solar power plant using Fresnel solar power plant PE-1 in southern Spain
parabolic trough design
 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Solar Power Tower and A parabolic solar dish concentrating the sun's rays on
Heliostats the heating element of a Stirling engine.
The entire unit acts as a solar tracker
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

 Photovoltaic Cell (PV)

 A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell , is a device that converts light
into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered in 1839, the
photovoltaic effect.
 Photovoltaic cells were used mainly for the purposes of
measuring light.
 The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In
1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo
cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

 Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1%

of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens
and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this
discovery.
 Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers
Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the
silicon solar cell in 1954.
 These early solar cells cost 286 US$/watt and reached
efficiencies of 4.5–6%.
 By 2012 available efficiencies exceed 20% and the maximum
efficiency of research photovoltaics is over 40%.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

19 MW solar park in Germany

 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

 Solarcells produce direct current (DC) power, which

fluctuates with the intensity of the irradiated light.
 This
usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages
or alternating current (AC), which requires the use of
inverters.
 Multiple solar cells are connected inside the modules.
 Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an
inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for
AC, frequency/phase.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Solar Cell
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
 Useful characteristics of solar cells
 Solar cells can generate electricity without any waste or pollution, or
dependence on the Earths natural resources.
 Solar cells have no moving parts so they are very reliable and have a
long life span.
 Solar cells are relatively easy to install and are very low maintenance.
 A useful characteristic of solar photovoltaic power generation is that it
can be installed on any scale as opposed to conventional forms of
power generation which require large scale plant and maintenance.
 Solar cells can be installed to generate power where it is needed which
removes the need to transport and distribute power over long distances
to remote areas.

Source: http://www.energymatters.com.au/renewable-energy/solar-power/solar-panels.php
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

2 Popular Solar Panel Technologies

• Photovoltaic solar panels

• Thin film solar panel

 SOLAR PANELS

 Photovoltaic solar panels

 Themost common types of PV solar panels are made
of crystalline silicon solar cells.
 The
electricity produced runs through an inverter that
converts the current into electricity that can power
anything from a toaster to a TV to an electric car.
 SOLAR PANELS
 Photovoltaic solar panels
 Characteristics
 No moving parts, photovoltaic solar panels offer reliable, long-term
energy production.
 The best residential solar panels offer efficiencies of up to 18% to
19%, producing the most possible electricity per square foot.
 Typically, residential solar panels are roof-mounted, although
ground-mounted PV systems can be installed where more land is
available.
 Photovoltaic solar panels generally require very little maintenance,
and in areas that offer net metering, excess electricity can be sent
to the local grid so that you earn money from your solar investment.
 SOLAR PANELS

 Thin film solar panels

 Thinfilm photovoltaic solar panels convert sunlight to
electricity like conventional PV panels, but they are
typically thinner and more flexible.
 Generally,
the semiconductor layers on thin film solar
panels are only a few millionths of a meter thick,
although the name "thin film" comes from their
production process and not from thickness.
 SOLAR PANELS
 Thin film solar panels
 Characteristics
 Thin film solar technology is, however, less efficient than conventional
solar panels due to how they are created and the elements in use.
 Subsequently, thin film solar panels only reach 6% to 11% efficiency
and will require more roof space to produce the same amount of
electricity as conventional PV solar panels.
 Typically, thin film solar technology's best use is for commercial
buildings with lots of rooftop space.
 Installation time and costs can also be higher with thin film because
more solar panels and mounting materials need to be installed to
meet the same output as conventional crystalline silicon PV solar
panels.
 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES

Solar Energy Applications in the Philippines

 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS IN THE
PHILIPPINES

 Pangan-an Island Solar Electrification Project

 People in Pangan-an Island, Cebu,
Philippines, enjoy 24-hour electricity service
from a centralized solar photovoltaic
(PV)system donated by the Kingdom of
Belgium. This power plant consists of 504 PV
panels, a battery bank with 118 storage
batteries, a charge controller, and 2
inverters made in Germany. The solar power
plant has been operating since December
1998, supplying 230 Volt (V) Alternating
Photovoltaic generators array
Current (AC) electricity to around 200 composed of 504 modules.
households. The Panganan residents use
electricity for lighting, radio and TV sets. The stationary lead
acid battery banks is
composed of 2 -
parallel strings of 59
elements
Source: Dialog Asia, 2/2006
 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS IN THE
PHILIPPINES

 Solar Panels cover up ADB roof

 As one of the country’s prime
advocates of Renewable Energy,
the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
has recently converted its Ortigas
City office’s roof into a powerful
solar battery. Fitting 2,040
photovoltaic solar panels in its
6,640 sq/m roof, the use of these
renewable energy fixtures is a
sustainable channel of power that
Solar Panels on top of ADB building in Ortigas
will help provide electricity in the Avenue, Pasig City
office grounds.

Source: http://www.renewableenergy.ph/
 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS IN THE
PHILIPPINES

 SolarEnergy Project in Subic Bay

Freeport
 A renewable energy project is going to be
developed at the Subic Bay Freeport in
Philippines.
 Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA)
approved a clean energy project worth
$125 million (Peso 5.59 billion).
Solar Panels for Subic Bay Freeport ‘s
 The renewable project will cost $125 million Solar Energy Project
and will be spread over a surface of 300
hectares. The 150 to 200 Megawatts of
power will be generated at land situated
at Subic’s Mount Sta. Rita and Redondo
Peninsula.
Source: Renewable Power News, 9 January 2011
SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS IN THE
PHILIPPINES

Photovoltaic battery charging station in Antique,

Panay Island, Philippines.
 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS IN THE
PHILIPPINES
• Masbate villages get solar energy

A man looks at a solar panel installed by Pamatec in Masbate. The project, completed last
December 2009, provides an electricity rationing system of 200 kilowatt-hours per day for
houses fitted with solar panels. At night, residents get their power supply from batteries, which
can last for three to four years.
 REFERENCES & MATERIAL SOURCES

• Textbook
• Energy Conversion by D. Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith
• Solar Energy Engineering by Kalogirou
• Websites
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power
• http://www.google.com/search?sourceid=navclient&aq=0&oq=image
s+of+solar+panel&ie=UTF
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_hot_water
ME165-3

Solar and Wind Utilization Instructor:

Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
Week-2 Solar Radiation 03 December 2020
2020-2021 / 2T
 Objectives
The Sun
➢ Define extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar radiation.
➢ Define solar constant.
➢ Define the polar and ecliptic axes.
➢ Define the earth-sun angle, declination angle, latitude angle, and hour
angle.
➢ Solve problems using declination, latitude and hour angles.
➢ Define equation of time, mean sun time, daylight saving, apparent solar
and local standard time.
➢ Solve problems involving equation of time, apparent solar time and local
standard time.
The Sun
 The Sun
➢ The sun, our singular source of renewable
energy, sits at the center of the solar system
and emits energy as electromagnetic radiation
at an extremely large and relatively constant
rate, 24 hours per day, 365 days of the year.
➢ The rate at which this energy is emitted is
equivalent to the energy coming from a
furnace at a temperature of about 6,000 oK
(10,340ºF).
➢ If we could harvest the energy coming from
A Photograph of the Sun just 10 hectares (25 acres) of the surface of the
sun, we would have enough to supply the
current energy demand of the world.
 The Sun
The Sun
➢ Three important reasons why we cannot rely on the sun to supply the
current energy demand of the world
1. The earth is displaced from
the sun, and since the sun’s
energy spreads out like light
from a candle, only a small
fraction of the energy leaving
an area of the sun reaches an
equal area on the earth.
2. The earth rotates about its polar axis, so that any collection device
located on the earth’s surface can receive the sun’s radiant energy for
only about one-half of each day.
 The Sun
The Sun
3. The third and least predictable factor is the condition of the thin shell
of atmosphere that surrounds the earth’s surface.
• At best the earth’s atmosphere accounts for another 30 percent
reduction in the sun’s energy.
• As is widely known, however, the weather conditions can stop all
but a minimal amount of solar radiation from reaching the earth’s
surface for many days in a row.
 The Sun
The Sun
➢ Some basic technical facts about the sun
▪ Mean distance from the earth: 149 600 000 km (the astronomic unit)
▪ Diameter: 1 392 000 km (109 × that of the earth)
▪ Volume: 1,300,000 times that of the earth
▪ Mass: 1,993 × 1027 kg (332 000 times that of the earth)
▪ Density (at its center): >100 × 103 kg/m3 (over 100X that of water)
▪ Pressure (at its center): over 1 billion atmospheres
▪ Temperature (at its center): about 15 000 000 degrees Kelvin
▪ Temperature (at the surface): 6 000 degrees Kelvin
▪ Energy radiation: 380 × 1021 kW
▪ The Earth receives: 170 × 1012 kW
Solar Radiation
 Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
➢ Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly
electromagnetic energy.
➢ Radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic waves.
➢ Solar radiation is a term used to describe visible and near-visible
(ultraviolet and near-infrared) radiation emitted from the sun.
 Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
➢ Extraterrestial Solar Radiation
▪ Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called
extraterrestrial radiation. On average the extraterrestrial irradiance is
1367 Watts/meter2 (W/m2).
▪ This value varies by ±3% as
the earth orbits the sun. The
earth's closest approach to
the sun occurs around
January 4th and it is furthest
from the sun around July 5th.
 Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
➢ Terrestrial Solar Radiation
▪ Terrestrial radiation is a term used to describe infrared radiation
emitted from the atmosphere.
➢ Solar Constant
▪ The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of
incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be
incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of 1
astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the
Earth).
• Solar constant = 1,361 W/m2 (roughly at solar minimum)
• Solar constant = 1,362 W/m2 (roughly at solar maximum)
 Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
➢ Solar Constant
 Solar Positions
Solar Positions
➢ Polar Axis
▪ The fixed reference axis from
which the polar angle is
measured in a polar coordinate
system.
 Solar Positions
Solar Positions
➢ Ecliptic
▪ It is the apparent path of the Sun on the
celestial sphere as seen from the Earth's
center, and also the plane of this path,
which is coplanar with the orbit of the
Earth around the Sun.
• The path of the Sun is not normally
noticeable from the Earth's surface
because the Earth rotates, carrying
the observer through the cycle of
sunrise and sunset, obscuring the
small motion of the Sun against the
background stars.
 Solar Declination Angle
Solar Positions
➢ The declination angle of the sun is the angle between the
equator and a line drawn from the centre of the Earth to
the centre of the sun.
▪ The declination angle, denoted by d, varies seasonally
due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis of rotation and
the rotation of the Earth around the sun.
 Solar Declination
Solar Declination Angle
Angle
➢ If the Earth were not tilted on its
axis of rotation, the declination
would always be 0°.
➢ However, the Earth is tilted by
23.45° and the declination angle
varies plus or minus this amount.
➢ Only at the spring and fall
equinoxes is the declination angle
equal to 0°.
 Solar Declination
Solar Declination Angle
Angle
➢ The declination angle can be calculated by the equation:
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]
Where d is the day of the year with Jan 1 as d = 1. (N is also used for
the day of the year).
➢ A more accurate expression is:
d = sin-1 {sin(23.45o) sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]}
➢ The declination is zero at the equinoxes (March 21 and September
22), positive during the northern hemisphere summer, and negative
during the northern hemisphere winter.
➢ The declination reaches a maximum of 23.45° on June 21 (summer
solstice in the northern hemisphere) and a minimum of -23.45° on
December 22 (winter solstice in the northern hemisphere).
 Solar Declination
Solar Declination Angle
Angle
➢ Declination angle can also be given in radians by the Spencer formula:
d = 0.006918 – 0.399912 cos(G) + 0.070257 sin(G)
- 0.006758 cos(2G) + 0.000907 sin(2G)
- 0.002697 cos(3G) + 0.00148 sin(3G)
where G is called the day angle, given (in radians) by
G = 2p(d-1)/365
 Solar Declination Angle
Solar Declination Angle
Example Problem No. 2.1
➢ Find the declination angle on October 2, 2013.
➢ Solution:
Use the following equation
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365 81)]
dd = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(275 – 81)] =
 Solar Declination Angle
Solar Positions
➢ Latitude Angle
▪ Latitude is a geographic coordinate that
specifies the north-south position of a point on
the Earth's surface.
• Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run
east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
▪ Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the
Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles.
Latitude angles are measured
in a north-south direction.

▪ The latitude angle is usually denoted by the Greek lower-case letter

phi (φ or ɸ). It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or
decimal degrees, north or south of the equator.
 Solar Positions
Solar Positions
➢ Hour Angle
▪ The hour angle is one of the
coordinates used in the equatorial
coordinate system to give the
direction of a point on the celestial
sphere.
▪ The hour angle of a point is the angle
between two planes: one containing
the Earth's axis and the zenith (the
meridian plane), and the other
LHA - Local Hour Angle
containing the Earth's axis and the LMST - Local Mean Sidereal Time
given point (the hour circle passing GHA - Greenwich Hour Angle
through the point). GMST - Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time
 Hour Angle
Hour Angle
 Hour Angle
➢ The Hour Angle converts the local solar time (LST) into the
number of degrees which the sun moves across the sky.
➢ By definition, the Hour Angle is 0° at solar noon. Since the Earth
rotates 15° per hour, each hour away from solar noon
corresponds to an angular motion of the sun in the sky of 15°. In
the morning the hour angle is negative, in the afternoon the
hour angle is positive.

Hour Angle, h
h = 15O (LST – 12)
where LST is the local standard time.
 Hour Angle
Example Problem No. 2.2
➢ Find the hour angle on March 15, 10:00am in a city located at
60˚N Latitude with Local Longitude of 38˚ and LST Meridian of
30˚.

➢ Solution:
Use the following equation
h = 15O (LST – 12)
where LST is the local standard time

h = 15O (10 – 12) = 15o (-2) = -30o

 Equation of Time
➢ Due to factors associated with the earth’s orbit around the sun, the
earth’s orbital velocity varies throughout the year, so the apparent
solar time varies slightly from the mean time kept by a clock running
at a uniform rate.
➢ The variation is called the Equation of Time (ET). The equation of time
arises because the length of a day, that is, the time required by the
earth to complete one revolution about its own axis with respect to
the sun, is not uniform throughout the year.
➢ Over the year, the average length of a day is 24 hours; however the
length of a day varies due to the eccentricity of the earths orbit and
the tilt of the earth’s axis from the normal plane of its orbit.
 Equation of Time
➢ Due to the ellipticity of the orbit, the earth is closer to the sun on
January 3 and farthest from the sun on July 4.
➢ Therefore the earth’s orbiting speed is faster than its average speed
for half the year (from about October through March) and slower
than its average speed for the remaining half of the year (from about
April through September).
 Equation of Time
➢ The value of the equation of time as a function of the day of the
year (N or d) can be obtained approximately from the following
equations:

ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B) [min]

where, B = (d – 81) (360/365)

 Equation of Time
Example Problem No. 2.3
➢ Find the equation of time on October 2, 2013.
➢ Solution:
➢ Use the following equation
ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B) [min]

where, B = (d – 81) (360/365)

B = (275 – 81) (360/365) =

ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B)

ET =
 Longitudinal Correction
➢ The standard clock time is reckoned from a selected meridian near the
center of a time zone or from the standard meridian, the Greenwich,
which is at longitude of 0o.
➢ Since the sun takes 4 min to transverse 1o of longitude, a longitude
correction term of 4x (Standard longitude – Local longitude) should be
either added or subtracted to the standard clock time of the locality.
➢ This correction is constant for a particular longitude and the following
rule must be followed with respect to sign convention.
 Apparent Solar Time
➢ If the location is east of the standard meridian, the correction is
added to the clock time. If the location is west, it is subtracted.
➢ The general equation for calculating the apparent solar time (AST) is

AST = LST + ET + 4(SL - LL) – DS

where
LST = local standard time
ET = equation of time
SL = standard longitude
LL = local longitude
DS = daylight saving (it is either 0 or 60 min)
 Apparent Solar Time
Example Problem No. 2.3
➢Find the equation of AST for the city of Nicosia, Cyprus.
➢Solution
▪ For the locality of Cyprus, the standard longitude (SL) is 30oE.
▪ The city of Nicosia is at a local longitude (LL) of 33.33o east of
Greenwich.
▪ Therefore, the longitude correction is -4 x (30 – 33.33) = +13.32
min.
▪ Thus the AST equation can be written as
• AST = LST + ET + 13.32 [min]
 Mean Sun Time
➢ Time as calculated by
the motion of the
mean sun.
➢ The time shown by
an ordinary clock
corresponds to mean
solar time.
▪ A mean solar day
is 24 hours.
▪ A sidereal day is
the time it takes
for the Earth to
rotate on its axis.
 Local Solar Time
➢ The time in any of 24 time zones, usually the mean solar time at the
central meridian of each zone.
➢ In the continental United States, there are four standard time zones:
▪ Eastern, using the 75th meridian;
▪ Central, using the 90th meridian;
▪ Mountain, using the 105th meridian; and
▪ Pacific, using the 120th meridian.
 Daylight Saving Time
➢ Daylight Saving Time (DST) is the practice of turning the clock ahead as
warmer weather approaches and back as it becomes colder again so that
people will have one more hour of daylight in the afternoon and evening
during the warmer season of the year.
➢ Daylight Saving Time varies somewhat from country to country.
Countries in equatorial and tropical climates do not observe Daylight
Saving Time.
➢ The months when the clock is set ahead and back differ between
northern and southern hemispheres.
Problem Solving – Week 2
 Solar Declination Angle
Sample Problem #1
➢ Calculate the solar declination for the spring and fall equinoxes and the
summer and winter solstices at 45oN latitude and 35oE longitude.
 Daylight
Solar Declination Angle
Saving Time
Sample Problem #1
➢ Solution:
▪ Equation for declination angle is
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]

o Spring equinox: March 21

o Fall equinox: September 22
o Summer solstice: June 21
o Winter solstice: December 22
 Equation of Time
Sample Problem #2
➢ Find the equation of time for the spring and fall equinoxes and the
summer and winter solstices at 45oN latitude and 35oE longitude.
 Equation of Time
Sample Problem #2
➢ Solution:
Use the following equation
ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B) [min]
where, B = (d – 81) (360/365)
 Apparent Solar Time
Sample Problem #3
➢ Find the apparent solar time on March 15, 10:00am in a city located at
60˚N Latitude with Local Longitude of 38˚E and LST Meridian of 30˚E.
 Apparent Solar Time
Sample Problem #3
➢Solution:
Use the following equation
AST = LST + ET + 4(SL - LL)
where
LST = local standard time
ET = equation of time
SL = standard longitude (LST Meridian)
LL = local longitude
 All
Sample Problem #4.
➢ Given are the following data:
City Location: 30.30 degrees N Latitude; 65 degrees
Local Longitude; 35 degrees LST Meridian
Date: December 11, 2012
Local Solar Time: 6:00 AM
➢ Find the following:
a. Hour Angle (HRA)
b. Declination Angle (d)
c. Equation of Time (ET)
d. Apparent Solar Time (AST)
References and Material Sources
 References and Material Sources
Textbook
▪ Energy Conversion by D. Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith
▪ Solar Energy Engineering by S. A. Kalogirou
Websites
▪ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
▪ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power
▪ http://ocw.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/ocw/courses/SolarCells/res00026/CH2_Solar_radi
ation.pdf
▪ http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/introduction
▪ http://www.astronomygcse.co.uk/AstroGCSE/Unit1/mean%20sun.htm
▪ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time
▪ http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/solar/radiation/extraterrestrial.php
End
ME165-3
SOLAR AND WIND UTILIZATION Instructor:
Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
Week-3 Solar Properties 10 December 2020
2020-2021/ 2T
 OBJECTIVES

 Definesolar altitude angle, solar azimuth and solar zenith

angles.
 Solve problems using solar altitude, solar azimuth and
solar zenith angles.
 Define air mass and clearness index.
 Solve problems involving air mass and clearness index.
 Define day length, sunrise and sunset time.
 Compute for the day length, sunrise and sunset time.
 HOUR ANGLE

 Hour Angle, h
h = 15O (LST – 12)
where: LST is the local solar time.

The hour angle, h, of a point on the earth’s surface is defined

as the angle through which the earth would turn to bring the
meridian of the point directly under the sun.
The hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with each 360/24 or
15o of longitudinal equivalent to 1 hr, afternoon hours being
designated as positive. Expressed symbolically, the hour
angle in degrees is
h = + 0.25 (Number of minutes from local solar noon)
+ sign applies to afternoon hours, - sign to morning hours
 HOUR ANGLE

The hour angle can also be obtained from the

apparent solar time (AST)
h = (AST – 12) 15O

At local solar noon, AST = 12 and h = 0o. Therefore,

the local standard time (the time shown by our
clocks at local solar noon) is
LST = 12 – ET +4(SL-LL)
 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE
 Solar Altitude Angle
 The altitude (or elevation) angle is
the angular height of the sun in the
sky measured from the horizontal.
 Itis the angle between the central
ray from the sun, and a horizontal
plane containing the observer a

 The elevation is 0° at sunrise

and 90° when the sun is directly y

overhead (which occurs for a y

example at the equator on the
spring and fall equinoxes).
 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE

 It can be calculated using the following equation:

sina = cosh cosd cos F + sind sin F
where a is the solar altitude (or elevation) angle
h is the hour angle, in the local solar time
d is the current Sun declination
F is the local latitude

For example, the solar elevation is:

▪ 90° if you are on the equator, a day of equinox, at a solar
hour of twelve
▪ near 0° at the sunset or at the sunrise
▪ between -90° and 0° during the night
 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE
 Sample Problem No. 3.1:
Find the solar altitude angle at 2h after local noon on June 15 for a
city located at 40oN Latitude.
Solar Altitude Angle:
sin(a) = cos(h) cos(d )cos (F ) + sin(d) sin(F)
▪ Declination on June 15 (d = 167)
d = 23.45 sin [360/365 (167-81)] = 23.35o
▪ Hour Angle, 2h after local solar noon
h = 15o (LST-12) = 15o (14-12) = 30o
o sina =cosh cosd cos F + sind sin F
= cos(30)cos(23.35)cos(40) + sin(23.45)sin(40) = 0.8649
a = 59.87o
 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE

 Solution Problem No. 3.1:

Solar Altitude Angle:
sin(a) = cos(h) cos(d )cos (F ) + sin(d) sin(F)
▪ Declination angle on June 15 (d = 167)
d = 23.45 sin [360/365 (167-81)] = 23.35o
▪ Hour angle, 2h after local solar noon
h = 15o (LST-12) = 15o (14-12) = 30o
o sina = cosh cosd cos F + sind sin F
= cos(30)cos(23.35)cos(40) + sin(23.45)sin(40) = 0.8649
a = 59.87o
 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE

 Solar Azimuth Angle

 The solar azimuth angle, y, is the azimuth angle of the sun’s rays
measured in the horizontal plane from due south (true south) for the
Northern Hemisphere or due north for the Southern Hemisphere
 Westward is designated as positive, and eastward is negative.
Solar Azimuth angle can be calculated using the equation:

sin(y) = sin(h) cos(d) / cos(a)

where
y is the solar azimuth angle
a is the solar altitude (or elevation) angle
h is the hour angle, in the local solar time
d is the current Sun declination
SOLAR ALTITUDE & SOLAR ANGLES

z
 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE

Sample Problem No. 3.2:

Find the azimuth angle at 2h after local noon on June
15 for a city located at 40oN Latitude.
 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE
 Solution Problem No. 3.2:
Solar Azimuth Angle:
sin(y) = sin(h) cos(d) / cos(a)
▪ Declination angle on June 15 (d = 167)
d = 23.45 sin [360/365 (167-81)] = 23.35o
▪ Hour angle, 2h after local solar noon
h = 15o (LST-12) = 15o (14-12) = 30o
▪ Altitude angle
sina = cos(h) cos(d)cos (F) + sin(d) sin(F)
=cos(30)cos(23.35)cos(40) + sin(23.45)sin(40)
= 0.8649
a = 59.87o
 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE

• Solar Azimuth Angle

sin(y) = sinh cos d / cos a
= sin(30) cos(23.35)/cos(59.75)
= 0.911
y = 65.67o
 ZENITH ANGLE
 The
zenith angle, z, is similar to the elevation angle but it is
measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal, thus
making the zenith angle = 90° - elevation (or altitude) angle.
z = 90o - a
 AIR MASS
 Air Mass
 TheAir Mass is the path length which light takes through the
atmosphere normalized to the shortest possible path length
(that is, when the sun is directly overhead).
 The Air Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light as
it passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by air
and dust.
 The Air Mass is defined as:
AM = 1/cos(z)
Where:
z is the angle from the vertical (zenith angle).
When the sun is directly overhead, the Air Mass is 1.
 AIR MASS

The air mass represents the

proportion of atmosphere that the
light must pass through before
striking the Earth relative to its
overhead path length, and is
equal to Y/X. z
 AIR MASS

An easy method to

determine the air mass
is from the shadow of a
vertical pole.

Air mass is the length of the hypotenuse divided by the

object height h, and from Pythagoras's theorem we get:
 AIR MASS AND ZENITH ANGLE

Sample Problem No. 3.3:

 FromProblem No. 3.1, also find zenith angle and air
mass.
Problem 3.1: Find the solar altitude angle at 2h after
local noon on June 15 for a city located at 40oN
Latitude.
 AIR MASS AND ZENITH ANGLE
Solution Problem No. 3.3:
 From solution no. 3.1: a = 59.87o

Zenith Angle: z = 90o – a

= 90o – 59.87 o = 30.13o

Air Mass: AM = 1/cos(z)

= 1/cos(z) = 1/ cos (30.13o)
AM = 1.156
 CLEARNESS INDEX
 Clearness Index (kT)
 Itis equal to the global solar
radiation on the surface of the earth
divided by the extraterrestrial
radiation at the top of the
atmosphere.
 It
is the proportion of the
extraterrestrial solar radiation that
makes it through to the surface.
 It varies from around 0.8 in the clearest
conditions to near zero in overcast
conditions. The monthly average clearness
index may vary from near 0.8 down to
kT = Gh/Xh
maybe 0.2.
 DAY LENGTH

Day Length
 Day length, or length of day, or length of daytime, is the
time each day from the moment the upper limb of the
sun's disk appears above the horizon during sunrise to
the moment when the upper limb disappears below the
horizon during sunset.
 Due to the diffusion and refraction of sunlight by the
atmosphere, there is actually daylight even when the sun is
slightly below the horizon. The period when it is still somewhat
light even though the sun is below the horizon is called
twilight.
 DAY LENGTH
 In
general, the length of a day varies throughout the
year, and depends upon latitude. This variation is
caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis of rotation with
respect to the ecliptic plane of the Earth around the
sun.
 In
each hemisphere, the higher the latitude, the shorter
the day during winter.
 Between winter and summer solstice, the day's duration
increases, and the rate of increase is larger the higher
the latitude.
 DAY LENGTH

o Day Length (cont’d.)

Day length as a function of latitude and the day of the year

 DAY LENGTH

o Day Length (cont’d.)

Day length as a function of latitude and the day of the year

 DAY LENGTH

Some interesting facts are as follows:

On the Equator, the duration of daylight is not
exactly 12 hours all the year round, but rather —
due to atmospheric refraction and the size of the
Sun — exceeds 12 hours by about 7 minutes
each day;
 DAY LENGTH

Some interesting facts . . . . . .

Because the sun is north of the equator for
almost 4 days more than half the year, due to
the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the duration of
the average day at a given latitude in the
northern hemisphere exceeds the duration of
the average day at the same latitude in the
southern hemisphere by a few minutes;
 DAY LENGTH

Some interesting facts . . . . .

 During a few days around the equinoxes—about March
19–22 and September 21–24—both poles experience
simultaneously 24 hours of daytime, due mainly to
atmospheric refraction.
 Each pole has only one sunrise and one sunset per year,
around the time of the equinoxes. Each pole’s sunrise is
nearly coincident with the other's sunset, with minor
differences due mainly to atmospheric refraction.
 DAY LENGTH

 Sunrise Equation
cos(h) = -tan(f) tand
h = cos-1 [-tan(f) tand ]

where:
h is the hour angle at either sunrise, Hsr , (when
negative value is taken) or sunset, Hss , (when positive
value is taken)
f is the latitude of the observer on the Earth
d is the sun declination
 SUNRISE & SUNSET TIME

 Sunrise (HSR)and Sunset (HSS) Time

 Sunrise is the instant at which the upper edge of the Sun appears on
the horizon in the morning. The term can also refer to the entire
process of the sun crossing the horizon and its accompanying
atmospheric effects.
 Sunsetis the daily disappearance of the Sun below the horizon in
the west as a result of Earth's rotation.
Use the following equation to calculate Sunrise and Sunset Time
HSS = -HSR = (1/15) cos-1[-tan(f) tand ]
Day Length, DL = 2HSS
 DAYLENGTH, SUNRISE AND SUNSET HOURS

Sample Problem No. 3.4:

 From Problem 3.1, also find day length, sunrise and sunset hours.
Problem 3.1: Find the solar altitude angle at 2h after local noon on
June 15 for a city located at 40oN Latitude.
 DAYLENGTH, SUNRISE AND SUNSET HOURS

Solution Problem No. 3.4:

 From Solution Problem 3.1,
f = 40o ; d = 23.35o
 Day Length = (2/15) cos-1[-tan(f) tand ]
= (2/15) cos-1[-tan(40) tan(23.35)] = 14.83 hrs
HSR = -7.4 hrs,
HSS = 7.4 hrs

This means that the sunrises at (12.00-7.43) = 4.6 or 4:36 AM and

sunsets at 7:24 PM solar time.
 REFERENCES & MATERIAL SOURCES
Reference
• Solar Energy Engineering, Processes and Systems, Soteris A. Kologirou, 2009
Websites
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_elevation_angle
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_azimuth_angle
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenith
• http://support.homerenergy.com/index.php?/Knowledgebase/Article/View/203/75/100
45---clearness-index-in-homer
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise_equation

Youtubesites
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qLB5ma2Yz1I
ME165-3
SOLAR AND WIND UTILIZATION Instructor:
Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
Week-4 Solar Properties (Part-2)
17 December 2020
2020-2021/ 2T
 OBJECTIVES

 Define incident angle and tilted angle.

 Compute for the incident angle.
 Compute for the incident angle for a tilted surface.
 Compute for total extraterrestrial radiation for horizontal and
tilted surfaces.
 SOLAR ANGLE

 Solar Angle
 Solar angle is the altitude of the
sun in the sky, in degrees down
from the zenith, or straight
overhead.
 Thesolar angle affects the
concentration of the sun's
energy that hits the surface.
 During winter, the sun tracks
across the sky at a much lower
angle than it does in summer. This
more indirect lighting is what Annual changes in the sun’s position in the sky
makes winter colder. (Northern Hemisphere)
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 Incidence Angle
z
 The solar incidence angle, q, is the angle
between the sun’s rays and the normal on
a surface.
 For a horizontal plane, the incidence
angle, q, and the zenith angle, z, are the y

same. Following is the general expression y

for the angle of incidence.

cos(q) = sin(f) sin(d) cos(b) – cos(f) sin(d) sin(b) cos(y)
+ cos(f) cos(d) cos(h) cos(b) + sin(f) cos(d) cos(h) sin(b) cos(y)
+ cos(d) sin(h) sin(b) sin(y)

where: b = surface tilt angle from the horizontal

y = surface azimuth angle, the angle between the normal to the
surface from true south, westward is designated as positive
f = local latitude
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 Forhorizontal surfaces, b = 0o, q = z, therefore incidence angle

equation reduces to:

sin(a) = cos(z) = sin(f) sin(d) + cos(f) cos(d) cos(h)

 Forvertical surfaces, b = 90o, and incidence angle equation

becomes:

cos(q) = – cos(f) sin(d) cos(y) + sin(f) cos(d) cos(h) cos(y)

+ cos(d) sin(h) sin(y)
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 For a south-facing, tilted surface in the Northern Hemisphere,

y = 0o

cos(q) = sin(f) sin(d) cos(b) – cos(f) sin(d) sin(b)

+ cos(f) cos(d) cos(h) cos(b) + sin(f) cos(d) cos(h) sin(b)

cos(q) = sin(f - b) sin(d) + cos(f - b) cos(d) cos(h)

 For a north-facing, tilted surface in the Southern Hemisphere,

y = 180o
 cos(q) =sin(f + b) sin(d) + cos(f + b) cos(d) cos(h)
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 Tilted Angle
 the angle measured from the horizontal surface
 the space between two lines or planes that intersect;
 the inclination of one line to another; measured in
degrees or radians
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 Example Problem 4.1

A surface tilted 45o from horizontal and pointed 10o
west of due south is located at 35oN latitude.
Calculate the incident angle at 2h after local noon on
June 15, 2013.
 INCIDENCE ANGLE
 Solution Problem 4.1
First, we find the declining angle, d.
d = (23.35o)
secondly the hour angle, h.
h = (30o), other given: f=35o; b=45o; y=10o

Use the equation below to calculate the incident angle, q

cos(q) = sin(f) sin(d) cos(b) – cos(f) sin(d) sin(b) cos(y) + cos(f) cos(d) cos(h) cos(b)
+ sin(f) cos(d) cos(h) sin(b) cos(y) + cos(d) sin(h) sin(b) sin(y)
cos(q) = sin(35) sin(23.35) cos(45) – cos(35) sin(23.35) sin(45) cos(10)
+ cos(35) cos(23.35) cos(30) cos(45) + sin(35) cos(23.35) cos(30) sin(45) cos(10)
+ cos(23.35) sin(30) sin(45) sin(10)
cos(q) = 0.769
q = 39.72o
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 Transparent Plates
Incident beam Reflected beam
 When a beam of radiation strikes the q1
surface of a transparent plate at angle q1,
incidence angle, as shown in figure below,
part of the incident radiation is reflected h1
and the remainder is refracted or bent, to
h2
angle q2, called the refraction angle, as it
passes through the interface. q2 Refracted beam
 INCIDENCE ANGLE
 Transparent Plates (cont’d.)
 Angle q1 is also to the angle at which the beam is
specularly reflected from the surface. Angles q1 and q2
are not equal when the density of the plane is different
from that of the medium through which the radiation
travels. Additionally, refraction causes the transmitted
beam to be bent forward the perpendicular to the
surface of the higher density.
 The two angles are related by Snell’s law:
h = h2/h1 = sin q1/sin q2
where h1 and h2 are the refraction indices and h is the ratio of
the refraction index for the two media forming the interface.
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

Example Problem 4.2.

 Light
travels from diamond into fiber optic cable with
an angle of refraction, qr, of 73o. What is the angle of
incidence (qi) if the refractive index of diamond is 2.4
and the refractive index of the fiber optic cable is 1.6?
 INCIDENCE ANGLE

 Solution Problem 4.2.

Using the following equation:
Sin qi /sin qr = hr/hi

Solve for qi
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

 Solar Constant, Gsc

 The amount of solar energy per unit time, at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun, received on a unit
area of a surface normal to the sun (perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the radiation) outside the
atmosphere.
 When the sun is closest to the earth, on January 3, the
solar heat on the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere is
about 1400 W/m2.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

 Solar Constant, Gsc

 When the sun is farthest away, on July 4th, it is about 1330 W/m2.
 Throughout the year, the extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane
normal to the radiation on the Nth day of the year, Gon , varies between
these limits, as indicated in figure 4.1, in the range of 3.3% and can be
calculated by (Duffie and Beckman, 1991; Hsieh, 1986):
Gon = Gsc [1 + 0.033 cos (360N/365)]
 Where: Gon = extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the
radiation on the Nth day of the year (W/m2)
 Gsc = solar constant (W/m2)
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

Figure 4.1 – Variation of extraterrestrial solar radiation with the time of the year

The latest value of Gsc is 1366.1 W/m2. This was adopted in 2000 by the
ASTM (ASTM E-490). This is based on data from satellites, space shuttle
missions, high altitude aircraft, rocket soundings, ground-based solar
telescopes, and modeled spectral irradiance. For our purpose, we’ll be
using 1360 W/m2 throughout this course.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

 When a surface is placed parallel to the ground, the rate

of solar radiation, GoH, incident on this extraterrestrial
horizontal surface at a given time of the year is given by

GoH = Gon cos (z)

= Gsc [1+0.033 cos{360N/365}][cos(f) cos(d) cos(h) + sin (f) sin(d)]
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

 The total radiation, Ho, incident on an extraterrestrial

horizontal surface during a day over a period from
sunrise to sunset is express by the equation

Ho = (24 X 3600Gsc / p)[1 + 0.033 cos{360N/365}]

x [cos(f) cos(d) sin(hss) + {phss/180} sin(f) sin(d)]

where hss is the sunset hour in degrees. The units of Ho are joules/m2
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

 Example Problem 4.3: Extraterrestrial Radiation

▪ Determine the extraterrestrial normal radiation and the
extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface on March 10
at 2:00 pm solar time for 35oN latitude.
▪ Determine also the total solar radiation on the extraterrestrial
horizontal surface for the day.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

 Solution Problem 4.3: Extraterrestrial Radiation

The declination on March 10 (N = 69) is calculated as follows:
d = 23.45 sin[360/365(69-81)] = -4.8o
The hour angle at 2:00 pm solar time is calculated as follows:
h = 15o (LST-12) = 15o (14-12) = 30o
The hour angle at sunset is calculated as
hss = cos-1[-tan(f) tan(d)] = cos-1[-tan(35) tan(-4.8)] = 86.6o
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

The extraterrestrial normal radiation is calculated as:

Gon = Gsc [1 + 0.033 cos (360N/365)]
= 1360[1+0.033 cos {360 x 69/365}]
= 1377 W/m2
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

The extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface is

calculated as:
GoH = Gon cos (z)
= Gon [sin(f) sin(d) + cos(f) cos(d) cos(h)
= 1377 [sin(35) sin(-4.8) + cos(35) cos(-4.8) cos(30)]
= 907 W/m2
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

The total radiation on the extraterrestrial horizontal surface is

calculated as:
Ho = (24 x 3600Gsc / p)[1 + 0.033 cos{360N/365}]
x [cos(f) cos(d) sin(hss) + {phss/180} sin(f) sin(d)]
= (24 x 3600 x 1360/ p)[1 + 0.033 cos{360 x 69/365}]
x [cos(35) cos(-4.8) sin(86.6) + {p x 86.6/180} sin(35) sin(-4.8)]
= 24 x 3600 x 1377/p[cos(35) cos(-4.8) sin(86.6)
+ {p x 86.6/180} sin(35) sin(-4.8)]
Ho = 28.11 MJ/m2
 REFERENCES & MATERIAL SOURCES

Reference
• Solar Energy Engineering, Processes and Systems, Soteris A. Kologirou, 2009

Websites
• http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080218230654AApzrZc
• http://www.google.com/search?q=incident+angle&hl=en&rlz=1T4ADRA_enUS458U
S458&prmd=imvns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=trJxUMGOGvCWiQez0
4CIBA&ved=0CCoQsAQ&biw=1280&bih=564