Addressing Barriers

to Learning
A SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE

Emmerentia Landsberg
(EDITOR)

Deirdré Krüger
Norma Nel
(ASSISTANT EDITORS)

Van Schaik
PUBLISHERS
Published by Van Schaik Publishers
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DEDICATION

To all sung and unsung heroes, including inspirational educators,

who have surpassed barriers and, in particular, to
Mr Nelson Mandela for his inclusive approach, setting a nation free.

In 1997, Mr Mandela welcomed the then president of Ghana to the Union Buildings
in Pretoria. On this occasion, Mr Mandela suddenly said: “Call that child”. To every-
one’s amazement, an eleven-year-old Afrikaans boy, in his school uniform, was
brought to the president. He asked the boy’s name, turned to his important guest
and introduced them to each other! The two shook hands and the president rubbed
the boy’s head. Then Mr Mandela said goodbye to the boy. What does this tell you?
To us it means that this statesman could even include a young boy in his official
duties. It never occurred to Mandela that he was too important, or that the boy was
too insignificant.
There are countless similar examples. Journalists tell how he was interested in
them as people. Tim Modise says that Mr Mandela invited his whole family to dinner
after Tim’s wife died. He asked a TV journalist, Debra Patta, if he could help her carry
her heavy equipment! A woman, Elsa Krüger, tells how when she was waiting for her
father in the doctor’s consulting rooms, Mr Mandela, who was also at the doctor,
shook hands with everyone and asked after their health.
How does he include everyone? He gives support when people mourn over loved
ones and lets them share in his hospitality, he respects people, offers help and does
not think himself better than them, he is humane, thoughtful and friendly. You can
do these things too. As an icon, Nelson Mandela proves that his pursuit of equality
for all is genuine when he shows us how it should be done.
Inclusiveness is no new idea – it involves an ideology that liberates people from
their own prejudices and short-sightedness. In the process other people are there-
fore also freed from the “imprisonment” of their prejudices, and everyone is includ-
ed in a liberated community. The road to this kind of freedom might be a long one,
but each step brings us closer.

Sources: Van Wyk, M. 2004. Trots Suid-Afrikaans: Madiba magic. Sarie, May, 46–50; Krüger, D. & Groene-
wald, S. 2004a. A practical guide for educators to accommodate diversities in inclusive education: secondary
schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE Publishers; and Krüger, D. & Groenewald, S. 2004b. A practical guide
for learners to accommodate diversities in inclusive education: secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE
Publishers.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION A: INTRODUCTION 2.7.3 Counteracting the fate of street children . 38

2.7.4 Health programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Chapter 1: A framework for understanding inclusion
2.7.5 Campaign against child abuse . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2 What is inclusion? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Inclusion in an international context . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Changing paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 SECTION C: ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL
1.3.2 The medical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 BARRIERS
1.3.3 The social ecological model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Chapter 3: Identification and assessment of barriers
1.4 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological and bio- to learning
ecological models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.5 Inclusion in the South African context . . . 15 3.2 The purpose of assessment when
1.5.1 Special needs education prior to learners appear to flounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2.1 On what should you be setting your
1.5.2 From exclusion to inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 sights? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.6 Implications of inclusion for South African 3.2.2 Learning support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
schools and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.2.3 The ground to cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.3 A framework of theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.1 Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
SECTION B: ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC 3.3.2 The bio-ecological model of development 50
BARRIERS 3.3.3 The asset-based approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 2: Socio-economic barriers to learning in 3.3.4 Dynamic assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
contemporary society 3.3.5 Accommodations in assessment . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Strategies and techniques in assessing for
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
learning support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.2 The culture of poverty in South Africa . . . 28
3.4.1 Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.2 Strategies in assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.2.2 Unplanned urbanisation and unemploy-
3.4.3 Assessment techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Moral confusion and an uncertainty about
values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 The HIV/Aids pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Chapter 4: Learning support
2.4.1 The Tirisano plan for HIV/Aids 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 4.2 Learning support in South Africa . . . . . . . . 62
2.5 The disintegration of family life and the 4.2.1 Education White Paper 6 and its implemen-
abuse of children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 tation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.1 Effects of the disintegration of family life 33 4.2.2 Network of support within each education
2.5.2 Child abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Language and cultural differences . . . . . . . 37 4.2.3 Learning support in schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7 Addressing the anti-child climate in 4.3 Cooperative learning and teaching
contemporary society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.7.1 Community education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 4.3.1 Characteristics of and requirements for
2.7.2 Educational programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 successful cooperative learning . . . . . . . . . 71

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4.3.2 The size of the group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.7.4 Building foundations for learning and
4.3.3 The group members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 literacy by focusing on real-life contexts . 92
4.3.4 Classroom management for group work . 73 5.7.5 Collaboration between children and
4.3.5 The roles of each group member . . . . . . . . 74 educators and parents is at the heart of
4.3.6 Explaining the assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 early childhood education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.7 Problem-based learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.8 What is a respectful early childhood
4.3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 practitioner or educator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4 An individual learning support 5.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4.1 Assessing the knowledge, skills and Chapter 6: Addressing life skills problems
attitudes the learner has thus far 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 6.2 Life skills as coping tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.4.2 Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 6.3 Life skills problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.3 Selecting the curriculum contents . . . . . . . 76 6.3.1 Problems in acquiring physical skills –
4.4.4 Choosing learning support strategies and physical intelligence (PQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 6.3.2 Problems in acquiring emotional skills –
4.4.5 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 emotional intelligence (EQ/EI) . . . . . . . . . 100
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 6.3.3 Problems in acquiring social skills –
social intelligence (SQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 5: Early childhood intervention 6.3.4 Problems in acquiring thinking skills
(IQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1 Early childhood education: a South African
policy perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 6.3.5 Problems in acquiring motivational
skills – motivational intelligence (MQ) . . 105
5.2 Early childhood intervention: a bio-
ecological approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 6.3.6 Problems in acquiring moral skills –
moral intelligence (MQ/MI) . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2.1 Application of a bio-ecological analysis . . 81
6.3.7 Situational intelligence (SQ) . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.2 A bio-ecological approach to early
childhood intervention: focusing on assets 6.4 Facilitating life skills acquisition – an
and resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 integrated holistic life skills model . . . . . 108
5.3 How can the educator use a resource- 6.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
based approach to facilitate early 6.4.2 The outcomes-based principles of a life
childhood education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 skills model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.1 Involving parents in the early educa- 6.4.3 An integrated holistic life skills model . . 109
tion programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 6.4.4 An example of an intrapersonal life skills
5.3.2 Strategies for building partnerships lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
between educators and parents . . . . . . . . . 85 6.4.5 An example of an interpersonal life skills
5.4 Different approaches to early intervention: lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
the importance of social inclusion . . . . . . . 87 6.5 Barriers to implementing life skills
5.5 Classroom ecological variables . . . . . . . . . . 88 programmes successfully . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.5.1 Physical ecological variables . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 6.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.5.2 Social ecological variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6 Learning through communication . . . . . . . 91 SECTION D: ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS
5.7 Principles of early learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter 7: First language problems
5.7.1 Relaxed modes of learning: play as the
foundation for learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.7.2 Active participation as a prerequisite for 7.2 Language and communication . . . . . . . . . 119
learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 7.3 Spoken language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.7.3 Developing positive attitudes and 7.3.1 Cognition and language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
dispositions towards learning . . . . . . . . . . . 91 7.3.2 Metacognition and metalinguistics . . . . . 120

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7.3.3 Dimensions of language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 to learners with language and
7.3.4 The development of spoken language, communication problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
reading and written language . . . . . . . . . 122 7.11.2 Reading support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.5 Relations between spoken language, 7.11.3 Written language support . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
reading and written language and their 7.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.4 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Chapter 8: Second language difficulties in a South
7.4.1 The involvement of the language African context
dimensions in reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.4.2 The components of reading . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.2 English second language (ESL) . . . . . . . . 150
7.5 Written language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.2.1 Difficulties in ESL learning . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.5.1 The elements of written language . . . . . 127
8.3 Assessment of ESL learners . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.6 Background to problems in spoken
8.4 Support for English second language
language, reading and writing and
learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
factors underlying these problems . . . . 128
8.4.1 Second language learning in a multi-
7.6.1 Absence of verbal language . . . . . . . . . . . 129
cultural classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.6.2 Qualitative language which differs from
8.4.2 Cooperative learning groups . . . . . . . . . . 159
the language norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.4.3 Teaching and learning styles . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.6.3 Language backlog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.4.4 Different teaching approaches . . . . . . . . 160
7.6.4 Interrupted language development . . . . 129
8.4.5 Planning a second language lesson
7.6.5 Communication problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
according to RNCS outcomes . . . . . . . . . 162
7.6.6 Emotional factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.4.6 Parental involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.6.7 Physical factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.6.8 Neurological dysfunctions and
perceptual problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter 9: Augmentative and alternative
7.6.9 Intellectual impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
communication
7.6.10 Gender differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.6.11 Other problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.7 Assessment of spoken language, 9.2 Who can benefit from AAC intervention
reading and written language . . . . . . . . . 131 strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.8 Manifestations of spoken language 9.3 What is AAC and why is it important in
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 the classroom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.8.1 General and specific manifestations of 9.3.1 Unaided systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
spoken language problems . . . . . . . . . . . 131 9.3.2 Aided systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.8.2 Problems with the dimension of 9.4 AAC system selection: how to decide
language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 which system to use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.9 Reading problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 9.4.1 Communication and language skills . . . . 184
7.9.1 The determination of learners’ reading 9.4.2 Cognitive/perceptual and representa-
levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 tional skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.9.2 Manifestations of reading problems . . . 134 9.4.3 Motor skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.10 Manifestations of written language 9.4.4 Sensory skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 9.4.5 Social skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.10.1 Essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 9.4.6 Communication needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.10.2 Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9.5 Classroom strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.10.3 Handwriting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9.5.1 Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.11 Learning support to learners with first- 9.5.2 General classroom strategies . . . . . . . . . . 187
language problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 9.6 General myths related to AAC . . . . . . . . . 191
7.11.1 General guidelines for learning support 9.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

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Chapter 10: Mathematical literacy and difficulties in 10.11 Assessment and support of learners
mathematics experiencing mathematical problems
in the foundation and intermediate
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.2 Mathematics: a short overview . . . . . . 195
10.11.1 Identification and assessment of
10.3 The concept “mathematics” . . . . . . . . 195
mathematical difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.4 Curriculum changes in teaching mathe-
10.12 The teacher’s role in supporting
matics at school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
learners with mathematical difficulties
10.5 Areas, outcomes and assessment as well as a change in the approach to
standards of mathematics to be mathematical support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
mastered by learners in the foundation
10.12.1 Support of learners experiencing
and intermediate school phases . . . . . 196
mathematical difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.5.1 Content to master in the area of
10.12.2 The mathematics lesson structure . . . 207
concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.5.2 Concepts to master in the area of
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.6 Prerequisites for learners to start with SECTION E: ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS
formal mathematical concepts . . . . . . 197
Chapter 11: Family and community partnerships
10.6.1 Content level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.6.2 Educational level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.6.3 Development level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 11.2 Theoretical framework for under-
standing family–school–community
10.6.4 Emotional level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.6.5 Contextual level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.3 Family–school partnerships . . . . . . . . . 218
10.7 Cognitive prerequisites for mastering
11.3.1 Ecological factors related to family–
mathematical concepts and
school partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.4 School–community partnerships . . . . 226
10.7.1 Cognitive skills for mastering lower
level mathematical concepts 11.5 Collaboration and its components . . . 228
and processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 11.6 Forms of school–community collabora-
10.7.2 Cognitive skills for mastering tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
more advanced mathematical concepts 11.6.1 Business partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
and processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 11.6.2 Partnering institutions of higher
10.8 The development of mathematical learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 11.6.3 Integrated services (health, mental
10.9 Barriers causing mathematical health and safety) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 11.6.4 Organisations for people with impair-
10.9.1 Systemic barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.9.2 Inadequate teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 11.7 Barriers to effective school–community
10.9.3 Barriers within the learner . . . . . . . . . . 200 collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.9.4 Problems caused by attitudes and 11.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
beliefs of parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.10 Manifestations of problems in SECTION F: ADDRESSING DISABILITY
mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Chapter 12: Orientation: neurology in an educational
10.10.1 The importance of the role errors play
perspective
in mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.10.2 General manifestations of mathe- 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
matical difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 12.2 The neuron and its functions . . . . . . . 240
10.10.3 Specific manifestations of mathe- 12.2.1 The structure of the neuron . . . . . . . . 240
matical difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 12.2.2 The synapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

ix
12.2.3 Neurotransmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 13B.4 Susceptibility or inclination to
12.2.4 Neural development and growth . . . . 243 epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
12.3 A few substructures of the brain . . . . 243 13B.5 Factors that may cause epilepsy . . . . . 278
12.3.1 The brain stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 13B.6 Identification of epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . 278
12.3.2 Grey matter in the centre of the 13B.7 Epilepsy and learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 13B.7.1 Epilepsy and intellectual functioning . 280
12.3.3 The cerebellum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 13B.7.2 Types of seizure and learning . . . . . . . 280
12.3.4 The cerebrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 13B.7.3 Relationship problems at school and
12.3.5 The spinal nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
12.4 The role of the reticular system . . . . . 254 13B.7.4 Behaviour and emotional problems and
12.5 The visual pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
12.6 The auditory pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 13B.7.5 The use of medication and its possible
12.7 General causes of brain damage . . . . . 257 effects on the learner and learning . . 284
12.7.1 Basic causes of brain damage . . . . . . . 257 13B.8 Learning support to the learner with
12.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
13B.8.1 General support to learners with
Chapter 13A: Physical impairment epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
13B.8.2 Specific learning support to learners
13A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
with epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
13A.2 Physical impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13B.9 Safety measures in and out of class . . 286
13A2.1 Neurologically related physical
13B.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13A.3 Needs arising from physical
Chapter 13C: Cerebral palsy
impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
13A.3.1 Psychosocial needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 13C.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
13A.3.2 Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 13C.2 Definition and causes of cerebral
13A.3.3 Loss of sensation and pressure sores . 267 palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
13A.3.4 Incontinence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 13C.3 The neurological levels of cerebral
13A.3.5 Other implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
13A.4 Support to learners with physical 13C.4 Classifications of cerebral palsy . . . . . 290
impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 13C.4.1 The topographical classification
13A.4.1 Psychosocial support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
13A.4.2 Improvement of mobility . . . . . . . . . . . 269 13C.4.2 The physiological classification
13A.4.3 Prevention of pressure sores and system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 13C.5 Cerebral palsy and assessment of
13A.4.4 Care of learners with incontinence . . 270 intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
13A.4.5 Improving the teaching situation . . . . 270 13C.6 Medical and paramedical treatment . . 295
13A.5 Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 13C.7 Classroom support for learners with
13A.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 cerebral palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13C.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Chapter 13B: Epilepsy
Chapter 13D: Skeletal and muscular impairment
13B.1 Epilepsy: a definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
13B.2 The nature of epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 13D.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
13B.3 Two broad groupings of epilepsy . . . . 274 13D.2 Amputations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
13B.3.1 General seizures (centrencephalic 13D.3 Agenesis and deformed limbs . . . . . . . 302
seizures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 13D.4 Arthrogryposis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
13B.3.2 Partial seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 13D.5 Osteogenesis imperfecta . . . . . . . . . . . 303
13B.3.3 Unclassified epileptic seizures . . . . . . 278 13D.6 Burn lesions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

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13D.7 Other physical impairments of the 15.3.2 Types of hearing loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
skeleton and muscle systems . . . . . . . 305 15.3.3 Age of onset and aetiology of hearing
13D.8 Support to learners with physical loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 15.4 Language and communication
13D.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
15.5 Educational options for the deaf
Chapter 13E: Autism and related disorders (PDD) learner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
15.5.1 The deaf learner in the mainstream
13E.1 Introduction: the nature of autism . . . 307
school setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
13E.2 Characteristic features of autistic
15.5.2 Supporting the deaf or hard-of-hearing
spectrum disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
learner in the sign language environ-
13E.2.1 The triad of impairments . . . . . . . . . . . 308
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13E.2.2 Commonly associated features . . . . . . 315
15.6 Issues in assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
13E.2.3 Autism and secondary impairments . . 316 15.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
13E.2.4 Possible causal factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
13E.2.5 Prevalence of autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Chapter 16: Learning impairment
13E.2.6 Long-term outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
13E.3 Educational intervention . . . . . . . . . . . 318
16.2 Learning impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13E.3.1 Principles of intervention . . . . . . . . . . . 318
16.2.1 The term “learning impairment” . . . . . 365
13E.3.2 Support and intervention strategies . 320
16.2.2 Intrinsic barriers causing learning
13E.3.3 Placement of learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13E.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.2.3 The characteristics of learners with
learning impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Chapter 14: Visual impairment
16.2.4 Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 (AD/HD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
14.2 Barriers to learning that learners with a 16.2.5 The consequences of challenging
visual impairment may experience . . . 330 behaviour caused by AD/HD . . . . . . . . 369
14.2.1 Barriers to learning arising from a 16.2.6 Inadequate prerequisite skills causing
visual impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 difficulties in learning areas . . . . . . . . . 369
14.2.2 Extrinsic barriers to learning 16.3 Accommodation of learners experien-
experienced by learners with visual cing learning difficulties in the
impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.3 Support to learners with visual impair- 16.3.1 Inclusive education for learners with
ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 learning impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.3.1 Support regarding the visual impairment 16.3.2 Classroom management . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
itself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 16.3.3 Accommodation of challenging
14.3.2 Educational support to learners with behaviour and AD/HD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
visual impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 16.3.4 Accommodation of social problems . . 374
14.4 Assessment of learners with visual 16.3.5 Cooperative learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 16.4 Support to learners experiencing
14.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 learning difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
16.4.1 General support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Chapter 15: Educating the deaf and hard-of-hearing 16.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
learner
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Chapter 17: Intellectual impairment
15.2 The structure of the ear . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
15.3 Defining and describing hearing loss . 350 17.2 Definition of intellectual impairment 381
15.3.1 Levels of hearing loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 17.3 Prevalence of intellectual impairment 381

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17.4 Causes of intellectual impairment . . . 382 18.5.7 Emotional responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
17.4.1 Extrinsic factors causing intellectual 18.5.8 Motivation and participation . . . . . . . . 414
impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 18.5.9 Memory and concentration . . . . . . . . . 414
17.4.2 Intrinsic factors causing intellectual 18.5.10 Self-esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 18.5.11 Self-regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
17.5 Consequences of intellectual impair- 18.5.12 Self-help skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
ment for learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 18.6 Assessment of learners with severe
17.6 Skills required from teachers of and/or multiple disabilities . . . . . . . . . 415
learners with intellectual impair- 18.7 Collaborative team work . . . . . . . . . . . 416
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 18.8 Adapting the classroom for active
17.6.1 Teachers as members of a team . . . . . 388 participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
17.6.2 Teachers as mediators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 18.8.1 The learner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
17.7 General teaching support required for 18.8.2 The activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
learners with intellectual impair- 18.8.3 Teaching strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 18.8.4 The educator/teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
17.8 Cognitive barriers experienced by 18.9 Adapting teaching strategies . . . . . . . . 418
learners with intellectual impairment 18.9.1 Learning style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
and the relevant educational support
18.9.2 Adapting teaching strategies for the
required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
learner who is deaf-blind . . . . . . . . . . . 420
17.8.1 A systems model of cognition and
18.9.3 Adapting teaching strategies for the
information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
learner with physical disabilities . . . . . 420
17.8.2 The input phase of information
18.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
17.8.3 The elaboration phase of information
processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 SECTION G: ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS
17.8.4 The output phase of information Chapter 19: Chronic diseases
processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
17.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
19.2 What is chronic disease? . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Chapter 18: Severe and multiple disabilities 19.3 Factors contributing to chronic
disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 19.4 The impact of chronic disease on the
18.2 Definition and classification of severe child and family, and on school
and/or multiple disabilities . . . . . . . . . 407 success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
18.2.1 International Classification of 19.4.1 The impact of chronic disease on the
Functioning, Disability and Health child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
(ICF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 19.4.2 The impact of chronic disease on the
18.2.2 The Association for Persons with family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Severe Handicaps (TASH) . . . . . . . . . . . 408 19.4.3 The impact of chronic disease on
18.3 Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 school success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
18.4 Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 19.5 Some common chronic diseases . . . . . 432
18.5 Characteristics of learners who are 19.5.1 Infection with the human immuno-
severely and/or multiply disabled . . . . 412 deficiency virus (HIV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
18.5.1 Ability to learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 19.5.2 Tuberculosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
18.5.2 Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 19.5.3 Malaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
18.5.3 Physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 19.5.4 Bilharzia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
18.5.4 Sensory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 19.5.5 Other infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
18.5.5 Language and communication . . . . . . 414 19.5.6 Diabetes mellitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
18.5.6 Social behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 19.5.7 Asthma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

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19.5.8 Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism 438 20.4.1 Prevention of challenging behaviour . 456
19.5.9 Common gastrointestinal disorders . . 439 20.4.2 Dealing with challenging behaviour . . 460
19.5.10 Kidney (renal) disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 20.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
19.5.11 Common nutritional disorders . . . . . . 439
19.5.12 Common childhood cancers . . . . . . . . 441
19.5.13 Common heart disorders . . . . . . . . . . . 441 SECTION I: ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS
19.5.14 Blood disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Chapter 21: Addressing giftedness
19.6 Learning support to learners with
chronic diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
19.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 21.2 What is “giftedness”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
21.2.1 Giftedness as an interrelated system . 470
21.2.2 A definition of giftedness as an inter-
SECTION H: ADDRESSING CHALLENGING related system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
BEHAVIOUR 21.2.3 Characteristics of giftedness . . . . . . . . 472
Chapter 20: Addressing challenging behaviour in the 21.2.4 The two-sided coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
classroom 21.3 Unique needs of gifted learners . . . . . 474
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 21.3.1 Characteristics as a source of
20.2 Cause, nature and extent of typical problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
challenging behaviour in the 21.3.2 Relationships as a source of
classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
20.2.1 Causative factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 21.4 Appropriate ways of teaching the
20.3 Manifestations of challenging gifted learner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
behaviour in schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 21.4.1 Teaching strategies for gifted
20.3.1 Effects of disruptive behaviour on learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
teachers, learners and the country . . . 454 21.4.2 A curriculum development model for
20.4 Strategies in dealing with challenging gifted learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
behaviour in the classroom . . . . . . . . . 455 21.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

xiii
PREFACE

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa In Section A the background to inclusive educa-
(Act 108 of 1996) provides a base for development tion is discussed with guidelines for implementa-
in South African education. With regard to educa- tion. Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological approach is
tion, the Bill of Rights (Chapter 2 of the Constitu- used as a framework for the implementation of
tion of the Republic of South Africa, 1996) pro- inclusive education.
vides that everyone has the right to education, In Section B the socio-economic barriers to
which the State “through reasonable measure, learning are discussed to make educators aware
must make progressively available and accessi- of the circumstances in South Africa that may con-
ble”. The Department of Education goes on to tribute to barriers to learning that may prevent
state that the main objective of any education sys- learners from achieving their potential.
tem in a democratic society is to provide quality Section C (addressing educational barriers) cov-
education for all learners so that they will be able ers assessment of learners and the implementa-
to reach their full potential and contribute mean- tion of support as envisaged by the Department of
ingfully to and participate in that society through- Education. As early childhood learning is of the
out their lives. With the publication of the Educa- utmost importance, early childhood intervention
tion White Paper 6 in 2001, South Africa has pro- to support reception-year educators in their
claimed its policy of inclusive education, the goal teaching is included. Although Life Skills is part of
being the advancement of human rights as well as the curriculum, educators need to understand
social and environmental justice. The National that life skills should feature in every encounter
Curriculum flowing from the Education White Paper they have with learners.
is particularly sensitive to diversity, including In Section D literacy barriers are addressed.
poverty, inequality, race, gender, barriers to This includes support to address first language,
learning, language and age. The National Curricu- second language and mathematical literacy diffi-
lum takes an inclusive approach, which means culties. A chapter on augmentative and alternative
that all diversities of all learners should be accom- communication strategies concludes this section.
modated. That means that educators must be pre- In Section E the emphasis falls on attitude bar-
pared to accept and teach a diversity of learners. riers – the attitudes of parents, the school and the
Educators must now take responsibility for all the community towards learners that may cause barri-
learners in their school – education for all. How- ers to learning. Sound collaboration between
ever, this policy is not always clearly understood these parties may help to prevent or alleviate bar-
by educators. riers to learning.
With the publication of this book, the contribu- In Section F a variety of impairments is dis-
tors hope that prospective and current educators cussed which may contribute to barriers to learn-
will be better prepared to teach all the learners in ing according to the Education White Paper 6. A
their class groups. chapter on brain development and neurology is
The barriers to learning as captured by the Edu- included to highlight the importance of sound
cation White Paper 6 were taken as a point of brain development and to prevent brain injuries
departure to divide the book into nine parts. that may contribute to learners not achieving
Although the book refers to these barriers (main- according to their potential. The relevance of
ly for the sake of preventing barriers to learning medical knowledge as opposed to the medical
and for the identification of learners who may deficit model is addressed. Knowledge of the
experience them), the focus is mainly on support impairments would help educators to know how
within the classroom. Many case studies are used to take the specific impairment into account
to illustrate how support could be rendered. when providing learning support. The term

xiv
“learners with impairments” rather than “disabled Throughout the book, the term “educator” is
learners” is used throughout this part to empha- used when referring to adults who are responsi-
sise the fact that learners with impairments need ble for the education of learners in general; for
not be disabled if they are identified early in life example, “educators” in the school environment
and receive the best possible learning support. includes everybody participating in the education
Support to learners with impairments should be of learners. When referring to the classroom, the
holistic and all stakeholders that could contribute term “teacher” is used. The term “parent/s”
to addressing barriers that learners with impair- includes the biological parents and caregivers
ments may experience should come on board. responsible for the upbringing of children.
However, in Chapter 18 where severe and multi- It is the wish of the contributors that this book
ple disabilities are discussed, the contributor is of will play a part in addressing the needs of educa-
the opinion that because of the severity of the dif- tors in our schools. Educators need to be empow-
ficulties these learners may experience, they may ered to successfully implement the policy of inclu-
nevertheless be disabled by society and their envi- sive education, otherwise learners who experi-
ronment. ence barriers to learning will be marginalised and
Section G covers health problems and, more unable to contribute to the development of South
specifically, considers a variety of chronic diseases Africa.
and their educational implications. Although the term “he” is used in many
Section H covers the causes and manifestations instances in the book, both genders are included.
of challenging behaviour (behaviour problems) as
well as prevention and support. Emmerentia Landsberg
The last part, Section I, addresses giftedness, Deirdré Krüger
and support to learners who are gifted is empha- Norma Nel
sised. November 2004

xv
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PROF ERNA ALANT DR MARLIZE KUNNEKE

Centre for Augmentative and Alternative Paediatrician
Communication Worcester General Hospital
University of Pretoria MRS EMMERENTIA LANDSBERG
DR JUAN BORNMAN Retired Senior Lecturer
Centre for Augmentative and Alternative School of Education
Communication University of South Africa
University of Pretoria DR NORMA NEL
PROF. CECILIA BOUWER School of Education
Department of Educational Psychology University of South Africa
University of Pretoria MRS JOAN ORR
MR PAUL BOTHA School of Education
Retired Senior Lecturer University of South Africa
School of Education DR TLAKALE PHASHA
University of South Africa Department of Educational Studies
DR ANNATJIE DEDNAM University of Johannesburg
Retired Senior Lecturer MS RAINE PETTIPHER
School of Education Department of Educational Sciences
University of South Africa University of Johannesburg
MS MICHAL HARTY PROF. ERNA PRINSLOO
Centre for Augmentative and Alternative School of Education
Communication University of South Africa
University of Pretoria MRS RIEKIE SMITH
DR CECILE JOOSTE Retired Senior Lecturer
Principal: The Gateway School School of Education
Roodepoort University of South Africa
DR MARTIN JOOSTE DR CLAUDINE STORBECK
Department of Psychology School of Human and Community
University of Johannesburg Development
PROF. ATTIE KAPP University of Witwatersrand
(posthumous) DR IRENE STRYDOM
School of Education School of Education
University of South Africa University of South Africa
PROF. SHIRLEY KOKOT PROF. ESTELLE SWART
School of Education Department of Educational Psychology
University of South Africa University of Stellenbosch
MS CHRISTINE KOUDSTAAL DR KITTY UYS
Principal: Unica School Centre for Augmentative and Alternative
Pretoria Communication
DR DEIDRÉ KRÜGER University of Pretoria
School of Education
University of South Africa

xvi
 Section

Introduction

1
 A FRAMEWORK FOR
UNDERSTANDING
1
INCLUSION

ESTELLE SWART & RAINE PETTIPHER

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the concept of inclusion
Œ understand Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model and know how to
implement it
Πunderstand inclusive education in South Africa.

Key terms your readings and the practical decisions you

make throughout the course of this book and
inclusion ♦ medical or deficit model ♦ normalisation your own practice.
♦ mainstreaming ♦ social ecological model ♦ bio-
ecological model ♦ socio-critical perspective
1.2 WHAT IS INCLUSION?
The term “inclusion” has become something of an
1.1 INTRODUCTION
international and national buzzword. It can easily
Inclusion is a complex concept. Therefore to become a cliché if individuals do not possess an
understand it and what it entails requires a com- in-depth understanding of its meaning and exam-
prehensive theoretical and philosophical frame- ine closely the underlying values it is based on.
work, drawing from theories of human develop- The making of inclusion into a buzzword is evi-
ment and educational change, analysing paradigm dent when reading policy documents, newspaper
shifts in educational support as well as insight articles or listening to media statements. On the
into historical, social, political and educational other hand, readers can become easily confused
processes, both internationally and nationally. when confronted with the multiple definitions of
Inclusion in schools requires informed practition- inclusion offered in international literature. Inclu-
ers with a sound theoretical knowledge base from sion has come to mean different things to differ-
which informed decisions can be made. This ent people, to such an extent that authors such as
chapter introduces you to the important theories Dyson (2001), Florian (1998) and Meijer et al.
that can inform the development and implemen- (1997) make us aware of the varieties of inclusion
tation of inclusion in South Africa. This is an intro- that exist in different international contexts. How-
ductory chapter to understanding inclusion from ever, despite the different interpretations of the
a theoretical and philosophical perspective and concept and the diverse ways it is implemented in
cannot fully give credit to the complexity and different contexts, there are a few commonalities
extent of the topic. It is recommended that you which run across all varieties of inclusion. These
use this chapter as a lens or road map to guide include broad principles such as a dedication to

3
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

building a more democratic society, a more equi- from industrial to informational and from nation-
table and quality education system, and a belief al to international societies (Karagiannis et al.
that extends the responsibility of regular schools 1996: 9). Traditional conventions of schools and
to accommodate the diverse learning needs of all classrooms are therefore rapidly becoming out-
learners (Dyson 2001). dated as the educational, social and political
In a wider sense, inclusion is about developing needs of our society continually change. At the
inclusive community and education systems. It is same time societies are becoming more diverse
based on a value system that invites and cele- and multicultural, resulting in classrooms consist-
brates diversity arising from gender, nationality, ing of learners from diverse ethnic, linguistic, cul-
race, language, socio-economic background, cul- tural and socio-economic backgrounds and with
tural origin and level of educational achievement diverse abilities (Frederickson & Cline 2002: 4). A
or disability (Mittler 2000: 10). It is about includ- logical response to the rapidly evolving social,
ing everyone, regardless of ability, gender, lan- political and economic contexts is to create
guage or disability, so that all learners can belong schools that are grounded in democratic princi-
in school and have access to the educational out- ples and constructs of social justice. All schools
comes that schools offer. Inclusion is about more need to support the concept of equal educational
than “special needs” or disabilities, and is con- opportunities for all learners by ensuring access
cerned with comprehensive education, equality for all learners, including those who experience
and collective belonging (Thomas & Loxley 2001: barriers to learning.
118). Inclusion can also be seen “as an expression
of the struggle to achieve universal human rights”
Do you think that the school where you
(Mittler 2000: 12) and has its origins in the inter- are teaching makes provision for a
national human rights movement. Inclusion is a diversity of learners? Do you think all
worldwide movement and has a “global agenda” learners receive equal educational
(Pijl et al. 1997). Therefore an understanding of opportunities?
both the international and South African context
ACTIVITY

Take the following into consideration:

is necessary to understand the different varieties Do all learners have physical access to
and interpretations of inclusion. the school (are transport and the build-
To understand why so many countries, includ- ings accessible)? Is the curriculum
ing South Africa, are moving from segregated to being adapted so that a diversity of
learners is able to access it? Are the
more inclusive education systems that accommo-
teachers motivated and able to teach a
date all learners, it is necessary to analyse the diversity of learners? Can all learners
processes and goals of education as well as how afford the school fees?
educational systems reflect different views about
differences among learners.
Throughout history, changes in society are fre-
1.3 INCLUSION IN AN INTERNATIONAL quently paralleled with alternative ways of think-
CONTEXT ing, or new paradigms about human nature. This
has been the case specifically in the field of learn-
1.3.1 Changing paradigms ing and behaviour difficulties. According to Skrtic
Schools do not function in isolation, but are influ- (1995: 4), a paradigm or world-view is “... a shared
enced by economic, political and social develop- pattern of basic beliefs and assumptions about
ments. What happens in schools is a reflection of the nature of the world and how it works. These
the developments and changes in society. As assumptions tell us what is real and what is not;
those who work in schools are citizens of their they shape our cultural identity and guide and jus-
society and local community, a society’s values, tify our institutional practices.” In this sense para-
beliefs and priorities will influence the life and digms are enabling, but also possess the potential
work of schools. Societies are undergoing funda- of being restrictive when still applied in the light
mental changes as they undergo transformation of new theories and knowledge that attempt to

4
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

better explain the nature of the world. In the next inevitably, categorisation and labelling. Labels
few paragraphs two of the most prominent para- such as AD/HD (attention deficit/hyperactivity dis-
digms related to disability and educational sup- order), learning disabled, EBD (emotional and
port will be critically discussed. These include the behavioural disorders) and dyslexic are easily
medical model and the social ecological model. attached to children and therefore such children
are often separated and treated differently. In the
1.3.2 The medical model previous segregated education system such labels
determined the type of special school, class or
The shift to inclusion is not separate from the form of “remedial attention” the learners and
shift in paradigms that occurred in the early 1970s their families required. Thus learners who did not
and 1980s. In education this led to a radical shift “fit into” the existing education programme were
from a medical deficit or within-child model to a often moved to special schools or classes, in order
social systems change approach. These models to “fix” them and alleviate their differences. Such
have been widely described by writers in the field education aimed to offer the learner a special cur-
of disabilities and special education (Ainscow riculum and interventions by specialist staff or
1998; Bailey 1998; Ferguson 2002; Mittler 2000; experts that were aimed at removing or alleviat-
Skrtic 1995; Thomas & Loxley 2001). Professionals ing the deficiencies from within the child. A further
used these models not only as explanatory frame- rationale for separate education was that it was
works, but also to direct their ideas and beliefs for the benefit of the learner as well as for the
which they demonstrate in their methods, behav- benefit of the majority of learners not labelled
iour and conversations. A shift in paradigms does with a disability. Key concepts associated with the
not necessarily imply an overnight change in prac- medical deficit model include “special education-
tices. While inclusion is very prominent in educa- al needs”, “handicap”, “disability”, “defect”, “defi-
tion today, the medical model is still frequently ciency”, “remedial”, “diagnostic”, “cases”, “prog-
used as an explanatory framework. nosis”, “prescriptive”, “segregation” and “exclu-
The medical or within-child model, which was sion”.
popular from early in the 1900s, is ultimately a From the above it should be evident how the
model of diagnosis and treatment. In terms of paradigm of the time framed and determined the
medicine, the field of its origins, it is highly roles and actions of educators and professionals,
focused on pathology, sickness, the nature and as well as the segregated structure of the educa-
aetiology of the presenting problem, and dealing tion system. Teacher training qualifications were
with the specific pathology in a centred way. Such also divided between those which served the
a medical model is fine in its place, if one thinks needs of “ordinary” learners in general classes,
about the role of a medical doctor which is to find and those which focused on providing trainees
out “what is wrong” with people and to “fix them with “special” skills to teach in specialised set-
up”. However, it is less helpful when one is work- tings. Possessing such “specialised” knowledge
ing in the social sciences where the location of and skills elevated the educator or professional to
barriers is frequently not only within the person, that of an expert. This meant that special educa-
but can also be situated in the community. tors and other professionals were the only know-
When applying this model in the field of educa- ledgeable ones in assessing, identifying and treat-
tion, children with any type of difference or more ing the disability within the learner. The educa-
specific disability are singled out and the origin of tion support professional’s role was therefore
the difference is looked for within the learner. seen as indispensable and “cure” was not possible
The professionals supporting this view tend to without the professional’s intervention.1 Such
follow the “find-what’s-wrong-and-cure-it” para- claims are not unfounded but based on positivist
digm. This implies that a thorough assessment of philosophy that asserts that scientific knowledge
the child’s strengths and weaknesses needs to be is objective, empirical and observable and there-
conducted, and where possible a diagnosis made fore the only source of correct knowledge about
for placement in a specialised environment and, reality. This philosophy has subsequently been

5
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

challenged with a subjective philosophy that has disability is conceived of as a dynamic interaction
given rise to more social and ecological theoreti- between biological, individual and social perspectives
cal models. (cf Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model).

Comparison between different discourses 1.3.3 The social ecological model

and related educational and professional
Criticism of the medical model has led to more
practices
social and ecological theoretical models (Bailey
Medical 1998). It became increasingly evident that a para-
Continuum Inclusion
paradigm digm shift was required that involved a refocusing
Intention Segregation Integration and away from the “specialness” of learners and the
and exclusion inclusion “special” forms of provision they were seen to
Actions Change the Change the system “need”, towards the removal of stumbling blocks
individual Develop different within society and the participation of all people,
Fix the child systems to support especially those with differences, in the everyday
to “fit in” the child
life of society (Florian et al. 1998). Related to this
Interventions Collaboration
predominately between all role- is the changing of attitudes, regulations and insti-
by specialist players including tutions that create and maintain exclusion. A shift
personnel specialist personnel in paradigm became more visible when normali-
Special As far as possible in sation was introduced. In Western societies the
placement mainstream idea of normalisation came to the fore in the late
Discourse Medical deficit Social-critical, bio- 1960s. Normalisation had its origins in Scandi-
ecological
navia before being popularised in the United
Power Systems and Parents, learners, States. Normalisation can be defined as “making
professionals school and district-
based support teams available to all handicapped people patterns of
life and conditions of everyday living which are as
close as possible to the regular circumstances and
Although the medical model is rejected as a single ways of life of society” (Nirje 1976 in Du Toit
explanation, prominent authors such as Mittler 1996: 7). This means that people with “handicaps”
(2000: 3) are of the opinion that “... it is still part have the right to a “normal”2 daily routine, which
of the general consciousness of almost everyone involves “normal” school and home circum-
who works in education”. It is deeply ingrained stances, “normal” respect from others, “normal”
into the thinking of generations of teachers, par- economic and environmental standards and so
ents, professionals and legislators and is not on. This normalisation philosophy was in direct
going to change rapidly, even though it is argued conflict with the earlier practice of separate
that it is discriminatory and limiting. Traces of the schools, and soon gave rise first to mainstreaming
medical model are still evident in educational and and then to integration policies.
psychological policy, practice and attitudes today. The terms “mainstreaming” and “integration”
However, medical information cannot be ignored are often used interchangeably in the literature to
completely and is still necessary as the current mean the same thing. However, this is not the
conceptualisation of a person’s functioning and case and while they are closely related, there
appear to be subtle differences in goals, process-
After reading about the medical model, es and available services between the two. The
think about your own environment and interpretation of the terms is further complicated
ACTIVITY

community and identify examples of because they are also used differently in different
practices where the medical model is parts of the world. “Mainstreaming” is a term
evident. Write down what you have
most commonly used in the United States, while
learned about this model from your
observations. the term “integration” is more frequently used in
European countries (Farrell 2000; Pijl et al. 1997).

6
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

In the light of this, both mainstreaming and inte- criticised in the past (Ainscow 1999: 7) for not
gration need to be understood, studied and eval- providing learners with sufficient support to
uated as processes within a given educational and benefit from regular education. Among others it
geographical context. Furthermore, differences has been referred to as “mainstream-dumping”,
between mainstreaming, integration and inclu- “dump-and-hope” (Corbett 2001) or “mainstream-
sion cannot be authoritatively summarised ing by default” (Department of Education 1997: 1;
because there is at this stage insufficient evidence Department of Education 2001: 17).
and consensus to justify this (Mittler 2000: 10). Unlike mainstreaming, integration relies heavi-
Therefore, the discussion that follows is an ly on social and political discourse. Humanitarian
attempt to highlight the principles of main- and civil rights issues originally drove policies
streaming and integration that are consistently leading to integration. An example of the merging
referred to in international literature. of civil rights and professional understandings of
Mainstreaming is the educational equivalent of disability is the United States’ Education of the
the normalisation principle which suggests that Handicapped Act of 1975 (now the Individuals
people with disabilities have a right to life experi- with Disabilities Education Act, IDEA). This
ences that are the same as, or similar to, those of emphasised the democratic right of every child to
others in society. The goal of mainstreaming is to public education. In contrast to mainstreaming,
return learners with disabilities to the mainstream the goal of integration is to ensure that learners
of education as much as possible, alongside nor- with disabilities are assigned equal membership
mally developing peers. It was implemented in in the community. Integration aims to maximise
countries such as the United States by having the social interactions between the “disabled”
learners with disabilities “visit” general education and the “non-disabled”. However, since the con-
classes for relatively short periods of time, most cept of integration did not specify what exactly
commonly in the non-academic portions of the was to be done instead of exclusion and segrega-
general education programme such as art, music tion, many different interpretations and examples
and physical education (Turnbull et al. 2002: 77). resulted. While some interpretations emphasised
Most of these children were still enrolled in self- a more political agenda, others attempted match-
contained special-education classes, therefore ing provision to need. Hence, with the necessary
mainstreaming usually only applied to some learn- policy in place, integration involved more exten-
ers and most particularly those with mild disabili- sive and holistic participation of learners with dis-
ties. Learners needed to prove their readiness to abilities in relation to mainstreaming, while sig-
“fit into” the mainstream as few, if any, special nificant instructional time in separate settings still
services followed the learner into the mainstream. prevailed. A further aspect that differentiated
Supporters of mainstream therefore assumed that mainstreaming from integration was that in inte-
a learner must “earn” the opportunity to be main- gration these special services followed the learner
streamed by demonstrating the ability to “keep to the regular school. However, only a limited
up” with the work assigned to other learners in number of additional provisions were made and
the class. If special education provision was nec- the onus was still on the learner to “fit in” (Fred-
essary, it was provided in special environments erickson & Cline 2002: 65). It is the opinion of Fer-
such as self-contained classes3 and resource guson (1994: 1507) that integration’s promise of a
rooms.4 When “mainstreaming” a learner, the mainstream that tolerated and perhaps incorpo-
school and classroom remained largely unaltered rated more differences in abilities remained large-
and so the setting never had to prove its readi- ly unfulfilled. However, it is hoped that with the
ness to accept a child. On reflection it is evident introduction of inclusion during the last two
that mainstreaming, to a large extent, maintained decades of the 20th century, the promise of
and reinforced the medical discourse with its accommodating diversity in its fullest sense will
focus on the problem within the individual and be realised.
about disability as different and in need of repair Inclusion is therefore about an extension of the
in order to “fit in”. This model has been heavily comprehensive ideal in education. Much changed

7
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

in the political climate of the last decade of the This was based on the following educational,
20th century. A new ethic took shape around the social and economic grounds:
mid-1990s, characterised by talk of an “inclusive • The education of all learners together requires
society” and a “stakeholder society”. This developing teaching practices that accommo-
replaced the earlier ethic of individualism, com- date individual differences and therefore bene-
petition and “winner-takes-all”. Changes have fit all learners.
been possible in thinking about inclusion in edu- • Inclusive schools foster social inclusion thereby
cation, because of changes in society. Therefore valuing and embracing differences and nurtur-
there are real differences in values and practices ing attitudes of acceptance and respect. This
between integration and inclusion (Mittler 2000: forms the basis for a just and non-discriminato-
10). In this sense, inclusion can be described as a ry society.
reconceptualisation of values and beliefs that wel-
• Educating all learners together is a more cost-
comes and celebrates diversity, and not only a set of
effective way of delivering education for all
practices.
learners.
The inclusive education approach received its
first major impetus at the World Conference on The Salamanca Statement provides a vision, cre-
Special Needs Education 1994 in Salamanca, ates a standard and provides a benchmark for
Spain. The purpose of the Salamanca Conference measuring progress in schools (Lipsky & Gartner
was to further the objective of education as a fun- 1997: 258).
damental human right by paying attention to the Fundamental school renewal and restructuring
fundamental policy shifts necessary for the devel- is therefore essential for implementing inclusion
opment of inclusive education. These needed to (Lipsky & Gartner 1997: 257). Inclusive education
be aimed at enabling schools to serve all learners, shifts the focus from the learners having to adjust
including those experiencing barriers to learning. to “fit into” the systems, to the schools trans-
Further, acknowledgement was given to process- forming themselves to be capable of accommo-
es such as education systems that recognise and dating and addressing the diverse needs of all
respond effectively to diversity. The emphasis was learners so that each individual learner receives a
therefore on developing inclusive education sys- learning experience that “fits”. Such transforma-
tems that tion efforts are not possible without a radical shift
from one set of assumptions, beliefs, values,
... accommodate all children, regardless of
norms, relationships, behaviours and practices to
their physical, intellectual, social, emotional,
another, based on values of mutual acceptance,
linguistic or other conditions. This should
respect for diversity, a sense of belonging and
include disabled and gifted children, street
social justice. These moral requirements need to
and working children, children from remote
culminate in
or nomadic populations, children from lin-
guistic, ethnic, or cultural minorities and • an expression of commitment to nurturing a
children from other disadvantaged or mar- genuine respect for all people
ginalised areas or groups (Unesco 1994: 6). • combating prejudice and discriminatory prac-
tices
These inclusive education systems • utilising human resources to the mutual benefit
of all
... must recognise and respond to the • acknowledging the rights of all learners to
diverse needs of their students, accommo- access equitable educational opportunities
dating both different styles and rates of • developing a flexible curriculum that addresses
learning and ensuring quality education to the diverse needs of all learners (Lazarus et al.
all through appropriate curricula, organisa- 1999).
tional arrangements, teaching strategies,
resource use and partnerships with their It is evident that inclusion is a multidimensional
communities (Unesco 1994: 11–12). and challenging process, and a deep understand-

8
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

ing of the elements of inclusion is therefore nec- ers”) is preferred and reflects the inclusive value
essary. Schools wishing to explore what is of human diversity.
involved in implementing inclusion can now con- In this section we have discussed the concept
sult a variety of resources, for example the Index inclusion by examining its international develop-
for inclusion: developing learning and participation in ment, which has been closely related to shifting
schools. In the Index for inclusion (Booth et al. 2000) paradigms in educational support. The subse-
three dimensions of an inclusive school are quent section in this chapter extends the theoret-
emphasised allowing schools themselves to take ical and philosophical framework further by dis-
control in creating the type of inclusive education cussing the concepts systems, context and barriers
which is effective in their context and for their to learning in more detail and their related the-
specific learners. Each dimension consists of two oretical frameworks. Theory can be defined as a
sections. Dimension A is concerned with creating set of ideas, assumptions and concepts ordered in
inclusive cultures which involves creating a secure, such a way that it tells us about the world, our-
accepting, collaborating, stimulating community selves or an aspect of reality. Any theory needs to
in which everyone is involved, which forms the be subjected to a process that involves falsifica-
foundation for the performability of all learners. tion, allowing us to eliminate inadequate theories
Dimension B focuses on producing inclusive policies and thereby providing a better grasp of reality. In
aimed at developing a school for all and organis- other words, theories are not fixed and therefore
ing support to respond to learner diversity. not ultimate truths and the full complexity of life
Dimension C is about evolving inclusive practices cannot be captured by a single theory. Theories
that reflect the inclusive cultures and policies of continuously change as people actively engage
the school. Teaching and support are integrated with them, and theory development is therefore
together in the orchestration of learning and the an ongoing activity (Skrtic 1995: 21; Green 2001:
overcoming of barriers to learning and participa- 6; Donald et al. 2002: 8). The usefulness of theory
tion. These three dimensions reinforce the belief lies in its ability to provide a set of organised prin-
that inclusion is “a journey without an end” (Mitt- ciples that together with contextual knowledge
ler 2000: 113) and not a destination, and that the can generate insights into specific situations. The-
process differs from school to school. However, ory is, however, not synonymous with a “recipe”
the goal for every school needs to be the estab- or “prescription” (Green 2001: 7). The theory pre-
lishment of an inclusive school climate and cul- sented here forms the background for under-
ture that infiltrates every aspect of school life. standing the historical development of inclusion
Earlier on in the chapter we analysed some of in South Africa, the nature and management of
the concepts and language closely associated with barriers to learning and the implementation of
the medical model. Clearly, language reflects the inclusion. It also serves as an alternative frame-
social context in which a paradigm is developed work for the linear models of the past.
and can be a powerful tool. It therefore stands to
reason that to facilitate the change to inclusion,
1.4 BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL AND
the terminology we use needs to reflect the vision
BIO-ECOLOGICAL MODELS
and contribute to its realisation. Terminology
associated with the paradigm of inclusion As indicated above, the major challenge of the
includes concepts such as barriers to learning education system is to understand the complexity
instead of special needs, learning support as a pre- of the influences, interactions and interrelation-
ferred term to remedial education and systems ships between the individual learner and multiple
changes in comparison to changes within the indi- other systems that are connected to the learner
vidual. A further shift also includes the manner in from an ecological systems theory or systems
which learners with impairments are referred to. change perspective. The framework for the eco-
Although still a much debated issue, using “per- logical systems theory as described in this chapter
son first” language (e.g. “learners with impair- is based on the past and more recent work by
ments”, instead of “impaired” or “disabled learn- Bronfenbrenner (1979; 1992; Bronfenbrenner &

9
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

Morris 1998; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci 1994). Bron- analysis and synthesis”, once again emphasising
fenbrenner’s model is an example of a multidi- the importance of the different levels of the whole
mensional model of human development. Such social context that interact in complex and
models suggest that there are layers or levels of dynamic ways.
interacting systems resulting in change, growth Central to Bronfenbrenner’s model of the 1970s
and development, such as physical, biological, as well as his recent work (1998) are four interact-
psychological, social and cultural. What happens ing dimensions or properties that need to be con-
in one system affects and is affected by other sys- sidered when understanding child development
tems. In other words, relationships among causes (or any other kind of change) in context:
are reciprocal (see discussion below on systems • Person factors (e.g. behavioural tendencies
theory) and multifaceted. Multidimensional mod- that either encourage or discourage certain
els are useful in describing development as well as kinds of reaction from others)
the complex, causal processes involved in many
• Process factors (e.g. the patterns of interaction
other kinds of change. Examples of such change
that occur in a system)
include qualitative, transforming changes, for
example changing from a traditional to an out- • Contexts (e.g. families, schools, classrooms and
comes-based education curriculum, or from an local communities)
exclusive to an inclusive education system. It also • Time (changes over time due to maturation in
includes continual, incremental variations that the individual as well as changes in the envi-
can be reversible, such as learning and then for- ronment)
getting new information.
A major contribution of the often-cited 1970s
In the field of inclusive education, Bronfenbren-
model is the emphasis it placed on contexts. Per-
ner’s ecological model and the more recently
son and process factors as well as the time dimen-
revised bio-ecological model of development have
sion received further explanation in the later
much relevance to emphasising the interaction
description of the bio-ecological model. In the
between an individual’s development and the sys-
1970s Bronfenbrenner developed a complex eco-
tems within the social context. This in turn
logical model that explains the direct and indirect
reminds us why the general challenges of devel-
influences on a child’s life by referring to the
opment cannot be separated from the more spe-
many levels of environment or contexts that influ-
cific challenges of addressing social issues and
ence a person’s development. He suggested that
barriers to learning, especially within the South
it is helpful to conceive of the environment or
African context. They are all connected with each
social context as “a set of nested structures, each
other. Subsequently, understanding the origins,
contained inside the next like a set of Russian
maintenance and solutions to barriers to learning
dolls” and therefore interrelated (Bronfenbrenner
cannot be separated from the broader social con-
1979 in Frederickson & Cline 2002: 110). These
text and the systems within it, including the indi-
nested structures, contexts or environmental sys-
vidual. The model is also useful in understanding
tems include the microsystem, the mesosystem,
classrooms, schools and families by viewing them
the exosystem and the macrosystem. These all
as systems in themselves (Christenson & Sheridan
interact with the chronosystem as illustrated in
2001; Frederickson & Cline 2002: 212) and in
Figure 1.1.
interaction with the broader social context. This
section builds on previous interpretations of • Microsystem. This system constitutes a pattern
Bronfenbrenner’s work in South Africa. Donald et of activities, roles and interpersonal relations
al. (1997: 33) used the ecosystemic and construc- experienced between individuals and the sys-
tivist perspectives to explain “individual people in tems in which they actively participate, such as
relation to their social context”. Engelbrecht the family or the school or the peer group. The
(1999: 3) adapted the ecosystemic perspective microsystem is therefore the immediate envi-
and suggested a meta-approach for understand- ronment where proximal processes (for a defi-
ing inclusive education “by means of contextual nition of proximal processes, see page 13) are

10
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

played out. It is characterised by those individ- the microsystem of the school can protect him
uals and events closest to one’s life, and to an extent from the psychological effects of
involves continual face-to-face contact, with the unsupportive environment at home. In
each person reciprocally influencing the other. addition, implementing inclusion is not possi-
ble without paying attention to developing
• Mesosystem. The mesosystem refers to the
relationships between the different microsys-
relationships that develop and exist between
tems, for example school–family partnerships.
these microsystems. In short, a mesosystem is a
system of microsystems. At this level the family, • Exosystem. This refers to one or more environ-
school and peer group interact with one an- ments in which the developing learner is not
other, modifying each of the systems. For involved directly as an active participant but
example, a learner from an unsupportive home which may influence or be influenced by what
environment may not receive the emotional happens in settings and relationships that
support he requires, thus placing that learner directly influence the learner. Examples include
at risk of developing possible barriers to learn- the education system, health services, the
ing. However, the learner may also have an media, a parent’s place of work or a local com-
attentive and caring teacher who is able to pro- munity organisation. Thus a parent’s stressful
vide a positive environment which over a sus- relationship with an employer does not involve
tained period boosts the learner’s self-esteem the learner directly, but can possibly influence
and sense of security. Thus the experience in the quality of that parent’s relationship with

Macrosystem

Exosystem

Mesosystem
Economics Local Welfare Social
health care services values

Microsystem Microsystem

Family Education
friends Peers Family

Individual

Microsystem

Neighbours School Work

associates

Health Extended Other Politics

family parents

Local community

Society

Figure 1.1 Ecosystemic model layout

11
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

the learner and other microsystems in which Integral to understanding Bronfenbrenner’s

the learner has proximal relationships, such as model of human development is general systems
the peer group. The same applies to poor theory. Systems theory is comprised of principles
health services. If a learner is chronically ill and such as the following:
frequently absent from school as a result of
poor health services, it will influence his rela- • In adapting to internal and external change,
tionships with his parents, teachers and peers systems attempt to maintain a dynamic bal-
as well as his school work. ance. This is also referred to as equilibration.

• Macrosystem. This refers to the attitudes, • Circular causality is the opposite to the linear
beliefs, values and ideologies inherent in the model of cause-and-effect frequently associated
systems of a particular society and culture with the medical model (see the box on page
which may have an impact or be influenced by 13 for everyday examples of linear thinking). In
any of the above systems. Examples of values essence the theory of circular causality states
and beliefs could include democracy, social jus- that change (or activity) in any part of a system
tice and ubuntu.5 or individual affects other systems and indi-
viduals and at a later time could be seen as a
• Chronosystem. The chronosystem refers to the
developmental time-frames which cross cause for change. Changes in society, such as a
through the interactions between these systems new government and educational policies,
and their influences on individual development. affect families and schools and vice versa. A
An example of this would be the developmental further example is the influence of the birth
process which a family undergoes in which of a child with a disability on a family and
there might also be a child who is in a process the simultaneous influence of the family on
of development (families with babies and tod- the child. This is also often referred to as reci-
dlers experience different interactions and procity.
processes from a family with teenagers and chil- • The whole system is greater than the sum of its
dren leaving home). This in turn interacts with a parts. A school which encourages reciprocal
child’s progressive stages of development. relationships, also referred to as synergism,
A key component of Bronfenbrenner’s model is between parents, learners, the community and
the understanding that children are also active other organisations is more effective than one
participants in their own development, and the that does not interact with other systems.
environment therefore does not simply impact on • Rules are vital to the effective functioning of
the child. Children’s perceptions of their context a system and maintain the intactness of the
are central to understanding how they interact system. Rules serve to organise the respective
with their environments. The way they perceive interactions and operate to maintain a stable
their circumstances influences the way they and consistent system. Difficulties arise when
respond to their human and physical contexts. the rules and values of each system are not
discussed and shared, often resulting in mis-
communication or stereotyping. Therefore,
An example of this is a learner who
when there is interaction between different
experiences maths anxiety. The learn-
er’s anxiety is generalised to any activi-
systems, a set of operating rules for the entire
ACTIVITY

ty involving figures. This means that overarching system is critical. For example, in
when asked to work out the money he parent–school partnerships significant atten-
needs to buy something, the learner is tion needs to be given to the rules and values
frequently overcome with anxiety which of both systems and the commonalities and
prevents him from completing the task. differences between them. Only after this
What other examples can you provide? can a mutually agreed set of rules be estab-
lished.

12
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

which the individual functions. Efforts are direct-

Everyday examples of linear thinking for a ed at synergising the system as a whole “with the
learner’s lack of progress goal of helping the system work better for the
A learner does not make progress because individual” (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 41).
• the parents are not interested or involved After many years of research and revision, Bron-
fenbrenner has developed a revised model of
• he works too slowly and cannot read
human development which is now called the bio-
• his parents are divorced
ecological model. This model is still evolving, but
• he comes from a very poor background its current format was written about in publica-
• his father is an alcoholic tions in the 1990s. The bio-ecological model
• the classes are too big incorporates features of the earlier version of the
• the new curriculum does not work. model and integrates them with new elements
into a more dynamic and complex structure (Bron-
We know that these examples need not lead fenbrenner & Morris 1998: 993). The discussion
to a learner’s lack of progress in school. that follows highlights essential changes and ele-
There are many examples of people who ments in the model, but does not discuss the
come from poor backgrounds and/or broken complex nature of the model in detail. For a more
families who have progressed in society. Can advanced and detailed discussion on the bio-eco-
you also provide examples of learners who logical model you need to consult the sources
have achieved at school despite these draw- referred to in the bibliography.
backs? What “counteracts” these factors and
As in the previous model, Bronfenbrenner still
helps or influences them to achieve?
emphasises the four principal components of the
model, namely processes, person, contexts and
time. In the bio-ecological model, the characteris-
Bronfenbrenner’s theory is important with regard tics of these components and their interaction
to inclusion. Given the shifting paradigm referred with each other are extended in order to fill in the
to earlier, the ecological systems theory illumi- gaps of the previous model. Process now consti-
nates the complexity of the interaction and inter- tutes the core of the model and has been specifi-
dependence of multiple systems that impact on cally described to refer to “... particular forms of
learners, their development and learning. To interaction between organism and environment,
understand the whole, the relationship between called proximal processes, that operate over time
the different parts of the system needs to be and are posited as the primary mechanisms pro-
examined. This means that an action or change on ducing human development” (Bronfenbrenner &
one level cannot be seen as the cause for an action Morris 1998: 994). These proximal processes need
on another level. Consequently we can only to involve progressively more complex reciprocal
understand why things are as they are at any interaction between an active human and the per-
stage by comprehending the continuous dynamic sons, objects and symbols in his immediate envi-
interaction and interplay between these multiple ronment. For the interactions to be effective they
influences. On a practical level, this implies that must occur on a regular basis and over extended
when a learner or any other system such as a peer periods of time so as to become more complex.
group, family or school experiences difficulties, a Examples of proximal processes involving interac-
true ecological systems thinker never debates whether tions with people and objects include feeding a
the cause or the solution is situated in one single sys- child, learning to ride a bicycle or drive a car,
tem, but considers the interdependence between all the reading and writing, planning, caring for others in
systems. Each system therefore possesses critical, distress, teaching and many others.
contributing factors and not causes. From this Person characteristics have also received
perspective while one works with individuals such renewed attention (Bronfenbrenner & Morris
as a parent, teacher or a learner, one never loses 1998). In previous ecological models much more
sight of the entire system (the whole picture) in attention was given to the nature of developmen-

13
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

tally relevant environments, while person charac- (Bronfenbrenner & Morris 1998; Bronfenbrenner
teristics were ignored. It is these person charac- & Ceci 1994). Of importance is the elaboration of
teristics that are generally regarded as biological- the definition of the microsystem to recognise
ly based, and influence proximal processes and significant others, other than the developing indi-
their developmental outcomes, from which the vidual, as present and participating in the setting
name “bio-ecological” arises. In the bio-ecological to also possess distinctive person characteristics
model three types of person characteristics are of temperament, personality, or systems of belief
identified as being instrumental in shaping the that influence development. Such characteristics
course of future development through their abili- can invite, permit, or inhibit engagement
ty to influence the direction and power of proxi- between the individual and significant others. In
mal processes. The first are dispositions or forces addition, the development of proximal processes
which can mobilise proximal processes and sus- involving interaction not only with people but
tain their operation, or conversely interfere with, with objects and symbols as well is further
limit or even prevent their occurrence. Examples emphasised.
of these different types of dispositions include
impulsiveness, distractibility, aggression and vio-
lence, feelings of insecurity, shyness, unrespon- These personal characteristics also fea-
siveness, or by contrast, characteristics such as ture in the different learning styles of
curiosity and responsiveness to initiatives by oth- learners. Some learners need visual
ers. Next are ecological resources that consist of material to support them in their learn-
biopsychological liabilities and assets that influ- ing; some learners want learning mate-
ACTIVITY

rial broken up into smaller amounts;

ence the capacity of the person to engage effec-
others first want to see the whole pic-
tively in proximal processes. Examples of liabili- ture before the material is broken up;
ties include genetic defects, low birth weight, some learners prefer studying with
physical impairments or damage to brain func- background music; others prefer study-
tion. In contrast, developmental assets take the ing in a quiet place, etc. Do you make
form of abilities, knowledge, skill and experience provision for the different learning
that can extend the domains in which proximal styles of the learners in your class in
processes can do their work. Thirdly, there are your teaching?
demand characteristics that are so called due to
their capacity to provoke or discourage reactions
from the social environment that either foster or Person characteristics also need to be considered
disrupt psychological processes of growth. Exam- in a definition of the macrosystem. Systems of
ples of these characteristics include a fussy or a belief are developmentally instigative personal
happy baby, or hyperactivity versus passivity. characteristics that are contextually bound. Devel-
These person characteristics are in constant inter- opment of one’s characteristics as a person
action with each other, thereby accounting for depends to a large extent on the options that are
differences in the direction and power of result- available or not in a given culture at a given point
ant proximal processes and their developmental in time. Therefore Bronfenbrenner not only
effects. broadened our understanding of what constitutes
Consequently these new formulations of person the macrosystem, but also the importance and
characteristics that shape the person’s future also significance of this system for human develop-
influence the conceptualisation of the original ment. Within the macrosystem, the micro-, meso-
1979 model of the environment in terms of nest- and exosystems share common patterns of char-
ed systems ranging from micro to macro. In the acteristics, such as similar belief systems, social
bio-ecological model the environment is still con- and economic resources, “... hazards, life styles,
ceived of as a set of nested structures, but the def- opportunity structures, life course options, and
inition of especially the micro- and macrosystem patterns of social interchange that are embedded
is expanded upon and specified in more detail in each of these systems” (Bronfenbrenner 1992:

14
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

228). From this perspective, examples of macro- development and change. Conversely such
systems include social classes, ethnic or religious processes can also create barriers to learning and
groups, or persons living in particular regions, hamper development. Implementing inclusion is
communities or neighbourhoods. complex, and therefore “ecological sensitivity”
In the bio-ecological model the property of (Dawes & Donald 2000: 19) is an important guid-
time is more comprehensively described and its ing principle. An analysis and understanding of
complexity and eternal presence acknowledged. both human and physical aspects of the context is
In the previous model it was broadly defined and an absolute prerequisite. The bio-ecological
limited to mere stages, as evident above in the model is especially useful for understanding inclu-
reference made to the chronosystem. In contrast, sion in the South African context.
time now has a prominent place at three succes-
sive levels – micro-, meso-, and macrotime. Cen- 1.5 INCLUSION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN
tral to understanding the property of time is the CONTEXT
definition of proximal processes as involving pro-
gressively more complex reciprocal interaction, 1.5.1 Special needs education prior to
and to be effective they need to occur on a fairly inclusion
regular basis over an extended period of time. It Over the last ten years education in South Africa
therefore follows that the effectiveness of proxi- has undergone numerous and radical changes.
mal processes is minimised in environments that The purpose of this section is to discuss these
are unstable and unpredictable across space and changes, paying special attention to their implica-
time. Within ongoing episodes of proximal tions for learners experiencing barriers to learn-
processes microtime refers to continuity versus ing, and for the development of an inclusive edu-
discontinuity. Mesotime is the periodic nature of cation and training system. A historical glimpse
these episodes across broader time intervals, such into previous educational dispensations and prac-
as days and weeks. Finally, macrotime focuses on tices also helps to deepen our understanding of
the changing expectations and events that occur present educational practices in South Africa.
in the larger society, both within and across gen- Inclusive education in South Africa has not devel-
erations, as they influence and are influenced by oped in a vacuum, and international movements
processes and outcomes of human development as discussed earlier in the chapter have directly
over the life course. This conceptualisation of time influenced and continue to influence educational
helps one understand the role and continuity of policies and practices in this country. Applying
developmental processes and outcomes in pro- the bio-ecological model to educational change
ducing large-scale changes over time, and the and development highlights the complex influ-
implications of these changes for the society’s ences and interactions apparent in education.
future. Inclusion is an example of such a “large- Broadly speaking, the development of spe-
scale change” and is dependent on continual, reg- cialised education in South Africa followed trends
ular and reciprocal interactions between people, similar to those in most other countries. How-
objects and symbols. Implementing inclusion in ever, a distinguishing aspect in the history of
the education system necessitates an understand- South African specialised education is the extent
ing of micro-, meso-, and macrotime in order to of political and philosophical influence. This
understand its origins and further development. resulted in gross inequalities and inconsistencies
The significance of the bio-ecological model for in provision between the previous racially segre-
inclusion lies in its potential to explain the nature gated government and provincial departments, as
and dynamics of implementing a large-scale the apartheid era categorised and officially classi-
change process such as inclusion. Everybody is fied people in terms of race (Donald 1996; Du Toit
affected by this change and it contributes towards 1996; Lomofsky & Lazarus 2001). Thus while edu-
the further development of inclusion in society. cation and support services were reasonably well
Related to this is the role and significance of prox- developed in those departments serving whites,
imal processes and their potential for further coloureds and Indians, they were grossly under-

15
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

developed in departments serving Africans. This context – that of a developing country – this helps
manifested itself in various ways resulting in high- clarify the high incidence of disability and educa-
ly specialised and costly provision of specialised tional support needs in the black population.
education and support services for a limited num- Such needs are largely related to environmental
ber of learners, namely mainly white and to a less- disadvantage or external factors including pover-
er extent Indian. Existing special schools were ty; lack of awareness and of access to educational,
enlarged and new ones established, and the medical and health care facilities; and exposure to
majority of these schools were occupied by white political violence. External factors are often the
learners. Therefore the majority of learners, and cause of specific learning needs in contexts where
specifically learners experiencing barriers to severe social and economic disadvantages exist. A
learning, were not only discriminated against reconceptualisation of the term “special educa-
along racial lines, but also by policy and legisla- tional needs” has important implications for how
tion that separated “normal” learners in the main- we view difference, and the extent and range of
stream from learners identified as having “special “special needs” in the South African context.
needs” and requiring education in a “special
school”.
Also related to the inequalities mentioned 1.5.2 From exclusion to inclusion
above and closely connected to the apartheid era South African education entered a new era from
are the exclusionary practices related to misper- 1994 when a democracy was declared. Associated
ceptions about disability and the conceptualisa- with this socio-political shift has been an empha-
tion of what was then referred to as “special edu- sis on important values such as equity, non-dis-
cational needs”. The manner in which “disability” crimination, liberty, respect and social justice
was understood and managed largely contributed which have provided the framework for the Con-
to various misperceptions and stereotyping. The
stitution. These values are central to a socio-criti-
separation and marginalisation of learners with
cal perspective which developed in education as a
special needs from mainstream educational provi-
result of a sharp critique of society (Burden 1999:
sion contributed significantly towards this. A fur-
15). Thus inclusive education in South Africa has
ther factor was the strong focus on the medical
its origin in a rights perspective informed by lib-
model of diagnosis and treatment of “learner
eral, critical and progressive democratic thought
deficits” within schools specially developed for
(Engelbrecht 1999: 7). Policy documents and sub-
specific impairments. As a result segregation was
promoted and many learners did not have access sequent legislation have emerged that reflect
to adequate educational and support services. these values. Integrated with the international
The majority of these were black learners living in movements and guidelines discussed earlier, the
rural areas and totally out of the education sys- following policy documents relate directly to the
tem. development and implementation of an inclusive
In the past there has been much debate and education system (Lomofsky & Lazarus 2001):
controversy about the use and interpretation of • White Paper on Education and Training in a Demo-
the term “special educational needs”. In South cratic South Africa (1995)
Africa the term came under scrutiny in the early • The South African Schools Act (1996)
1990s as a result of both international influences
• White Paper on an Integrated National Disability
and the extensive range of “special needs” unique
Strategy (1997)
to the South African context. From primarily
focusing on intrinsic or internal causes or a need • The National Commission on Special Educational
arising from an internal problem, the term “spe- Needs and Training and The National Committee
cial educational needs” has now come to include on Education Support Services (1997)
the view that learning and behaviour problems • Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education:
can be the reciprocal product of individual and building an inclusive education and training system
environmental interaction. In the South African (2001)

16
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

In the White Paper on Education and Training (1995) needs exists among learners and within the edu-
the Department of Education and Training intro- cation system and other systems in the environ-
duced key initiatives to respond to diverse learn- ment. These needs need to be met or addressed if
ers’ needs. These initiatives included (1) the Cul- effective learning and development is to be pro-
ture of Teaching, Learning and Services (COLTS), vided and sustained. Therefore the education sys-
and now the Tirisano programme; (2) the Nation- tem must be structured and must function in such
al Qualifications Framework (NQF); (3) Curriculum a way that a diversity of learner and system needs
2005 based on an outcomes-based education can be accommodated. This is in keeping with a
(OBE) approach; and (4) The new Language Policy. systems view of development and behaviour as
In the South African Schools Act, access for all learn- explained above, and therefore assists us by pro-
ers to a school of their parents’ choice became viding us with information about where in the sys-
legislated. Section 5(1) of the Act states that: “A tem the learning breakdown occurs, as well as
public school must admit learners and serve their aspects of the system unable to accommodate
educational requirements without unfairly dis- diversity. These factors were conceptualised by
criminating in any way.” However, the Act also NCSNET and the NCESS as “barriers to learning
contains gaps and weaknesses, mainly in the and development” (adopted from UNESCO poli-
wording of some of the clauses, which restricts cies). Barriers to learning and development are
the rights of learners experiencing barriers to defined as “those factors which lead to the inabil-
learning and undermines the development of an ity of the system to accommodate diversity, which
integrated inclusive education system. Despite lead to learning breakdown or which prevent
this, in this legislation compulsory exclusion has learners from accessing educational provision”
been abolished (Lomofsky & Lazarus 2001). (Department of Education 1997: 12). From a sys-
The White Paper on Education and Training and temic approach, factors that can create barriers
the South African Schools Act created the basis may be located within the learner, within the
necessary in policy and legislation to facilitate a school, within the educational system and/or
paradigm shift to inclusive education. In the White within the broader social, economic and political
Paper on an Integrated National Disability Strategy, context.
strategies for access to the curriculum for learners The range of factors resulting in barriers to
with impairments were emphasised, thereby fur- learning can be viewed on a dynamic, interactive
ther stressing and supporting the paradigm shift continuum from internal to external systems fac-
from a medical model of disability to a socio-criti- tors. Systems factors refer to systems or aspects
cal model that is based on the premise that socie- within systems that can impact on barriers to
ty must change to accommodate the diverse learning. This does not mean that what occurs in
needs of all its people. This paradigm shift was one system “causes” a barrier to learning and is
reinforced and its practical implementation in the thereby only one-directional. Rather, barriers to
South African context elaborated on in the report learning can be the result of or result in an inter-
issued by the National Commission on Special action between multiple systems, as every action
Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET) and is also a reaction (circular causality). Consequent-
the National Committee on Education Support ly, barriers to learning can also arise out of an
Services (NCESS) in 1997. This report specifically interplay between both internal and external fac-
contributed to our understanding of the nature tors. Internal factors are those factors or systems
and extent of barriers to learning within South situated within the individual as a system, and can
Africa and the use of acceptable and respectful be organic in nature, for example a visual or hear-
terminology. ing impairment. External factors are factors with-
An important task of the Commission and Com- in systems that are in the environment and out-
mittee was therefore to develop an understand- side or “external” to the individual. In Bronfen-
ing of concepts such as “special needs” and “edu- brenner’s model, external factors can be located
cation support”. Reviewing these concepts criti- in the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and
cally resulted in the realisation that a range of macrosystem. In developing countries like South

17
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

Africa a large number of barriers to learning arise ing an inclusive education and training system,
from an interaction of factors within external and released in 2001 (Department of Education 2001).
internal systems. A common example is a young In this document a framework is provided for
learner whose parents both suffer from HIV/Aids establishing an inclusive education and training
and who needs to take increasing responsibility at system in South Africa, focusing on the changes
home, for himself, his parents and his younger that are necessary for accommodating the full
siblings. Consequently his schooling is continually range of learning needs. The Education White Paper
interrupted and there is often no time to com- 6 also highlights relevant principles that are inte-
plete homework. A learning difficulty may arise gral to an inclusive education system. These prin-
when basic scholastic activities are missed. In this ciples are focused on acknowledging and respect-
case further barriers to learning may also arise ing that all people can learn, and that all people
when a parent, who is the breadwinner, dies, learn differently and have different learning needs
which results in further fuelling the vicious cycle which are equally valued. Therefore differences in
of poverty. A teacher’s discriminating attitude learners, whether due to age, gender, ethnicity,
towards a learner whose parents suffer from language, class, disability or HIV status, need to
HIV/Aids can also have a negative effect on the be acknowledged and respected. In an inclusive
learner’s scholastic performance and attitude education system, education structures need to
towards school. From this example it should also be enabled, and attitudes, teaching and learning
be evident that the impact of a barrier such as methodologies, and the curriculum changed to
HIV/Aids is complex and multidimensional, and reflect inclusive values. The Education White Paper
professionals designing intervention programmes 6 also recognises that learning is broader than for-
need to be mindful of this. mal schooling and that learning also occurs in the
Research conducted by the Commission identi- home and community. In a responsible inclusive
fied the following barriers to learning in the South education and training system, all of the above is
African context: not possible without supporting the diverse learn-
• Socio-economic deprivation, including poverty, ing needs of all learners, educators and the school
lack of access to basic services, exposure to system as a whole.
danger, inaccessible environments and unsafe In the Education White Paper it is clearly stated
buildings that classroom teachers6 are the primary resource
• Barriers arising from impairments, including for achieving the goal of inclusive education. This
physical, cognitive, sensory, developmental and implies that educators will need to refine their
learning impairments knowledge and skills and, where necessary, devel-
• Negative attitudes to and stereotyping of dif- op new ones. Educators will therefore require
ferences support in the form of staff development, in-serv-
ice education and training, and the opportunity to
• An inflexible curriculum
collaborate with special schools, full-service
• Inappropriate languages, or language of learn- schools and other education support personnel
ing and teaching (LoLT) and language of com- within district support services.
munication
• Inappropriate and inadequate provision of sup-
port services 1.6 IMPLICATIONS OF INCLUSION FOR
SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS AND
• Inadequate policies and legislation
EDUCATION
• Lack of parental recognition and involvement
In this final section, attention will be given to a
The findings and recommendations contained in few of the practical implications of inclusion for
the final report of the NCSNET and the NCESS schools and educators. This discussion will focus
were taken seriously and informed the final policy on the broader systemic issues that are essential
document in inclusive education, namely the Edu- for implementing inclusion, such as school
cation White Paper 6: Special Needs Education: build- reform, changing of attitudes and collaboration.

18
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

Specific attention to classroom and teaching school development approach is to create

strategies will be provided in the chapters that inclusive cultures and practices that permeate
follow as they emphasise the unique teaching and every aspect of the school and all its activities.
learning requirements of various barriers to learn- This approach is based on organisational devel-
ing and development. opment and systems theory and is aimed at
Inclusion is about all learners and not just a improving all aspects of the school as an organ-
few. It is not just about disability, but means isation in which there is an interactive and
responding to all learners’ individual needs. As interdependent relationship between the vari-
mentioned in the beginning of the chapter, inclu- ous systems and subsystems of the school. It
sion is concerned with a school culture which wel- therefore involves all role-players and all sys-
comes and celebrates differences and recognises tems of the school, and collaboration between
individual needs. Inclusion can therefore not be role-players is essential. The focus in whole-
separated from school reform as well as from edu- school development is on both personal-pro-
cational change in the broader sense. It requires fessional development of all members of the
changing the culture and organisation of the school community and organisation develop-
school so as to create sustainable systems and ment.
structures which develop and support flexible and
adaptable approaches to learning. This does not • Support and collaboration. Support is the cor-
happen automatically as it demands that princi- nerstone of successful inclusive education.
pals, teachers and the school community possess Inclusive schools and classrooms focus on how
knowledge and skills in educational change and to operate classrooms and schools as support-
school reform. A few of the elements of educa- ive and caring communities in which a sense of
tional change will be discussed below. While each community – a sense that everyone belongs, is
one will be discussed separately, they do not accepted, supports and is supported by all
occur in isolation and are in constant interaction members of the school community – is fos-
with each other: tered. This implies that no educator, parent,
education support professional, learner or vol-
• Vision and leadership. The first and perhaps unteer should have to handle significant chal-
primary step for creating an inclusive school is lenges alone. Collaboration is an important
to establish a shared vision of preferred condi- strategy of support for inclusive education and,
tions for the future. Any vision for an inclusive according to Sands et al. (2000: 120), “... is at
school needs to be based on the democratic, the heart of the inclusive school community”.
egalitarian principles of inclusion, belonging Friend and Cook (2003: 5) define collaboration
and provision of quality education to all learn- as “a style of direct interaction between at least
ers. The school principal must recognise his two co-equal parties voluntarily engaged in
responsibility to set the tone of the school and shared decision making as they work towards a
help the school as a whole to become and common goal”. Embedded within this defini-
maintain a supportive, caring community. Ain- tion they identify six defining characteristics of
scow (1999) calls for shared or transformation- collaboration, namely
al leadership which acknowledges that every – collaboration is voluntary
school community member, including educa- – collaboration requires parity among partici-
tors and parents, can be a leader and that lead- pants
ership roles need to be acknowledged and – collaboration is based on mutual goals
developed.
– collaboration depends on shared responsi-
• Whole-school development. One of the bility for participation and decision making
approaches for developing an inclusive school – individuals who collaborate share resources
is the whole-school development approach – individuals who collaborate share accounta-
(Swart & Pettipher 2001). The goal of a whole- bility for outcomes.

19
SECTION A INTRODUCTION

Collaboration is difficult, but rewarding. resources and support in their community is an

According to Friend and Cook (2003) there are essential activity of inclusive schools (Muthu-
a number of outcomes of collaboration which krishna 2001). This is easier if the school is
can simultaneously also contribute to its devel- committed to community partnerships. As rela-
opment. These include attitudes and beliefs tionships are developed between the school
supportive of a collaborative approach, mutual and the wider community, a wide range of pos-
trust and a sense of community. sible resources for teachers, learners and fami-
lies can be identified. Schools can also draw on
• Attitudes. The inclusion of all learners becomes
neighbouring schools and other education
an issue related to everyone’s beliefs, values
institutions, such as special schools and univer-
and attitudes about diversity, change, collabo-
sities.
ration and learning. Assumptions, beliefs and
attitudes are directly translated into actions • Professional development. For educators to
and teaching practices, and inform decision teach in an inclusive school and collaborate
making. Attitudes about diversity and change with one another, they need to acquire,
can be both a barrier to as well as a strong pos- through pre-service and in-service experiences,
itive force in implementing inclusive education. a common vision, conceptual framework and
The attitudes of everybody in the school are language, and a set of instructional and techni-
important and need to be explored, shared, cal skills to work with the needs of diverse
challenged, restructured and rethought when learners. Professional development must pre-
working in inclusive settings. If repressed and pare educators for collaboration and support,
unquestioned, negative attitudes can be corro- and assist them in understanding their relative
sive to efforts to implement inclusive education roles and responsibilities in the inclusion effort.
as well as counterproductive, as they spread in Mel Ainscow (1999), a prominent researcher in
a contagious manner among the rest of the inclusive education, maintains that if staff
school community. Here it is also important to development is to impact significantly on think-
note that research has shown that attitude ing and practice, it needs to be linked to school
changes do not have to precede behaviour development and therefore to be school based
changes (Guskey 1984 in Schaffner & Buswell and context focused. He states that staff devel-
1996). Therefore it is not effective to wait for opment is more powerful in encouraging
people’s attitudes to change before the change improved teaching practices when it is set with-
is implemented. In fact, attitude changes fre- in the school context and addresses day-to-day
quently follow changes in behaviour. For exam- concerns of teachers. These types of experi-
ple, research has shown that teachers’ attitudes ences cannot be obtained from only attending a
change towards disability when they begin workshop. The ability to transfer knowledge
working with learners with disabilities on a into everyday classroom practice requires
daily basis. planned application and “on-the-job” support.
• Resources. Two trademarks of effective inclu- This requires that time be set aside for educa-
sive programmes are how existing resources tors to work in teams and support one another.
are used in new ways and how additional
resources are increased. Teachers experienced
1.7 CONCLUSION
with the inclusion of learners with disabilities
have identified time, collaboration, administra- Any framework for understanding inclusion needs
tive support and ongoing training as some of to consider multiple perspectives. A framework
the resources for supporting and sustaining must be sufficiently comprehensive to explain its
inclusive education in schools (Swart & Pet- origins, development and implementation. In this
tipher 2001). However, resources are not only introductory chapter it has therefore been neces-
those existing within the school itself, but also sary to focus your attention on both international
include those in the community. Accessing and national trends in inclusion as well as relevant

20
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

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vided in this chapter does not only focus on the inclusion: transforming secondary schools. Baltimore,
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ing of inclusion by incorporating into their frame- & Shaw, L. 2000. Index for inclusion: developing learning
and participation in schools. Bristol: Centre for Studies in
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These theories assist in explaining the complexity Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The ecology of human develop-
of inclusion and the multidimensional nature of ment: experiments by design and nature. Cambridge,
the change required in all areas of society, not Mass.: Harvard University Press.
only in schools. They are also useful in under- Bronfenbrenner, U. 1992. Ecological systems theory. In
standing the continuum of barriers to learning, Vasta, R. (Ed.), Six theories of child development: revised
formulations and new trends. London: Jessica Kingsley,
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Bronfenbrenner, U. & Ceci, S.J. 1994. Nature-nurture
rights. The diversity within South African society reconceptualized in developmental perspective: a biologi-
will naturally add to the complexity of inclusion, cal model. Psychological Review, 101(4): 568–586.
but can also provide a platform for transformation Bronfenbrenner, U. & Morris, P.A. 1998. The ecology of
and an opportunity for developing a unique inclu- developmental processes. In Lerner, R.M. (Ed.), Hand-
book of child psychology. Volume 1: Theoretical models
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creating a truly democratic society. accommodate diversity. Some introductory remarks. Edu-
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Christenson, S.L. & Sheridan, S.M. 2001. Schools and
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2. Inclusion requires a radical paradigm shift chances: developmental theory and effective interventions
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from a medical deficit or within-child model to J. (Eds), Addressing childhood adversity. Cape Town:
a social systems change approach. By means of David Philip, 1–25.
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3. Identify a learner who experiences barriers to Education and Training and the National Committee on
learning in your classroom. Develop a case Education Support Services. Pretoria: Department of Edu-
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from the bio-ecological model. Department of Education. 1999. Quality Education for All:
Addressing Barriers to Learning and Development. Green
4. What are the implications of inclusion for a Paper on Special Needs and Support. Pretoria: Depart-
school community? ment of Education.

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Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6. development: preventing and working with barriers to
Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education learning. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 3–16.
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Department of Education. 2002. Draft guidelines for the torical overview of inclusion. In Stainback, S. & Stainback,
implementation of inclusive education. Pretoria: Depart- W. (Eds), Inclusion: a guide for educators. London: Paul H.
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Donald, D. 1996. The issue of an alternative model: spe- Lazarus, S., Daniels, B. & Engelbrecht, L. 1999. The inclu-
cialised education within an integrated model of educa- sive school. In Engelbrecht, P., Green, L., Naicker, S. &
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Letseka, M. 2000. African philosophy and educational dis-
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Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 1997. Educational Lumumba, N.T. (Eds), African voices in education. Lans-
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Du Toit, L. 1996. An introduction to specialised education. in the development of an inclusive education system.
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Meijer, C.J.W., Pijl, S.J. & Hegarty, S. 1997. Introduction.
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5–19.
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Dyson, A. 2001. Varieties of inclusion. Paper presented at
Ministerial Office of the Deputy President. 1997. White
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Mittler, P. 2000. Working towards inclusive education:
Engelbrecht, P 1999. A theoretical framework for inclusive
social contexts. London: David Fulton Publishers.
education. In Engelbrecht, P., Green, L., Naicker, S. &
Engelbrecht, L. (Eds), Inclusive education in action in Muthukrishna, N. 2001. Changing roles of schools and
South Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 3–11. communities. In Engelbrecht, P. & Green, L. (Eds), Pro-
moting learner development: preventing and working with
Farrell, P. 2000. The impact of research on developments
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in inclusive education. International Journal of Inclusive
Education, 4(2): 153–162. Pijl, S.J., Meijer, C.J.W. & Hegarty, S. (Eds). 1997. Inclu-
sive education: a global agenda. London: Routledge.
Ferguson, D.L. 1994. Developmental disabilities: severe.
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Florian, L. 1998. Inclusive practice. What, why and how? ments for creating inclusive and effective school commu-
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inclusive practice. London: Routledge/Falmer, 13–26. guide for educators. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 49–65.
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Frederickson, N. & Cline, T. 2002. Special educational Thomas, G. & Loxley, A. 2001. Deconstructing special
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skills for school professionals. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn & 2002. Exceptional lives: special education in today’s
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Green, L. 2001. Theoretical and contextual background. Unesco 1994. The Salamanca Statement and Framework
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22
 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INCLUSION 1

Notes
1 The medical model inevitably also impacted on the educators are usually trained to provide special educa-
views of the role of the parents making casual links tion.
between “disabled children” and “damaged families” 4 The resource room is a classroom in a mainstream
(Ferguson 2002). This is evident in the findings of school that provides specialised instruction to individ-
research in the early 1960s and 1970s as reflected in ual or groups of learners. These learners are “pulled
titles of journal articles e.g. The effect of the severely out” of their mainstream class for a part of the school
retarded child on his family (Fowler 1968, in Ferguson day by a specially trained educator to receive special
2002); Remarks on the causes of idiocy (Howe 1976, in education.
Ferguson 2002).
5 Ubuntu is the Nguni word which encapsulates moral
2 The concept “normal” was heavily debated during this norms and virtues such as kindness, generosity, com-
time. Various questions were asked, including “What is passion and respect and concern for others (Letseka
normal?” and “Who decides what is normal?” 2000). It is fundamental to African philosophy and
3 A self-contained classroom refers to a class in the emphasises the importance of human relationships and
mainstream school where learners who experience the interdependence between people.
problems related to, for example, disability receive 6 “Educators” is used as preferred term to refer to the
most of their instruction and support, similar to what members of the entire school community and not just
we know as special classes or remedial classes. The the teacher. When referring to classroom teaching, the

23
 SECTION

Addressing
socio-economic
barriers

25
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC
BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN 2
CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
ERNA PRINSLOO

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the changes on the societal front that influence the lives of
children and adolescents
Πrecognise the societal factors that cause severe barriers in the
development and learning of children
Πidentify and understand behavioural patterns and learning difficulties
that are the result of severe poverty, a lack of health care, abuse,
unmet emotional needs, language and cultural differences, and the
outcomes of the decline of norms and values
Πunderstand and implement strategies to counteract the socio-
economic barriers to learning.

successful learning and teaching in the country.

Rapid change unleashes metabletic social Social structures in South Africa underwent
forces associated with temporariness, change- profound changes during the last two decades of
ability and decay (Engelbrecht 1998: 142–143). the 20th century. Many of these changes have had
a negative impact on communal life, education
and socio-economic progress. Radical changes in
Key terms terms of perplexing multi-ethnic communes, a ris-
contemporary society ♦ poverty ♦ environmental ing tide of poverty, rapid and unplanned urbani-
deprivation ♦ urbanisation ♦ unemployment ♦ sation, a lack of proper health care and secure liv-
disintegration of family life ♦ child abuse ♦ cultural ing conditions, a breakdown of family life and
differences ♦ decline of value systems ♦ moral increasing moral permissiveness have contributed
to increased crime, violence, corruption and the
confusion
HIV/Aids pandemic.
All these factors have to be calculated when
2.1 INTRODUCTION planning for the attainment of responsible adult-
A barrier is an obstacle or circumstance that hood and full citizenship for the children in the
keeps people or things apart; it prevents commu- country. The complex, rapidly changing, multifac-
nication and bars access to advancement. Applied eted structures of the South African society com-
to the social scene in South Africa, it forces edu- plicate positive character development, harmo-
cators and education policy-makers to take cogni- nious educational relationships and the provision
sance of the changing social issues that impact on of quality education for all. Children and youth do

27
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

not easily find the stability that would enable The lifestyle of the greatest percentage of poor
them to assimilate a cultural tradition. The multi- families in South Africa shows visible signs of the
plicity of possibilities and the high demands with demoralising influences of this deprivation.
regard to knowledge and competence in the Adults and young people in some communities do
South African community with its unique social not even attempt to maintain reasonable stan-
order present serious challenges to the education dards of self-respect, honesty, hygiene, home
system. management, sexual morality, tidiness, cleanli-
Issues that give rise to severe barriers in the ness, responsibility and companionship.
provision of quality education for all the children Education in the poverty-stricken communities
in the country are the following: of South Africa is hampered by a lack of order in
• The culture of poverty with its resultant under- the communal structures, a culture of vandalism, a
development, environmental deprivation, short-term orientation towards time, a powerful
unplanned urbanisation, unemployment and and negative peer group influence (e.g. on the
negative expectations of the future Cape Flats and in inner city slums), a non-stimulat-
ing milieu, insecurity, language deficiencies, poor
• The disintegration of family life
orientation towards school, and clashes between
• The effects of the decline of moral and value the value orientations of the family and the
systems school. The result is a negative academic self-con-
• The climate of violence and child abuse in con- cept, relatively low levels of drive, an accumulated
temporary South Africa scholastic backlog, diffuse personality structure,
• The HIV/Aids pandemic and its effect on the an unmet need for expression, creativity that is
learning climate alien to the school situation, social awkwardness
• Language and cultural differences and discomfort in the school situation. These fac-
tors contribute to failure in school and frequently
to early school leaving. A poor and uncertain occu-
2.2 THE CULTURE OF POVERTY IN SOUTH
pational future in turn contributes to poverty, and
AFRICA
the cycle continues (Le Roux 1994: 35–36; Engel-
2.2.1 Overview brecht 1998: 162–192; Cock 2001; Mohr 2001).
Poverty in South Africa manifests in adverse fac- The issues pertaining to the culture of poverty
tors such as ill health, undernourishment, a depri- and the provision of education for poor South
vation of privileges, backlogs in education, unsup- African learners – who constitute the vast majori-
portive environment (informal settlements and ty of the school population in the country – are of
squatter camps), communication and language great concern. The educational, social and eco-
deficiencies, limited social status and a negative nomic upliftment of the poverty-stricken masses
view of the future. South Africans living in pover- has become a priority in all planning in the coun-
ty are vulnerable, powerless and isolated. These try.
adverse conditions are created by factors such as
inadequate education, low wages, unemployment
What do you think is the correlation
(according to Statistics South Africa, the percent-
ACTIVITY

between low economic status of par-

age of the population which is employed – the ents and the community, and behaviour
“labour absorption rate” – is 35 per cent), malnu- and learning problems of learners?
trition, an opportunity-deprived existence, tech- Motivate your answer.
nological backwardness, overpopulation, disad-
vantageous surroundings, conflict, violence,
crime, substance abuse and psychological degra-
dation. These in turn prolong and aggravate the 2.2.2 Unplanned urbanisation and
culture of poverty thus forming an escalating unemployment
cycle of deprivation (Prinsloo in Van Wyk & Lem- Urbanisation is a worldwide and ever-intensifying
mer 2002: 65). phenomenon. The biggest problem facing South

28
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

Africa is the fact that urbanisation is escalating 74). The government-commissioned report on
out of control in and around all major cities. A poverty and inequality (Development Update
lack of job opportunities drives people – many of 1999: 2) stated that most poor people live in rural
whom are immigrants from other African coun- areas (72 per cent of people living in rural areas
tries – to the cities. The mushrooming of are poor). These facts mirror the daily struggle for
unplanned informal settlements – the so-called existence, food, clothing and protection of a great
squatter camps – has resulted in the fact that percentage of the people in the country. In the
South Africa’s major cities have become danger- light of these circumstances learning and achiev-
ous and unhealthy places to live in. High-density ing academically become of little importance.
living and the negative effects of squatter camp Children are involved in looking for food and shel-
life are threatening the health, personal safety ter and are not encouraged to read and write.
and future prospects of all who live there. Government attempts to solve the problem
The strain on health services and education include more than 50 government programmes,
facilities is severe. There are more and more poor pilot projects and grants which seek to reduce
and unemployed people who lack the money to poverty and inequality in both urban and rural
pay school fees and buy books, clothes and food areas. These include water and electricity provi-
for their children. Transport services are also sion, child welfare, outcomes-based education,
degenerating because of a growing number of adult literacy programmes and job creation.
pirate travellers (travellers who refuse to pay their Much, however, needs to be done to accomplish a
fare). The general standard of living is dropping transformed social order in the country.
rapidly in middle and lower economic class house-
holds. Insecurity, hunger, fear, the stress of high-
density living, and a highly competitive lifestyle Can you give any information on the
ACTIVITY

success or failure of any one of the

are causing increased intra-personal, ethnic and
programmes, projects or grants that
racial tensions leading to serious riots and seek to reduce poverty and inequality
killings. in your community?
The destruction of previously well-functioning
infrastructures in many urban and semi-urban
areas is an aggravating factor in the struggle to
provide quality education and a healthy lifestyle 2.3 MORAL CONFUSION AND AN
for all inhabitants. The culture of non-payment of UNCERTAINTY ABOUT VALUES
bonds, loans and municipal accounts, as well as The brave new world of the 21st century is an era
the ever-increasing number of people in the cities characterised by production-oriented materialism
are the most important reasons for this state of and accelerated technological advance. The blos-
affairs. In rural areas infrastructures decline soming of the mass media, with specific reference
because of the depopulation of these areas. to the Internet and television, makes it possible
Unemployment and poverty are particularly high to be instantly aware of what is happening in
in the rural areas bordering farms, as agriculture every corner of the earth, every moment of the
has become increasingly mechanised over the last day. The boundaries between peoples, nations,
two decades. Large numbers of people eke out an religions, value systems and lifestyles are fading.
existence in informal economic activities, most of A cosmopolitan world order is in the making –
which are limited and not sustainable. Many peo- also in South Africa. Adults and children are con-
ple engage in the same “survivalist” activities like fronted by a tremendous, often quite disorderly
sewing and vegetable gardening, and the selling diversity of values. Influences of the mass media;
of produce. Goods are marketed to their own the advertising, fashion and entertainment world;
impoverished communities with little financial and the world of high finance are more often than
yield. The lack of affordable transport means that not in direct conflict with the values of traditional
people can seldom travel to more lucrative areas white and black cultures in South Africa. The con-
to sell their goods (Development Update 1999: tinuous and overwhelming confrontation with a

29
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

multiplicity of lifestyles and pluralistic values has dren after a rape is 85 per cent, after being beat-
confused the people of the country to such an en or physically abused by a family member is 83
extent that the moral fibre of society is fast disin- per cent, and after seeing a family member killed
tegrating. or hurt is 53 per cent. The ratio of criminal acts
A misinterpretation of the privileges of human has a damaging effect on patterns of investment
rights has resulted in disharmonious relationships and public confidence in the criminal justice sys-
between parents and children as well as between tem. South Africans are resorting to vigilantism
spouses. Many women are so beset with their and mob justice to counter crime. There have
new-found emancipation that, in overreaction been calls for the reintroduction of capital pun-
against their earlier unprivileged status, they ishment – a development that threatens the coun-
refuse to show even ordinary respect towards try’s infant culture of respect for human rights.
their husbands and divorce them for the flimsiest The onslaught on our value systems and those
of reasons (Prinsloo 1998: 19). of our children can also be explained in terms of
The divorce rate in the country is rising and so the influences emanating from the mass media.
are the numbers of children in single-parent fami- The mass media in modern society present a
lies. Societal life in South Africa is characterised tremendous and quite disorderly diversity of val-
by a general trend of distrust and selfishness and ues to our children. Honesty, integrity, chastity,
of having no interest in the welfare of the broader purity, problem solving without conflict – the
community. The satisfaction of the own personal characteristics that educators would like to
need has become the only aim. Moral and sexual emphasise – are totally underplayed. Conflict,
licentiousness has reached extreme limits. Chil- greed, sensation, violence, licentiousness, and
dren as young as two years and also babies of a dishonesty in marriage and in the business world
few months are raped and abused. Venereal dis- form the theme of most of the stories and series
eases and teenage pregnancies are on the on television and in the film world. Such a chaos
increase and South Africa has one of the highest of values can develop disordered judgement and
rates of HIV/Aids infection in the world. a blindness to the hierarchy of values in children
High levels of crime and violence in South as well as a hankering for whatever they do not
Africa have negatively influenced the health and have.
psychological well-being of the children in the
country. In the South African Survey (2001/2002:
24) Schonteich reports that of all the individuals What are the implications of the influ-
who had expeienced at least one violent crime in
ACTIVITY

ences emanating from the mass

South Africa, almost a third were aged between media? Do these mean that we should
16 and 25 years, even though people in this age keep the mass media out of our
group comprise only about one-fifth of the total homes? Or should we rather teach our
population. South Africa has the highest statistics children to use them judiciously?
in the world for some categories of serious crime.
During 1999, common robbery experienced the
greatest rate of increase in the country, namely Restoring the value system and moral fibre of
121 per cent. Residential burglary, assault with society is a challenge of the highest priority for
the intent to commit grievous bodily harm, rape South Africans in general and the education sec-
and car hijacking all experienced increases of over tor in particular. The Minister and Department of
20 per cent. Robbery with aggravating circum- Education have accepted this challenge and stat-
stances increased by 150 per cent (Schonteich & ed that: “Our entire reconstruction and develop-
Louw 2001: 1). The perception in the country is ment project in the 21st century will depend upon
that crime is out of control. Fear and a sense of our determination and creativity in addressing the
insecurity have become part of the daily life in complicated area of values in education and
South Africa. Mohr (2001) explains that the risk of addressing the HIV/Aids pandemic” (RSA: Country
developing post-traumatic stress disorder for chil- Paper 2000: 3).

30
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

Measures already put in place to counteract the Community structures and help from the govern-
decline of values are, inter alia, the following: ment and NGOs are not sufficient to provide for
• The redesigning of the curriculum. The the needs of so many orphaned children.
Revised National Curriculum and the National Research projects conducted at schools indicate
Qualifications Framework provide policy frame- that children as young as 14 and 15 often act as
works locating values centrally within educa- heads of households. They have to provide for the
tion processes. basic needs of siblings without any income –
often also without housing, water and electricity.
• The role of socio-educationists. Processes were
These children seldom have any other choice but
put in place to make socio-educationists aware
to sell themselves as prostitutes or to fall into
of their decisive role in motivating society to
criminal activities such as theft in order to get
accept its responsibility for facilitating the nor-
money to buy food for themselves and their sib-
mative development of youngsters in a positive
lings. When they are warned against the dangers
way. Respect for every person in his own right
of licentiousness and Aids, their reaction is that if
and the equality of all people before the law
one is forced into choosing between death imme-
have to be inculcated from the earliest possible
diately from starvation or from a disease possibly
age.
in 20 years’ time, there is really no choice at all.
These children are so traumatised because of too
2.4 THE HIV/AIDS PANDEMIC much responsibility, and lethargy as a result of
The epidemic in South Africa is the most recent in their own basic needs being unmet that they lose
Africa and one of the most severe worldwide all interest in learning. They have little hope of
(Whiteside & Sunter 2000: 2). It is estimated that attaining academic achievements and no hope of
some four million South Africans are infected with a prosperous future.
HIV/Aids – this number includes 250 000 school
children, 40 000 teachers and 20 per cent of the
In your opinion, what is the degree of
labour force, rising to 25 per cent in 2005. In
sexual licentiousness in your communi-
1999, 33 per cent of the population of KwaZulu-
ACTIVITY

ty? Explain the results of this kind of

Natal – South Africa’s most populous province – licentiousness as far as it is recognis-
were HIV positive (Development Update 2001: able in community life in your area.
121). Approximately eight million people will die Can you think of preventative meas-
of the disease in the period 2000 to 2010 – most ures to re-install certain values in your
of them in the age group 17 to 45. Consequently, community?
the country faces the problem of having to care
for two to four million Aids orphans within the
next ten years. According to the United States Measures to fight the HIV/Aids pandemic are man-
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), HIV/Aids is ifold. A range of policy initiatives at national level
potentially the biggest threat to the economy of have been streamlined by the government into a
South Africa and the rest of the African continent. national programme to combat the spread of
Predictions are that the pandemic will reduce the HIV/Aids. In June 2000 the Minister of Health
region’s GDP by at least 20 per cent by 2010. launched the HIV/Aids/STD Strategic Plan for South
Moreover, the life expectancy in South Africa Africa, 2000–2005 as a broad national plan to
could be reduced by 20 years (Development guide the country’s response as a whole to the
Update 2001: 122). pandemic. The plan seeks both to reduce HIV
The effect of the pandemic on millions of chil- infection rates and to address the broad impact of
dren in South Africa is disastrous. Many parents, HIV/Aids on individuals, families and communi-
grandparents and caregivers in the extended fam- ties. The plan focuses on
ily die as a result of the illness. Children as young • preventing the spread of the disease through
as three years sometimes live in the streets the promotion of safe and healthy sexual
because they have no one to take care of them. behaviour, improving the management and

31
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

control of STDs, reducing mother-to-child

Anticipated ... increased awareness, understanding,
transmission by providing anti-retroviral medi- outcomes knowledge and sensitivity of the causes of
cine to all pregnant women, addressing issues HIV/Aids; its consequences and impact on
relating to blood transfusion and HIV, provid- individuals, communities and society in gen-
eral; eradication of discriminatory practices
ing appropriate post-exposure services and against individuals affected by HIV/Aids;
improving access to voluntary testing and coun- development of HIV/Aids policy for the edu-
selling cation and training system; change of atti-
tude and behaviour towards sexuality.
• providing treatment, care and support in health
facilities and in communities, with an emphasis Performance ... myths about HIV/Aids are eradicated;
on developing the provision of care to children indicators increased acceptance of the need to practise
and orphans safe sex; establishment of non-discriminato-
ry practices in all education and training
• supporting research, monitoring and surveil- institutions, including departments of edu-
lance, including supporting the development of cation; finalisation of the HIV/Aids policy;
an Aids vaccine popular material on HIV/Aids is readily avail-
able; visible change of attitude towards girls
• protecting human and legal rights through cre- and women.
ating an appropriate social, legal and policy
environment. Source: Republic of South Africa: Country Paper 2000. 14th
Conference of Commonwealth Education
Ministers
In April 2004 in a further step government passed
legislation to provide free anti-retroviral medicine
to all persons infected with HIV. The Khomanani Table 2.2 Project 2: HIV/Aids within the
project – a national and media-driven defence curriculum
programme against Aids – was also started at the
Project profile: HIV/Aids within the curriculum
same time.
The education sector has also taken up the Strategic ... to ensure that Life Skills and HIV/Aids
challenge and is increasingly becoming a central objective education is integrated into the curriculum
player in addressing the pandemic. One of the at all levels.
nine strategic priorities for educational develop-
Anticipated ... every learner understands the causes and
ment was the Aids pandemic. This priority has outcomes consequences of HIV/Aids; all learners lead
been operationalised into three programme healthy lifestyles and take responsible deci-
objectives in the Tirisano implementation plan sions regarding their sexual behaviour.
(Department of Education 2000). Each is linked
Outputs ... copies of HIV/Aids policy distributed to all
to anticipated outcomes and performance indi- education and training institutions (February
cators. The programmes are briefly outlined 2000); information materials available in all
below. education and training institutions (October
2000): gender sensitivity part of all learning
programmes (ongoing, starting October
2.4.1 The Tirisano plan for HIV/Aids 2000).
intervention
Performance ... myths about HIV/Aids are eradicated;
Table 2.1 Project 1: Awareness, informa- indicators increased acceptance of the need to practise
tion and advocacy safe sex; establishment of non-discriminato-
ry practices in all education and training
Project profile: Awareness, information and institutions, including departments of edu-
advocacy cation; finalisation of the HIV/Aids policy;
popular material on HIV/Aids is readily avail-
Strategic ... to raise awareness and the level of know- able; visible change of attitude towards girls
objective ledge of HIV/Aids among all educators and and women.
learners; to promote values, which inculcate
respect for girls and women and recognise Source: Republic of South Africa: Country Paper 2000. 14th
their right to free choice in sexual relations. Conference of Commonwealth Education
Ministers

32
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

Table 2.3 Project 3: Planning for HIV/ realisation of the needs of children forms a severe
Aids and the education sytem barrier to successful learning.

Project profile: Planning for HIV/Aids and the

education system Experience teaches us that many chil-
dren lack the personal guidance of par-
Strategic ... to develop planning models for analysing
ents because of “absence” or because

ACTIVITY
objective and understanding the impact of HIV/Aids
on the education and training system. the parents fail in their duty as educa-
tors. How would a teacher take the
Anticipated ... plans and strategies to respond to the place of such parents? Is this part of
outcomes impact of HIV/Aids on the sustainability of his job? Is it permissible? Should he do
the education and training system, and the it? Should he also show and point out
human resource needs of the education and negative things to children?
training system in particular, and of the
country more generally; establishment of
care and support systems for learners and
educators affected by HIV/Aids. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow 1970: 1–56)
can be used to measure the educational milieu of
Outputs ... national plan to deal with the impact of
HIV/Aids on the education and training sys- the children of South Africa.
tem (December 2000); impact studies The first four needs are basic needs or deficien-
(December 2000); reliable statistical data- cy needs and it has been well proven in educa-
base on the impact of HIV/Aids (July 2000).
tional research that severe deficiencies (i.e. when
Performance ... improved data and planning models are
these needs are not fulfilled) can lead to mental
indicators available; impact studies on all aspects relat- problems: “Most neuroses involve, along with
ed to the education and training system other complex determinants, ungratified wishes
have been initiated and/or completed; for safety, for belongingness and identification,
responsiveness of national and provincial
education plans and strategies to the impact
for close love relationships and for respect and
of HIV/Aids. prestige” (Maslow 1970: 21).
The percentage of children in South Africa
Source: Republic of South Africa: Country Paper 2000. 14th whose basic needs are not met is growing by the
Conference of Commonwealth Education
Ministers day. The following actions serve as preconditions
for self-fulfilment: a child must be actively
involved in forming relationships with himself, his
2.5 THE DISINTEGRATION OF FAMILY LIFE
peers, parents, teachers and the community, as
AND THE ABUSE OF CHILDREN
well as with objects and ideas. He must experi-
2.5.1 Effects of the disintegration of ence joy and success in most of these relation-
family life ships in order to attribute meaning to his world.
The vulnerability of the nuclear family in today’s Only through dynamic involvement, positive
society has led to the general disintegration of experience and sufficient attribution of meaning
family life. Children seldom find safety and securi- to the life-world will the child be capable of form-
ty (including emotional security) in modern family ing a positive self-image which in turn leads to
life. Single-parent households, families ridden by adequate self-actualisation.
violence, and orphaned children without the sup- The extent of the problem of education in
port of the extended family or any kind of care- South Africa can only be realised when one
giver, are the order of the day. There are few sup- weighs up the conditions for adequate guidance
port structures in modern society where children towards optimal self-actualisation against the
are able to adequately fulfil their social adjust- realities of the present situation. Water, food,
ment and proper self-actualisation. rest, shelter and basic medical care are not avail-
Teachers need to remember that education able as a matter of course to all children. Because
means accompanying the child in the fulfilment of of the criminal and violent situation in the coun-
his needs. The lack of adequate support in the try, many children are also deprived of safety,

33
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

accurate statistics on its magnitude, and what is

Need for self-actualisation reported represents only the tip of the iceberg.
• To realise one’s potential Highest needs Families and communities tend to deny the
• To know and to understand or growth needs
existence of the phenomenon or to remain silent
about it. Le Roux (1994: 228) states that abuse is a
Esteem needs
repulsive act committed by an adult and directed
• For respect, recognition, prestige,
status, self-esteem at a defenceless child who ought to be protected
rather than abused. It is all the more repulsive
Social needs because an older, stronger person deliberately
• For love, acceptance, care harms a younger defenceless person. It is particu-
• For interpersonal communication larly odious when the offender is supposed to be
and social life
• For belongingness
the child’s custodian, caregiver and protector.
The seriousness of child abuse manifests itself
Safety needs in its consequences. Typical effects of abuse on
• For safety, environmental security, children are low self-image, self-blame, violent
peace of mind, protection
Basic needs or
behaviour, brain and other physical damage, emo-
deficiency needs tional problems, negative vision of the future and
Physical needs death. It is also true that many child abusers were
• For oygen, water, food, rest and themselves victims of abuse when they were
shelter
young. Criminal behaviour in later life often stems
from the fact that the perpetrator had been
Figure 2.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs abused as a child, and one can therefore assume
Source: Maslow 1970: 42 that the negative effect can be perpetuated from
generation to generation (Le Roux 1994: 228).
environmental security, peace of mind and pro- Links with abuse have been documented by Lin-
tection from parents and the community. kletter (s.d.: 73) to the following USA statistics: 45
The disintegration of family life causes a lack of per cent of drug addicts, 75 per cent of prosti-
love, acceptance, care, interpersonal communica- tutes and 80 per cent of rapists were sexually
tion and belongingness. Children are traumatised abused as children. Le Roux (1994: 229) remarks
to such an extent that not only are their cognitive that the saddest aspect reflected by these statis-
development and learning ability negatively influ- tics is that children sometimes experience vio-
enced but also their physical, social and norma- lence from people against whom they have not
tive development. Under such circumstances been warned: fathers, acquaintances, teachers,
there is little hope for the fulfilment of esteem priests and peers. Children often believe that they
needs such as respect, recognition and self- are actually the guilty party in this process.
esteem. Although identification of child abuse has
The degree to which a child who is deprived of improved greatly, there has been no decline in the
most of his basic needs is capable of becoming incidence of this crime; on the contrary, the inci-
dynamically involved in his life-world and of posi- dences of child abuse have increased at an alarm-
tive involvement in the learning situation is limit- ing rate. It is important therefore that teachers
ed. The structure and dynamics of society in con- take certain steps to help protect children against
temporary South Africa have indeed created an possible abuse. In the disrupted society of pres-
anti-child climate. ent-day South Africa, schools are often the only
stronghold where many children can be support-
ed and protected against abuse. Teachers should
2.5.2 Child abuse be aware of the different forms of child abuse as
Child abuse is an old phenomenon, the occur- well as the consequences thereof.
rence of which appears to be frightfully on the The following are generally distinguished as
increase in present-day South Africa. There are no forms of child abuse:

34
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

• Physical assault and injury • the child cannot cope emotionally with the sex-
• Neglect: emotional, social and physical ual stimulation to which he is exposed
• Psychological abuse (e.g. rejection) • at some point during or after what happens,
• Sexual abuse the child realises that what is happening or has
happened to him is socially unacceptable and is
Non-sexual offences denoted by the term “abuse” something to be ashamed of (Le Roux 1994:
are 230).
• assault
• assault with the intent to inflict grievous bodily Relationships between victims and persons who
harm are responsible for the highest number of cate-
• murder gories of crimes against children can be repre-
• physical neglect sented as follows:
• abandonment • Stepfathers and biological fathers form the
• psychological and emotional abuse. greatest number of perpetrators.
Sexual offences or crimes include the following: • Mothers’ male friends and live-in family mem-
bers are next in line.
• Crimen injuria
• The category “others”, which includes friends,
• Indecent assault
neighbours, teachers, church and youth group
• Incest
leaders, employers, and unknown persons,
• Rape
amounts to 20 per cent of perpetrators.
• Sodomy
• Various offences and crimes against children
The causes of child abuse can be attributed to
such as statutory rape and certain indecent acts
• Inappropriate fondling • parental factors
• Forcing children to watch pornography and • child factors
scenes of sexual intercourse and mutual mas- • crisis or stress factors.
turbation
• Indecent exposure Parental factors
• Talk to stimulate or shock or involve a child in In most cases abusive parents are characterised
sexual acts by the following:
• Intimate kissing
• They live under difficult financial and/or job cir-
• Coercion to touch the private parts of the cumstances, and experience stress with regard
offender to security and meeting the family’s needs.
• Use of children in pornographic material
• They experience inadequate social support.
• Prostitution
• They experience conflict regarding the avail-
Although there does not appear to be a single, able time and energy.
universally acceptable definition of child abuse, • They maintain distorted I–you relationships.
sexual abuse of a child takes place when
• They feel humiliated, inadequate and inferior
• a child is involved in sexual activities that he because of the behaviour of other people.
does not understand
• They experience an unsatisfactory sex life.
• a child cannot legally and on an informed basis
consent to the acts concerned • They believe that the child should satisfy their
needs, and not the other way round.
• the acts represent social taboos
• there is an unequal relationship of authority • They maintained poor relationships with their
between the perpetrator and the victim parents.
• the child cannot defend himself or resist the • They refer to the child as a monster.
adult • There is an inadequate display of motherliness.

35
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

• They experience personality deficiencies (such • Unusual over-dependence on trusted adults

as psychological disorders, psychopathology, a • Withdrawal from society, and relationship
low self-concept, neurosis, etc.). problems with old and established friends
• They were often also abused or neglected. • Depression
• They often seek satisfaction of their own emo- • Aggression
tional needs from the child – because the par- • Eating or sleeping problems, and drastic
ent feels uncertain about other people’s love change in mass or in eating habits
for him, he seeks assurance and love from the • Sexually provocative, promiscuous and overtly
child, as if a child could provide this type of adult and sexual behaviour that is inappro-
comfort and love in the same way as an adult. priate at a particular age (e.g. compulsive
• They are inclined to subject the child to masturbation and excessive interest in the gen-
demands and expectations. The inexperienced itals)
parent has a skewed expectation and the • Stealing
wrong attitude towards child rearing.
• Lying
• The “sick-but-slick” syndrome is also present:
• Undesirable lifestyle and changes in habits
the psychopathic parent believes that he is
mentally healthy and is not abusive (Pretorius • Injuries to sexual organs
1998: 366). • Enuresis (bed-wetting)
• Avoidance of eye contact, nervousness and lack
Child factors of confidence
• The child who was unwanted • Fatigue and listlessness
• Children who are often chronically ill, tense, • Wearing of thick layers of clothing as if to hide
emotional or demanding his body or something that has happened to his
• The child who is not the gender that the par- body
ents expected or wanted • The emergence of self-destructive tendencies,
• The child who has to deal with parental projec- engaging in life-threatening activities, and con-
tions and often has to compensate for his templating and/or speaking of suicide
weaknesses • The emergence of criminal behaviour
• Orphaned and street children who have no pro- • Indications of abuse in drawings by the child
tectors • The refusal of a child who is normally well-
behaved and obedient to submit to medical
Stress factors examinations at school (Le Roux 1994: 240)
• Job insecurity and financial needs of parents
• Large families Preventative actions by schools
• Sudden and radical changes in life pattern Teachers, psychologists, socio-educationists and
• Dislocation and uprooting therapists can use the school as a community cen-
• Single parenthood tre and should present short courses on the fol-
• Alcohol and drug abuse lowing:
• Parental guidance
Warning signals
• Marriage counselling
Teachers should be alert to certain behavioural
• Family enrichment courses
aspects that can suggest that a child has been
abused. Warning signals in this regard are the fol- • Family therapy
lowing: • Divorce counselling
• A sudden and inexplicable deterioration of • Psychotherapy
schoolwork, unexpected failure, and incidents • Therapeutical support for abused children
of truancy • Preventative strategies

36
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

Teachers should regard it their duty to identify guages. This meant that most learners (especially
abused children in their classrooms and to refer black ones) in South Africa received school
them and their families for assistance and sup- instruction from Grade 5 in a second language,
port. Many of these courses and programmes as usually English (since 1996, black children have
suggested above have already been developed had English as medium of instruction from Grade
and are registered at the Education Sector Educa- 0). This meant that teachers and learners seldom
tion and Training Authority (Seta). had the language skills for the change of instruc-
tion to English. In addition, since parents commu-
2.6 LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL nicate with their children in their mother tongue,
DIFFERENCES the children only heard the language of instruc-
tion during school hours. The result was that chil-
Language and cultural differences are much in evi- dren were never really able to master English.
dence in South Africa’s heterogeneous popula-
Children who attend schools where the lan-
tion. Personal characteristics, cognitive styles and
guage of learning and teaching (LoLT) is English
learning styles of different cultural groups differ
and their parents can speak only the vernaculars
widely. In the past, the South African education
cause anger, shame and low self-esteem in par-
system was based on Western culture. As a result,
ents and caregivers. This encourages the non-
children whose own language, traditions, values,
involvement of parents/caregivers and worsens
norms, customs and so on differed from those of
the fact that they cannot assist their children with
the school culture might have underachieved
schoolwork. Parents and children develop in
because the existing curriculum had nothing in
opposite directions, with little common ground in
common with their own cultural milieu. One cul-
terms of culture, language and life experiences.
tural group, for instance, might place more
emphasis on interpersonal relationships than The new Constitution provides for 11 official
another cultural group. They might be, for exam- languages. This variety of languages complicates
ple, more person-oriented than task-oriented, the provision of education, particularly since
socially more interactive and show preference for mother-tongue instruction enjoys high priority in
a cooperative environment rather than a compet- this Constitution. According to the ANC’s Policy
itive environment. Stress and uncertainty as to Framework for Education and Training (1994:
behaviour might result in all kinds of learning and 61–67), the equality of all languages in South
behaviour problems. Many black families in South Africa is recognised as well as the right of the indi-
Africa are faced with the problem of opposing val- vidual and society to speak the language of their
ues between home and school, and this con- choice at national and provincial level. A language
tributes to the number of barriers to learning. of wider use, such as English, could be accepted
as the official school language but initially the
same problems that are experienced at present
Mention a few cultural differences will persist. Whatever the official language policy
between people from the African and
of the government is, it is unavoidable that there
ACTIVITY

white cultures that could cause under-

achievement in a lone child at school if will be certain learners who will not receive moth-
the others are in the majority. What is er-tongue instruction throughout their school
your opinion of a second language as careers. Teachers should be aware that this usual-
the medium of instruction in all grades ly leads to learning problems and underachieve-
at school? ment in these learners.

Just as there are enormous cultural differences

ACTIVITY

between the different population groups in South What is your experience of the use of
one official school language for South
Africa, there is also a vast range of languages spo-
Africa?
ken. Before the new political dispensation,
English and Afrikaans were the only official lan-

37
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

2.7 ADDRESSING THE ANTI-CHILD CLIMATE street children are the products of rural-to-urban
IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY migration, unemployment, poverty and broken
In the light of these problems, the following families. Statistical indicators worldwide tell a
intensive action programmes have been piloted in categorical story: tendencies such as divorce and
an attempt to eliminate some of the negative separation, child abuse, teenage pregnancy, alco-
social and economic influences which undermine holism and suicide are all increasing relentlessly.
children’s lives and education: As a result, street children are forced by circum-
stances beyond their control to live on the mar-
gins of the adult world.
2.7.1 Community education
Le Roux (1994: 62) reports that street children
Educational programmes providing supportive “represent one of our global family’s most seri-
guidance for parents with regard to child rearing ous, urgent and rapidly growing social chal-
and parental involvement in all developmental lenges”. Worldwide, between 50 and 100 million
phases have been started on a national basis. of these boys and girls are living on the streets. In
These programmes assist parents in adequately South Africa, there are about 15 000 reported
fulfilling their educational task. All possible media, cases. Although the largest concentration is
including radio and television, are used to reach reportedly in the Gauteng area, the numbers are
the largest possible number of parents and care- rising in other South African cities. This phenom-
givers. Various programmes to address the illiter- enon has far-reaching implications: the violent,
acy problem among adults have also been initiat- exploited, ill-treated, cold and hungry child of
ed. In rural and urban areas, workshops, evening today is the adult layabout and criminal of the
classes and specific courses are run to help adults future. The Street-Wise project is an extensive
with basic education. The Department of Educa- educational, vocational and life-skills project
tion strives towards transforming all schools in which was established to address this problem
the country into community centres where the and to meet the needs of street children for edu-
necessary programmes for all the members of the cation and job skills training. The aims and objec-
community can be presented. The aim is to tives of Operation Street-Wise are stated as fol-
enhance the self-image and way of life of adults lows:
through functional literacy and numeracy and to • Child care in the form of shelter, food and
enable them to better fulfil their educational task. clothing, and through the coordination of med-
ical, welfare, psychological and legal services
2.7.2 Educational programmes • Education
Educational programmes with an eye to training • Vocational skills development
and retraining adults in specific skills in order to
equip them better for a stable career world are 7.2.4 Health programmes
also under way. Serious attempts have been made
to address the unemployment and resultant Programmes directed at nutrition, hygiene and
poverty problem. Community education provides health which will promote awareness of the
opportunities and facilities that can upgrade the health and welfare of children have been started
quality of life. In a healthy community, both par- on the same national basis as educational pro-
ent and child are better equipped to counteract grammes. These programmes include help with
anti-child attitudes. The problem concerning lan- family planning and birth control. A comprehen-
guage efficiency in education is debated at the sive primary health care service package was
highest levels. tabled in September 2001. According to this pack-
age emphasis will fall on the integrated manage-
ment of childhood illnesses and on school health
2.7.3 Counteracting the fate of street services. A free health care service for pregnant
children women and children up to six years old was
In South Africa, as in other developing countries, launched in 2002, and grants of R200 per child

38
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

were allocated in the same period. Standards rals, patient education, records, community and
were set for the management of childhood ill- home-based activity, and collaboration of clinic
nesses in terms of material, equipment, medicines staff with social workers, NGOs, CBOs, creches
and supplies, competence of health staff, refer- and other sectors to improve child health.

The School Health Service is expected to provide a health-promoting service by acting in a coor-
dinating role, making use of the skills and capacity in different sectors of society, including the
community, the learners themselves, educators and NGOs. Standards set for the School Health
Service need to take into account the diverse situation of schools and services regarding school
health at present and the changing philosophy introduced by the education sector, including
outcomes-based education and inclusive education. The introduction of the philosophy of inclu-
sive education means that children who experience barriers to learning will be included in ordi-
nary schools, and that these schools and communities will have to be developed to provide
acceptable services for such children. Teachers generally do not have the capacity to deal with
these children and the School Health Services can play a role in enabling teachers to identify and
integrate them into the classroom. School Health Services personnel may not have the capacity
to implement their new role, so a transformation training programme is required. New resources
for school health promotion need to be developed and funded. School Health Teams are becom-
ing an integral part of the primary health team and are intra-sectoral (i.e. they work with other
sections of the Department of Health). These recommended standards are based on the assump-
tion that the primary health service is built on the subdistrict approach to service delivery.

Service description
The School Health Service is a health promotive service dealing with the individual in the context
of the family and community and with the school environment. The service encourages the
school to seek to develop and implement school policies that promote and sustain health,
improve the physical and social environment within which children learn and develop, and
improve children’s capacity to become and stay healthy.

Norms
1. Each subdistrict has a minimum of one School Health Promoting Team.
2. Every clinic will be able to access a specially trained nurse on school health with the district.
3. District School Health Promoting Teams are supported from provincial level with an appro-
priate, effective transformation training programme and the development of standardised
resource packs. The training occurs during those times of the year when schools are closed.
4. Screening Programmes are provided to give adequate coverage to identify all children at risk
of barriers to learning, and are not limited to certain age groups.
5. The School Health Promoting Service creates a positive learning environment by identifying
barriers to learning and developing ways to remove these barriers in a community inclusive
way.
6. School Health Promoting Programmes promote acceptance and celebration of diversity
among individuals through a learner-centred approach.
7. An accessible, healthy physical and social environment in which children can learn is
promoted.
Source: Department of Health (2000)

39
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

their efforts to render a better service to the

Do you know about the work of the victim or the child at risk.
ACTIVITY

school health promoting team in your

district? What programmes are they Teachers (schools) should be strongly involved in
running to promote health in your the identification of children who have been
school?
abused or who are at risk. The school should keep
children under observation to promote timeous
discovery of symptoms of possible abuse such as
2.7.5 Campaign against child abuse new fears and changing habits, a changed attitude
One of the established rights of children is their to sexuality on the part of the learner, and school
right to psychophysical integrity or to protection and learning problems.
against bodily and mental harm. In a society Early identification of victims is essential.
where this right is abused and ignored by par- Teachers ought to be trained as identifying
ents, step-parents, family members and friends, agents. They should be on the lookout for signs of
schoolteachers and community members, the abuse and neglect, but be aware of the fact that
legal and education systems have to step in in they could become involved in court cases that
order to establish structures that can act proac- might arise from acting on or reporting suspected
tively and reactively, and that can manage the cases.
trauma that prevents children from actualising Accurate and factually correct information
their potential. should be communicated openly and honestly to
learners, parents and other parties that might be
[Link]. Proactive strategies
concerned. The information that people such as
parents and teachers need to have and use, and
Schools need to be proactive in the following also disseminate in the community, particularly
respects (summarised by Le Roux 1994: 251–254 among learners and other children, is the follow-
and corroborated by Naidu 2001): ing:
• Preparing children for what might happen to • Children learn a lot by imitation – also by imi-
them, especially during the ages when they are tating violence; parents and other adults should
at peak risk therefore be mindful of the example they set for
• Teaching them how to respond under circum- children.
stances that make them feel threatened or
• Myths with regard to abuse should not be per-
uncomfortable
petuated, for example that sexual abuse is not
• Informing parents, training them and providing harmful if the child enjoys it; that only men
them with the knowledge and skills that they commit such crimes; that victims do not report
need to address the problem the abuse because they enjoy it; and that only
• Offering in-service training for staff people from the lower socio-economic strata
are offenders.
• Creating support structures such as standard
tutors and heads of department for educational • The statistics reveal that between 87 and 95 per
guidance, and providing such people with the cent of perpetrators are male, 94 per cent of
means that are necessary for the performance them are not strangers to the child concerned
of their tasks. Certain categories of teachers and 60 per cent of them are actually members
can make greater contributions in this field of the child’s family. These figures are helpful in
than others. Le Roux refers in particular to the identifying factors that could place a child at
head of the Department of Educational Guid- risk and in planning measures to prevent such
ance, and to counselling and career guidance abuse or to assist victims. The figures also seem
teachers who should consult and use (interpret) to support the assumption that the greatest
literature from fields such as psychology, social incidence of child abuse could well be in the
work, constitutional science and education in family where the child should feel secure and

40
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS TO LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 2

safe. Another myth refuted by these statistics is sible), he should still be treated sympathetically
therefore that only other people’s children are while the error of his actions is made clear to
abused and that it cannot occur in one’s own him. Confidentiality is essential when a child
family. reports an incident – it is obvious that if confi-
dentiality is not maintained the child will not
• A proactive programme could also include
feel free to confide in the adult concerned. The
teaching the child that his body is beautiful;
essence of it all is that the child should know
that some parts of his body are private; that
that there is an avenue open for him to reveal
some types of touching are natural; that other
what has happened – that he is not a helpless
types of touching could make one feel uneasy
victim, trapped in a situation that he cannot
and uncomfortable; that one has to say “no” to
remedy, and that help is available.
unwelcome approaches or physical contact;
how he must act when he is alone; that he may • In order to render the best possible assistance,
trust his instincts; and that he has to tell a teachers should be kept abreast of the relevant
trusted adult if something bad happens. Guide- legislation and referral procedures, and should
lines like these could be offered at meetings have contact with other assisting agencies.
such as parents’ evenings. • Teachers are in loco parentis and need to be part
• The incidence of child abuse seems to peak at of a multidisciplinary professional team. A mul-
approximately age four and again during the tidisciplinary approach to assistance seems to
adolescence phase. This should be taken into be indicated. Teachers and parents should
account when designing strategies to protect know that they will probably have to call in a
and/or assist children. professional person to help them to help the
child.
A final aspect worth mentioning here is that the
• All cases of child abuse should be reported to
school and all its activities should be organised in
the principal on a confidential basis and certain
such a manner that the school will be a place that
information should be meticulously noted
is conducive to the protection of the integrity of
(date, nature of the offence or symptoms, the
children. It must be a place where they can feel
teacher’s observations, contact with parents,
safe and where they will have access to people
etc.). Teachers should never act independently,
(adults and other people in authority) whom they
but should consult with the principal.
can trust.
• Both the victim and the transgressor should
[Link] The need for reactive strategies receive professional attention.
Despite all strategies to prevent child abuse, there
will always be the necessity to deal with offences 2.8 CONCLUSION
against children. Le Roux (1994: 254) summarised The problems facing the South African society on
the main arguments that teachers and schools the threshold of the 21st century are manifold.
should keep in mind: The dynamic and radical changes taking place
• The person who renders assistance should have many adverse influences on human relation-
remain calm and give the child enough oppor- ships and are mostly negative with regard to cre-
tunity to relate what has happened. He should ating a positive and sympathetic learning climate
neither reproach nor moralise. The reason for for the children of the country. A complex polyva-
this kind of approach when rendering assis- lent social structure with its disintegrated family
tance is that the child must feel that he is being life, moral and sexual licentiousness, its war
believed. Linkletter (s.d: 74) maintains that against positive values, child abuse, and the prob-
believing the child is the first step in his reha- lems of language and cultural differences can be
bilitation – believing the child is therefore a cru- confusing to children and young people. Society,
cial step in helping him. However, should the and in our case specifically educators, will have to
child appear to have been lying (and this is pos- take responsibility for the children and adoles-

41
SECTION B ADDRESSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC BARRIERS

cents in our ranks. It is necessary to create safe Department of Health. 2000. The Primary Health Care
Package for South Africa: a set of norms and standards.
and secure surroundings where children can expe-
Available at [Link]
rience warmth and acceptance and where there is [Link].
provision for most of their needs in order for Development Update. 1999. Annual review 1997/1998:
them to fulfil their learning task as best they can. the voluntary sector and development in South Africa.
Quarterly Journal of the South African National Coalition
and Interfund, 2(3).
Questions Development Update. 2001. Annual review 1999/2000:
the voluntary sector and development in South Africa.
1. Explain in what ways poverty can be a barrier Quarterly Journal of the South African National Coalition
to learning for children in South Africa. and Interfund, 3(3).

2. Discuss the consequences of unplanned urban- Engelbrecht, C. S. 1998. Society as a socio-educative

arena (only study guide for Socio-education 1). Pretoria:
isation on family life and explain how this can Unisa.
be a barrier to learning. Le Roux, J. (Ed.). 1994. The black child in crisis: a socio-
3. Write a short paragraph to illustrate the state educational perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
of morality and the value system in your com- Linkletter, A. s.d. The murder of childhood. Reader’s
munity. Digest. Cape Town: Reader’s Digest.

4. How does moral confusion influence children’s Maslow, A.H. 1970. Motivation and personality, 2nd ed.
New York: Harper & Row.
lives and their motivation to learn?
Mohr, N. 2001. Abuse in South Africa. Pretoria News, 20
5. Write down the number of educational pro- November.
grammes that are offered in your community Naidu, E. 2001. Editorial. The Teacher, May.
and school. Refer to the following areas: Pretorius, J.W.M. 1998. Sociopedagogics 2000. Pretoria:
– Supportive guidance for parents with regard Van Schaik Publishers.
to child rearing Prinsloo, E. 1998. Social change in South Africa: opportu-
nity or crisis? Society in Transition, 29(1–2): 13–21.
– Parental involvement in the learning process
Prinsloo, E. 2002. Challenges to the provision of school-
– Health programmes ing in South Africa. In Van Wyk, N. & Lemmer, E. M. (Eds),
– Programmes to establish the rights of chil- Transforming education: the South African experience.
dren and to protect them against child New York: Nova Science Publishers, 49–76.

abuse Republic of South Africa. 2000. Country paper. Education

in a global era. Paper delivered at the 14th Conference of
6. Explain in detail the success or lack of success Commonwealth Education Ministers. Halifax, Canada,
of the abovementioned programmes in your 26–30 November.
community. Schonteich, M. & Louw, A. 2001. Crime in South Africa: a
country and cities profile. Institute for Security Studies
Paper 49, April.
South African Survey. 2001/2002. Available at [Link]
Bibliography
[Link]/[Link]
African National Congress. 1994. A policy framework for Statistics South Africa. 2001. South Africa in transition.
education and training. Marshalltown: Education Depart- Selected findings from the October household survey of
ment, African National Congress. 1999 and changes that have occurred between 1995 and
Cock, J. 2001. SA brutalised. Sunday Times, 9 December 1999. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Education. 2000. Annual Report 1999. Pre- Whiteside, A. & Sunter, C. 2000. Aids: the challenge to
toria: Government Printer. South Africa. Cape Town: Human & Rousseau/Tafelberg.

42
 SECTION

Addressing
educational
barriers

43
 IDENTIFICATION AND
ASSESSMENT OF 3
BARRIERS TO LEARNING
CECILIA BOUWER

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Œ discuss the relevance of determining the learner’s strengths, and include a
process of asset access mapping during assessment
Πdiscuss the importance and process of the early identification of barriers
to learning
Πexplain how to achieve a holistic understanding of the way in which
barriers to learning are impacting on a particular learner and may be
neutralising existing strengths and assets
Πmake an informed decision, when necessary, to refer learners to a
specialist for in-depth assessment
Πtimeously identify learners who may be in need of learning support
Œ analyse a particular learner’s performance to determine the nature and
extent of the barriers, as well as the strengths and assets regarding his
learning
Πaccommodate barriers to learning when assessing the learning of a
learner with an impairment
Πdeal critically and constructively with the issue of labelling
Πstrive to assess learners equitably and respectfully
Πutilise assessment as a tool to achieve quality education for all learners.

Key terms
assessment ♦ strengths and assets ♦ asset access In the context and process of being assessed, a
mapping ♦ dynamic assessment ♦ qualitative predominant experience – even of learners with
assessment ♦ criterion-referenced assessment ♦ norm- good learning potential – is frequently one of anx-
referenced assessment ♦ early identification ♦ iety and threat, of embarrassment, of disempow-
accommodations in assessment erment, or even of disenablement. Issues which
conventionally haunt assessees are: “I need to be
good!”; “I need to be the best!”; “Am I good
3.1 INTRODUCTION enough?” Thus the personal significance of one’s
Few will deny that being assessed has played, and assessment results often erroneously tends to
most likely still plays, a powerful role in their lives hinge on the performance theme, and this may be
and that not all the effects of assessment, by far, constantly reinforced by parents, educators and
have been constructive. peers alike.

45
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

At the very start, briefly reflect on two experiences before, during or after assessments that
you had during your years at school. Think of one with positive and one with negative asso-
ciations.
• List your feelings on both of these occasions as you remember them.
ACTIVITY

• Now attempt to find an explanation for the differences which you note – how much was
due to you in some way, and how much to the teacher, the system, the circumstances?
• Finally, try to remember the outcomes of the two experiences during the subsequent
week.

How did the assessments or their results affect your learning or your behaviour in the class-
room or at home? Can you remember whether the assessment results affected the treat-
ment that you received from the teacher or your parents in any way?

Did you find yourself recording any signs of in the cycle of learning support, i.e. when we are
this emphasis in the reflection exercise above? It required to deal with barriers to learning.
is certainly nowhere more important to break This chapter is about achieving an understand-
away from the performance-orientated percep- ing of the context, process and products of learn-
tion of assessment than when dealing with a ing of those learners who are contending with bar-
learner who is experiencing a learning difficulty of riers to learning. The point of departure will be
some kind. The professional should not be formed by contemplating the purpose of such
engaged in the assessment of the learner, not even assessment and formulating a principled approach
in the assessment of learning – the focus should at or framework to direct our assessment practice and
all times be on assessment for learning. our interpretation of assessment results. Finally,
During the past decade in South Africa, much strategies and techniques will be looked at to assess
advocacy, training and effort have been devoted learning when learners are experiencing difficulty.
to changing the approach and practice of profes-
sionals regarding assessment from an orientation 3.2 THE PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT WHEN
on achievement towards a focus on constructive LEARNERS APPEAR TO FLOUNDER
support for learning. Notwithstanding such 3.2.1 On what should you be setting
investments, in everyday practice the shift is slow your sights?
to occur, among teachers, parents as well as ther-
apists. • Looking at the introduction above
The Department of Education (1998: 4) defines and your reflective notes on your
assessment as “the process of identifying, gather- good experience of assessment,
ing and interpreting information about a learner’s construct the purpose(s) that you
achievement, as measured against nationally believe should direct assessments.
ACTIVITY

agreed outcomes for a particular phase of learn- • Now think of your bad experience of
ing”. The central purposes of assessment are stat- assessment – what change(s) does
ed as providing information on learner achieve- this suggest to your formulation of
ment and progress and improving the process of the purpose?
learning and teaching (Department of Education • Are further change(s) required when
1998: 4). Archer et al. (1999: 97) actually call dealing with a learner who appears
to be experiencing any barrier(s) to
assessment the major component of the teach-
learning? What would these be?
ing–learning cycle, since it “maintains the focus on
the learners, their needs, their progress and their
learning outcomes” (author’s emphasis). This central Ultimately, your decisions about what information
role of assessment should certainly be maintained to seek and how to obtain and interpret that infor-

46
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

mation will be an outcome of what you perceive Chapter 4 looks at learning support from two
the purpose to be of each assessing act that you perspectives, i.e. the South African policy of inclu-
perform. However, in analysing the purpose of sive education and cooperative learning. But since
assessment when dealing with a learner who the concept itself is pivotal to the purpose of
seems to be experiencing barriers to learning, it is assessment, it is briefly considered below.
really important first to unpack the concept
“learning support”.
3.2.2 Learning support
It is fairly easy, echoing theory and policy, to
declare: “The purpose of assessment, when learn- Contrasting learning support with remedial edu-
ers appear to be faced with barriers to learning, is cation highlights the shift of focus endorsed in
to gather information about their learning which addressing barriers to learning, and the frame of
will contribute meaningfully to their learning sup- inclusive education adds to our understanding of
port”. Addressing barriers to learning on the basis the context and strategy of the intervention.
of such a broad statement will most certainly Remedial education conventionally adheres to
leave many a learner lost in a faceless system. the medical model of diagnosis and treatment,
Slightly more operational, but still paying little which is, as pointed out in Chapter 1, becoming
more than mere lip-service to the full purpose of increasingly outdated among the caring profes-
assessment, one might say; “The purpose in sions in addressing people’s needs. You have seen
assessing X’s learning is to understand the level that the remedial approach to educational inter-
and the ways in which he learns so that I am able vention is a problem-centred, needs-based
to devise appropriate strategies for most effective approach to learning and developmental difficul-
learning support.” Both statements amount to lit- ties, and Eloff (2003a: 3) observes that “the needs-
tle, unless the learning support is conceptualised based approach is so embedded in our collective
and envisioned in sufficient detail to translate the subconscious that it often goes unexplained”. The
purpose of assessment into specific questions medical model holds a real danger of categorising
which will define the information needed. or labelling the learner in terms of a gross over-
So, when engaged in assessment, you should emphasis of the impairment or problem area. The
constantly be setting your sights beyond the power relations established when assessing in
assessment, on the learning support! Your under- terms of the medical model are distinctly ques-
standing of learning support directs your purpose tionable. The expert role assumed by the assessor
during assessment, influencing your selection of extends to an authoritative style of imparting the
strategies and techniques as well as the actual findings and making recommendations, creating
questions you ask. the disempowering perception that the learner

It is helpful to think about the concept of learning support against the backdrops of remedial
education and inclusive education as both of these were discussed in Chapter 1.
• Think about the run of events when you have a physical ailment, consult a medical doctor
and receive treatment. Who are the main role-players in your recovery? How is recovery
brought about? What part do you, the patient, play?
ACTIVITY

• In which ways, would you say, is addressing a learning difficulty comparable to treating a
physical dysfunction? If you follow the medical model of diagnosis and treatment, where
could you expect the process to break down the very first time?
• Now consider a policy of inclusive education. What course of events is stated as the
ideal? Who are the main role-players in dealing with barriers to learning? What are the
aims of intervention? How are these pursued? What part does the learner play? Most
importantly, how could your assessment practice prevent those learners who are con-
tending with barriers to learning from simply falling behind in the system?

47
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

and other parties are dependent on the specialist

for guidance, decisions and action. The concept of learning support, then,
The aim of the remedial specialist is generally acknowledges the potential of learners each
to “rectify” (“remediate”) the learner’s “deficits” to grow at his own pace towards his maxi-
or “shortcomings” or even “failings”, and to mum level of independence in his learning,
“accelerate” the learner’s “development”, so the using strategies and practising learning styles
focus during “therapy” is very much on addressing of choice, and each reaching a level of
the specific problems or weaknesses “in” the achievement in accordance with his unique
learner as stated in the “diagnosis”. Progress is abilities. It further relies on the collaboration
frequently measured quantitatively – in terms of of people from the systems to which the
more deficit-specific tests, and developmental learners belong, to participate variously in
norms and achievement scores, such as perceptu- the process of their learning.
al test scores and reading age.
As also discussed in Chapter 1, a policy of inclu- The practice of learning support is essentially con-
sive education requires schools to respond to the structivist in approach and a high degree of flexi-
diversity of their learners and to provide equal bility is maintained with regard to the individual
educational opportunities of a high quality for all. learner’s course of cognitive development. Vygot-
With regard to learners who experience barriers sky’s (1978) principle of the zone of proximal
to learning, a policy of educational equity logical- development features prominently, especially in
ly implies enriching the regular education taking utilising the learner’s strengths. The zone of prox-
place in the classroom with learning support. How- imal development lies just beyond the learner’s
ever, addressing barriers to learning and partici- present level of independent problem solving and
pation is a shared responsibility which cannot represents the next level of potential develop-
possibly be carried one-sidedly by any school sys- ment, where problem solving is successfully
tem or policy. achieved under the guidance or mediation of
Learners should be supported to also chip away someone more capable than the learner (Donald
at the barriers to their learning in order to combat et al. 2001: 71)
the well-researched phenomenon of learned help- Learning support in principle assumes collabo-
lessness (Johnston & Winograd 1985) and pro- ration of all role-players (e.g. including family and
mote their maximum participation in their envi- community members), adaptation of the curricu-
ronment. They should be supported in reducing, lum, peer support and also, where required, spe-
circumventing, breaking through and even remov- cialised intervention and counselling. Enlisting
ing the barriers, for each to achieve the maximum collaboration for learning support depends on
independence possible in learning. Ideally, this identifying and understanding those assets in the
amounts to enabling learners (indeed requiring learner’s environment that might be accessible.
them) to function optimally in the regular class- The learner’s progress is assessed holistically and
room, each in accordance with his own learning understood bio-ecologically.
style, abilities and potential. Thus the teacher
accommodates the needs of individual learners
within the classroom curriculum through specific 3.2.3 The ground to cover
instructional strategies, supplemented with fur- The purpose of assessment is to determine how
ther support by a virtual network of other role- learning support may best be facilitated for indi-
players in the life of each learner. Assessment of vidual learners to learn with maximum independ-
the progress of learners who are receiving learn- ence in the face of the barriers to learning which
ing support includes looking at their learning and exist, building on their present level of perform-
participation from a systemic perspective on the ance, their personal strengths and the particular
classroom and their home environment, and care assets accessible in the educational and social
is taken not to overemphasise achievement environment in which they each find themselves.
scores. Each act of assessment should thus add informa-

48
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

The task facing you when a learner seems confronted by a barrier to learning is to conduct
an assessment that could best provide the type of information required to give direction to a
process of true and effective learning support for that learner.
ACTIVITY

• Read section 3.2.2 again and, if required, now adapt your construction (at the beginning
of section 3.2.1) of the purpose of assessment when dealing with a learner who appears
to be experiencing any barrier(s) to learning.
• List the questions that you would try to explore during the assessment.
• Devise the strategies that might enable you to find the information that you would be
looking for.

tion concerning the strategy, content, level and par- suggest effective strategies for the learning
ticipants for the next step(s) of learning support. support in operational terms. Assessors should
Determining what the learner knows and is constantly be projecting their attention beyond
presently able to do independently, as revealed in the present level and mode(s) of the learner’s
the quantitative results of tests, is therefore but performance, asking questions such as the follow-
the very first step of assessment – it does not on ing:
its own contribute much meaningful information • What learning style, abilities and skills (person-
for learning support. Understanding how he goes al strengths) does the learner presently employ
about achieving this level of success, i.e. qualita- in performing learning tasks?
tively gaining insight into the cognitive and emo- • What could the learner be supported to do next
tional processes that feed into the learner’s that could be targeted for independent func-
responses, is a little more helpful, but still fails to tioning in the near future?

Another way of constructing your framework for an effective assessment practice is to

examine the following objectives of assessment:
• Gaining understanding of (the dynamics of) the present situation – looking at the
learner’s learning behaviour (e.g. learning style, problem-solving strategies, routine) and
the context of learning (various systems and role-players and the learner’s interactions
with them)
• Gaining understanding of the learning outcomes – considering factors that might be
related to both high and low quality of work, and looking at the learner’s self-assessment
and responses to success and failure
• Finding the growth points – identifying the learner’s strengths and zone of proximal
ACTIVITY

development, and also those strategies of mediation that seem to have an effect
• Finding the support system – identifying resources and the role-players who could ren-
der the required support, and to whom the learner would have the required access
• Empowering the learning supporters – exploring and negotiating feasible strategies
and levels of support with the potential learning supporters, and determining their need
for enablement
• Facilitating access to the learning support – exploring and negotiating the measure
and form of initiative of the learner to seek support, as well as the responsiveness of the
support system
Notice how interlinked the components of this framework are. Now devise the strategies
and more questions that you would use to meet these objectives of assessment. You may
consider using the questions suggested on pages 49 and 50 as a guideline.

49
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

• What strategies and techniques of mediation assessment. Assessment with regard to the learn-
seem the most effective to achieve this ing areas is presented in Chapters 7, 8 and 10.
progress? Keep handy the strategies and questions to
• Who could most effectively participate in ren- meet the objectives of assessment that you devel-
dering the required learning support? oped in the first activity on page 49. You will be
asked to reconsider and extend them after study-
• How could the learning support best be coordi-
ing each of the theoretical perspectives below.
nated and sustained, and how could the learn-
ing supporters be empowered and enabled to
perform their vital function? 3.3.2 The bio-ecological model of
development
A practical framework for assessment is not suffi- Conducting an assessment from a bio-ecological
cient, however, because you may meet a purpose perspective requires you to consider the four
and objective in different ways, and you may principle components of process, person, context
interpret the information derived from the assess- and time. This will have you looking at the devel-
ment differently as well. It is the underpinnings of opmental level of the learner and the influence
the theoretical framework that will give deep and relevance of the interactive contexts within
direction and content to your assessment prac- which he is learning, considering at least the fam-
tice. ily, school, peer group and community. An under-
standing especially of learners’ proximal process-
es of interaction with their environment (see sec-
3.3 A FRAMEWORK OF THEORY
tion 1.4) is an essential underpinning of the inter-
3.3.1 Orientation pretation of performance results and also directs
Recognising that the context of learning is relevant you in your search for ways to muster support
to learners’ performance in many ways encour- from within their life-world rather than engaging
ages us to devise assessment techniques and in one-on-one interventions.
strategies more richly and authentically than pos- Learning difficulties, whether associated with
itivist (strictly quantitative) conventions of norm- intrinsic or extrinsic barriers to learning, must be
referenced testing, and to interpret assessment
results from unique angles. Norm-referenced tests Revisit the strategies and questions
compare an individual learner’s performance with that you developed to meet the objec-
that of the peer group, determining his relative tives of assessment at the end of sec-
standing among learners of a “norm” group of the tion 3.2.3.
same age or grade level. • For which aspects of that practical
In striving to construct a grounded practice of framework does the bio-ecological
context- and process-focused assessment, you model have relevance?
will need to draw from multiple theoretical • Operationalise the four interacting
ACTIVITY

stances, which include at least the bio-ecological dimensions of person factors,

model of development, the asset-based approach, process factors, context and time (if
principles of dynamic assessment and accommo- necessary, rereading parts of section
dations in assessment, and knowledge of the spe- 1.4), by listing the behaviours and
relationships which you would look
cific learning area(s) in which the barriers to learn-
at when dealing with a learner experi-
ing appear to exist. encing barriers to learning.
The bio-ecological model of development of • Now make the necessary adjust-
Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) is explained in ments and additions to align your
Chapter 1 (section 1.4), so this section will only assessment strategies and questions
briefly repeat the implications for assessment with the bio-ecological model of
before introducing the asset-based approach, development.
dynamic assessment and accommodations in

50
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

looked at in their broader social setting, thus to reach objectives. People sometimes fail to tap
offering a more complex and holistic understand- into their personal reserves, especially during
ing of situations and behaviours. The interrelated- childhood, because they are not fully aware of
ness and mutual dependency of systems as well as their strengths or their worth. Of greater concern
individuals must form the points of reference – is the disregard for the individual’s strengths in
the framework – of the assessment and the inter- problem-focused situations, when the power of
pretation of all information, and of a collaborative impairment, shortcomings in the system or disad-
intervention plan. The teacher may be taking the vantaged circumstances fill all consciousness,
role of an expert, but other people in the life- blowing up the scale of the barriers to insur-
world of each learner individually also have mountable proportions.
important parts to play in addressing the barriers The personal strengths to watch for would cer-
to learning which are being faced. tainly include all of the three types of person
characteristics identified in the bio-ecological
3.3.3 The asset-based approach model: a positive disposition, ecological
resources and constructive demand characteris-
[Link] Strengths and assets
tics. As described in section 1.4, a positive dispo-
One can arguably have no more effective focus in sition could be taken to reflect qualities of inten-
undertaking an assessment for learning support tionality, such as interest, initiative, a sense of
than – in collaboration with the learner and other motivation, engagement, rapport, sustained
important role-players in his life-world – seeking attention, an openness to recognise options and a
to understand the areas of personal strength and willingness to make choices. The ecological
the assets that could be utilised in the various sys- resources which individuals bring to a task are of
tems in which the learner is involved. Partly a predominantly cognitive-cum-linguistic nature
reflecting the components of person, process and and reflect their level of development, represent-
context of the bio-ecological model, the asset- ing all that they have so far learned and experi-
based approach yet adds a unique and more enced, including the underpinning abilities and
enabling perspective. In fact, the asset-based skills that they could be enabled to apply in an
approach and dynamic assessment practices can ongoing process of development. People’s
effectively change the very acts of assessment into demand characteristics influence their relation-
the first steps of learning support. ships with others and also with the environment.
Essentially, the asset-based approach devel- Although often unaware of the fact, a person’s
oped by Kretzmann and McKnight (1993) is about habitual style of expression and response (con-
addressing impediments or barriers within con- stantly conveyed in an interactive frame) influ-
text. It is about getting the individual to actualise ences his interpretation of events and much of the
his personal attributes to the optimum in a self- feedback he receives, also arcing back as a
regulating manner, to be less daunted by chal- boomerang of general perceptions and self-per-
lenge and to accept an invitation to grow. It is ception. This is, then, the area of person charac-
about utilising available resources in the environ- teristics in which control could be at issue – opt-
ment in perhaps new ways, valuing and sustaining ing for a dark or bright view of the world (or even
that which is familiar, and giving that which preferring to act blind), being problem-focused or
appears foreign a fair chance. It is about recog- solution-focused in dealing with an obstacle (or
nising and appreciating all the people surround- even carrying on regardless), recovering with
ing one for what they know and are able to do resilience, or nursing bruises and requiring help
and, most especially, approaching them with trust after failure.
when a need is felt for participation, advice or Assets comprise all the extrinsic resources in an
assistance. individual’s life-world of a personal, institutional
Personal strengths are those intrinsic qualities and inanimate nature that could be utilised with-
which a person musters in addressing a difficulty in the particular context in addressing any need
head on, or also when taking an alternative route as it develops. People and relationships could

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

therefore serve as an asset, also particular knowl- about by poor performance.

edge and expertise, facilities, resources, services The asset-based approach calls not for a system
and financial means. Time must certainly some- change, but for a different map by which to nego-
times be recognised as a valuable commodity. tiate the system (Eloff 2003b: 19). However, the
Collaboration, especially following a trans-disci- practical value of merely profiling strengths and
plinary model, is highly valued in the asset-based assets as these feature on a checklist or mapping
approach, with the aim of making optimal use of them onto a preconceived structure is sorely lim-
all possible forms and levels of contribution to ited. It is the routes and means of access that
improve the current condition (Eloff 2003a: 9). In should be explored during the assessment. By def-
true keeping with the asset-based approach, col- inition, the asset-based approach is relationship
laboration frequently is not only about the indi- driven (Kretzmann & McKnight 1993: 9). Strengths
vidual who is receiving the support, but also and assets only have use once they are engaged,
about sharing expertise and means in a process of once they are functioning dynamically within rela-
growth throughout the system. Kleinert and Thur- tionships – once they have been accessed.
low (2001: 13) draw attention to the fact that In generating additional questions in the activi-
“supports for performance should be, to the max- ty box on page 53, you will hopefully experience
imum extent possible, those that are naturally how essential it is to seek understanding of the
occurring within the environment, and friend- relationships maintained in the learner’s life-
ships and the development of a rich fabric of world, and also of the improvement of relation-
social relationships are themselves a fundamental ships that can potentially be achieved. It should
outcome of the educational process”. be clear that it is better to explore the functioning
However, the existence of personal strengths of fewer assets, but then to achieve a detailed pic-
and/or assets in the life-world of an individual ture of the degree and conditions of accessibility
holds no guarantee at all that these will be of each.
utilised in circumstances of need. A great many When you actually draw an access map on the
factors influence the use a person makes of that information derived from the activity on page 53,
which is available, especially when perceiving any you may discover that some of the strengths and
form of duress. Mapping the personal strengths assets listed originally do not feature at all (even
and assets of learners is therefore close to worth- mom or dad may, for various reasons, fall out of
less if restricted merely to scouting through their the learning support scheme; or the school library
behaviours and environment to identify and list may prove inadequate for your purposes). You
potentially useful qualities, individuals and facili- may find that the route to some of the assets con-
ties to address the particular barrier(s) to learn- tains huge obstacles or potholes, that some path-
ing. For this reason, the task of further detailing ways are overgrown but could be cleared, and
your assessment strategies and techniques is that some are well trodden, demonstrating mutu-
postponed until the end of section [Link]. al trust and openness.
It frequently happens that the strengths and
[Link] Asset access mapping assets identified are as yet poorly utilised or per-
Supporting learners during the very process of haps even not at all. Devising strategies to set the
assessment to recognise and understand those supportive processes in motion is then an essen-
strengths that they could build on and develop in tial component of the process of asset access
their learning could help them to break through mapping and should not be neglected. Mobilising
the impasse of their perceived weaknesses and strengths and assets includes, on the one hand,
learning difficulty. In like manner, supporting empowering the learner to realise, appreciate and
them during assessment to recognise those assets access the talents and resources available and, on
in their life-world that are accessible, and actually the other, motivating potential supporters to offer
planning how and when to utilise each, could help their time, expertise and encouragement. Eloff
them break out of the isolation and state of (2003a: 5) remarks that a professional’s role
embarrassment and helplessness often brought should be one of “providing leadership and guid-

52
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

So, simply identifying strengths and assets does not qualify as effective asset mapping, not
even when graphically presented. It is a necessary, but incomplete step.
Look at the assorted examples below and notice how little these facts could by them-
selves contribute to the reduction of barriers to learning – so far they have not been of much
help, have they, so why would conditions change after an assessment which ends here?
• Sam enjoys adventure stories and sport.
• He accepts routine and discipline that is fair.
• He demonstrates some perseverance when initially unable to solve a problem.
• He has a good teacher.
• The school has a big library.
• The school has a support team.
• Mom matriculated with fairly good grades.
• Dad is good at maths and science, and so is his elder brother.
• There is a supermarket and a library three blocks away.
Now devise questions to explore aspects of access to each of the strengths and assets
above. Attend especially to considerations of relationship and feasibility, and reflect on how
you will engage the learner and other role-players in discussion and assessment activities,
eventually to succeed in plotting the access routes. A few pointers are supplied, starting
from the first item. Notice how one question leads to others and actually directs attention
functionally to other assets that have also been identified, when we concentrate on under-
standing the specifics of access.

Sam enjoys adventure stories and sport

• What are his preferred settings for enjoyment of the stories – only the television/radio, or
ACTIVITY

is he amenable to bedtime reading (and by whom, and would there be time in the cus-
tomary family routine, or would the family be open to a change of routine?)? Which other
timeslot(s), or other reader(s), or other topic(s), would be acceptable? What is the culture
of literacy in the family? What reading materials are available in the home and the neigh-
bourhood? How are Sam’s interests cultivated? Would it be at all acceptable (and feasi-
ble) to utilise his enjoyment of sport for reading development?
• At which level of text and content complexity does Sam enjoy adventure stories? Develop
further questions to look at the suitability of text from the perspective of accessibility
once you have studied Chapters 7 and 8.
• How could Sam’s enjoyment of adventure stories be extended to shared and/or paired
reading (and to the retelling of the story – which would be preferable to drawing, as it
could contribute to the enhancement of language skills – and to quoting an exciting pas-
sage or reading it aloud, and to rereading text silently when challenged to verify crucial
information)?
• Who in Sam’s life-world has the skills for reading development activities, or would be able
to develop the skills to support him, and who has the time, or could be released from
some other obligations? Is Sam’s teacher in a position to facilitate the support – does she
have the time? How does the learning support team of the school (school-based support
team) function – do they have materials containing guidelines available? Is the library
geared to provide Sam with suitable texts?
• And, finally – of pivotal importance – how much rapport is there at present between Sam
and each of his potential supporters? What is the nature of the relationships? Who would
be sufficiently focused to sustain encouragement, variety, structure, and discipline over
time? With whom would Sam be comfortable, able to distinguish between criticism and
direction, accepting of guidance, sometimes approaching them of his own accord for
learning support?

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

ance in supporting the process of change” and work, in terms of barriers to learning and partici-
points out that successful leadership is, inter alia, pation could actually reinforce the tendency
measured by one’s ability to attract resources and towards problem-centredness.
support. Nowhere will this perhaps prove more
vital in time to come than in the education and 3.3.4 Dynamic assessment
family systems of South Africa.
Ironically, the concept of barriers to learning As pointed out earlier, one can effectively change
forms the very opposite of the concept of accessi- the very act of assessment into the first steps of
bility of strengths and assets. It is an overriding learning support by conducting a dynamic instead
challenge for professionals with experience in a of a static assessment. Dynamic assessment is a
problem-centred (needs-based) approach to trans- test–teach–retest process, i.e. incorporating
form their practice to positive psychology and mediation and/or training to determine not only
proceed to function consistently in terms of facil- the learner’s current level of achievement, but
itating access to the strengths and assets existing especially the potential level of future achievement
in a learner’s situation. We catch ourselves con- and the ability of the learner to learn from inter-
stantly slipping back into deficit thinking! During action (Van Eeden & De Beer 2001: 181–182).
assessments, we need to reflect consciously on Assessors can permit themselves considerable
how and where we find ourselves still dealing flexibility in trying to find the form of support that
broadly with the context of a learner’s circum- will help children to do their best. Lubbe (2004:
stances in terms of limitations. If we are not on 319) actually states that the dialogue and inter-
our guard the very thinking, in a causal frame- pretation are critical, since the focus is on how the
learner and the assessor understand the entire
process of the development of knowledge and
Revisit the strategies and questions for skills.
assessment as extended at the end of The information contained in the results of stat-
section 3.3.2.
ic, formal assessments is an inadequate basis for
• For which aspects of that practical learning support since it tells little about learning
framework does the asset-based
processes and nothing about mediational strate-
approach have relevance? Make the
gies that facilitate learning. In fact, the outcome
necessary adjustments and additions
to your strategies and questions to frequently amounts to no more than a label
align them with this approach. around the learner’s neck instead of providing the
• Operationalise strengths in the types functional and operational description that is so
of person characteristics posited by essential to move forward. Many learners, espe-
Bronfenbrenner and Morris (in sec- cially those coming from disadvantaged social
ACTIVITY

tion 1.4, also explained in section backgrounds or having some form of learning dif-
[Link]), by listing at least five more ficulty, perform poorly on static measures, but the
qualities for each that you would be ways in which they may be supported remain hid-
looking out for. den. Standard tests also seldom provide informa-
• List at least four individuals who tion about emotional and contextual factors that
could act as an asset to a learner may be impacting on the performance of the indi-
who is experiencing a barrier to vidual (Tzuriel 2000: 386–389).
learning and at least four other forms
Dynamic assessment rests on the principle of
of asset which you would explore in
each case.
the zone of proximal development. The outcome
of dynamic assessment may even reveal emergent
• Operationalise asset access where
barriers to learning occur, by listing functions that have not yet been internalised
at least three considerations touch- (Kozulin & Garb 2001: 1). In recognising the
ing on the access to each asset that strengths as well as the difficulties of the learner
you have listed. and also taking account of context and effective
modes of intervention, dynamic assessment offers

54
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

a more holistic view and understanding of the will be possible to transform or adapt his family
processes and interactions that underpin the relationships and school environment to support
learning. Initially developed to address cultural the realisation of the potential that is unmasked.
and experiential differences, it is also useful with The assessment might therefore include participa-
learners experiencing with intrinsic barriers to tion, and even “experimentation”, by individuals
learning (impairments). who are being considered for the role of learning
Both quantitative and qualitative methods of supporters, for all role-players to achieve a deep
dynamic assessment can be undertaken. In the understanding of the promotive and impeding
former, the process of mediation is a standardised effects of the interactions on the level of achieve-
sequence of cues and the zone of proximal devel- ment that the learner is able to attain.
opment is quantified by calculating the difference To make an informed choice for dynamic
between scores before and after mediation, or the assessment and apply it responsibly, you must be
number and intensity of prompts and supports a aware of its limitations. It is admittedly time-con-
learner needs to learn a task. In qualitative suming to analyse the work done during a first
dynamic assessment, the mediation is more flexi- round of assessment, do at least one session of
ble and interactive in response to the specific one-on-one or small-group intervention (to try
needs of the learner (Losardo & Notari-Syverson out ways of effectively addressing the barriers and
2001: 121–124; Deutsch & Reynolds 2000: 313). mediating the targeted knowledge or skills), and
Mediation can take the form of actions such as then do a follow-up assessment to determine the
repeating the question or information; focusing amount of progress made. This investment of
attention; guiding the learner’s analysis of the time could yield an enormously high rate of inter-
question or information; providing directions, est when using the information obtained to
suggestions or additional information; describing; enable learners and their learning supporters to
demonstrating; explaining; giving feedback; and actualise all the available learning potential to the
modifying tasks (decreasing and increasing their maximum consistently, in all of their own time. A
complexity). second limitation concerns the issues of validity
For good effect, dynamic assessment should be and reliability of the results of a non-standardised
integrated with the process of asset access map- process, when practitioners create their own
ping. Lauchlan and Elliot (2001: 650) actually hold assessment materials for individual learners, and a
the radical position that it is only useful to assess high degree of flexibility during mediation is
a learner’s potential to learn on condition that it encouraged. One could argue that this point

Revisit the strategies and questions for assessment as extended at the end of the previous
section.
• To which aspects of your practical framework does dynamic assessment have relevance?
• Make the necessary adjustments and additions to your strategies and questions to align
them with this approach.
• Select an item from a formal test on the learning area of your choice for learners at a
ACTIVITY

grade level of which you have some knowledge and/or experience. Devise an item that is
similar in complexity and could thus serve to check learners’ mastery, as well as one each
at a lower and at a more advanced level. Administer the first item and find three learners
who are unable to do it. Then mediate the content, noting and reflecting on the processes
required in your mediation to each and the possible reasons for the differences. (You
may, for example, find that you need to move back to basics with one, whereas with
another you are required to control for attention and accuracy, or you may be able to pro-
ceed to practical applications more richly with some than with others.) Finally, administer
the retest items and develop some suggestions for effective learning support for each
learner.

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

recognises the importance of adequate training mediation techniques attempted during the
and expertise, which could of course be taken as a dynamic assessment have worked.
further limitation. Remember, however, that The task facing the assessor entails how to
when learners are contending with barriers to determine what learners know and how they func-
learning, the dynamic assessment is primarily for tion, when there are factors withholding or delay-
purposes of learning support, not placement or ing them in accessing the questions, tiring and/or
promotion. Therefore, what is more at issue is the distracting them by the mere effort it takes to
relevance of the information obtained qualitatively gain access, trapping them into misunderstanding
during the assessment and mediation in revealing questions, or losing details. What sense should be
the potential of the particular learner. Radencich made of the response pattern across a range of
(1995: 193) dares to say that assessment has to be items – of those items that have been refused or
“messy” (author’s emphasis) to be at all valid! For- not reached, of errors made in questions using a
mal techniques of assessment are often constrain- multiple-choice or cloze format, of differences in
ing and tend to miss some aspects of the contex- the quality of responses at the receptive and
tual, human element. Finally, dynamic assessment expressive levels of language usage?
may impact on learners with language difficulties Based on Burns (1998: 1–8), the accommoda-
due to the increased linguistic input required. tion of barriers to learning may be defined as
adaptive acts or measures aimed at making the
3.3.5 Accommodations in assessment information and the question of each assessment
item equally accessible to learners contending with
In the activity in section 3.3.4, you were required the particular form and degree of barrier for
to devise assessment items. This immediately which the accommodation is intended as to learn-
raises questions concerning the accommodation ers not experiencing that barrier. What is at issue
of barriers to learning, especially impairments, here is accessibility to the question, not to the
during the assessment itself. answer.
When assessing learners experiencing possible Accommodation in assessment includes chang-
barriers to learning, the concept of access features ing aspects of the presentation (e.g. format, layout,
twice: you should not only recognise the impor- language), the way in which a test is administered
tance of their access to assets, but on a different (e.g. duration, number of breaks, read-aloud), and
level you should also be conscious of learners’ even the content of a question. Elliot et al. (1998:
chances to break through to the very assessment 13) identified eight domains of accommodations
items themselves, and even, as described by to use in assessment: (a) motivation; (b) assistance
Kleinert and Thurlow (2001: 10), their need for “a prior to the administration of the test; (c) sched-
different way to show what they know”. uling; (d) setting; (e) assessment directions; (f)
In addition to sensory inability and/or commu- assistance during assessment; (g) use of equip-
nicative difficulties in accessing the questions, ment or adaptive technology; and (h) changes in
factors such as impulsiveness in responses, failure format. Findings based on the data from special
to complete tasks or questions in the time allot- schools in the National Report on Systemic Evalua-
ted and environmental disadvantage should be tion of education in South Africa conducted in
monitored, since these also frequently affect the 2001/2002 (Department of Education 2003) sug-
assessment results and mask important informa- gest that accommodations of a linguistic nature in
tion for learning support. Often learners’ perform- the form of simplifying syntax, enhancing ques-
ance on unaccommodating assessment tasks pro- tion structure and substituting shorter, more
vides a snapshot of only fragments of their dys- readable words when the meaning of the item is
functioning (then certainly predisposing us again not compromised in this way, can contribute to
to a problem focus!), instead of reflecting out- increased reliability of assessment instruments.
comes which coherently demonstrate their cogni- Obviously, you need to be very clear about the
tive development and potential, and you may construct underpinning the particular assessment
erroneously be led to believe that none of the task. For instance, accommodating a reading dis-

56
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

ability in a reading test or a disability in mathe- assessment task and to the forms of support that
matics in a mathematics test will clearly defy the could benefit him specifically, gives final defini-
purpose of the exercise. tion to the task of learning support.
In addition to the theoretical framework con-
templated in section 3.3, strategic decisions
Revisit the strategies and questions for about assessment are of a highly practical nature
assessment as extended at the end of and can actually sometimes dictate proceedings.
the previous section. Such practical considerations include opting for
• For which aspects of your practical norm- or criterion-referenced assessment, the
framework does accommodation in early identification of learners experiencing barri-
assessment have relevance? ers to learning, the sources of information to
• Make the necessary adjustments and utilise (e.g. schoolwork, assessment results,
additions to your strategies and observations), and the participants to involve (e.g.
questions to align them with the teachers, parents, the learning support team of
need to accommodate certain bar-
ACTIVITY

the school, the learner).

riers to learning in assessment.
The assessment techniques concern the nitty-
• Select three items from a standard-
ised test in a learning area of your
gritty of selecting and applying methods and
choice for learners at a grade level of instruments to collect the information. These
which you have some knowledge could include checklists; error analyses; portfolio
and/or experience. Find a learner assessments; assessment questions; interviews
with a confirmed barrier to learning with parents, teachers and learners (individually
and devise accommodations to the or in a group); and some improvised means if the
items to increase access to the need arises.
questions without providing assis- Guiding principles of only a small selection of
tance with the answers. Administer the strategies and techniques will be briefly
the items and reflect on the success
noted. The variety is huge! You are advised to
of your accommodations.
consult the literature for more, and also develop
your own.

3.4 STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES IN 3.4.2 Strategies in assessment

ASSESSING FOR LEARNING SUPPORT [Link] Norm-referenced versus criterion-
3.4.1 Orientation referenced assessment
By now you hopefully agree that merely analysing Norm-referenced tests compare an individual
a score profile in terms of high and low achieve- learner’s performance with that of a “norm”
ment cannot provide sufficient information for group of the same age or grade level. It is impor-
learning support. Knowing how the learner tant to note that these tests do not necessarily
arrives at answers (irrespective of whether they represent all the essential criteria contributing to
are right or wrong), i.e. the style and processes of a particular level of skill or knowledge. The test
learning, is somewhat less static and could add results may therefore actually prove unhelpful
considerably to your understanding. Then gaining beyond confirming that the learner “has”/“does
insight into the various contexts of the learning not have” “a problem” in comparison with others
(e.g. what happens in the classroom, during of like age or grade, and may give virtually no
homework sessions and on family outings) and direction as to learning support.
how the relationships and support could be When interpreting results, it is essential to take
enhanced and utilised, contribute important account of the conditions of test development
detail to the picture. Trying out forms of media- and the particular construct and rationale of the
tion and recognising the learner’s potential to particular test (right down to each test item!). The
learn by ensuring that he has full access to each only way in which the contextual factor can be

57
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

allowed some of its many and pivotal effects in join forces in addressing the barriers to learning
your interpretation of the learner’s results on a and render optimal learning support. Sources of
standardised test is by ensuring that the measure information include the following:
was standardised locally, recently, and included suf- • The learner’s schoolwork – work done in class,
ficient data from the particular group to which the homework, projects, portfolios (in written, oral
learner belongs. and practical form) – i.e. the outcomes of the
In criterion-referenced tests, particular out- learner’s thinking and learning, instead of
comes are targeted in a level-appropriate way and focusing on discrete aspects of the learner’s
the learner’s competence is examined in more abilities, such as perception and attention (for
detail. These tests are less global and typically many professionals this will represent a shift
more closely linked to a particular curriculum or from predominantly quantitative measurement
set of competencies. A learner’s score is not com- to a more qualitative, integrated and descrip-
pared to a norming population; instead it is com- tive understanding)
pared to a predetermined criterion. Criteria need • Assessment results – on various occasions and
not be traditional. By assessing learner mastery of in various formats (in written, oral and practical
a specific goal, these tests tend to give more form); reports from the school and other practi-
direction as to the learning support desired, tioners, e.g. an occupational therapist
grouping for instruction and assessing individual
progress. • Observations – notes on the learner’s learning
behaviour (e.g. learning style, problem-solving
[Link] Early identification of learners
strategies, metacognition, time-on-task, atten-
experiencing barriers to learning tion, routine), emotions (e.g. reaction to suc-
cess and failure, self-assessment, participation
To prevent barriers to learning from developing and relationships in various contexts)
or intensifying, it is essential to identify learners
who are contending with such barriers as soon as • Interviews – with the learner, teacher, parents,
possible, even before children reach school age. other role-players
Many teachers and schools actually follow a policy
[Link] Participants to involve
of routine screenings in Grade R and Grade 1. This
is typically a task in which schools could most Closely linked to considering the sources of infor-
fruitfully liaise with community expertise and mation to examine, you need to decide whom to
trans-disciplinary resources timeously to bring involve in the assessment and the learning sup-
such needs to the attention of the school. Contin- port. These two points often influence one anoth-
uous assessment could also contribute signifi- er. The list should obviously begin with the learn-
cantly to the timeous identification of learners in er and could further include any of the teacher(s),
need of learning support. the school-based support team, peers, the par-
ents, siblings and members of the extended fami-
[Link] Sources of information ly, and other practitioners. Kleinert and Thurlow
(2001: 13) recommend that supportive figures
The purpose of using multiple sources of informa- should be, to the maximum extent possible, those
tion during assessment is not primarily to prevent who occur naturally within the learner’s environ-
a one-sided interpretation or to clarify the under- ment, remarking that friendships and the devel-
standing of the assessor – it is essentially in line opment of a rich fabric of social relationships are
with the principles of our whole theoretical themselves a fundamental outcome of the educa-
framework in section 3.3: the bio-ecological tional process.
model, asset access mapping, dynamic assess-
ment and accommodations in assessment. Assess-
ment for learning support requires you to decide 3.4.3 Assessment techniques
which sources of information are needed in a par- Not only are there numerous techniques, but each
ticular case in order to inform the role-players to also exists in several forms and can be applied in

58
 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 3

a variety of ways. The following are a few exam- relating tasks to familiar experiences and situa-
ples, but be sure to examine more possibilities: tions.
• Portfolio assessment. Since portfolios contain • Interview with the teacher and/or parents. This
an assortment of the learner’s work, this gives refers to concentrating on specifics that could
more of an idea of what the learner can do, not be useful in developing the supportive relation-
what he cannot do. ship, e.g. What would happen if ...? What
• Continuous assessment. This identifies a diffi- would you see if things were just a bit better?
culty in the early stages and also provides a Why do you think that ...? Can you give me an
more comprehensive picture of learning as a example of this? How would he know that this
process. is what you wanted from him? Is there anything
• Self-assessment. This is useful especially if you’re thinking you need from me here? What
linked to metacognitive awareness and goal- would be the most effective way of checking
setting. this out? (Hymer et al. 2002: 47–62)
• Tests. Tests are valuable especially if utilised • Assessment in a specific learning area. Exam-
for positive feedback concerning correct and ples for reading include the following: word
good answers. reading vs running text; reading aloud vs read-
• Work sampling. This is often used for error ing silently; comprehension questions vs exe-
analysis, but is also useful for identifying cuting instructions vs total recall vs setting of
strengths, work habits and learning style. own questions; miscue analysis, e.g. grammati-
cal errors and meaningful substitutions that
• Discussion with the learner. This serves to
share ideas about what the support should reflect a focus on comprehension (e.g.
focus on; an externalising conversation enables was/were, pluck/pick); substitutions which
the learner to explore preferred ideas about change the meaning of the text, and distortion
who he can be and strengthens the intention to of words reflecting a focus on decoding the
utilise support; when the learner can tell about individual words rather than on meaning (e.g.
past successes, it is a confirmation of ability Nicky was hopping (happy); we saw a samil
and potential. (camel)).
• Checklists. These often focus on problem
areas, e.g. behaviours indicating attention 3.5 CONCLUSION
deficits, but the items could also be formulated If you think back to the opening questions in the
in a positive way. introduction to the chapter, it is undeniable that
• Observation. This refers to the monitoring of the ethics of assessment are of critical impor-
learning behaviours and emotional responses tance. The ethics of assessment that one sub-
(e.g. How does the learner approach tasks? Is scribes to will be strongly related to one’s pur-
he able to focus attention easily and stay pose in engaging in an assessment and the theo-
engaged? How are challenges, problems and retical framework that directs the choice of strate-
failures dealt with?). gies and techniques. The most salient considera-
• Interaction. This is one step further than obser- tions include respect, confidentiality, validity and
vation – direct communication gives greatest reliability.
understanding of progress; it challenges, Reflecting on a 25-year research career on
encourages or stimulates the learner, and is assessment, Ysseldyke (2001: 306) concluded:
mostly informal. “We should work to have all assessment practices
• Task accommodations to improve perform- make a difference in students’ lives rather than be
ance. Examples of this are balancing tasks in a prediction about their lives.” You will do well to
order to keep the learner’s interest, shortening constantly apply this measure when self-assessing
tasks or breaking them down into smaller com- your every act of assessment during your entire
ponents, allowing breaks when necessary, and professional career.

59
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

Questions Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill, T.R. & Schulte, A.G. 1998. The
assessment accommodations checklist: who, what,
1. Discuss the difference between assessing the where, when, why and how? Teaching Exceptional Chil-
dren, 31(2): 10–14.
learner, assessing learning, and assessment for
learning. Eloff, I. 2003a. Introduction to the asset-based approach
to intervention. In Ebersöhn, L. & Eloff, I. Life skills and
2. Discuss whether it is possible (or advisable) to assets. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 3–17.
do away completely with labels in dealing with Eloff, I. 2003b. Understanding the asset-based approach.
learners who are contending with barriers to In Ebersöhn, L. & Eloff, I. Life skills and assets. Pretoria:
learning. How is this to be achieved? Van Schaik, 18–33.
Hymer, B., Michel, D. & Todd, L. 2002. Dynamic consulta-
3. Explain the purpose of assessment when a
tion: towards processes and challenge. Educational Psy-
learner seems to be facing barriers to learning. chology in Practice, 18(1): 47–62.
4. Explain how the bio-ecological approach, the Johnston, P.H. & Winograd, P.N. 1985. Passive failure in
asset-based approach, dynamic assessment reading. Journal of Reading Behaviour, 17(4): 279–301.
and the principle of accommodation in assess- Kleinert, H.L. & Thurlow, M.L. 2001. An introduction to
ment will give direction to your assessment alternate assessment. In Kleinert, H.L. & Kearns, J.F.
(Eds), Alternate assessment: measuring outcomes and
practice when dealing with learners who are supports for students with disabilities. London: Paul H.
experiencing barriers to learning. Give exam- Brookes, 1–15.
ples of the questions that you will be exploring Kozulin, A. & Garb, E. 2001. Dynamic assessment of EFL
during your assessment. text comprehension of at-risk students. Paper presented
at the 9th Conference of the European Association for
5. Discuss the difference between assessment Research on Learning and Instruction. Fribourg, Switzer-
practices that are a prediction about a learn- land, September.
er’s life and assessment practices that can Kretzmann, J.P. & McKnight, J.L. 1993. Building commu-
make a difference in his life. nities from the inside out: a path toward finding and
mobilising a community’s assets. Chicago: Acta Publica-
tions.
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ment of learning potential. British Journal of Educational
Archer, M., Rossouw, W., Lomofsky, L. & Oliver, P. 1999.
Psychology, 71: 647–665.
Assessment in an inclusive classroom. In Engelbrecht, P.,
Green, L., Naicker, S. & Engelbrecht, L. (Eds), Inclusive Losardo, A. & Notari-Syverson, A. 2001. Alternative
education in action in South Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik, approaches to assessing young children. Baltimore: Paul
97–126. H. Brookes.
Bronfenbrenner, U. & Morris, P.A. 1998. The ecology of Lubbe, C. 2004. Educational psychological assessment.
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993–1027. the reading/writing program. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Burns, E. 1998. Test accommodations for students with Tzuriel, D. 2000. Dynamic assessment of young children:
disabilities. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. educational and intervention perspectives. Educational
Department of Education. 2003. National Report on Sys- Psychology Review, 12(4): 386–389.
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Pretoria: Department of Education. tive functioning. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds), An
Department of Education. 1998. Draft assessment policy introduction to psychological assessment in the South
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Deutsch, R. & Reynolds, Y. 2000. The use of dynamic higher-order psychological processes. Cambridge, MA:
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Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2001. Educational generalizations from 25 years of research on assessment
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University Press. 67(3): 295–309.

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 LEARNING SUPPORT 4
EMMERENTIA LANDSBERG

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand how learning support is provided in an inclusive education
system in South Africa
Πapply cooperative learning support strategies to accommodate a
diversity of learners in a classroom
Πdesign an education support programme for learners who experience
barriers to learning.

Key terms • Teachers need adequate learning support

materials and assistive devices appropriate for
cooperative learning strategies ♦ district-based the needs of learners with disabilities.
support team ♦ learning support ♦ inclusive
• Teachers agree that their class size should be
education ♦ individualised learning support
reduced to 20 learners or less to accommo-
programme ♦ teacher assistant ♦ school-based
date learners with disabilities in their class-
support team rooms.

4.1 INTRODUCTION Most of these needs of educators (teachers) are

According to Scruggs and Mastropieri (in Putnam addressed in the policy documents of the Depart-
1998a: 11) teachers are of the opinion that suc- ment of Education and will be discussed in this
cessful inclusion requires the following: chapter.
Chapter 1 describes the policy of inclusive edu-
• Teachers need more time to plan their teaching
cation and why South Africa has adopted this pol-
activities to include a diversity of learners.
icy. The Department of Education is in the process
• Teachers need systematic and intensive train- of implementing this policy according to the Edu-
ing, either as part of their initial training or as cation White Paper 6 (Department of Education
well-planned in-service training by competent 2001). A period of 20 years is set aside for the full
and experienced people. implementation of this policy. In this chapter we
• Teachers need additional teacher assistants will discuss the implementation of this policy as
who can support them in teaching a diversity of well as learning support strategies that will help
learners as well as support from specialised the teacher in the classroom to teach a diversity
people for advice and guidance. of learners.

61
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

4.2 LEARNING SUPPORT IN SOUTH AFRICA and Labour, will have to cooperate with one
In this section learning support in South Africa another much more closely.
will be discussed with reference to policy docu- 3. The South African Schools Act (Act no. 84 of
ments and other publications of the Department 1996) makes provision for compulsory educa-
of Education. tion for all and universal admission to public
schools. The Member of the Executive Council
4.2.1 Education White Paper 6 and its (for each province) must, where reasonably
implementation practicable, provide education for learners
Education White Paper 6 (Department of Education who experience barriers to learning at ordi-
2001) makes provision for support by means of a nary public schools and also provide relevant
systems approach and collaboration between educational support services for such learners.
these systems. In Chapter 1 these systems are dis- 4. The National Commission on Special Needs in
cussed according to Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecolog- Education and Training (NCSET) and the
ical approach. In this section we shall focus on National Committee on Education Support
collaboration between these systems, as well as Services (NCESS) released their final report in
the implementation of policies designed by the November 1997 after countrywide negotiations
national Department of Education to enable these with all relevant stakeholders. The name of this
systems to work. report reveals the thinking of the participants:
Quality education for all: overcoming barriers to
[Link] At national level learning and development. In other words, rather
The function of the national Department of Edu- than special needs and support, quality educa-
cation is to formulate policy, which is done in col- tion for all is emphasised. There should be a
laboration with all the stakeholders who are break away from “changing the person” to a
involved in education. The following documents systems change approach. That is to say: accept
paved the way for the acceptance of the policy of learners as they are and adapt the curriculum
inclusive education and the implementation to suit all of them. The findings of this report
thereof: coincide with outcomes-based education and
therefore with the National Curriculum.
1. The section in the South African Constitution
on human rights sets out the fundamental 5. The Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Edu-
rights of each person in this country. No policy cation: building an inclusive education and
can therefore contradict these rights. training system was published in July 2001
after several draft documents, negotiating ses-
2. The White Paper on Education and Training in a
sions with relevant stakeholders and written
Democratic South Africa: first steps to develop
comments from all walks of life. Most of the
a new system, February 1995 specifies that the
recommendations of the NCSET/NCESS report
provision of education to learners who experi-
were included in this policy document. A peri-
ence barriers to learning and the educational
od of 20 years is allowed for the implementa-
support services should form an integral part
tion of the policy of inclusive education.
of education and should not be viewed as a
separate section. The provinces should assume 6. The Draft guidelines for the implementation
responsibility for the provision and organisa- of inclusive education, published in October
tion of the education of learners who experi- 2002, was developed through a broad consul-
ence barriers to learning. There should be an tation process involving all stakeholders coun-
inclusive and integrated approach to the provi- trywide, as well as the National Coordinating
sion of services to learners who experience Committee on Inclusive Education. This com-
such barriers. Government departments mittee includes representatives from the
involved with learners who experience these Department of Education, officials from the
barriers, such as Education, Welfare, Health provinces, the South African Federal Council

62
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

on Disability, teacher unions and representa- specialised settings, designated full-service and
tives of the Disability Desk of the Office of the other primary schools and educational institu-
State President. The wider public was also tions” (Department of Education 2001: 8). Accord-
invited for information and feedback (Depart- ing to the Draft guidelines for the implementation of
ment of Education 2002: preamble). inclusive education (called draft guidelines) (Depart-
ment of Education 2002: 98–100), the core educa-
The South African policy on learners who experi- tion support service providers at district level
ence barriers to learning is, therefore, in accor- include the following:
dance with modern international trends, and
• Support personnel currently employed by the
specifies that these learners should be accommo-
Department of Education such as therapists,
dated within the general education system and
psychologists, learning support teachers,
supported in an integrated, community-based
experts on specific disabilities as well as other
manner. The overarching goal of this national
health and welfare professionals (medical doc-
education policy is to enable all learners to value,
tors, social workers, etc.)
have access to and succeed in lifelong education
and training of good quality. This requires a flexi- • Curriculum specialists who can provide cur-
ble inclusive education system which will be riculum support to teachers
implemented during a 20-year programme. In the • Management specialists to provide guidelines
short and medium term, the focus will be on on management to schools
addressing weaknesses in the current system, • Administrative experts who provide adminis-
gradually expanding provision for and access to trative and financial management support to
education for all, building the capacity and com- schools
petencies of teachers and support personnel, and
• Specialist support personnel from existing spe-
monitoring and evaluating these developments
cial schools and other education institutions
within the whole system (Department of Educa-
such as higher and further education institu-
tion 2002: 93).
tions
[Link] At provincial level • Other government professionals such as local
government structures, Office of the Status of
The role of the departments of education of the
Disabled Persons, Health, Social Welfare, Jus-
nine provinces is to implement policy accepted by
tice, Safety and Security, Sport and Recreation,
the national Department of Education. It stands to
etc. which can be co-opted depending on the
reason that the provinces are not on the same
particular needs and availability of resources in
level regarding the implementation of the policy
that district
of inclusion as resources and manpower differ
from province to province. The provinces are • Community role-players such as parents,
responsible, inter alia, for resource development grandparents and other caregivers, NGOs, dis-
(human and technical), building of schools, distri- abled people’s organisations, members of the
bution of finances and resource material, employ- school governing body, teachers, learners, etc.
ment of educators, admission of learners who
experience barriers to learning, etc. This should be a flexible team that may differ
according to the needs of the school(s) and the
[Link] At district level learners. Team members should possess the
required competencies to fulfil the following roles
Each province is divided into several districts,
(Department of Education 2002: 104):
each of which has a team which manages inclusive
education in that district. This team is called the • Assessors of barriers to learning and needs at
district-based support team “to provide a co-ordi- learner and educator level as well as at organi-
nated professional support service that draws on sational level
expertise in further and higher education and • Researchers and evaluators of resources and
local communities, targeting special schools and educational programmes

63
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

• General learning support facilitators to identi- According to the draft guidelines (Department of
fy learning needs and to design learning pro- Education 2002: 102–105), the core functions of
grammes the district-based support team are
• Specialist learning support facilitators to pro- • the development and ongoing back-up of sup-
vide expert support (e.g. Braille, sign language) port teams in schools and early childhood
• Materials developers to provide learning mate- learning centres in supporting “the capacity
rial that is responsive to particular learning building of these institutions, identifying and
needs prioritising learning needs and barriers to
• Health and welfare workers to address particu- learning in their district; identifying the sup-
lar health problems as well as to promote gen- port needed to address these challenges and
eral health programmes pursuing these within a strategic planning and
• Counsellors for learners, parents and educators management framework and ongoing monitor-
ing and evaluation of support
• to link these institutions with formal and infor-
A Grade 5 learner was blinded as a mal support systems so that needs and barriers
result of a shooting accident. His par- can be addressed
ents did not want to send him to a spe-
cial school as he was happy in the ordi- • the main focus would be to provide indirect
nary school and was popular among support to learners through supporting teach-
his friends. As this was the first learner ers and school management to ensure that the
to experience visual problems in the teaching and learning environment is respon-
school, the principal called upon the sive to the full range of learning needs. A sec-
district-based support team for help. ond focus would be to provide direct learning
The following team of experts was put support to learners where necessary and possi-
together:
ble where the school-based support team is
• An ophthalmologist from the nearest
unable to respond to particular learning needs”
hospital to determine residual vision,
if any
(Department of Education 2002: 103).
• An expert educator from the special
school regarding assistive devices, 4.2.2 Network of support within each
teaching strategies and classroom education district
ACTIVITY

management
• A mobility instructor from the SA
Each education district is responsible for the
National Council for the Blind schools in that district. In urban areas these
(SANCB) schools are quite near to each other, but in rural
• A Braille teacher areas they may not be. This causes persons from
• Parents of the learner and the learner the district-based support team to travel long dis-
• A psychologist and/or social worker tances to reach each school, which may hamper
(from the SANCB) who are experts the amount of support provided.
on visual impairment to support the It is stated clearly in the Education White Paper 6
parents and the learner emotionally (Department of Education 2001: 10) that support
• The phase teachers and the learning would be rendered according to the level of needs
support teacher from the ordinary of learners who experience barriers to learning
school and not according to the impairment of those
Who else would you co-opt on this dis-
learners. Learners will be rated on a flexible scale
trict-based support team and why? from 1 (low intensity support) to 5 (high intensity
Would you say that all the competen- support) by an assessment team. The Department
cies that are needed to support a learn- of Education accepts that a high level of support
er who is blind are covered? could be flexible and that learners could move
into a lower level of support and therefore to

64
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

another school, depending on the success of the bouring schools. This includes training of
support received. Learners who are in need of teachers regarding barriers to learning, man-
high intensity support would be educated in spe- agement of inclusive classrooms, development
cial schools as resource centres, those in need of of learning support material, guidance to par-
medium intensity support would be educated in ents, early childhood intervention and develop-
full-service schools and those in need of low ment of life skills programmes to make learners
intensity support in ordinary schools. who experience barriers to learning less vulner-
able to abuse.

District-based support team • The special school as a resource centre should

coordinate support from the community such
as health and welfare, disabled people’s organ-
isations, the business sector, etc. The special
Special Full-service Ordinary
school as a resource centre should also make
school school school its human and physical resources available to
the community. For example, ABET pro-
grammes for people with disabilities could be
Figure 4.1 Network of support offered at a special school, as well as outreach
programmes for early childhood intervention.
[Link] Special schools as resource centres
[Link] Full-service schools
By the end of the envisaged 20 years of imple-
Each education district should have at least one
mentation of the policy of inclusion, each educa-
full-service school. Learners who are in need of
tion district should possess one special school as medium intensity support are accepted in full-
a resource centre. As said, all learners who need service schools. According to the draft guidelines
high intensity support will be educated in this (Department of Education 2002: 44–46) the role
school. The other responsibility of these schools of full-service schools is (see Figure 4.1):
is that of resource centre. That means that their
resources should be integrated into the district- • to provide support in the school to learners and
based support team so that they can provide spe- teachers by means of competent and experi-
cialised professional support in curriculum, enced learning support educators
assessment and instruction to full-service and • to support neighbouring schools with knowl-
ordinary schools in the district. According to the edge, information and assistive devices regard-
draft guidelines (Department of Education 2002: ing barriers to learning
25–33) the functions of special schools as • to work in close collaboration with the district-
resource centres are as follows (see Figure 4.1): based support team to coordinate support.
• The special school as a resource centre should A full-service school works in collaboration
function as an integrated and coordinated part with, and provides assistance and support to
of the district-based support team. That means other schools in the area so that a range of
that learning support educators should not learning needs can be addressed mainly in
only be able to interchange between ordinary learners’ neighbourhood schools. It wel-
schools, full-service schools and special schools comes teachers from schools in the area to
as resource centres to provide support to learn new skills and ideas in the school and
teachers regarding barriers to learning but also may admit learners from neighbourhood
provide support to particular learners if neces- schools for short periods of time for inten-
sary. sive training in specialised areas, such as
Braille, mobility or sign language. These
• The special school as a resource centre should services might be run in collaboration with
provide specialised professional support in cur- various service providers (Department of
riculum, assessment and instruction to neigh- Education 2002: 44).

65
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

[Link] Ordinary schools sion of learning support together with the

Ordinary or mainstream schools cater for learners teacher(s) involved in a particular learner’s teach-
who are in need of low intensity support. Teach- ing and learning.
ers are supported by the district-based support Teachers should be dynamic, competent and
team which organises support and draws its innovative in their teaching methods to accom-
resources from the other types of schools. Learn- modate the different learning styles of learners.
ers in need of more support can also be moved to The following diagram (adapted from Morrison
any of the other schools for a short period of time 1998: 407) explains how learning support can be
to receive specialised education until they are offered in a holistic way, taking all stakeholders
able to cope in the ordinary school or support can on board.
be rendered in the school by experts from the dis-
trict-based support team (see Figure 4.1). [Link] School-based support team (SBST)
The school-based support team in each school
together with the education support service of
4.2.3 Learning support in schools the district should take responsibility for
Whether the school is a special school as a • the in-service training of teachers in the identi-
resource centre, a full-service school or an ordi- fication, assessment and support of all learners
nary school, it should establish a school-based including those who experience barriers to
support team which is responsible for the provi- learning

Knowledge of learners who Leadership and

experience barriers to learning management skills
• Learn causes and characteristics • Plan and manage the learning
of learners who experience environment to accommodate
barriers to learning learners who experience barriers
• Know legislation regarding to learning
barriers to learning • Manage the behaviour of all
• Foster social acceptance of learners
learners who experience barriers • Motivate all learners to accept
to learning others as they are
• Use assistive technology to • Use a “buddy” system to help a
enhance learning learner who experiences barriers
Effective to learning when necessary
teaching in
inclusive
Knowledge and skills classrooms Professional
in curriculum collaboration skills
• Develop and modify teaching • Work closely with other
strategies for learners who professionals
experience barriers to learning • Work with and involve parents
• Use a variety of teaching styles • Participate in planning and
and assistive devices to teach implementing an individual
learners who experience learning support programme
barriers to learning
• Modify assessment strategies
for learners who experience
barriers to learning
• Develop an individualised
learning support programme

Figure 4.2 Effective teaching in inclusive classrooms

Source: Adapted from Morrison 1998: 407

66
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

• establishing networks that promote effective • The principal – should be involved on a part-
communication between learners, teachers and time basis
parents as well as with non-governmental • A school assessment team representative
organisations and the welfare, health and jus- • A learner support material committee repre-
tice departments sentative
• identification and discussion of learner devel- • Any co-opted member from outside depending
opment (organising programmes and new on the needs of the learner (e.g. an occupation-
teaching strategies that the class teacher may al therapist or psychologist)
try to support the learner) • The parents of the learner
• placement of the learner in another school if • The learner
necessary
• facilitating the sharing of resources (human and Each member should have a particular responsi-
material resources: teaching methods and bility towards the team. For example, the learning
teaching aids) and encouraging teachers to support teacher acts as coordinator and facilitates
share ideas the meetings of the team. Discussions should be
• ensuring parental involvement kept focused and clear. He should further ensure
that the goals set by the group are reached and
• planning preventative strategies (prevention of
reported on within a specific time-frame. The
child abuse, drug abuse, malnutrition, etc.)
referring teacher should first consult with the
• supporting teachers on site
phase teachers and then with the school-based
• monitoring and supporting learner progress support team for advice on how to support the
(the class teacher should give regular feedback learner. Team members should take turns to take
on progress made to the SBST). minutes of meetings. Minutes should be kept
The school-based support team should feature safely for future reference. Copies of support pro-
strongly in each school and should be flexible. grammes, assessment reports (before and after
The learning support teacher should take respon- support sessions), and teacher comments should
sibility for the organisation of this team. Experts be kept. The learner’s progress should be moni-
from the community, special schools as resource tored.
centres, full-service schools and medical services The phase representative coordinates phase
could be co-opted to this team when necessary. meetings to discuss learners’ barriers to learning
Support to learners who experience barriers to and coordinates support programmes for the
learning is therefore a team approach but the phase. The parents can provide valuable informa-
class teacher should be in the centre of that team. tion about the learner’s development and well-
The composition of the SBST is dependent on being as well as his preferences, needs and
the size and the needs of the school and the num- strengths. The parents can also support the learn-
ber of teachers available. According to the Gaut- er at home under the guidance of the SBST.
eng Department of Education (s.a.: 10) the SBST The team suggests strategies to support the
should consist of, inter alia, the following: learner. The ultimate implementation of these
strategies rests with the referring teacher who
• A learning support teacher who is competent must report to the school-based support team. If
and innovative, and possesses good collabora- the support is not successful, relevant members of
tive skills the district-based support team and other teach-
• The referring teacher (usually the learning area ers, also from the special school as a resource cen-
or class teacher) tre or the full-service school, can come on board
• The scribe to support the referring teacher and the learner.
• An elected teacher (depending on the needs of
the learner – e.g. a teacher of a lower grade [Link] The role of the teacher
who is good at teaching reading if the learner From the above discussion, it is clear that the role
experiences a reading problem) of the teacher has changed from transferring

67
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

knowledge to learner-centred teaching. Class- ous learning styles, abilities and interests of the
rooms should be “exciting places where learners learners in their classes. Instead of blaming the
interact with information, people and objects in learners for their poor behaviour or learning fail-
activities that enable them to shape deeper, more ures, they should investigate possible ways of
complex and more useful understanding of the finding solutions for these failures by asking
changing world” (Rallis et al. 1995: ix). Teachers themselves questions such as: “What does this
should therefore accept responsibility for all the learner need?” or “How can I adapt the environ-
learners in their classroom, including those who ment and my teaching strategies so that these
experience barriers to learning. Pijl and Meier learners can also succeed?” (Landsberg & Dednam
(1997: 9) maintain that inclusive education can 1999: 5).
only be successful if teachers elicit an attitude of
acceptance towards all learners, and when they (b) The teacher as interpreter and designer of
have sufficient support and resources to teach all learning programmes and materials
learners.
To support the teachers in achieving this, the
Consider the following questions:
Department of Education published Norms and
1. Can a mother teach her daughter to
standards for educators (1998), in which seven roles
crochet if she herself cannot cro-
which competent teachers ought to fulfil are set
chet?
out. This coincides with the roles of a dynamic
2. Can teachers explain the basics of
ACTIVITY

teacher as described by Rallis et al. (1995). Some

geometry to learners if they them-
of these roles are: selves do not understand these?
3. When do teachers know that they
(a) The teacher as learning mediator
have a grasp of the content of the
A learning mediator believes that each learner has curriculum? Is it when they can
the potential to learn and the right to achieve his explain the content in different ways
potential in order to live a rich, self-actualising with the aid of various real examples
life. This refers to moral values that teachers from the environment?
should possess to become good, responsible and
caring. This includes the belief in the basic human
rights of learners and their families such as social, Rallis et al. (1995: 41) call interpreters and design-
cultural, political and citizenship rights identified ers of learning programmes constructors of knowl-
in the Constitution. Therefore, teachers should edge. According to them, constructors of knowl-
know and accept their learners and their families edge should possess a thorough understanding of
to understand them. They should cherish atti- their subject field (learning area field), of educa-
tudes of tolerance and respect towards diversity tion in general and of the learning-related values
to construct learning environments which are of the learners. This in-depth knowledge and
suitably contextualised and which inspire learn- understanding will help them to adapt the con-
ers. Learners should be educated to have self- tent to a variety of learner needs and to be flexi-
respect and to respect others. It is necessary for ble and responsive in their teaching. They will sel-
learners to develop a positive self-concept and to dom be caught unprepared by questions from
be accountable for their learning and behaviour, learners because they are able to improvise. This
thus contributing to a cooperative learning envi- means that they can transform and internalise
ronment (Landsberg & Dednam 1999: 5). new learning content; they can use knowledge in
In order to fulfil these values, teachers should different ways; they can contextually mediate
examine their own values, their fears, and their knowledge because they can influence the values
assumptions about and reactions towards learn- and beliefs of the community. Rallis et al. (1995:
ers who experience barriers to learning. They 46) summarise the characteristics of interpreters
should also examine their own teaching styles and designers of learning programmes and mate-
and investigate ways of acknowledging the vari- rials as follows:

68
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

They are grounded in content; they have [learners]; they understand developmental
constructed their own meaning for the theories and they know the children they
material they teach. They are grounded in teach ... All dynamic teachers have a strong,
pedagogy; they understand how people constructed body of knowledge about chil-
learn. They are grounded in their students dren, teaching and the subject matter.

(c) The teacher as philosopher

Suppose you give the learners in your class the task to interview different sportpeople about
what they have achieved thus far, what their goals are, how their sport influences their style
of living, etc.
After two weeks you realise that there are not many sportsmen and women in your com-
munity, and that the learners’ interpretation of who sportspeople are is very narrow. They
have only considered football and rugby players. There is, for example, a team of wheel-
chair basketball players who have reached the final of their league, as well as a bowls player
who is the South African bowls champion for players who are blind. What will you do to help
them?
You may take the following actions:
ACTIVITY

1. Warn them that two weeks have already expired and that they have only one week to
complete the project.
2. Issue no warning and allocate marks only to those who have completed the project by
the due date.
3. Acknowledge that the project is not working as well as you thought it should be, and
then ask the learners about the difficulties they have experienced. You discuss the prob-
lems and discover that they have interviewed only football players; that only a few play-
ers were singled out for the interviews and that these players were not at all friendly; that
the learners asked embarrassing questions, for example about the private and social
lives of the players and so on. You then discuss these difficulties and give advice about
how to prepare for and conduct an interview. You discuss the different sports that are
played in the community and extend the date of submission of the project.

The third strategy would show that your action is (d) The teacher as facilitator
learner-centred and that you are professionally In all education documents and especially in the
committed to your task. You are not afraid to National Curriculum, the role of the teacher is
acknowledge that the learners needed more seen as that of a facilitator. It exceeds the tradi-
preparation for this project. This entails daring tional role of transferring knowledge and includes
and courage – the guts to be critical of yourself the role of leader, administrator and manager
and the backbone to accept responsibility for (Department of Education 1998: 54). According to
your behaviour. The elements of professional Rallis et al. (1995: 76), teachers as facilitators
involvement are, according to Rallis et al. (1995:
57), responsibility and accountability, initiative • create an environment which is rich in opportu-
and action, as well as reflection and inquiry. nities for learners to attribute meaning to what
they learn (Facilitators need to be good organ-
isers of their classrooms to meet the needs of a
diversity of learners.)
ACTIVITY

See whether you can find evidence of

responsibility and accountability, initia- • should demonstrate responsiveness to the fluc-
tive and action, as well as reflection tuating needs of learners by providing them
and inquiry in the actions above. with ways of assuming responsibility for
their learning and facilitating understanding

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

between teachers and learners as well as learners to become economically active and
among learners responsible members of the community after
• question learners in an attempt to commit school.
them to the search for knowledge (assessing
them in a continuous, formative way) The learning support teacher acts as
• teach learners to make sense of the knowledge bridger by collaborating and working

ACTIVITY
they acquire, but the knowledge should be test- together with the district-based support
ed against knowledge emanating from the com- team, special schools as resource cen-
munity in order to ensure that it is valid, rele- tres, other teachers, parents and learn-
vant and appropriate, i.e. knowledge should be ers to combat barriers to learning. Jus-
tify this statement with examples from
contextualised
what you have learned thus far.
• coordinate the interactions which occur in the
learning environment – between teachers and
learners; among learners themselves; and
(g) The teacher as change-maker
among the learners and the community, as well
as between learners and the study material and Dynamic teachers ought to be lifelong learners.
information. They identify the skills they need to teach a diver-
sity of learners and proceed to seek ways of
(e) The teacher as assessor adding these skills to their repertoire by means of
further study, attending workshops, etc. They ini-
The new curriculum focuses on assessment as an
tiate change by means of collaboration, mediation
integrated part of learning and teaching. Dynamic
and negotiation. They defend and plead for learn-
teachers should equip learners with strategies to
ers who experience barriers to learning.
assess their own work, to review their knowledge
and to critically assess what they are expected to
learn. Assessment should be seen as a critical Reflect on yourself and your own com-
strategy for elevating learners’ knowledge and petencies. Write down the seven roles
skills to a more complex level of attainment of a dynamic teacher and assess your-
(Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development” – self according to these roles by giving
Donald et al. 1997: 50). Authentic assessment yourself marks on a scale from one to
five where 1 indicates very poor, 3
ACTIVITY

should be an integral part of learning support and

should be used to encourage questioning and average and 5 excellent. For example:
promote learning. Various types of assessment Teacher as learning
1 2 3 4 5
should be used to assess learners’ knowledge, mediator
skills and attitudes such as oral questioning, dis-
cussions, portfolio assessment, written work, Then write down at least three ways in
tests and examinations. which you can improve yourself in
those roles in which you assess your-
self as average or below.
(f) The teacher as bridger
In the South African Schools Act No. 84 of 1996
and subsequent documents, there is considerable
emphasis on the involvement and participation of [Link] Teacher assistants
parents and the community in the education of Teacher assistants can be a great support to
learners. The teacher’s bridging task is to bring teachers, especially in class groups with a diversi-
the community into the school. This means culti- ty of learners. However, the teacher assistant
vating a sense of belonging to the community, should help the teacher and receive instructions
and entails working together on projects, using from him in collaboration with the school-based
the resources the community has to offer to support team but should not be responsible for a
enrich the learning environment and preparing specific learner alone.

70
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

Which of these two scenarios is the healthy one and why?

Scenario 1
Linda is a teacher assistant for the Grade 3 class. She has a Level 5 qualification in inclusive
education (i.e. a basic certificate). Although she is mainly responsible for Grant, a boy who
is quadruplegic and in a wheelchair, she also supports the other learners when necessary.
She helps Grant to fit his hand and neck braces. She sees that he is comfortably strapped
in his wheelchair. She fetches his books, turns the pages, and moves him to and from
classes as well as around the class when needed. When Grant does not need her assis-
tance, she helps the teacher by preparing teaching aids and reading stories to the learners.
ACTIVITY

During group work, she works together with the teacher and supports the groups which
need attention. Initially she had to take Grant out for break, but he is now part of a group of
learners who assist him when needed. Because she is involved in teaching the whole class,
the other learners accept her and listen to her. She works in close collaboration with the
teacher, the school-based support team and the physiotherapist of the district-based sup-
port team.

Scenario 2
Mary is the teacher assistant for John (in Grade 5) who is hemiplegic on the left side of his
body. Although he can walk around with ease in the classroom, Mary usually brings his
learning material to him and carries his books. She helps him do his work, but the other
learners become irritated because John’s work is always correct. The accusation has been
made that Mary is doing his homework for him. The teacher practically ignores John
because “he has his own teacher”. When John is absent, Mary also stays at home.

4.3 COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND 4.3.1 Characteristics of and

TEACHING STRATEGIES requirements for successful
cooperative learning
According to Kagan (1998: 106), cooperative
learning is as old as education itself. Research on According to Putnam (1998b: 18), in cooperative
cooperative learning, however, did not begin until learning groups individual learners work together
the 1980s. Today, cooperative learning is seen as to reach a common goal. Johnson et al. (1994: 4)
an educational innovation which forms part of maintain that within cooperative learning, indi-
outcomes-based education. Extensive research vidual learners achieve outcomes that are benefi-
has shown (Kagan 1998: 106; Lotan & Whitcomb cial to themselves as well as to all group mem-
1998: 1) that cooperative learning leads to bers. “Cooperative learning is the instructional
use of small groups through which students
• dramatically improved academic achievement
[learners] work together to maximize their own
and higher-order thinking skills (especially for
and each other’s learning” (Johnson et al. 1994: 3).
the lower-achieving learners)
Cooperative learning is thus considered as a
• improvements in racial relations sound approach for academically, physically, eth-
• the improvement of the attitudes of teachers nically and linguistically heterogeneous class-
and learners towards learners with impair- rooms (Lotan & Whitcomb 1998: 1; Putnam
ments 1998b: 30–32) like the South African classrooms
• the improvement of the achievement of learn- of today.
ers with impairments in ordinary schools The following requirements are necessary for
• the improvement of social relations, social successful cooperative learning (Putnam 1998b:
skills and self-esteem among all learners. 19–21; Johnson et al. (1994: 9–11):

71
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

(a) Positive interdependence language towards the other members of the

Learners must understand that they are linked to group.
each other and if one does not succeed nor can
the others. Putnam (1998b: 19) maintains that (d) Face-to-face interaction
positive interdependence is the essence of coop- According to Johnson et al. (1994: 10), cooperative
erative learning. This can only be achieved if (1) learning groups are both an academic support sys-
there is a mutual outcome set for the whole tem where learners learn how to learn, and a per-
group; (2) the tasks are divided among all group sonal support system where all members of the
members; (3) resources, information and materi- group are committed to one another. That means
als are divided among group members; (4) various that learners should interact directly with each
roles are assigned to different group members; (5) other by means of verbal and/or non-verbal com-
the group is rewarded for achieving the mutual munication. They should promote each other’s
outcome. The learners in the group must be con- learning and become personally committed to
cerned about the performance of each group each other to achieve the mutual outcomes.
member. There should be a group outcome, but
each member should also have an individual one. (e) Learner reflection
Learners must support each other to achieve At the end of a cooperative learning activity, the
these outcomes. members of the group should reflect on their
functioning in the group and whether the out-
(b) Individual and group accountability comes were achieved. They need to describe what
Firstly, the group must be accountable for achiev- contributions were helpful and what behaviour
ing its outcomes. Secondly, each learner should should be changed to improve the functioning of
be held individually responsible for completing the group.
the task and contributing to the group to prevent
some learners from “coasting along”. This can be 4.3.2 The size of the group
done by individual assessment, such as questions According to Johnson et al. (1994: 24–25), the size
asked in the group, individual tasks, tests and so of a cooperative learning group depends on the
on. outcomes of the lesson, the learners’ age, their
experience in working in groups, “the curriculum
(c) Cooperative skills
materials and equipment available and the time
The essence of cooperative skills includes social limits imposed on the lesson”. When selecting the
skills. This involves (1) getting to know and trust- size of the cooperative learning group, Johnson et
ing each other in the group; (2) communicating al. (ibid) recommend the following factors be
accurately; (3) accepting and supporting each taken into account:
other; (4) resolving conflicts among group mem- 1. The bigger the group, the bigger the range of
bers constructively (Putnam 1998b: 27). abilities, expertise, skills and the number of
Putnam (1998b: 19–20) as well as Johnson et al. minds for completing a task, as well as the
(1994: 10) are of the opinion that social and coop- diversity of viewpoints and the risk for contro-
erative skills should be taught to the learners. versy and differences.
Learners in the foundation and intermediate phas-
es should learn to share material, take turns, 2. The shorter the period of time to complete an
encourage one another, speak softly and stay with activity, the smaller the group should be.
the group. Older learners (in the senior phase, Smaller groups such as pairs are more effective
and further education and training band) should because they need less time to get organised,
be taught to actively listen to others, paraphrase and more time is available for each member to
what the others have to say, give compliments, contribute.
resolve controversy without criticising group 3. The smaller the group, the better the contribu-
members personally, and display positive body tion of each learner will be.

72
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

4. The larger the group, the better organised the may interview people and do fieldwork and then
group should be in providing everyone with a write a final report on their findings. For the next
chance to contribute; in coordinating the assignment, new groups may be formed. Tempo-
actions of each group member; in reaching rary groups only last for a class period or two
consensus; and in keeping all members when two or three learners are assigned together
focused, as well as maintaining good working to discuss certain concepts or to explain them to
relationships. each other. They can, for example, watch a video
on a certain topic, then divide into groups to dis-
5. In larger groups there is less time for face-to-
cuss the content and find answers on certain ques-
face interaction and a reduced sense of intima-
tions pertaining the content.
cy. This results in less personal support among
According to Johnson et al. (1994: 26–28),
group members.
teachers can assign learners to a group randomly,
6. The size of the group will depend on the or select them or let the learners select their own
equipment and assistive devices available. If groups. There are many ways to assign learners
nine computers are available for 30 learners, randomly to a group. For this, the teacher can use
there could be six groups of three learners numbers. For example, if there are 36 learners in
each and three groups of four learners each. a group, nine groups of four learners each can be
7. It is easier to identify learning difficulties if the selected by starting with one and counting in
groups are smaller, and also to pay attention groups of four. All the ones are in one group, the
to conflicts and the personal adjustment of twos in the next group, etc. When the teacher
learners to the group. selects the group, he can make sure that one
learner who experiences any barrier to learning
be assigned to each group, for example a learner
4.3.3 The group members who displays disruptive behaviour may be in a
According to Johnson et al. (1994: 25), a “group’s group of caring, hardworking learners; a very shy
productivity is determined by its members’ team- or slow learner could be with a group where there
work skills.” Training learners to work together is at least one learner who is supportive and pop-
effectively rather than grouping specific learners ular. The least recommended procedure for
together is time better spent. Groups can be grouping learners is where learners select the
homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous group they want to work with, because the learn-
groups can be used if they experience the same ers who are not popular will be chosen last.
problems and the teacher wants to support them,
for example when a few learners in the group
ACTIVITY

experience difficulties with fractions or have read- As a teacher of a class group of 36

learners, how would you go about
ing problems. However, heterogeneous groups
dividing them into groups to do proj-
are preferable. Nevin (1998: 55) recommended ects for life skills? Justify your answer.
three types of groups: core groups, formal groups
and temporary groups. Core groups are more per-
manent ones where learners work together for six
months to a year on longer projects, or they do all 4.3.4 Classroom management for group
their work together. They should be heteroge- work
neous and have four or five members. The mem- It is important that the furniture in the classroom
bers of formal groups are assigned to a task or be arranged in such a way that it promotes group
activity that will keep them busy for at least three work. The classroom design should be flexible
to four weeks until it is completed. The group con- and may be changed according to the needs of the
sists of two or three members who work together learners. Visual attractions can be used to focus
until the learning outcomes have been achieved. attention on the most important group rules.
For example, learners may be assigned to such a Boundaries of workspace should be defined by
group to complete a project on road safety. They using labels and signs to designate certain work

73
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

areas. However, care should be taken to see that • Roles that enhance higher-order thinking and
the classroom is not too colourful with too much reasoning: a criticiser of ideas who challenges
information. This will distract the attention of members by criticising their ideas; a prober
learners with short attention spans. The following who asks in-depth questions that may lead to
general guidelines are stipulated by Johnson et al. better understanding; a reality tester who tests
(1994: 31): the validity of the work by comparing it with
• Members of a group should be close enough to instructions, available time and common sense.
each other so that they can share material,
maintain eye contact and talk to each other It stands to reason that not all the groups would
without disrupting the other groups. have all these roles. It depends on the age of the
• All the learners should be able to see the learners, the assignment that has to be completed
teacher without difficulty. and the size of the groups. For example, it would
not be expected from foundation phase learners
• The space between the groups should allow the
to have more than one member for the role of
teacher to reach each group.
enhancing higher-order thinking skills, while for
• The learners should have easy access to the learners in the senior phase more than one mem-
equipment, to the learning material and to each ber could be assigned to fulfil this role.
other without disturbing others.
A role could be assigned to each learner by
means of a card on which the role is explained.
4.3.5 The roles of each group member When beginning with cooperative learning
It is the task of the teacher to assign a specific groups, it would be good idea to start with simple
role to each group member. This ensures that roles such as a reader, a recorder, a checker and
each member participates in the group, and it cre- an encourager. Roles should be rotated so that
ates interdependence among group members. each group member gets the chance to play sev-
The learners in the group can take turns to fulfil a eral roles.
specific role.
Johnson et al. (1994: 34) distinguish the follow- 4.3.6 Explaining the assignment
ing roles according to functions:
It is the task of the teacher to explain the assign-
• Roles that help the group form: one member ment so that all the groups fully understand it.
ensures that all group members speak in soft Procedures to follow to complete the assignment
voices, that they move around quietly and that and how group members will work together must
they take turns when completing an assign- be clearly explained. Visual organisers such as
ment. mind maps that match the thinking process nec-
• Roles that help the group function: one mem- essary for the assignment may be attached to the
ber acts as explainer of ideas; one writes down wall to help the groups organise their thoughts.
the group’s decisions; one encourages all mem- Outcomes that the learners should achieve by
bers to participate; one observers the frequen- completing the assignment should be clear and
cy with which the members engage in the task; accurate. Each group should receive a written set
one provides support through praising ideas; of these outcomes. Cooperative learning requires
and one rephrases the others’ ideas and con- criterion-based and curriculum-based assessment.
clusions. Criteria which describe the level of performance
• Roles that help learners formulate what they expected from each group should be attached to a
know and integrate it with what they are wall chart. For an example of this see Figure 4.3.
learning: a summariser who summarises the Teaching by means of cooperative learning
major conclusions completely and accurately; a requires good preparation from the teacher. If the
checker who makes sure that everybody under- teacher is not well prepared, if all the learning
stands the conclusions; an elaborator who material is not available, if the classroom is not
relates new concepts to existing information. well managed and if the teacher does not know

74
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

Full Marks teacher otherwise it will not be successful. Each

Criteria and every learner must benefit from cooperative
marks awarded
5 A clear, accurate, descriptive learning.
title
10 Introduction in which the 4.4 AN INDIVIDUAL LEARNING SUPPORT
problem is stated PROGRAMME
15 A topic sentence to begin Outcomes-based education makes provision for
each paragraph the development of the unique potential of each
5 Use of at least three sources learner. The contents of the curriculum, the
20 Correct use of capital letters, teacher’s teaching strategies and methods as well
punctuation, spelling as classroom management are adapted to suit the
20 Sentence structure: verbs, potential of each learner.
nouns, prepositions, etc. Putnam (1998b: 42) is of the opinion that learn-
15 Critical thinking ers who experience diverse needs will require
10 Conclusion some degree of individualised support together
with cooperative learning activities. For example,
Total: 100 Total:
a learner who experiences reading difficulties may
need only a few sessions of individual support to
Figure 4.3 Assessment form for written
assignments
overcome them. Individual learning support can
Source: Adapted from Johnson et al. 1994: 49
be provided by the class teacher in collaboration
with the school-based support team. An individ-
ual learning support programme should be well
the strengths and weaknesses of each learner,
planned in advance, but should be flexible so that
cooperative learning may not be successful.
changes can be made if the initial programme
proves not to be successful.
4.3.7 Problem-based learning
The following five procedures form the core of
Cooperative teaching and learning can be used for a learning support programme (Landsberg & Ded-
problem-based learning. According to Jones et al. nam 1999: 24):
(1997: 5) in problem-based learning, teachers and • Assess the learner to determine what he has
learners “integrate concepts and skills” from one already mastered.
or more learning areas while investigating a prob- • Formulate the outcomes, i.e. what the learner
lem. should have achieved by the end of the learning
support.
A Grade 10 science class decided to • Select the contents of the curriculum or learn-
investigate the purity of the drinking
ing programme.
water in their town after a few children
ACTIVITY

had been diagnosed with cholera, one • Choose the learning support strategies and
of whom had died. Where should they methods.
start? What learning areas are • Assess the learner’s progress.
involved? What support do they need
from the community to do experi- 4.4.1 Assessing the knowledge, skills
ments? What else is necessary? and attitudes the learner has thus
far achieved

4.3.8 Conclusion
ACTIVITY

Assessment has been discussed in

Cooperative learning and teaching can be a won- Chapter 3 and will not be repeated
derful strategy for teachers when teaching big, here. Please read Chapter 3 again
heterogeneous groups. However, this way of before continuing with this chapter.
teaching needs in-depth preparation from the

75
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

Assessment should be holistic. The following if a learner in a city has not seen these real
points should be taken into account: animals.
• The environment in which the learner lives,
socio-cultural circumstances, etc. are impor- 4.4.4 Choosing learning support
tant. Parents, other persons who were previ- strategies and methods
ously involved in the education of the learner When choosing learning support strategies and
and the learner should, therefore, be inter- methods, the learner’s learning style should be
viewed. taken into consideration. Learners who are visual-
• Interviews should be conducted with the pres- ly orientated will be bored in a class where the
ent and previous teachers to determine their teacher is doing all the talking. Learners who
attitudes towards the learner, the learner’s atti- learn best when they are touching and manipulat-
tude towards the learning material, the learn- ing objects will find it equally boring if they must
er’s progress throughout the years, etc. just sit and listen. Learners who want to listen and
• The learner’s classwork and homework books, think about problems first will find it stressful if
portfolios, tests and examination papers should they must immediately try to solve a problem (dis-
be studied to determine the learner’s strengths covery). Therefore the learner’s learning style
and needs regarding the curriculum. must first be determined by means of checklists
• Curriculum-based tests should be used to before appropriate learning support strategies
determine the learner’s current performance can be chosen (the school-based support team
according to the curriculum. can be of assistance here). Because these learners
have not experienced success, the best way of
• A report should be written on the findings.
supporting them is to guide them towards experi-
encing success and to work from the known to
4.4.2 Outcomes the unknown.
The outcomes flow from the results of the assess-
ment. The learner’s background, knowledge, Please read Chapter 7 on first-language
skills as well as the content of what he has already
ACTIVITY

problems, Chapter 8 on second-lan-

mastered, determine the outcomes for the learn- guage problems and Chapter 9 on
ing support. According to Naicker (1999: 21), mathematical problems for specific
“outcomes are clear learning results that we want learning support strategies and meth-
students [learners] to demonstrate at the end of ods to support individual learners.
significant learning experiences.”

4.4.3 Selecting the curriculum contents 4.4.5 Assessment

Landsberg and Dednam (1999: 24) maintain that Assessment should be ongoing throughout the
learning support should commence on the level learning support to determine whether the learn-
(grade) in which the learner is. If the learner finds er has mastered the skills from a learning support
it difficult to understand the content or to master session. Learned skills should also be applied in
it, content from a lower level could be selected different contexts in the classroom and in daily
until the learner experiences success. The content living. For example, if a learner who struggles
should be contextualised for the learner to gain with fractions masters their calculation after a few
better understanding. For example, when explain- learning support sessions, examples of fractions
ing the concepts of bigger than and smaller than, in everyday life should be used to assess the learn-
one cannot compare an aeroplane with a motor er’s newly attained competencies.
car if a learner from the rural areas has not seen a Curriculum-based tests could be applied after
big aeroplane on the ground. In the air it looks the outcomes set for the learning support have
smaller than a car. The same applies when using been met to ensure transfer of skills and know-
pictures of animals such as a giraffe and a warthog ledge to other contexts.

76
 LEARNING SUPPORT 4

4.5 CONCLUSION social and special needs in southern Africa. Cape Town:
Oxford University.
The point of departure for learning support in Gauteng Department of Education. s.a. Guidelines for the
inclusive education in South Africa is “the peda- establishment of school-based support teams. Johannes-
gogy of possibility that takes into consideration burg: Gauteng Department of Education.
barriers to learning, different intelligences and Johnson, D.W., Johnson R.T. & Holubec, E.J. 1994.
learning styles” (Department of Education 2002: Cooperative learning in the classroom. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
22). This means that every learner can learn and
that the teacher should make provision for every Jones, B.F., Rasmussen, C.M. & Moffitt, M.C. 1997. Real-
life problem solving: a collaborative approach to interdisci-
learner to succeed. To achieve this, teachers need plinary learning. Washington, DC: American Psychological
support from the school-based support team and Association.
the district-based support team. On the other Kagan, S. 1998. New cooperative learning, multiple intelli-
hand, teachers should be innovative and ener- gences, and inclusion. In Putnam, J.W. (Ed.), Cooperative
getic. They should experiment with new teaching learning and strategies for inclusion – celebrating diversity
in the classroom, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
strategies to involve all the learners in the teach- Brookes, 105–136.
ing and learning process.
Landsberg, E.I. & Dednam, A. 1999. Learning support
(only study guide for OSN432-T). Pretoria: Unisa.
Questions Lotan, R.A. & Whitcomb, J.A. 1998. Introduction. In
Schulman, J., Lotan, R.A. & Whitcomb, J.A. (Eds), Group-
1. Select a group of three or four teachers to work in diverse classrooms; a casebook for educators.
write a school policy on inclusive education New York: Columbia University, Teachers’ College Press,
1–10.
that can be used in your school. First decide
Morrison, G.S. 1998. Early childhood education today, 7th
how you are going to initiate this assignment.
ed. Upper Saddle River, CO: Prentice Hall.
Allot specific roles to each member of the
Naicker, S. 1999. Inclusive education in South Africa. In
group. Provide each member with a specific Engelbrecht, P., Green, L., Naicker, S. & Engelbrecht, L.
assignment to complete the task. (Eds), Inclusive education in action in South Africa. Preto-
ria: Van Schaik, 12–23.
2. Design an individualised learning support pro-
Nevin, A. 1998. Curricular and instructional adaptations
gramme for a learner who experiences first-
for including students with disabilities in cooperative
language problems. This learner has a limited groups. In Putnam, J.W. (Ed.). Cooperative learning and
vocabulary and speaks in very short sentences. strategies for inclusion – celebrating diversity in the class-
His writing is on the same level. Because his room, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, 49–66.
reading is poor, he does not comprehend what Pijl, S.J. & Meier, C.J.W. 1997. Factors in inclusion: a
he has read. framework. In Pijl, S.J., Meijer, C.J.W. & Hegarty, S. Inclu-
sive education: a global agenda. London: Routledge,
8–14.
Bibliography Putnam, J .W. 1998a. The movement toward teaching
and learning in inclusive classrooms. In Putnam, J.W.
Department of Education. 1998. Norms and standards for (Ed.), Cooperative learning and strategies for inclusion –
educators. Pretoria: Department of Education. celebrating diversity in the classroom, 2nd ed. Baltimore,
Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6: MD: Paul H. Brookes, 1–16.
Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education Putnam, J. W. 1998b. The process of cooperative learn-
and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education. ing. In Putnam, J.W. (Ed.), Cooperative learning and
Department of Education. 2002. Draft guidelines for the strategies for inclusion – celebrating diversity in the class-
implementation of inclusive education (second draft). Pre- room, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, 17–48.
toria: Department of Education. Rallis, S.F., Rossman, G.B., Phlegar, J.M. & Abeille, A.
Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwane, P. 1997. Education 1995. Dynamic teachers: leaders of change. Thousand
psychology in social context: challenges of development, Oaks, CA: Corwin.

77
 EARLY CHILDHOOD 5
INTERVENTION

ERNA ALANT & MICHAL HARTY

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdefine early childhood intervention and state its importance
Πidentify the different approaches to early childhood education and
discuss the benefits of both an ecological approach and a resource-
based approach
Πdiscuss the characteristics of quality inclusive early childhood
development programmes by considering relevant social and physical
ecological variables
Πdiscuss the advantages of using community-based activities as a
basis for teaching within the early education context
Πapply the underlying principles of an ecological resource-based
approach within early childhood development centres.

Key terms Mpho was about a year old and he has had no
contact with Mpho since. Mpho and his mother
early childhood intervention ♦ bio-ecological presently live with her second husband and his
approach ♦ resource-based approach ♦ participatory parents. Mpho has two siblings; a younger sister
learning opportunities ♦ classroom ecological (from his mother’s second marriage) and an older
variables brother (from his mother’s first marriage). His
stepfather has recently lost his job and the family
currently survives on the pension of his parents.
CASE STUDY Mpho gets along well with his stepfather, but not
with his siblings.
Social context
Mpho (a six-year-old boy with Down syndrome) Educational experience
lives with his mother in an urban settlement with Mpho had not previously attended school until
access to infrastructure and services such as a this year and has had little exposure to peers in
community hall, primary school (with a Grade R his community, as his mother says they tease
classroom), churches, police station and a clinic. him. Mpho’s mother enrolled him this year in the
Grade R class attached to his local primary
Family composition school. Mpho’s older brother attends the same
Mpho’s mother was 25 years old when Mpho primary school. Mpho and his brother walk to
was born. Mpho’s father left his mother when school and back in the afternoon. Throughout the

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 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

year Mpho’s mother has been receiving reports The government has made a clear commitment
that Mpho upsets the class due to his hyperactiv- towards addressing this challenge to “help break
ity (which seems worse in summer than in winter). the cycle of poverty by increasing access to early
The educator says that he does not play with childhood development programmes, particularly
other children – he is very aggressive and hits
for poor children and to improve the quality of
them. Mpho’s mother has recently heard that the
these programmes” (Education White Paper 5:
school will not accept Mpho into the Grade 1
class next year and she has been asked to put 2001: 7). In Education White Paper 5, it is evident
Mpho in another school. Mpho’s mother is angry that government promotes a multi-sectoral
and upset as she says he is able to perform self- approach towards child development through the
help skills independently and he is able to talk, government’s National Programme of Action for
although some of the words are not too clear. Children. This strategic plan focuses on the deliv-
She has found a school that will accept Mpho ery of appropriate, inclusive and integrated pro-
next year but he will have to board as it is far grammes for all children, but in particular for
away. Mpho’s stepfather says that he is not will- those from poor families, those who experience
ing to let Mpho board and that boarding will be barriers to learning and those infected with
too expensive.
HIV/Aids.
Apart from the Department of Education, a list
5.1 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: A of more that 30 other government departments
SOUTH AFRICAN POLICY PERSPECTIVE have also developed specific policies, laws and
programmes in recognition of the need for focus-
In the Constitution of South Africa, Section 28 of
ing on early childhood development. These
the Bill of Rights (1996), it is stated that a child’s
include:
best interests are of paramount importance in
every matter concerning the child, and that each • the Free Health Care Policy of 1994 for all chil-
child has the right to dren younger than six years
• a name and nationality • the Integrated Nutrition Strategy (draft: January
• family or parental care or appropriate alterna- 1998) to facilitate administration of the strate-
tive care gy
• basic nutrition, shelter, basic health and social • the Welfare Laws Amendment Act of 1997
care which states that a child support grant is
• basic education payable for needy children younger than seven
• protection from maltreatment, neglect, abuse years
or degradation • the White Paper on Disability adopted in 1997,
• protection from exploitative labour practices. which focuses on the provision of services to
very young children
The Constitution thus reflects a sound basis for • the draft policy on pregnant women in prison
addressing issues related to early childhood inter- and children under five who should be allowed
vention. to be with their mothers
Approximately 40 per cent of young children in
South Africa grow up in conditions of abject The extent of the needs of young children and
poverty and neglect (Education White Paper 5: Early families (which necessitated the drafting of these
Childhood Education 2001: 13). It is well known that policies and strategies) clearly reflects a most
children born and raised under these conditions comprehensive and complex scenario for inter-
are at risk for low birth weight, delayed develop- vention.
ment, poor adjustment to school and learning Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education
problems. These factors necessitate a critical look (2001) also clearly describes the policy for build-
at how early learning in young children can be ing an inclusive education and training system in
enhanced to reverse the effects of early depriva- the country. The Paper describes how the policy
tion and maximise the development of potential. will systematically move away from using segre-

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

gation according to categories of impairment as tion of parents and children within the context of
an organising principle for institutions. The focus multiple relationships and milieus. This theoreti-
will be on supporting learners who experience cal model recognises the significant influential
barriers to learning to be included in mainstream factors and relationships in the environment and
educational contexts wherever possible. This how these can impact on the child’s development.
Paper clearly describes the principles of “educa- As discussed in Chapter 1, the revised bio-ecolog-
tion for all” by acknowledging the right to educa- ical model (Bronfenbrenner & Morris 1998)
tion of all learners including those with impair- acknowledges that a person’s disposition, individ-
ments. ual characteristics and experiences also con-
Before discussing issues surrounding early tribute to shaping future development. Clearly
childhood education in more depth, however, it is this influence between family, child and environ-
important to focus on what is meant by the term ment is not one way but reciprocal, as parents
“early childhood intervention”. and children both influence and are affected by
the environment.
Figure 5.1 illustrates Bronfenbrenner’s model of
5.2 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION: A
interlinking systems.
BIO-ECOLOGICAL APPROACH
From this figure it is clear that Bronfenbrenner
Early childhood intervention is the broad term describes four ecological contexts for human
that refers to the processes oriented towards development. One of the main benefits of this
facilitating optimal early childhood development. ecological type of approach to early childhood
These processes are focused on preventing devel- development is that it emphasises that situations
opmental problems in young children as well as and actions of people in the child’s environment
minimising the impact of problems or impair- significantly impact on child development – irre-
ments once they are identified. Early childhood spective of whether the child has direct contact
intervention thus addresses both issues relating with that environment or not.
to how to prevent children at risk from develop- The inner circles represent the microsystems.
ing difficulties, as well as how to minimise the These systems are the immediate settings in
impact of the impairment on the lives of children which an individual develops. The system there-
with established risks or impairments. Meisels fore includes the immediate family, early learning
and Shonkoff (2001: 3) describe the mission of centre and social relationships. The quality of the
early childhood intervention as “helping young microsystem depends on the sustainability and
children and their families to thrive”. consistency with which it can provide a positive
Addressing early intervention clearly implies and congenial environment for children to learn
not only focusing on the child and the needs of and experience new challenges that will enhance
children, but also facilitating the environment development. The system is dynamic and changes
that the children live in, in order to ensure a more as children get older and relationships change.
congenial context for child development, as dis- The social richness of an individual’s life is there-
cussed in Chapter 1. This means that families are fore measured by the availability of nurturing,
important participants in early intervention multifaceted relationships that emphasise play-
processes. Apart from families, however, the ing, working and loving.
broader community that the children live in plays Mesosystems are the relationships between
a major role in facilitating early childhood inter- microsystems in which the individual experiences
vention. An orientation towards facilitating a sen- reality. This refers to the links between the differ-
sitivity to children and their needs and rights in ent microsystems in which the individual func-
early childhood education programmes, as well as tions. An example would be the number and qual-
to programmes focusing on children’s health and ity of the connections between the child’s family
psychological well-being, is vital in securing a and the school that the child attends. What role
favourable environment for children to grow up do the parents play in facilitating the child’s cop-
in. Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes the interac- ing at school? How frequent is the contact

80
 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

Macrosystem

Exosystem

Meso-
Microsystem Microsystem
system

Figure 5.1 Visual representation of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems approach

between the educator and the parent? Research and serve as the blueprint for the development of
suggests that the stronger the link between the child. This system refers to the general orien-
microsystems (e.g. home and school) the more tation to the world as it is and as it can be. An
effective intervention is in the long term (Bruder increase in the concentration of families who live
2001: 216). in poverty within specific geographic areas, for
Exosystems are those settings that have an example, imposes great challenges on early child-
influence on children’s development, but in which hood intervention practices. For early childhood
the children themselves do not play a direct role. intervention to succeed in such situations, a sys-
For most children this would include their par- temic approach towards addressing not only
ents’ workplace, decision-making boards like par- issues relating to the child, but also issues in facil-
ent–educator associations, sports councils, etc. itating ecological transformation as part of the
These systems impact on the children in two ways programme goals is required.
– either by increasing risk or by increasing oppor-
tunity. Risk could occur from conditions at the 5.2.1 Application of a bio-ecological
parent’s work that would negatively impact on analysis
the parent’s behaviour at home, for example long The framework of Bronfenbrenner’s model (Bron-
working hours or low payment. This would lead fenbrenner 1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris 1998)
to increased stress within the home. This could can be meaningfully applied to different social
negatively impact on the children’s relationship contexts. For example, we can take a family living
with their parents and thus increase risk. On the in a poverty context in an area with a high infec-
other hand, parents with a better job and pay tion rate of HIV/Aids.
could spend more time at home. This situation On the macrosystems level in South Africa there
would enhance the opportunities for interaction are large segments of the population that live in
for the child and could be seen as increasing poverty. This means that many of these families
opportunity. have great difficulties in providing children with
Macrosystems, are the broad, ideological, adequate environmental circumstances in which
demographic patterns of culture or subculture to thrive. In addition, the problem of HIV/Aids has

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

caused great numbers of children to be infected tors related to early childhood issues, it is impos-
and affected by HIV/Aids. Child-headed house- sible to separate them.
holds and households headed by grandparents
who are not able to provide adequate support to Describe the factors on each of the

ACTIVITY
the development of young children are increas- micro-, macro-, meso- and exosystemic
ing. It is indeed difficult to overemphasise the levels discussed in Bronfenbrenner’s
devastating conditions that many young children model on page 81 that contributed to
in South Africa have to grow up in. Mpho’s failure to thrive at school.
On an exosystem level, increasing violence in
many communities negatively impacts on chil-
dren’s safety and their freedom to run around and 5.2.2 A bio-ecological approach to early
play with friends in the neighbourhood in a care- childhood intervention: focusing
free way. Similarly, poor work conditions and on assets and resources
unemployment have left many families without From the bio-ecological model developed by
homes, electricity and running water. This has a Bronfenbrenner it is evident that children should
negative impact on children’s health and general ideally grow up in an environment that is poten-
well-being. tially rich in opportunities for learning and partic-
On a mesosystemic level, adverse conditions ipation. Apart from the immediate family and
often lead to isolation of families, thus greatly close networks, children also interact within a
reducing networks or social capital within com- community and are exposed to multiple sources
munities where this resource is pivotal. Contact of opportunities for interaction. The developing
between the home context and school, church child is exposed to a vast number of experiences,
and health care system becomes most tenuous as each of which makes some impact on the devel-
families isolate themselves and get isolated by opment of the young child on different levels.
communities. Most important in this process is These kinds of experiences constitute the socio-
also the social isolation of families, in particular cultural context for the child’s participation in
those with family members infected with everyday life activities. These interactions in turn
HIV/Aids. provide some opportunities for the development
On a microsystemic level, this scenario clearly of skills, as well as learning social and cultural
has major implications for close interactions roles and routines, which facilitate inclusion with-
around the child. As parents become more in the community. Clearly these experiences of
stressed and irritable, child and sexual abuse may daily life play a major role in promoting learning
become more prevalent. Parents become less able and development.
to provide a secure home in which their children According to Dunst (2001: 308), one way of
can use opportunities to learn and take risks describing and grouping the life activities of a
while feeling secure and protected. This is child is to look at three sources of experience, i.e.
because they themselves are struggling to survive family life (including experiences within the par-
in difficult circumstances. Similarly on a personal ent, child and family routines, parent–child play,
level the child may experience feelings of insecu- family rituals, celebrations, etc.), community life
rity and may present as distractible or withdrawn (a mix of people and activities that provide chil-
within the home and other contexts. Physiological dren with experience in the context of family out-
consequences to the individual such as malnutri- ings, running errands, neighbourhood and com-
tion may also negatively influence the child’s abil- munity places) and the early childhood education
ity to engage in learning opportunities. programme (i.e. learning opportunities afforded
From the above it is clear that a reciprocal in the context of early learning programmes, early
interaction exists between the different ecologi- childhood special education programmes, par-
cal levels within which a child and family live. ent–child play groups). However, community,
Although we can isolate the different levels to family and childhood education activities are not
enhance understanding of the complexity of fac- independent sources of environmental influences

82
 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

and consequence. They overlap and provide some formulated an interesting paradigm that states
of the most meaningful learning opportunities for that
the young child. • interests create opportunities for different
The identification of the resources in the child’s skills and competencies to develop
environment that can provide a basis for learning • engagement provides opportunities for mas-
opportunities and participation is pivotal for early tery of the skills through active participation.
childhood education. Children, like adults, learn
and develop interests from exposure to events Therefore, mastery of skills occurs through
and experiences within their environment. It is engagement in activities. This implies that the
well-acknowledged practice to facilitate learning educator needs to interact closely with the envi-
by focusing on what is familiar to the child and to ronment (i.e. family and community context) of
expand learning experiences from this interest the child in order to identify potential activities
base. Clearly a comprehensive early childhood that can be used to facilitate learning within not
education programme would aim to use the learn- only the classroom context, but also in the broad-
ing opportunities and resources in the child’s er social context of the child. Educators, parents
environment (i.e. family and community expo- and community members thus need to get
sures) as a basis for classroom learning experience together to develop prominent activity settings in
and to facilitate generalisation of classroom expe- the children’s environment that can be used as a
rience into family and community life. The inter- basis for the comprehensive development of the
action between the three environmental child. Table 5.1 provides examples of sources of
resources of family, community and classroom is community-based participatory learning opportu-
thus pertinent in using existing opportunities to nities based on the identification of activity set-
facilitate child development. tings within the community.
This table reflects a broad range of activities
that children and families could participate in
5.3 HOW CAN THE EDUCATOR USE A
within the broader community context. To use
RESOURCE-BASED APPROACH TO
this resource on various levels within the class-
FACILITATE EARLY CHILDHOOD
room context would clearly assist the child in
EDUCATION?
identifying with the topics or activities, while at
Clearly, one way of undertaking such an integrat- the same time drawing from his own experience
ed approach to early childhood education would as a resource for sharing information and events
be by focusing on the activities in different envi- within the class context. An example would be an
ronments that the child must engage in. Accord- outing to the funfair. The resulting experiences
ing to Dunst (2001: 313) an activity setting is an from the activity could be used as a basis for vari-
everyday experience or event that provides a con- ous classroom activities. Examples of such activi-
text for learning for the child – a participatory ties may include, but are not limited to, an arts-
learning opportunity (PLO). At the basis of the and-crafts activity where all learners help paint a
child’s participation in the community is the abili- giant Ferris wheel. Every learner could bring a
ty of the child to be interested in and become photograph of himself from home and place it
engaged in the learning opportunity. The activity somewhere on a seat in the Ferris wheel. Such an
setting to a large extent determines whether a activity may then be used to illustrate language
child becomes engaged within the specific con- concepts such as above/below/next to. Learners’
text. Activity settings therefore provide a context photographs may be swapped around to further
for developing competencies and describe the illustrate the concepts. The learners may then
activities that a child is exposed to which will compile a story that includes all of the exciting
arouse the child’s interests. When a child is inter- activities that occurred during the day. Once
ested in an activity, the chances are much greater again the learners should be an integral part of
that the child will become engaged, and therefore the story and share how they felt when certain
involved in the activity. Dunst (2001: 313) thus things happened (to themselves or to others in

83
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

Table 5.1 Community-based participatory learning opportunities

Amusements and attractions Family occasions Outdoor activities

Aquariums Church/synagogue/mosque Biking
Bird sanctuaries Family gatherings Birdwatching
Farms: holiday activities Movies Boating
Planetarium Picnics Camping
Science centres Shopping Fishing
Zoos Eating out Gardening
National parks/game reserves Weddings Hiking
Hiking trails Funerals Horseback riding
Circus Religious holidays Walks/races
Funfairs/amusement parks Kite flying
Learning and education
Arts and culture activities activities Parks and recreation
Children’s museums After-school programmes Open/family gym time
Historic sites Art Organised activities
Museums Ceramics/pottery Parks
Musicals/plays/ballets Creative movement Playgrounds
Outdoor concerts Dance Swimming pools
Performing arts for children Radio/TV programmes Botanical gardens
Regional attractions Drama classes
Child care/preschools Sports activities
Clubs and organisations Gymnastics/tumbling Golf/adventure golf
Community centres Library story times Rugby
Hobby/activity clubs Magic shows Karate
Playgroups Music Kick-boxing
Scouts/Girl Guides/Brownies Nature centre activities Rollerblading
Toy lending libraries Puppet shows Soccer
Religious education Swimming
Community celebrations Science centre activities Tennis
Public holidays Running
Parent and child activities Netball/basketball
Church festivals
Historic celebrations Playgroups Softball
Local fairs Moms and Tots Hockey
Shows Action cricket
Tenpin bowling

Source: Modified from Dunst 2001: 318

the class), as well as how they felt when they went could be used as a basis to encourage parent par-
on various rides. Lastly each learner could take his ticipation in early education programmes.
entrance ticket and stick it on a piece of paper or
in a book and draw a picture of his favourite ride
5.3.1 Involving parents in the early
to take home and show his family. Similar activity
education programme
settings could also be drawn up for families and
Parents are children’s most enduring educators.
Create a list of community-based par- When parents and practitioners work together in
ticipatory learning opportunities that early childhood settings, the impact on the child’s
ACTIVITY

children growing up in a community development and learning multiplies. An effective

such as the one in which Mpho resides partnership with parents in the early education
in may experience. Compare this list setting is thus pivotal to ensure long-term and
with the list of opportunities specific to
the community you grew up in.
sustained impact. This partnership will be dis-
cussed in more detail in Chapter 11.

84
 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

What are the benefits of involving parents in early knowledge of their own individual child and the
childhood education? circumstances within the family and social con-
text. Differences can be shared, explored and
[Link] Benefits for children respected; however, this requires a trusting rela-
Continuity between home and the early childhood tionship between parents and educators. In the
education programme is most important to early childhood development context this kind of
increase consistency in the child’s life. Parents interaction also brings another dimension to the
and educators who share a joint focus can enrich work of early childhood practitioners as it facili-
each other’s understanding of the child’s develop- tates the expansion of their own understanding of
ment and work towards achieving common goals. diversity and family patterns and practices.
A mismatch between home and school values can
introduce considerable tension in children, which [Link] Challenges of the partnership
would negatively impact on their development Parents and educators often have anxieties about
and freedom to explore. It is therefore vital that working together. Past experiences of parents,
sustained contact is maintained, in order to allow who may perceive educators as being evaluative,
the child to grow up in a context of ecological har- often lead to parents being hesitant to approach
mony between settings. educators to discuss issues of mutual concern.
Transport problems, limited opportunities to
[Link] Benefits for parents meet, as well as long working hours and pressures
Parents are ultimately responsible for bringing up at work all contribute to the difficulties in estab-
their children. This experience can be most chal- lishing partnerships between educators and par-
lenging and most parents would welcome support ents. Misunderstanding between parents and edu-
from practitioners and educators who have a cators could also lead to the educators misinter-
broader experience. Parents themselves also need preting parent behaviour as a lack of interest in
to develop. Involvement in school activities and their child’s development. Educators can become
governing bodies of early childhood development discouraged owing to the parents’ apparent lack
centres provides parents with the opportunities of participation and may systematically decrease
to build their own skills and empowers them to their efforts in involving parents in school activi-
speak for themselves within the schooling system. ties. These issues are all prominent in the South
In addition, involvement in school activities African school context. However, none of these
brings parents together, which enables them to problems are insurmountable and consistent
interact and share common joys and sorrows. This efforts need to be made to put partnership into
is particularly important in disadvantaged com- action. In the next section some ideas for the facil-
munities where parents have fewer social net- itation of partnerships between parents and edu-
works for support. By actively participating in cators will be discussed.
school activities parents can gain access to addi-
tional social networks to facilitate access to fur- 5.3.2 Strategies for building
ther resources in the community. partnerships between educators
and parents
[Link] Benefits for educators
Draper and Duffy (2001: 151) identify four differ-
Many early childhood practitioners are parents
ent aspects of working with parents within the
themselves which narrows the gap between prac-
early childhood education environment. These
titioners and parents, as practitioners are able to
include
identify with some of the common issues in rais-
ing children. By cooperating, educators and par- • working with parents around children’s learn-
ents bring together two important parts of the ing
child’s world. The educator has specialised know- • support for parents
ledge and understanding of child development • access to further training
and education, and the parents have in-depth • parental involvement in management.

85
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

These aspects and others relating to building rela- be literate and who (with consent) may agree to
tionships with parents will be discussed in more act as an “interpreter” of written messages for the
depth in Chapter 11. For the purpose of our dis- parents. Parents, family members, community
cussion, however, we will focus on building part- members and the educators involved should
nerships between parents and educators within engage in collaborative problem solving to reach
the early childhood development context. a solution that is acceptable to everyone.
Firstly, working with parents around aspects of Parents can also be involved in specific pro-
their children’s learning involves being sensitive grammes with educators to develop relevant
to the specific needs of the child and parent. For material for use in the classroom. The develop-
example, educators can be flexible in allowing a ment of a common understanding of different
parent to stay at school if the child is experiencing community and family activity settings, and
separation anxiety during the first few days of the descriptions of what happens in these activities is
new year. Arrival and collection times are most particularly important in providing the educator
valuable in developing a relationship with the par- with a relevant context for facilitating learning in
ents as this allows for opportunities to discuss the the early learning stage. These joint discussions
child’s learning experiences for specific days. Edu- can also create awareness among parents from
cators and care workers therefore need to be different communities of how to facilitate differ-
available during this time for discussions with par- ent opportunities for learning at home and in the
ents. Alternatively a communication system can community.
be implemented where parents and educators A second way of involving parents is by means of
communicate with each other about what has parent support. Very often parents are in need of
happened in their respective learning contexts. support and an opportunity to share their difficul-
Keeping a book or diary with daily entries is one ties with teaching staff. Difficulties in coping with
suggestion. children at home, particularly with children who
Many parents may be working and/or studying, experience barriers to learning, necessitate that
and finding specific ways of providing them with structures for parental support are developed.
access to discussions with educators and of keep- These structures could include parent support
ing abreast with school activities is important. groups, visiting psychologists to assist parents in
Meetings over weekends or on a monthly basis, dealing with relevant issues as well as visiting
newsletters, as well as websites that parents can social workers to assist in financial and other famil-
access at their own convenience are all additional ial difficulties. In particular, immigrants or parents
ways of providing access to those parents who do who are newcomers to a specific area often need
not transport their children to and from school. additional assistance to facilitate their inclusion
Contacting parents who are illiterate or who have into the community. A thorough understanding of
low levels of literacy is a current challenge in the parents’ point of view is crucial in providing
many early childhood development centres. Sug- meaningful and relevant support. Clearly the
gestions for contacting such parents include using development of such support structures should be
a dictaphone to record a short message in the a joint initiative between educators and parents.
home language of the parents (with the help of an Thirdly, the early childhood education context
educator who is able to speak that language, if needs to be sensitive to directing parents into dif-
necessary). The message can then be replayed at ferent areas of training. This could include cours-
home and the parents can compose a reply that es in first aid, parenting skills workshops, nutri-
can be sent back with the child. Alternatively tion, hygiene and many others.
many more people are gaining access to cellular A fourth way of involving parents in early child-
phones and the voice message option may be hood contexts (many of which are institution-
utilised to leave messages for the parents in a lan- alised) is involvement in the governing board or
guage they understand. In certain communities management of the school. A parent forum that
there may be a family member, nurse/sister at a advises the board can also be established to
clinic or another person in the vicinity who may expand the participation of parents as part of the

86
 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

management of the school. These structures are Learning these skills at a later point, however,
indeed important in facilitating partnership might take longer. It is thus beneficial to start ear-
between practitioners and parents on different lier rather than later.
levels. Clearly, involvement of parents in only one Focusing on skills teaching of the young child,
way in an early education context would severely however, does have definite limitations. In the first
limit the scope of the partnership and conse- instance the focus is on the child and not neces-
quently have long-term impacts for all involved, sarily on the family or environment in which the
but particularly for the learning child. child grows up. This often means that skills
learned by the child within the intervention setting
are not practised or generalised into the different
Discuss some strategies and activities contexts within the child’s world. These children
ACTIVITY

that Mpho’s educator could have used then often seem to regress after a period of no
to build a positive partnership with all
intervention, as the sustainability of this approach
the parents of the children in Mpho’s
to early intervention is often very limited.
class.
More recent approaches in early intervention
increasingly acknowledge the limitation of focus-
ing only on skills training of the child. As inter-
5.4 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO EARLY ventionists become clearer on the interaction
INTERVENTION: THE IMPORTANCE OF between child, family and environment, the
SOCIAL INCLUSION process of intervention is increasingly seen in the
To place the current approach in perspective, it is context of a broader and more comprehensive
important briefly to refer to different approaches approach towards supporting the child and family
that can be taken towards early childhood inter- within the community. This means that the focus
vention. Clearly, the aim of early intervention is to is on the child’s mastery of skills within the social
see that intervention with children and families context – the ability to cope functionally, solve
starts as early as possible to prevent the develop- problems and participate within the community.
ment of more extensive developmental problems This can be described as a functional, community-
in children. Rather than waiting until the child is focused approach to early childhood intervention.
in school, effort must be invested to identify chil- It implies that the focus in early childhood educa-
dren and families at risk at an earlier stage to tion is more on the inclusion of information and
ensure more long-term success. interaction from parents and those in the envi-
Traditionally most early intervention pro- ronment, in order to increase the integration of
grammes have been oriented towards facilitating learning opportunities within multiple contexts.
the skills of the individual child. This approach is Systematically, a greater sensitivity has also
based on the theoretical stance that there are cer- developed to the accommodation of diversity as a
tain critical periods of learning for a child. This means to enhance interaction and learning. Multi-
would imply, for example, that before the age of lingual and multicultural experiences provide not
five years, there are critical learning periods dur- only a rich source of learning experiences, but
ing which the child develops communication, contribute largely to facilitating the social skills
social and motor skills. The implication is that necessary in an inclusive community. An inclusive
stimulus deprivation during these critical periods approach, however, also focuses on the integra-
could lead to delays in development (Meisels & tion of children with impairments within the
Shonkoff 2001: 12). It is true that younger chil- mainstream. The current focus on the inclusion of
dren can learn certain skills more rapidly than children with impairments within mainstream,
older people can; for example young children early-education learning contexts is based on the
clearly are more adept at learning new languages. premise that enhancing interaction between chil-
It is also important to note that having missed out dren with varying abilities and cultural back-
on a critical period in development does not grounds from an early age will facilitate their
mean that the child cannot develop specific skills. adaptation and socialisation into a diverse socie-

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

ty. To achieve this, however, it is essential that duce more structured play areas in the class so
educators are sensitive to the ways in which the that learners do not to get in each others’ way, or
early childhood educational context needs to be to plan activities carefully by setting up some
structured and to function in order to facilitate learners outside, while others are inside to allow
these interactions. for more space for each activity.
The early childhood learning centre itself is
clearly also an environment on its own and there- 5.5.2 Social ecological variables
fore an ecological context. Educators need to be
sensitive to how they can facilitate interaction The interactions between learners make up the
between children by structuring the classroom. It social ecology of the classroom. Traditionally chil-
is for this reason that the next section will focus dren with impairments were in separate schools;
on the different classroom variables that however, the international and local trend is for
researchers have identified which may have an inclusion of these children within the mainstream
impact on children’s interaction and learning. classroom. Table 5.3 briefly outlines the main re-
search on factors impacting on the social ecology.
Table 5.3 focuses on conditions within the pre-
5.5 CLASSROOM ECOLOGICAL VARIABLES school setting that could have an impact on inter-
Ecological variables in the classroom can be action between peers and learners experiencing
defined as both physical and social in nature. The barriers to learning. Pertinent features that can
physical ecology refers to the more static charac- impact on the social ecology or interactions with-
teristics of the classroom, such as the physical in the classroom are highlighted.
space, organisation of space in the classroom, From these factors it is evident that, in general,
toys and play material available, number of learn- the social inclusion of children with impairments
ers in the class and the educator–child ratio. The with typical peers has a positive impact on the
social ecology refers to the social interactions learning of these children. However, limited
between learners. research has been conducted on the topic in rela-
tion to how these interactions impact on other
5.5.1 Physical ecological variables learners in the rest of the class. This table pro-
vides important information that can be used as a
Table 5.2 provides an overview of some research
guideline for educators in evaluating issues sur-
findings in relation to the different physical eco-
rounding the inclusion of children with impair-
logical variables that need to be considered when
ments in the classroom. An educator, for example,
actually planning the inclusive early childhood
needs to be aware of the impact that personal
environment needed in order for learning to take
beliefs can have on the effectiveness of the inclu-
place.
sion process.
The physical ecology of the classroom provides
It is evident from Tables 5.2 and 5.3 that issues
the environmental structure within which social
surrounding social interaction and the interaction
interactions between learners, and between
between physical and social ecological factors in
learners and adults occur. The research discussed
the classroom are varied and complex. The influ-
in Table 5.2 shows that it is important that educa-
ence of educator interaction with children, educa-
tors are aware of the different aspects of the phys-
tor beliefs and professional collaboration are
ical set-up of the classroom and how this can have
clearly important features that impact on the
an impact on the social behaviour of learners in
learning environment.
the class. Although some of these aspects (e.g. the
ratio of educators to learners) cannot necessarily
be controlled by the educator, at least the educa-
ACTIVITY

Using Tables 5.2 and 5.3 as guidelines,

tor is alerted to the way in which this factor can draw up a checklist that Mpho’s educa-
impact on learners. The educator is then able to tor could use to evaluate the social and
address the problem and compensate for it. physical ecology of the classroom.
Examples of possible solutions may be to intro-

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 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

Table 5.2 A description of the physical ecology in a classroom

Physical variable Research findings

Space for • Well-defined space for activities may lead to smaller groupings of learners and greater
activities engagement with materials (Pollowy 1974).
• Size of space for activities may affect learners’ participation. When density increases
by adding additional learners to a fixed amount of space, learners are more likely to
maintain their distance from peers and become more aggressive (Carta et al. 1988).

Number of • When the number and range of activities are limited, more disruption and conflict
activity materials among learners occurs (Carta et al. 1988).
and toys • An increase in the availability of materials may lead to learners being more engaged
with materials and less engaged with peers (Chandler et al. 1992).

Types of play • Generally learners tend to be involved in

materials and • – solitary play when materials such as blocks, puzzles, play dough, clay and books
nature of the are available (Quilitch & Risley 1973)
activity • – parallel play when sand, water toys and crayons are available
• – social play when dolls, housekeeping and dress-up materials are available.
• Research also suggests that that when educators organise activities around a theme,
typically developing learners will engage in more complex levels of play (Bagley &
Klass 1998).
• Generally more social interaction is observed among peers in activities that have a rel-
atively high structure (e.g. doctor, shop) compared to activities with a low structure
(e.g. waterplay, painting).

Class schedules • Schedules specify the order and amount of time devoted to routines and activities per
day. They provide the classroom with a degree of predictability that assists some learn-
ers with impairments to make transitions between activities more independently
(Sainato 1990).
• Sequencing of scheduled activities indicates that the activity level of learners in one
activity will influence their level of physical activity in the next one (Krantz & Risley
1977).

Ratio of learners • For preschool programmes a ratio of not more than 16 three-year-olds per two adults
to educators and no more than 20 four-year-olds per two adults is recommended (Odom & Bailey
2001).
• If there are learners with impairments who require instructional assistance, an even
lower ratio might be needed.
• Lower ratios of learners to educators resulted in children spending less time in social
interaction with peers (Hauser-Cram et al. 1993).

Ratio of learners • There has been little systematic research on the effects of this ratio. Hauser-Cram et
with and without al. (1993) found a positive relationship between the degree of inclusion of learners with
impairments impairments and the degree of social engagement with typically developing peers.

Accessibility of • Accessibility is a phenomenon that varies according to the needs of each individual
space and child. Reasonable accommodations need to be made to ensure that facilities are avail-
materials able and accessible to learners with a range of impairments, including those with phys-
ical and/or sensory impairments.

Source: Based on Odom & Bailey 2001

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

Table 5.3 Features that impact on the social ecology of a classroom

Social variable Research findings

Characteristics • The logical way to group children is by chronological age as this has the advantage of
of the peer group normalisation, but it means that peers may at times be engaged in activities that may be
too advanced for learners with impairments. Matching learners on the basis of develop-
mental age is another option.
• Findings suggest that developmental age and chronological age of peers are salient vari-
ables in inclusive classrooms but highlight that more research needs to be conducted
(Odom & Bailey 2001).

Social interaction • Interaction between learners with impairments and their typically developing peers has
among peers been studied extensively. The primary rationale for inclusive preschool programmes is
that they will provide an environment in which positive, playful and developmentally
important interactions will occur with socially competent peers (Bricker 1978; Guralnick
1990).
• Mixed evidence exists about the degree to which learners with impairments are integrat-
ed into preschool settings.
• Inclusion in play activities and programmes with typically developing children seems to
directly affect the social and communication behaviour of the children in the environ-
ments.
• Studies of children with impairments seem to show/indicate that they engage in more
interaction with peers when in inclusive environments (Erwin 1993; Hauser-Cram et al.
1993), although there have been some exceptions (Hundert et al. 1993).
• Without any prompting from educators, typically developing learners are able to adjust
their communication to equate with the level/method that learners with impairments use
at that point (Guralnick & Paul-Brown 1977).

Educator • Educators tend to interact more frequently, facilitate more cognitive play, supply more
interaction support for and pay more attention to learners with impairments in an inclusive setting
(Brown et al. 1999; File 1994; Quay 1993).
• An exception to these research findings includes a study by Kontos et al. (1998) who
found that educators in inclusive settings are more likely to ignore learners with impair-
ments.

Educator beliefs • Educator beliefs in relation to inclusion affect the nature of the learning environment and
for this reason can be regarded as a feature of social ecology. Generally, early childhood
development educators are positive towards inclusion. They seem to feel more positively
towards the inclusion of learners with mild impairments (Buysse et al. 1996).
• When asked, educators identified a number of benefits of inclusion for learners with
impairments (Buysse et al. 1996) as well as typically developing learners (Marchant
1995).

Professional • McCormick et al. (1998) found that consistent interaction between educators was related
collaboration to learners’ engagement in the inclusive environment. Such collaboration between pro-
fessionals is based on consistent communication, a shared philosophy about education
and inclusion, and a shared responsibility for the learners with impairments in the con-
text.
• Peck et al. (1993) found that the primary factor associated with discontinuation of inclu-
sion was the poor relationships that developed between adults in the programme. Pro-
fessional relationships have a positive or negative influence on the social ecology of the
early childhood development centre that undoubtedly affects the child’s learning environ-
ment.

Source: Based on Odom & Bailey 2001

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 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

5.6 LEARNING THROUGH COMMUNICATION 5.7 PRINCIPLES OF EARLY LEARNING

That young children communicate is much more In the next section, we will explore some of the
important than how they communicate (Centre underlying principles of early childhood learning.
for Augmentative and Alternative Communica-
tion 2000). 5.7.1 Relaxed modes of learning: play
as the foundation for learning
One of the basic skills required in learning is the
Perhaps one of the most important early learning
ability to interact with peers and adults. Although
principles relates to the acceptance that children
children do learn from observation, their own ini-
learn through “relaxed modes of cognition”
tiations and exploration in interaction with others
(Miller 2000: 14). This means that children learn
are vital in optimising their potential. Through
alongside adults and peers through watching,
actively participating in their environment they
playing and slowly doing, rather than through the
can make mistakes, receive feedback (of varying
“fast route” of direct teaching. In fact, purposeful
kinds) and correct themselves in order to contin-
direct instruction can impact most negatively on
ue with the process.
children’s disposition to learn (Klein 2003: 76). In
Language and communication skills thus form
the early childhood education context, this
the basis of the process of learning. Without the
implies that learners will learn from educators
ability to understand language and express mes-
who set the example. This means that the educa-
sages, children become isolated and unable to
tor must take an active part in the activities of the
learn from environmental exposures. Communica-
classroom and model the skills and activities that
tion, however, does not only happen through
are being acquired by the learners.
speech – it manifests through facial expressions,
body language and other non-verbal strategies
5.7.2 Active participation as a
(e.g. drawing). These expressive modes of commu-
prerequisite for learning
nication form the backbone of the young child’s
creative expression and should be encouraged. Children need to be interested enough in the
Children who are learning through a second lan- activity to become engaged in it. This engage-
guage (and are thus not fluent in the language of ment will facilitate the mastering of skills in the
learning and teaching in the classroom) can, for process. A child that is not able to engage and get
example, be accommodated by allowing them to involved has great difficulties participating in the
use their home language to ensure that they are learning process. Active participation (through
included from the beginning in order to facilitate action and communication) facilitates learning. An
social inclusion and participation. Chapter 8 pro- example would be a learner with cerebral palsy
vides more detail on second-language learning and who is in a wheelchair and also unable to talk.
instruction within the classroom. These expres- Without necessary adaptations this learner would
sions in the home language can then be used in a find it difficult to become part of the activity and
positive way to encourage interest in the foreign therefore would have difficulty in participating in
or home language of the child. The result would be the learning process. A picture board with rele-
to use the diversity of the languages in the class as vant line drawings of the activity could be given to
a resource rather than a “difficulty”. Diversity the learner and by pointing to the correct picture
breeds strength in all senses of the word: if the he would then also be able to participate. A peer
child cannot communicate in the language of learn- who is seated beside the learner could then speak
ing and teaching, access to any other language will the message.
do as a starting point. Similarly, if a child cannot
talk, he needs access to the use of gestures, com- 5.7.3 Developing positive attitudes and
munication boards or other communication sys- dispositions towards learning
tems (e.g. augmentative and alternative communi- The early years are most important to facilitate a
cation aids – see Chapter 9) to ensure that he is child’s eagerness to explore and learn. Children
able to participate in the learning experience. cannot be taught everything there is to know,

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

therefore we need to instil in them the basic need hood education aims to ensure the use of home-
to want to find out for themselves, to facilitate based knowledge and experiences as a basis from
their own problem solving in coping with life which the educator can facilitate the extension of
issues. Early childhood education should focus on the children’s knowledge and skills. For parents
different ways in which the child’s interest in to be able to support the educator’s approach in
learning can be enhanced. This becomes possible the classroom, it is essential that they are able to
by acknowledging and understanding where the understand and reinforce the skills and their
children are at in order to use this knowledge to applications within the broader environmental
encourage them to explore further. Concerns context. As mentioned earlier, consistency of
about setting time schedules for teaching skills interaction patterns and language use throughout
have been raised (Drummond 1997: 7). These con- the different contexts is most important in order
cerns focus on the principle that “sooner is not to facilitate a harmonious learning environment
necessarily better”. In fact, focusing on the end for the child.
result (outcome) can distract educators from the
process – which is where much of the learning

ACTIVITY
takes place. It is important to remember that of As Mpho’s educator, what instruction
the two, learning is more important! principles do you think are necessary in
your classroom to enhance the literacy
experience of the learners?
5.7.4 Building foundations for learning
and literacy by focusing on real-
life contexts
The importance of a bio-ecological approach 5.8 WHAT IS A RESPECTFUL EARLY
towards early childhood education is once again CHILDHOOD PRACTITIONER OR
emphasised. The aim of early years is not “to EDUCATOR?
teach the child early literacy skills” by getting Nutbrown (2001) describes the importance of
them to produce “write and tell” activities. “respect” in education, but with specific reference
Rather, educators should “seize the opportunity to early childhood practice. She states that
to protect the route into literacy” in such a way “respect is not about being nice, it is about being
that it remains playful, explorative and enjoyable clear, honest, courteous, diligent and consistent”
(Miller 2000: 14). For many children this process (Nutbrown 2001: 75). Respectfulness can be
has already begun in the home. This does not expressed through what is done, what is said,
imply a sloppy, laissez-faire approach to the cur- how relationships are conducted and the atti-
riculum or an excuse to do no planning. This is an tudes with which educators meet the daily chal-
approach in which children are encouraged to lenges they face at work. Those who observe chil-
take risks, make choices and become independ- dren reflect on what they see and convey what
ent learners within the context of sensitive and they see to those in the child’s environment.
appropriate adult support. A practical example These people in the environment will know how
would be an educator who encourages parents of to adapt and change activities in the environment
learners to join the local library and provides sug- to foster growth. Table 5.4 describes the
gestions on types of books that parents could bor- approach of a respectful educator.
row from the library in order to facilitate a posi- Table 5.4 meaningfully consolidates issues dis-
tive experience to literacy. cussed in this chapter by pointing out, once again,
the importance of
5.7.5 Collaboration between children • children as participants, thus placing great
and educators and parents is at importance on experiences of the child and
the heart of early childhood family
education
• building on existing learning by involving par-
A bio-ecological approach towards early child- ents

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 EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION 5

Table 5.4 The approach of a respectful educator

Respectful approaches Disrespectful approaches
Towards learners in general
Children as participants in the learning experience Children as recipients of knowledge
Building on existing learning Disregarding prior knowledge
Focus on individual’s learning needs Curriculum with predetermined outcomes
Responsive to learners’ needs and interests Unresponsive to learners’ needs and interests
Learners understand what is expected of them Learners do not understand what is expected of them
Towards learners with impairments
Inclusive attitude towards diversity and disability Non-inclusive attitude towards diversity and disability
Teaching based on developmental needs Teaching based according to chronological age and
fixed outcomes
Each individual learner matters The majority matter
Towards the physical ecology of the classroom
Sufficient space and access to equipment Insufficient space and access to equipment
Adequate accessibility to buildings and equipment for Inadequate accessibility to buildings and equipment
all learners for some learners
Appropriate ratio of educators to learners Educator–learner ratio too high
Towards the social ecology of the classroom
Educators aware of children’s rights Educators disregard issues relating to children’s rights
Continued professional development for early child- Lack of continued professional development for early
hood educators and other educators childhood educators and other educators
Acknowledgement of the role parents play in their Minimisation of the role parents play in their child’s
child’s education education

Source: Based on Nutbrown 2001: 76

• creating sensitivity towards the physical and cation of these principles within this environ-
social ecology of the classroom. ment.

This table clarifies some of the basic principles of

a bio-ecological approach to early childhood Questions
intervention and education. 1. Child abuse and neglect are most likely to
occur in families under stress who reside in a
5.9 CONCLUSION high-risk neigbourhood. Using the knowledge
This chapter discusses the underlying principles you have acquired in this chapter as well as
of a bio-ecological resource-based approach with- from Chapters 1, 2, 9 and 11, discuss the risk
in an early childhood development context. A dis- factors that may be present in these families
cussion of the characteristics of quality inclusive and that may contribute towards abuse and
early childhood development programmes as well neglect. Group the factors under the different
as relevant variables that should be considered systems (micro-, meso-, exo- and macrosys-
when evaluating such programmes is provided. tems) as described by Bronfenbrenner.
Some suggestions as to how educators may apply 2. Using the case study as an example, discuss
some of these principles within the practical con- how the educator could promote collaboration
text of early childhood education and interven- between Mpho’s mother and his educator to
tion are included in order to encourage the appli- maximise Mpho’s learning experience.

93
SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

3. As an educator you have been asked to provide social behavior of preschool children with special needs.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25: 249–262.
information to the parents of the children in
Mpho’s class about the principles of early Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 5:
Early Childhood Education: meeting the challenge of early
childhood learning. Discuss the five principles childhood development in South Africa. Pretoria: Govern-
you would regard as most important and give ment Printer.
an example of a participatory learning oppor- Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6:
tunity that parents could use to reinforce what Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education
their child is learning at school. and training system. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Draper, L. & Duffy, B. 2001. Working with parents. In
4. Discuss some of the negative educator beliefs Pugh, G. (Ed.), Contemporary issues in the early years:
towards children who experience barriers to working collaboratively for children. 3rd ed. London: Paul
learning (like Mpho) that could negatively Chapman Publishing, 146–159.
affect the child’s functioning in the classroom. Drummond, M. 1997. An undesirable document. Coordi-
nate, January: 7–8.
Dunst, C. 2001. Participation of young children with dis-
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 ADDRESSING LIFE SKILLS 6
PROBLEMS

IRENE STRYDOM

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdescribe in your own words what life skills are and why they are
emphasised as a developmental task of the learner
Πdescribe in your own words what the core themes of the Life
Orientation Learning Area are and how life skills are part of this
learning area
Πexplain the different kinds of life skills problems and what kinds of
barriers learners may experience in acquiring specific life skills
Πexplain the core outcomes-based learning principles of a life skills
model which should always be taken into account
Πwork out a life skills session to address a particular area of growth in
learners.

Key terms
The people described in these real-life
life skills ♦ life orientation ♦ barriers to life skills situations have to master certain skills
acquisition ♦ addressing life skills problems ♦ life to survive the obstacles of everyday liv-
ACTIVITY

skills model ♦ intrapersonal skills ♦ interpersonal ing, and to adapt to these daily
changes and challenges.
skills
How would you define life skills? In
your description, consider the different
aspects mentioned in the preceding
6.1 INTRODUCTION paragraph.

There are a great number of interpretations and

definitions of the concept “life skills”. Different In this chapter, reference will be made to the dif-
authors define the concept in different ways and ferent obstacles the young learner may experi-
it is clear that life skills have different meanings ence in acquiring the necessary life skills to sur-
for different people. For the squatter, the ability vive life’s challenges. A proposed life skills model
to build a secure corrugated iron house can be will be discussed briefly, and special reference will
seen as a life skill. For the blind person it may be be made to very particular skills the learner has to
the safe crossing of a busy street; for the para- master in order to survive the many challenges
plegic, learning to drive a motor car again after a the home, school and broader community envi-
devastating car accident. ronment pose.

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 ADDRESSING LIFE SKILLS PROBLEMS 6

The life skills to be mastered by learners and

mentioned in this chapter form part of one of the Is it really necessary deliberately to

ACTIVITY
eight learning areas as stated in the Revised expose learners to life skills pro-
National Curriculum, namely Life Orientation. As a grammes? Is it not possible for them to
acquire these skills by going about their
learning area, Life Orientation aims to guide and
daily routines normally? What do you
prepare learners for life and its possibilities think?
(Department of Education 2002: 4). In the next
section, reference will be made to the “life tools”
learners need to master and successfully apply to Surely all learners will be able to learn more about
tackle life’s possibilities. themselves and their environments – even if they
are left “alone” to explore new internal and exter-
6.2 LIFE SKILLS AS COPING TOOLS nal horizons? As Vygotsky (Kinginger 2002) has
taught us, learners will indeed be able to learn a
There is no question about the necessity of lot on their own, but will not be able to break
acquiring life skills to cope with the demands of through their own personal “knowledge ceilings”
modern life. The perfect set-up would be for without the guidance and help of a mentor.
learners to be exposed to these skills from a very Vygotsky (Kinginger 2002: 240) calls this zone in
early age in their homes. Parents are the primary which learners are helped to master new richer
educators and are in essence responsible for insights the “zone of proximal development”.
equipping their children with the necessary per- Here they are enabled to break through their own
sonal, social and thinking tools to grow as unique barriers to a more advanced level of themselves. It
persons and to solve problems successfully in dif- seems as if mentoring can be seen as one of the
ferent life situations. The reality, however, is that ways in which learning in the zone of proximal
because of many personal, educational, financial development can be successfully facilitated (Evans
and socio-economic realities, many parents them- & Ave 2000). Mentoring is becoming an increas-
selves have not mastered important life skills and ingly popular strategy for addressing the needs of
are not able to recognise particular favourable young learners and, in general, the benefits for
set-ups to expose their children to a learning learners can be seen in the acquiring of specific
opportunity. We are not talking about formal edu- life skills rather than being a preventative panacea
cational set-ups, but about everyday realities and for all social problems (Evans & Ave 2000: 41). It
situations life throws at us to teach us more about remains a basic need of learners not merely to be
ourselves and life. left alone to explore their inner and outer worlds,
Life skills can indeed be seen as coping tools to but to be helped through the zone of proximal
survive everyday emotional, social and cognitive development to get to the place of self-realisation
onslaughts. To “cope” means to deal effectively or in all the aspects of their being human. Other
successfully with a challenge (Hutchinson 1992: researchers (Abrahams et al. 2002: 2) also refer to
180). A “tool” can be defined as an implement the needs learners have during their journey of
that gives the user an advantage over a person discovery and emphasise their need to be
who does not have such a tool (Hutchinson 1992: acknowledged, guided and nurtured. The unmis-
828). Life skills can thus literally be described as takeable role of the mentor, who is emotionally
tools the learner should be equipped with to suc- available, to guide learners through their growing
cessfully have insight into and manage life tasks, and learning processes seems to be evident. The
and that this equipment will favour the learner importance of the skilled mentor and facilitator
who has mastered these skills. The Life Orienta- will be discussed further in Section [Link].
tion Learning Area also refers to “equipping learn- So, the components of implementing a life
ers” and states that the “Life Orientation Learning skills programme are: the learner, a skilled men-
Area equips learners for meaningful and success- tor or facilitator and a programme. Is it really that
ful living in a rapidly changing and transforming simple? The literature tells another story. There
society” (Department of Education 2002: 4). are numerous realities and circumstances which

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complicate the implementation of a life skills pro- 6.3 LIFE SKILLS PROBLEMS
gramme. One cannot just compile a life skills pro-
In this section, there will be a brief discussion on
gramme, get a teacher and a bunch of learners
reasons why learners may have problems acquir-
and there you go: a successful outcome! In the
ing life skills. This will be a general discussion of
next section, a few aspects of these complexities
particular difficulties some learners may experi-
that can inhibit the successful development and
ence in mastering skills. When one thinks about
implementation of a life skills programme will be
life skills problems, it seems that there are numer-
deliberated.
ous reasons why learners do not acquire a wide
It is also essential, at this stage, to mention that range of competencies which will enable them to
a life skills programme is part of the compulsory better understand and manage themselves and
Life Orientation Learning Area and provision
the different spaces they inhabit. The different
should be made for it on the school timetable.
reasons will be dealt with under separate head-
Schools are compelled to provide ample opportu-
ings, but there should be an understanding that
nity for learners to be exposed to specific life ori-
even so, one cannot really separate these inter-
entation periods. The ideal situation is actually to
twined causes.
include and incorporate life skills themes and
The premise from which this discussion will be
principles in all the other learning areas too. The
led assumes that the human being consists of var-
five learning outcomes for the Life Orientation
ious aspects or facets, and that developmental or
Learning Area, which can also be addressed in the
environmental problems may cause an individual
other learning areas, are as follows (Department
not to reach the potential, with regard to a partic-
of Education 2002: 7):
ular aspect, that he was destined to reach. The six
• Learning Outcome 1: Health Promotion aspects of human existence which will be high-
The learner will be able to make informed deci- lighted are the physical, emotional, social, cogni-
sions regarding personal, community and envi- tive, motivational and moral aspects. These
ronmental health. aspects correlate with the themes highlighted in
• Learning Outcome 2: Social Development the Life Orientation Learning Area, namely physi-
cal, personal and social development, and health
The learner will be able to demonstrate an
and future development. In a sense, one can con-
understanding of and commitment to constitu-
vert each of these into intelligences of being
tional rights and responsibilities, and to show
human.
an understanding of diverse cultures and reli-
gions. In the 1980s, Gardner (1983) coined the con-
cept of multiple intelligences and emphasised
• Learning Outcome 3: Personal Development seven intelligences as competencies human
The learner will be able to use acquired life beings are capable of, namely linguistic intelli-
skills to achieve and extend personal potential gence (the extraordinary ability to use language
to respond effectively to challenges in his or to express and appreciate complex meanings);
her world. logical-mathematical intelligence (the wonderful
• Learning Outcome 4: Physical Development ability to quantify and consider complex mathe-
and Movement matical propositions); spatial intelligence (the
capacity to perceive external and internal imagery
The learner will be able to demonstrate an
in a three-dimensional set-up); bodily-kinesthetic
understanding of, and participate in, activities
intelligence (the ability to fine-tune physical
that promote movement and physical develop-
skills); musical intelligence (a rare sensitivity to
ment.
melody, tone and rhythm); interpersonal intelli-
• Learning Outcome 5: Orientation to the World gence (the ability to understand and interact
of Work effectively with others) and intrapersonal skills
The learner will be able to make informed deci- (the ability to understand and manage the self
sions about further study and career choices. successfully).

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In our model, one can define each of the six So what are the important physical skills learn-
aspects of being human mentioned earlier as an ers should acquire from a very young age? Obvi-
intelligence. “Intelligence” can be defined as the ously, different physical milestones should be
power of learning, understanding and reasoning reached by learners at different stages of their
(Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current Eng- lives, and long lists of these can be mentioned.
lish 1994: 652). The concept has an element of We will refer here to only the most significant and
survival in it, because the individual who has the general physical skills learners should master dur-
ability to learn, understand and create meaning, ing the developmental years. They can be distin-
will probably cope with living demands, stressors guished as the following:
and traumas. The core ingredient of intelligence is • The ability to gain knowledge of the physical
probably the ability to adapt and to change. In the self with regard to basic physical functioning,
next section, each of the aspects of being human body parts and the functions of different
will be described as an aspect of human intelli- organs.
gence and will be followed by a discussion of • Realisation that each body is different and
problems learners may have in reaching a specific unique and that this may influence physical per-
intelligence potential. formance – even other abled bodies need to
see their uniqueness and ability to use the body
6.3.1 Problems in acquiring physical effectively.
skills – physical intelligence (PQ) • Understanding that the body needs healthy
Physical intelligence correlates with Gardner’s nurturing which entails instilling healthy and
(1983) bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Physical regular eating habits (Murray 2000: 44), and
intelligence can be defined as the ability to use regularly engaging in a safe exercise routine in
the body as an instrument to manage everyday the fresh air. Good nourishment of the body
physical demands creatively, and to apply the also involves the nourishment of the mind and
body in unique ways to manipulate it and objects the spirit of the individual learner.
in different spatial set-ups. It implies that every • Understanding the concept of illness and con-
learner has ample knowledge of the body, what it tracting diseases. Learners should be exposed,
looks like, what it consists of, how it works and on a daily basis, to teachings on maintaining a
how it should be nurtured. The young learner, healthy body and the handling of diseases.
from a very early age, should realise that we all get Learners should especially be exposed to a for-
one body to inhabit on our journey through life mal training programme on sexuality and
and that this body should be cared for. The learn- HIV/Aids issues.
er should realise that the body is a living being • Seizing opportunities to participate in physical
and will thrive only in a nurturing environment. If challenges and developing very specific activity
the physical survival of the body is under constant skills (Thompson 2000: 33), like taking part in
threat, there will be no possibility of healthy group activities in nature to learn more about
growth, and in fact the very existence of that per- the self, others and nature. The focus here is on
son will be threatened. If the body is exposed to handling physical challenges.
dangerous environments, most of the person’s • Mastering very specific gross motor skills to
energy will be used to stay alive and survive, enable learners to effectively manipulate their
which will negatively impact on the development bodies and big instruments and tools which will
of the other identities (e.g. the emotional, social help to develop mechanical and technical skills.
and cognitive modalities). It is also imperative to • Mastering fine motor skills to enable learners
realise the uniqueness of each body and that it is to develop drawing, writing, painting, fine
equipped with wonderful body parts which will motor and technical skills.
keep on working if they are cared for. The
tragedy, however, is that if a part of the body is There are many reasons why learners do not
lost (e.g. a limb, an eye), it can rarely be replaced. develop these physical skills, but only a few of

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these barriers to optimal physical growth will be researchers there is no question about the impor-
summarised here: tance of sport and exercise education as part of a
• Socio-economic realities like poverty, malnutri- life skills programme.
tion, homelessness and a bleak future make it
difficult for parents to give their children the 6.3.2 Problems in acquiring emotional
nourishment they need to grow physically skills – emotional intelligence
healthy, able bodies. (EQ/EI)
• Many families and societies fail to recognise the There is no other concept in education, and par-
basic needs of learners to physical security and ticularly in psychology, that is used so often but is
care taking. Nelson and Allison (2000: 28) refer so difficult to define as the term “emotion”. Defi-
to this basic need by emphasising the impor- nitions vary from vague descriptions to complex
tance of “food before thought”. explanations. Collins (1997: 35), for instance, pro-
• Parents sometimes do not have the knowledge poses a very simple definition of emotion and is
to grasp the importance of healthy nutrition of the opinion that the foundation for almost all
and allow children to engage in reckless eating the other feelings lie in the basic four emotions
habits. which are: to be mad, sad, scared or glad. Without
mentioning all the different definitions, it is safe
• Some learners are treated so harshly from a
to acknowledge the working definition of Oatley
very early age and are exposed to severe physi-
and Jenkins (1996: 96) which describes “emotion”
cal punishment and sexual abuse that they may
as follows: An emotion is usually caused when a
get the impression that they and their bodies
person evaluates an event of importance and an
are not really important or valuable, which may
aim, which is considered a priority, is formulated.
result in dangerous and reckless physical
The core of an emotion is the readiness to engage
behaviour.
in an activity and the planning of action. The feel-
• Schools do not always have the time or means ing that action is necessary may interrupt other
to look after the nourishment of learners and actions and cognitive processes or may compete
sometimes neglect the implementation of a with those. An emotion can thus be seen as a
healthy feeding and physical training pro- unique state which goes hand in hand with bodily
gramme. changes, bodily expressions and actions. One can
• In some cases, schools do not have the capacity see that there are many aspects of being human
to expose learners to programmes on sexuality, integrated into the experiencing of an emotion
physical well-being and nourishment. which, indeed, is a whole body experience. In the
next paragraph, the big brother of “emotion”,
• Some learners underestimate the value of their
namely “emotional intelligence”, will be dealt
bodies and engage in risky sexual activities or
with briefly.
fall into the trap of following a specific crowd
Long before Goleman (1996) popularised the
who may use drugs, alcohol or other sub-
concept of “emotional intelligence”, Salovey and
stances.
Mayer (1990), and Bar-On (1992) had done signifi-
• Tragic circumstances of learners may drive cant research on this phenomenon. The most
them to bad coping behaviours during which recent definition of emotional intelligence by
they try to escape from themselves or their Salovey et al. (2002: 10) may be summarised as
environments by harming their bodies. follows:
Emotional intelligence
The need to introduce physical intelligence com-
ponents in schools has led to the development of • represents the ability to perceive, appraise and
the field of exercise psychology (Van Raalte & express emotion accurately and adaptively
Brewer 2002: 5) which proposes the inclusion of • is the ability to understand emotion and emo-
sport and physical health as education themes in tional knowledge
schools’ life skills programmes. For these • is the ability to access and/or generate feelings

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when they facilitate cognitive activities and school and within the society, learners may
adaptive action develop the idea that they have no security and
• is the ability to regulate emotions in oneself acceptance base to fall back on, which may cre-
and others. ate feelings of desolation.
• Many learners grow up in a non-caring, non-
Emotional intelligence can thus be described as sharing environment which creates the idea
the ability to process emotion-laden information that not to care and not to share is acceptable
competently and to use it to guide cognitive activ- (Lantieri 2001: 33).
ities, like problem solving, and to focus energy on
• Learners have a need to be appreciated (Elias
required behaviours.
2001: 21) and to be acknowledged which instils
Considering the high levels of domestic and in them the feeling of being important and
school violence, it is apparent that many learners being “good enough”.
have not adequately acquired emotional intelli-
gence skills to manage stressful personal, scholas- • Learners also have to be educated in the science
tic and societal demands. Many learners have lit- of emotions, which implicates an appreciation
tle experience in dealing with their own emotions of the emotional aspect of being human, and
and quickly see emotional reactions from others that it is normal to have a wide range of feel-
as a threat. Research done by Ciarrochi et al. ings. If this normal aspect of being human is
(2002: 173) reveals that learners who are low in denied (as children are often exposed to emo-
emotional awareness and who are poor at identi- tionally abusive situations when they are
fying, describing and managing their emotions ordered to “stop crying” or told “you should
are the least likely to seek help from people not feel like that” or asked “why are you so
around them, and have the highest intention of emotional?”), learners quickly learn not to show
refusing help from everyone. So what we have their feelings any more, which in turn can cre-
here is that many neglected, hurt, confused and ate great emotional problems. An emotional
angry learners may be alone, fighting their per- numbness may result from learners not being
sonal battles until they are overwhelmed by them educated in emotional intelligence skills. This
and the only way out of this tight corner is to numbness may paralyse them briefly which pre-
revert to aggressive and violent acts. A low aware- vents them from taking positive action to
ness of the importance of emotionality in our lives address their hurt. Thus the unavailability of an
can thus indeed be described as one of the most empathetic adult may eventually erupt into
important barriers to acquiring apt emotional socially unacceptable behaviours.
intelligence skills. The emotional intelligence movement has
Other problems learners may experience that brought to the fore the importance of developing
will inhibit their mastering of emotional intelli- each learner’s emotional capacities and, as men-
gence skills are as follows: tioned earlier, the knowledge of emotions will
• Children are supposed to be cared for by emo- help learners to understand themselves and oth-
tionally available (Collins 1997: 7) adults who ers better. A learner who qualifies as being emo-
should be present to spend time with them and tionally intelligent will be less impulsive, will
expose them to a safe and emotionally sound develop an inner self-control, will be able to care
environment. In many cases adults are the very and share, and will, in the end, use the energy
ones who abuse and neglect children, which emotions create in a positive way to plan self-
from a very early age creates the idea that peo- improvement activities.
ple cannot be trusted, which in turn has a dev-
astating effect on their further emotional devel- 6.3.3 Problems in acquiring social skills
opment. – social intelligence (SQ)
• Learners have the need to belong (Elias 2001: When a baby is born, he is immediately part of
20). If this need is not satisfied at home, in some kind of social set-up, hopefully one of

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warmth, caring and emotional nurturing. The enabling learners to cope with the world as it is,
dependence of the helpless little baby on the and also about helping learners to change their
social beings in his environment to look after him world. This they will be able to do if they know as
is apparent as the baby cannot do much to feed or much as possible about themselves and others as
care for himself. The baby needs the constant sup- interacting beings.
port of other human beings and is entirely What are the social skills learners need to
dependent on the goodwill of others. As we grow assert themselves in demanding social set-ups? A
older, we become more independent of others, summary of the work of researchers such as Gut
and gradually gain more skills which enable us to (2000: 46), Baker et al. (2000: 42), Strop (2000:
engage in activities we ourselves plan. But we will 16), and Frey et al. (2000: 102) highlights the fol-
always have human beings around us. Perry (2002: lowing social skills as being of great value to
36) is of the opinion that we will never become learners:
fully independent of others and that we rather
• Desiring and demonstrating basic social skills
become interdependent. This means that we will
such as the ability to respond to the needs of
continually be part of give-and-take relationships,
others, and the ability to maintain healthy rela-
building a healthy interdependence with family,
tionships with others, all of which are based on
community and culture.
the following intrapersonal skills: self-aware-
Yet it seems as if the given variables, namely ness, self-acceptance and the ability to regulate
being a social creature in a social structure, are thoughts, emotions and behaviours
not enough to guarantee personal happiness and
success. There are clear indications that many • Acquiring three social-emotional competen-
individual learners have great problems in adapt- cies, namely empathy, social problem solving
ing to social demands, and struggle to compe- and anger management skills
tently manage themselves in set-ups where peo- • Taking up responsibilities which comprise the
ple are part of the equation. The effect of this on following elements: learning the importance of
the development of the learner is devastating. It accountability, commitment, dependability,
was found that poor social skills in people are reliability and trustworthiness (responsibility is
thought to make them vulnerable to psychosocial called the fourth “R” after reading, ’riting and
problems pursuant to the experience of stressful ’rithmetic)
life events (Segrin & Flora 2000: 489). But what • Developing leadership skills such as the ability
are these social skills we refer to? to plan, manage, organise, implement and eval-
Ganzel (2001: 56) has a very short, but striking uate
definition of social skills by calling them “soft
skills” or “people skills”, which indicates an abili- • Developing “following skills” which assumes
ty to successfully communicate and negotiate that learners will learn sometimes to take a
with others, the ability to reveal personal needs back seat and allow others to implement their
and feelings, as well as to give constructive feed- plans
back to others. Although it is accepted that the • Acquiring conversational skills such as begin-
home environment will equip learners with these ning and ending a conversation
basic social skills, it is generally known that many • Developing listening skills such as active listen-
parents lack the knowledge and inclination to ing and questioning
empower their offspring to survive in the social
jungle outside the home. Murray (2001: 7) feels • Realising the importance of perspective-taking
strongly about helping learners not only to sur- skills such as recognising others’ feelings,
vive social set-ups, but really to prepare them for showing understanding of feelings, expressing
adult life where they will have no other choice concern for others and understanding teasing
than to aptly handle the social demands in train- • Developing consequence-predicting skills such
ing and working environments. For Murray (2001: as avoiding trouble and accepting conse-
7) the concept of “social education” is all about quences

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These skills are the core social skills learners No learner is an island. It is up to adults to guide
should master, but does this really happen? There learners on an inner journey to better understand
are many reasons why not, and only a few of these themselves as social-emotional beings, which will
barriers to acquiring basic social skills will be dis- give them the courage to venture into the social
cussed below. This discussion is based on the jungle out there.
findings of Mayer (2001: 414), Morris (2002: 66),
Lutzner and Day-Vines (2001: 158), Salzman and
D’Andrea (2001: 341), and Garner and Estep 6.3.4 Problems in acquiring thinking
(2001: 29): skills (IQ)
• Some parents engage in poor emotional social- The thinking or cognitive dimension of being
isation practices and expose their children to human is perhaps the most difficult part to
insufficient social learning opportunities. describe as it consists of so many intrapsychic
• Some teachers are unaware of their contribu- processes and the development thereof is influ-
tion to learners’ developing antisocial behav- enced by so many external factors. Briefly, it can
iour and even cause learners to stop attending be described as the part of the human involved in
school. The implementation of harsh punitive the internal, mental processes with a very distinct
methods of control, not providing clear rules, flavour of uniqueness. Aspects which can be men-
exposing learners to constant failure experi- tioned here are factors like attention, concept for-
ences, not using appropriate behaviour man- mation, information processing and memory
agement procedures, not implementing a social (Reber 1995). Every individual has a characteristic
education programme and not valuing cultural style or manner in which thinking tasks are
differences are some of the negative influences approached or handled. The three most common
of teachers. thinking or cognitive styles, namely a level-
ling–sharpening style, a field dependence–field
• Some adults and educators do not understand independence style and a reflectivity–impulsivity
that certain learners may have non-verbal learn- style (Reber 1995), will be discussed briefly:
ing impairments which hinder the acquisition
of non-verbal skills such as understanding and • The learner who makes use of a levelling think-
interpreting other learners’ body language and ing style has the tendency to smooth over the
facial expressions. unusual, irregular or novel aspects of a situa-
tion, an event, a story or a drawing so that
• Many schools have no programme in place to details are glossed over, and what ultimately
identify, support and guide at-risk learners who remains in memory is a more homogeneous,
demonstrate social skills deficits. less incongruous version than that which was
• Schools fail to include a prejudice prevention objectively presented. The reverse tendency is
programme as part of the social education cur- sharpening, in which details are overempha-
riculum. Such a programme can enhance the sised and accentuated.
development of intercultural social develop- • Field dependence represents a continuum
ment and cooperative skills. along which an individual may be placed to
• Many schools fail to see the wonderful oppor- characterise the extent to which the learner’s
tunities of experiential adventure activities like perceptions are dependent on, or independent
playing sports, games and planned activities in from, cues in the environment.
the open air. If learners are outside and they • In the solving of problems, some learners tend
are thrown together, they are exposed to expe- to be rather impulsive and react quickly on the
riential social skills activities which help devel- basis of the first thing that comes to mind while
op an atmosphere of acceptance, where learn- others are more reflective, more systematic
ers are willing to take risks, share, discuss and and tend to think the problem through before
problem solve together. acting.

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the individual and, ultimately, society. It is a

Can you imagine what the experience systematic, rigorous, disciplined way of think-
of a learner who has a levelling–field ing, with its roots in scientific inquiry. Reflec-
independent–impulsive thinking style tion needs to happen in a community with oth-
and is taught by a teacher who has a
ers and requires attitudes that value the per-
sharpening–field dependent–reflective
sonal and intellectual growth of the self and
thinking style will be? What do you
think? others.
Indeed, the learner will quickly see • Problem-solving skills. Learners have to under-
ACTIVITY

relations in solving a problem, will want stand the inevitability of problems arising in
to reveal his ideas immediately, and will their lives. A problem arises when there is a sit-
not pay too much attention to environ-
uation in which some of the attendant compo-
mental issues. The teacher, on the
nents are known and additional components
other hand, will evaluate the learner as
being impulsive and will send him back have to be determined. Learners are helped to
to reconsider his solution to the prob- identify the initial unknown characteristics
lem more carefully. By the time the which may lead to the solution of the problem.
teacher is ready to listen to the learn- • Conflict resolution skills. Although this may be
er’s inputs, the learner will have lost
seen as an important interpersonal skill, it is
interest.
included here because the handling of a conflict
has many close links with the application of
intricate, advanced cognitive processes. A con-
So one of the first lessons we as human beings
flict can be described as any situation where
have to learn is that people are unique, that they
there are mutually antagonistic events,
learn and think in different ways and that their
motives, purposes, behaviours and impulses.
unique solutions, perceptions and answers should
Learners should understand the dynamics of a
not be seen as threats, but rather as gems of new
conflict situation and how it originates, and
insight and opportunity. that these challenges require personal and
Only a few of the important thinking skills interpersonal insight and the application of
learners have to master will be discussed here. high-order thinking manoeuvres.
According to Rodgers (2002: 842), O’Hearn and
Gatz ((2002: 281), Wilterding et al. (2000: 27), Hay This then is the ideal: learners should master
et al. (2000: 101), Elder and Paul (2002: 34), Reber these thinking skills as this will equip them to
(1995) and MacKnight (2001: 17), the following understand real-life situations and dilemmas bet-
core thinking skills should be developed: ter. Hopefully they will be able to analyse the
problem and delve into their own mental capaci-
• Critical thinking skills. These skills are essen- ties in an endeavour to address these challenges.
tial to the process of filtering, assimilating and But does it really happen? What are the barriers
finding new meaning in the torrents of infor- to mastering effective thinking skills? The most
mation faced daily. One example of how these obvious ones are as follows:
skills can be developed is to assist learners to
• A learner from a restricting environment where
become critical readers and effective, critical
poverty, hunger, illnesses and danger are
communicators.
prevalent will probably focus on physical sur-
• Reflective thinking skills. Reflection is a mean- vival. It is possible, though, for a determined
ing-making process that moves a learner from soul to turn the adverse circumstances into
one experience into the next with deeper challenges.
understanding of its relationships with and • Parents are supposed to expose their children
connections to other experiences and ideas. to cognitive expansion opportunities, but
Reflective thinking makes the continuity of sometimes may lack the knowledge and means
learning possible and ensures the progress of to do so.

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• The school environment may focus on the dis-

tribution of knowledge and not on developing What do you think are the key elements
young minds, which may inhibit the fostering of motivation? Think about movement,
of high-order thinking skills. emotion ... Indeed! You need a
• person
• If learners are exposed to a programme that • an inner state (a motive or need)

ACTIVITY
intends to help develop specific thinking skills, • action
the problem situations imitated are often not • in a direction.
related to real-life situations. This will, in the
And what do you think motivates learn-
long run, be a futile exercise because little
ers? Is it more of a motivation to attain
transfer of skills will take place. rewards than to avoid punishment? Do
learners act only on the incentive in the
What is apparent is that there is no use in expos- form of concrete and symbolic
ing learners haphazardly to a programme to rewards?
develop thinking skills. Research done by Dincer
and Guneysu (2001: 207) reveals that young learn-
ers need to be continually exposed to training in Let us look at what the experts say about motiva-
thinking skills for the skills to be useful. This is an tion. Reber (1995: 454) sees motivation as an
important principle in the presentation of a life energiser of behaviour. The learner goes into a
skills programme and is also applicable to the motivational state as the result of multiple inter-
mastering of all physical, emotional, social, think- actions of a large number of variables such as
ing, motivational and moral skills. The layman’s • the need or drive level (the urgency to address
saying: “If you don’t use it, you lose it” may well a basic urge)
apply here. • the incentive value of the goal (how big the
reward will be)
• the learner’s expectations (the possibility to
6.3.5 Problems in acquiring
motivational skills – motivational succeed)
intelligence (MQ) • the availability of appropriate responses (apply-
ing learned behaviour)
Murray (2001: 6–13) is of the opinion that we as • the presence of conflicting or contradictory
humans can distinguish the motivational system motives and unconscious factors.
as part of the human system. He contends that
the motivational system is as much part of human From what we have said so far, it is clear that
existence as the other systems like the physical there can be a number of problems which will
system (the body or psychomotor system), the inhibit an individual learner from acquiring moti-
idea system (cognitive/thinking system) and the vational skills. Some of the most important barri-
relational system (social domain). It is then not ers to mastering motivational skills are the fol-
inappropriate to talk about motivational intelli- lowing:
gence as one of the human intelligences, as it
• The learner has a low drive level because of
refers to the ability of man to act successfully on
physical and psychological factors – he does
a specific need or motive. Motivation suggests
not see the necessity of acting on a need.
movement in a very specific direction. If one
looks at the words “motivation” and “emotion”, • The learner contends that the effort of the
one detects the notion of movement, motion or action does not equal the final reward.
moving in a direction. Motivational intelligence • The learner who has failed before will be reluc-
also suggests that if the initial endeavour to act or tant to try again as the fear of failure exceeds
to move is not successful, the person will try the possibility of a successful outcome.
again and keep on trying in order to satisfy the • Some learners have mastered specific skills, but
need or motive. do not know which to apply and when.

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• Some learners are easily distracted and would 6.3.6 Problems in acquiring moral skills
sometimes rather go along with less demand- – moral intelligence (MQ/MI)
ing tasks or social interactions than pursue a
dream or need. We often hear the words “morality” or
• Some learners are paralysed by continual crip- “moral” in everyday encounters and
pling health, socio-economic and emotional conversations with others. People talk
realities and do not want to engage in “selfish” about the “moral fibre” of a community,
enrichment strategies to the disadvantage of or refer to a person who “acted

ACTIVITY
immorally” or to the country facing a
the group or family.
“moral crisis”, or we experience a
“moral dilemma” or challenging a per-
As you see, there are an endless number of vari- son on “moral grounds”, etc.
ables which play a pivotal role in this elusive term, But what does the concept entail?
motivation. In the next section, a few other aspects Can you write down the variables of the
of motivation will be discussed briefly. concept?
One of the most basic elements which under- Read the following paragraphs and
pins motivation is the ability of the learners to see if you were on the right track.
have a dream or a vision. The learner who can see
where he wants to end up in life will probably be
more motivated than a learner who just takes In its simplest form, the concept “moral” can be
every day as it comes. The learner with a vision defined as the understanding a person may have
will try each day to take one small step towards between what is right and what is wrong. The dic-
that goal he has set for himself. Every choice he tionary definition describes morality as following
makes will be evaluated – he will first want to the standards of right, virtuous or good behaviour
make sure a particular choice will be to the (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current Eng-
advantage of the realisation of his dream. For lish 1994: 804). What is clear is that we define
Gottfredson (2002: 200) this belief in the self and morality in terms of human behaviour and actions
the individual’s goals are correlated with interests in specific situations and set-ups. Humans abide
and activities which are useful predictors of occu- by specific ethical and moral rules – or do not –
pational choices. This implies that a learner who and their behaviour is evaluated accordingly.
has a dream and believes in it and in himself will Morality, then, is a human affair, because humans
probably engage in activities and choices which act according to social guidelines and will be
will help him to reach that dream. Another aspect judged for actions taken. These sets of sanctions
of motivation is the ability to bounce back from and rules for classifying that which is regarded as
failure, disappointments, disaster, setbacks, criti- right and proper within a particular group or soci-
cism and trauma. Reivich and Shatte (2002) define ety can be called a moral code.
resilience as the one element which determines Children develop morality over a period of time
how high we rise above that which threatens to by observing the behaviour of others, and adop-
wear us down. Resilience can also be described as ting and internalising the standards of right and
a systematic phenomenon which is the result of wrong of their society. The work of Kohlberg, var-
the relationship between inner strengths and ious psychoanalysts and Bandura (Sternberg,
outer help (Janas & Nabors 2000: 17). The empha- 2001; Reber 1995: 450) is regarded as the funda-
sis here is on the notion that learners need to be mental view on moral development and can be
deliberately exposed to the concept of resilience summarised as follows:
and its many implications and facets. Brown • Children identify with the values of parents and
(2001: 83) supports the idea of exposing learners internalise these values into the superego (the
to the dimensions of resilience and describes how human entity associated with ethical and moral
effective a resilience education programme was conduct).
in helping learners to deal with life’s problems. • The development of morality is assumed to
take place through the dispensing of rewards

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and punishments by adults and peers who • mature interpersonal relationships

serve as models for acceptable behaviour. • mature conduct
• Morality develops through the stages of avoid- • a purpose.
ing punishment, gaining the approval of others,
adherence to legitimate authority and develop- If you were asked to select only one of
ing moral judgement based on personal princi-

ACTIVITY
the intelligences discussed above as
ples. being the most important, which one
would you select and why? Read in the
We can thus see that the development of morality next section what our views are on this
implicates a number of variables, such as matter!
• a developing, growing child
• who is exposed to the values and norms of par-
ents and the wider community 6.3.7 Situational intelligence (SQ)
• which uphold acceptable behavioural patterns We acknowledge the importance of all the intelli-
and codes of conduct gences discussed in this chapter. We, however, are
• and demonstrate appreciation for diverse cul- of the opinion that the person, with his experi-
tures and religions. ence, knowledge and creativity, can apply a com-
bination of all these intelligences to create surpris-
The ideal situation is that the child will internalise
ing solutions and results in any specific situation.
good-quality behaviour. However, the biggest
We would like to call it situational intelligence
barrier to developing moral intelligence is the
(Strydom & Venter 2001). This intelligence entails
adults that the child sees everyday (Coles 1998).
the surfacing of a talent which becomes evident
What do children see everyday? They are exposed
when an inviting situation arises in which a person
to authority figures who cheat, lie, bribe, defeat
has to respond and react. During the application
justice, disobey rules of conduct, condone injus-
of situational intelligence, a person may push him-
tices, act prejudicially and choose to ignore
self to achieve what he never thought possible.
abuse. This is the behaviour children will probably
Sometimes people only become aware of this tal-
internalise. Let us take the question of morality a
ent when they are faced with challenging and
step further.
adverse situations. The individual then has to
Morality does not include only the description
delve deep into the self to find the appropriate
of good and bad behaviour; it has a ring of spiri-
personal tools to apply in a situation. The idea of
tuality to it as well. Human beings are spiritual
applying personal assets and experiences intelli-
beings because they engage in rituals to honour
gently corresponds in some ways with the ideas of
and experience various forms of a deity. The child
Ebersöhn and Eloff (2003) on life skills and assets
who is encouraged to connect with this deity will
in which the person is seen as a great source of
probably be better equipped to manage life’s
creativity, which can be applied if the inner assets
stressful situations. Levin (2001) is of the opinion
and capacities are accessed and applied.
that individuals who develop their spiritual intelli-
gence will be able to unlock the inner powers of
intuition, which prove to be a valuable asset in You are strongly advised to read the
ACTIVITY

creative endeavours. work of Ebersöhn and Eloff (2003).

What is important is that the development of Their approach to life skills is a valuable
contribution to this developing field.
this part of being human should not be neglected,
You can find the full reference details at
as it has the potential to enrich or destroy the
the end of this chapter.
soul of people and communities. In the end, the
purpose of this dimension of humanness is to
develop individuals (Bruess & Pearson 2000: 61) To summarise: situational intelligence
who have • is applied in the now
• personal autonomy • by a person who has access to all his intellectu-

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al, physical, social, moral, emotional and moti- should be equipped and professionally trained to
vational assets facilitate life skills programmes in the school.
• and has created the means of applying this Nowadays teachers are trained in an outcomes-
industriously based framework to equip them to implement the
• to the benefit of himself and the surrounding Life Orientation programme. However, one per-
community son cannot implement one specific life skills pro-
• in response to the development of challenging gramme in a school. The idea that is emphasised
situations. here is that teachers should be sensitised to the
life skills needs in their schools and communities
This positivistic approach sees the human being and should take the lead in addressing the identi-
as the creator of his own destiny, rather than the fied themes by implementing the suggested life
victim of surroundings and circumstances. skills programme. They should, however, also
But how do we prepare learners for surviving take the learners’ unique needs into account.
these challenges? In the next section, an example
of a life skills model which can be presented to [Link] A life skills programme as part of the
learners will be described. curriculum
The idea that life skills programmes should not be
6.4 FACILITATING LIFE SKILLS taught as add-ons to the regular curriculum, but
ACQUISITION – AN INTEGRATED should be fully integrated into the overall school
HOLISTIC LIFE SKILLS MODEL academic programme is supported by recognised
researchers (Zeidner et al. 2002). An emerging
6.4.1 Introduction
strategy in emotional education is, for instance,
South African schools are bound by law to imple- not to create a special class for teaching these
ment the outcomes-based learning model which skills, but rather to complement regular academic
strives to enable all learners to achieve to their subjects by blending lessons on emotions with
maximum ability. Specific outcomes are set for all other topics like arts, health and science. This is
eight learning areas including Life Orientation. As hopefully the case with the compulsory imple-
with the other learning areas, these outcomes mentation of the Life Orientation programme.
encourage a learner-centred and activity-based Other outcomes-based principles of a life skills
approach to education (Department of Education programme which should be kept in mind and
2002: 1). In the next section, the core principles of implemented will be discussed in the following
the learner-centred and activity-based approach section.
will be touched on briefly.
[Link] Life skills are presented in a group
6.4.2 The outcomes-based principles of context
a life skills model Human beings are group creatures and being in a
Very specific outcomes-based learning principles school suggests that learners are constantly in
are applicable in a life skills programme. Only a contact with different groups of learners. It is
few of these principles, which should be kept in then obvious that life skills work will be organised
mind, will be discussed briefly. as group work sessions. The principle emphasised
here is that we will always be part of a group,
[Link] Implementing a unique life skills something that will continue after school, for
programme by a skilled facilitator instance in future work situations. The pressure
As stated earlier, each educational set-up differs, on learners to learn how to work in a team is
and it is impossible to work out a complete life increasing. It is no longer acceptable that bullies
skills programme, and implement it, without con- and manipulators negatively influence the sensi-
sidering the realities of that set-up. The ideal situ- tive dynamics of a group. St Clair and Tschirhart
ation is that all educators in a school set-up (2002: 449) are of the opinion that team skills

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 ADDRESSING LIFE SKILLS PROBLEMS 6

should be taught as early as possible and that mative learning principles should be incorporated
team education should be part of the main cur- into a life skills programme.
riculum. Another important ingredient of any life skills
The main purpose of team education is for programme is experiential learning. Experiential
learners to acknowledge the fact that we need learning is radically different from the traditional
each other and that we all have the need to be lecture approach to learning where the learner is
included and valued by the group. Another pur- a passive listener and the control of the material
pose of team education is to enhance peer rela- being presented is in the hands of the teacher.
tions and the acquisition of cooperative skills Experiential learning offers the opportunity for
(Cowie & Berdondini 2001: 517; Johnson & John- experiencing success by allowing the learner the
son 1994). Cooperative learning forms a crucial freedom to decide what aspects of the learner’s
ingredient of a life skills programme and provides experience he wishes to focus upon, what skills
training opportunities for learners to explore he wishes to develop and how he conceptualises
their own, and others’, feelings during coopera- the conclusions drawn from the experience (John-
tive group work sessions, thus coming to a better son & Johnson 1994: 51). Thus the primary moti-
understanding of group skills. vation for learning in experiential situations is
Learners should also be prepared to apply these experiencing psychological success.
group skills in community set-ups, as the school is
part of this larger group: the community. Learners
should also be helped to understand the role they In your own words, define the following
outcomes-based learning principles
ACTIVITY

can play in the community and to acquire skills to

establish collaboration between the school and of a life skills programme:
the community. McLaughlin (2001: 14) suggests • Cooperative learning
that the best way of doing this is by developing • Transformative learning
collaborative community-based programmes. • Experiential learning
These programmes could be on a small scale, like
painting the community hall or helping homeless
people to start a vegetable garden. The signifi- [Link] The life skills programme as part of a
cance of these projects is that learners will learn personal journey
more about themselves, others and their commu-
Following a life skills programme should be seen
nity, thus creating young people with consciences
as part of a learner’s personal journey of disco-
and better insights.
very. Acquiring life skills is a process and during
[Link] Acquiring life skills is part of a
this process learners should be guided to learn
continual learning process more about themselves, about the people around
them, and about their external worlds and envi-
Besides the cooperative learning skills learners
ronments. The idea is that the learner should
will acquire during their exposure to life skills
become aware of these internal and external
programmes, they will also be confronted with
dynamics, explore the possibilities and mean-
transformative and experiential learning opportu-
ings of these worlds and internalise the wisdom
nities. These two concepts will be defined briefly.
they have gained during the life skills learning
Transformative learning theory is based on the
processes.
assumption that a learner’s current perspective
and consequent approach to life is derived from
his experiences, thoughts, values, knowledge and 6.4.3 An integrated holistic life skills
skills (Christopher et al. 2001: 134). Transforma- model
tive learning processes occur when learners criti- Because it is impossible to elaborate here on the
cally reassess their current perspective and exam- content of a life skills model, a summary will be
ine whether their present approach to doing given of the themes of one particular South
things is right or wrong. It is clear why transfor- African life skills model which was originally

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developed in the early 1990s (Strydom 1991) and ple. Thinking skills encompass some of the men-
has since been elaborated upon. This life skills tal activities associated with concept formation,
model contains original themes, as well as themes problem solving, intellectual functioning, creativi-
which incorporate many aspects already men- ty, complex learning, memory, symbolic process-
tioned earlier in this chapter. This summary must ing and imagery. In short, thinking skills are those
be seen as mere suggestions of themes which cognitive manipulation skills a learner has to mas-
could be incorporated in a life skills model. There ter to give unique meaning to his world and to
are four main categories in the model: personal learn to apply in order to survive mentally in a
skills, social and communication skills, thinking competitive environment. Survival skills is a very
skills and survival skills. Personal skills are intrap- broad term which refers to all those additional
ersonal skills and are seen as all those skills an skills a learner has to acquire to survive in a
individual has to master to grow personally and demanding modern society. These include basic
intrapsychically in order to understand the self skills like reading and writing skills and include,
better. Social and communication skills are inter- for instance, high-level ones like computer skills.
personal skills and suggest the skills a learner has A summary of the themes of the model is given in
to master to interact successfully with other peo- Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Themes of a life skills model

• Understanding the self

Intrapersonal skills

• Understanding the body and diseases

• Developing a healthy lifestyle: exploring the effects of food, nurturing and exercise
• Using emotions as a motivational and explorative tool
• Developing a sense of responsibility
• Developing a future perspective
• Handling challenges – resilience education

• Communication skills
• Interpretive skills
Interpersonal skills

• Developing body language skills

• Understanding differences – culture and values education (dangers of prejudices and stereotyping)
• Acquiring group work skills
• Developing friendship skills
• Acquiring conflict-resolution skills
• Mastering community skills – identifying and reacting to community needs
• Developing an understanding of peace/peace education
• Developing the ability to understand other people’s perspectives and views on issues
Thinking skills

• Mastering cooperative, experiential and transformative learning principles

• Acquiring decision-making and problem-solving skills
• Developing creative and critical thinking skills
• Developing reflective thinking skills
• Debating ethical and moral issues

• Mastering basic reading, writing, spelling, science and mathematical skills

Survival skills

• Critical reading skills (evaluating what is read in papers and magazines)

• Skills in admiring and preserving natural resources
• Computer skills
• Job application skills: compiling a curriculum vitae/preparing for an interview
• Entrepreneurial skills

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 ADDRESSING LIFE SKILLS PROBLEMS 6

In the next section, an example will be given of an intrapersonal life skills lesson and after that an exam-
ple of an interpersonal life skills lesson will be presented.

6.4.4 An example of an intrapersonal life skills lesson

Table 6.2 Sample lesson: intrapersonal skills

Theme

Developing a sense of a unique self

Outcomes

To explore aspects of the inner self

To accept the self
To develop a sense of identity

Planning

Take the learners on a two-hour walk in nature where they have to face mild natural obstacles. This walk in
nature represents a walk into the inner self. Prepare the learners for the walk by asking them to focus on what
they see, what they experience and what they think.
Get material ready: poster paper and pens

Assessment

1. After the walk, ask the learners to lie on their backs with their eyes closed. Ask them to imagine reliving the
expedition again. Learners should try calmly and quietly to focus on what they are wearing, seeing, carrying,
experiencing, drinking, eating, feeling and thinking. At this stage they should all be quiet.

2. The learners are now asked to draw a picture of what they have experienced. This picture is shared with the
group. Learners were prepared for this by having been reminded of how to listen actively and to enquire
politely about their friend’s experience. The uniqueness of each learner’s experience is emphasised and the
principle of there being more than one way of interpreting an event is again discussed.
3. Each learner is now asked to summarise the full event on a piece of paper using the following headings: My
physical experience: My limitations and strong points / My emotional experience: what I felt – some pleasant
and some unpleasant feelings / My thinking experience: what thoughts were racing through my mind: some
positive, some negative.

4. This information is shared with the group and learners have to share their ideas on the following: What have I
learned about myself? How am I different from others? In which ways am I the same as others?

5. Finally the group shares, with each other, their feelings on being guided through the experience and on
experiencing their feelings and uniqueness being acknowledged and validated by the group.

Personal skills which were revised during the lesson

Reflection-on-the-self skills
Sharing skills
Feeling the connection with others and allowing them to be

Personal skills which were taught during the lesson

Developing a sense of identity

Self-evaluation skills
Accepting the uniqueness of the spontaneous self
Accepting differences

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SECTION C ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL BARRIERS

6.4.5 An example of an interpersonal life skills lesson

TABLE 6.3 Sample lesson: interpersonal skills

Theme

Developing perspective-taking skills via role-playing

Outcomes

To identify the sub-skills involved in recognising the feelings of others

To develop strategies for recognising others’ feelings and responding appropriately
To identify situations where it is necessary to be aware of the feelings of others

Planning

Prepare learners by talking about sharing strategies

Get material ready: Poster papers and pens

Assessment

1. Present scenario for recognising the feeling of others: “You walk into the school cafeteria and you see one of
the learners who is usually very bouncy and happy, sitting with his head bent and not speaking to anyone.
When you approach him to speak to him, he responds with a cutting remark.”
2. Individually, each learner is asked to list strategies for recognising how the other person is feeling in the
scenario.
3. Each learner is to select a partner to share his strategies with. The partners then continue to generate
strategies together.
4. By making use of consensus-reaching skills presented by the facilitator, each pair of learners selects the best
strategy from their list and creates a role-playing situation to demonstrate it to the class.
5. After all the strategies have been presented to the class, the class determines the best strategy by again
making use of consensus-reaching skills.
6. The strategy is written on the poster paper.

Social skills which were revised during the lesson

Participation skills
Active listening skills
Cooperation skills
Consensus-reaching skills

Social skills which were taught during the lesson

Perspective-taking skills
Recognising the feelings of others
Accepting others and their feelings
Acting diplomatically

Source: Adapted from work done by Gut 2000: 49

6.5 BARRIERS TO IMPLEMENTING LIFE implementation of these programmes in school.

SKILLS PROGRAMMES SUCCESSFULLY Coetzee and Kok (2001) undertook a research
project to determine the success of an HIV/sexu-
Despite the fact that life skills programmes have ality and life skills programme. They (Coetzee &
been developed and that teachers have been Kok 2001: 6–10) found that there are numerous
trained, many factors still inhibit the successful factors which could inhibit the successful imple-

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 ADDRESSING LIFE SKILLS PROBLEMS 6

mentation of a life skills programme. Although Questions

these factors cannot be generalised for other
school set-ups, the following serves as a sum- 1. If you were asked to describe life skills as a
mary: coping tool, how would you do so?
2. Name the different intelligences which corre-
• Problems in the school: Some teachers who late with the seven intelligences of Gardner.
were sent for training in presenting the life
skills programme were not interested in the 3. In your opinion, what are the biggest barriers
topic / No time on the school timetable had at to the acquisition of life skills by learners?
the time of this research been allocated for the
life skills programme / Some schools had prob-
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 Section

Addressing
literacy
barriers

117
 FIRST LANGUAGE 7
PROBLEMS

ANNATJIE DEDNAM

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πuse the theoretical knowledge on spoken language, reading and
written language to understand a learner’s problems in any of these
fields
Œ assess learners’ spoken language, reading and written language
problems
Πsupport learners who are experiencing problems in spoken language,
reading and written language.

Key terms others who are familiar with the specific language
system. It is subject to change and new words are
spoken language ♦ reading ♦ written language ♦ formulated depending on new concepts that
spelling develop with the changes in the environment. It
also enables humans to function independently in
7.1 INTRODUCTION their world.
Communication through language is the main
ability which distinguishes humans from all other 7.2 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
species on earth. In comparison with the stimuli- According to Jalongo (2000: 52) the two basic
driven communication system of animals, lan- means of communication are paralinguistics
guage is a multidimensional and open system in (non-verbal) and linguistics (verbal). Paralinguis-
which humans communicate their thoughts to tics includes facial expressions, gestures, body

The features of language are as follows (Jalongo 2000: 50):

• Language is communicative: through language we transmit and receive messages.
• Language is abstract: it is a system of signs and meaningful symbols that represent something.
• Language is rule-governed: the rules determine the order of sounds in words and words in sen-
tences.
• Language is social: it enables a person to interact with other people.
• Language is versatile: it can be rearranged and combined limitlessly, and be used to communi-
cate future information.

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

posture and intonation. It plays an important role • Differentiation: the difference between a stim-
in language comprehension. Linguistics, on the ulus and an object is identified.
other hand, is the utterance of words and sen- • Generalisation: information is classified.
tences. Communication can also take place • Association: the stimuli are associated with the
through written language (reading and writing). objects they symbolise.

The main functions of communication

Cognitive schemas and schemata
(Tchudi 1994: 55–56)
For Tompkins (1998: 4–5), a cognitive struc-
• Informing is to give informative content to
ture is knowledge that becomes organised in
others by means of essays, lectures,
the brain. As the knowledge increases it
reports, demonstrations, discussions, etc.
becomes “... increasingly integrated and
• Expressing feelings is communicating fee- interrelated”, which is called a schema. When
lings, verbally or non-verbally, about one- this knowledge is arranged in categorical sys-
self to others. These are feelings such as tems they become schemata, and consist of
love, appreciation, admiration, disappoint- the following components: “... categories of
ment and frustration. knowledge, the features or rules for deter-
• Imagining includes creative communica- mining what constitutes a category and what
tion activities like dramatisation, fantasy, will be included in each category, and a net-
story-telling. work of interrelationships between the cate-
gories.”
• Ritualising covers ordinary speech acts
like greeting, introducing, teaching.
• Controlling is when one person tries to
According to Ormrod (1998: 74), cognition con-
influence the thoughts and actions of
sists of the following:
another through threats, commands, argu-
ments, etc. • Inner language, which is a symbolic thought
system used to construct a message to convey
to another person. Inner language differs
between individuals since the concepts of indi-
7.3 SPOKEN LANGUAGE viduals differ.
When a person is speaking, he utters successive • Receptive language, which can be auditory (lis-
speech sounds. The order in which these sounds tening) or visual (reading) in nature. When lis-
are uttered forms meaningful words and sen- tening to spoken language one decodes the
tences, which enable the listener to understand auditory stimuli perceptually and organises
the speaker’s message if he is familiar with that them in meaningful word units.
specific language (Yule 1996: 1–20). • Expressive language, which is effective com-
munication using speech or print to convey a
7.3.1 Cognition and language message.
When a person listens to a familiar language he is
able to recognise the series of speech sounds per- 7.3.2 Metacognition and metalinguistics
ceptually and reconstruct them into meaningful Metacognition is the awareness one has about
words and sentence structures. This information one’s own thinking processes and the ability to
is stored and recalled at a later stage. The cogni- use this knowledge to monitor and control one’s
tive functions involved are as follows: cognitive processes. It enables one to learn and to
• Grouping: information is grouped according to evaluate one’s quality of learning (Mather &
corresponding characteristics. Roberts 1995: 167; Mariotti & Homan 2001: 154;

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 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

Tompkins 1998: 8). Metacognition is involved in • Free morphemes are single root words, such as
spoken language, reading and written language. book, water and key.
On the subject of metacognition in reading and • Bound morphemes become meaningful when
written language, Tompkins (1997: 136) states used as a prefix or affix to a free morpheme:
that learners think about the strategies they use the prefix un- plus the root word do becomes
for reading and writing and they apply and regu- undo; and -ing plus water becomes watering.
late their use of these strategies. During the foun-
• Derivative morphemes change the meaning of
dation phase, learners’ metacognitive knowledge the root word: book plus -ing becomes booking
grows as they learn about the reading and writing and has nothing to do with the word book.
processes and the strategies that readers and
writers use. • Inflexion morphemes do not change the mean-
ing of the word but indicate time: past tense:
Metalinguistics, on the other hand, is one’s
walk plus -ed becomes walked; and plural: cat
ability to think about language and its uses (Math-
plus -s become cats, etc.
er & Roberts 1995: 167), to be aware of its func-
tions and to manipulate it in different ways. In
children, metalinguistic awareness develops in Use examples and make a list of a
the following three phases: (1) phonological; (2) ACTIVITY number of the most generally used
syntactical; and (3) semantic awareness embedded in free, bound, derivative and inflexion
the dimensions of language. morphemes in the language you are
teaching the learners. For example, in
English, a single word such as pen is a
7.3.3 Dimensions of language free morpheme, because the word
stands alone.
The three dimensions of language are form, con-
tent and function. When speaking, a person uses all
three dimensions of language. Syntax refers to the order in which the words are
combined to form a sentence. A sentence always
(a) Form contains a subject and a verb. The words in a sen-
Form (phonology, morphology and syntax) is the tence are combined according to fixed rules. This
grammatical construction of speech sounds combination may change to transform the sen-
according to set rules (Mercer 1992: 419). tence into another type of sentence, for example
Phonology is the sound system of language. A from a descriptive sentence to a question such as:
phoneme on its own has no meaning. “Phonemes Mary is eating to Is Mary eating?
deal with the position of a sound in a word, with
(b) Content (semantics)
stress, and with internal constraints that certain
sounds put on others when pronounced togeth- Content “...refers to the meaning of words”
er” (Sampson et al. 1995: 258). Although most lan- (Jalongo 2000: 57) in sentences. There are three
guages contain the same basic sounds, each lan- categories of semantics: objects (tree, dog, sugar,
guage has a specific sound system. Each language etc.); actions (eat, run, read, etc.); relations between
system has its own set of rules that determines objects (Peter and Ann; cat and dog, chair and table,
the order of sounds (phonemes) in words and etc.) and relations between events (i.e. cause-and-
words in sentences. effect relations like drowsiness and going to sleep).
There are four forms of semantics:
Morphology is the system of meaningful forms
in words. Morphemes are the smallest sound • Lexical semantics. This refers to the literal
units in a word with meaning. If a morpheme is meaning of each word in the sentence: The blue
broken up into smaller sound units, it becomes sky meaning The sky is blue.
phonemes without any meaning. Words are con- • Sentence semantics. The meaning lies in the
structed of phonemes and morphemes. There are whole sentence and not in individual words: He
four different types of morphemes: is cool meaning He is smart.

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

• Semantic relations. Each word in a sentence guage ability develops gradually while interrelat-
has a particular function that expresses the ing with others and as their perception and
relations between the ideas in the sentence: He speech motor skills (the way in which the mouth
puts on his jacket before leaving home meaning It and the tongue are moved, for example) develop
is cold outside. and their knowledge increases. Gradually they
• Interpretive semantics. This refers to the vari- start using words – although not always correctly
ous ways in which the same thought may be pronounced – at the age of two to three years. At
expressed, such as The boy is naughty and The the age of four their sentence structures are used
boy is impossible. in the correct order and include prepositions. Due
to the rapid increase of their cognitive abilities,
(c) Function (pragmatics) their ability to organise their thoughts and mem-
According to Tompkins (1998: 13), pragmatics “... ory also increases (Yule 1996: 180). There is a
deals with the social and cultural aspects of lan- rapid increase of their vocabulary and they are
guage use”. Pragmatics also includes the non-ver- able to speak about a larger variety of topics and
bal behaviour of a person. It refers to the different remember content for longer periods of time. By
ways in which a person expresses himself in a par- the time children’s spoken language resembles
ticular situation, for example the differences in a the language used by adults, this quick develop-
formal situation: It is not the kind of music I prefer, ment of spoken language diminishes.
or to a friend: I do not like the music, or to a child at Children’s reading abilities develop after they
home irritating his parents: The music is ugly! have mastered a certain level of spoken language.
This is when they are able to express themselves
and understand what others are saying; therefore
Two teams of learners are playing mar- their expressive and receptive language abilities
bles during break. While one player is must be at a certain level of development before
aiming at the marbles in the circle, the
they are able to read.
other members of his team are watch-
Spoken language is learned incidentally, while
ing him with great enthusiasm. If he hits
a marble in the circle they cheer him, reading is taught purposefully to learners, or they
learn to read by themselves while watching others
ACTIVITY

but when he misses, there is a loud

roar of dissatisfaction. While the one reading and by asking questions about the text
team is playing, the members of the and written letters.
other team are standing around, some Written language is a more complex use of lan-
are watching, others are yawning or guage than spoken language or reading. The
eating their lunch. development of written language takes place con-
Indicate which players show signs of currently with reading, although learners first
the following non-verbal expressions: become aware that the signs or scribbles on paper
happiness, concentration and attention,
have meaning. Most learners are able to use writ-
boredom and stress.
ten language adequately after they have mastered
reading.

7.3.4 The development of spoken 7.3.5 Relations between spoken

language, reading and written language, reading and written
language language and their dimensions
When a child is born the language areas in the left The skills involved in spoken language are also
temporal lobe of his brain are developed to the involved in reading and writing. The involvement,
extent that he is able to accommodate language. however, differs. In spoken language people use
Children are not formally taught to use spoken their inner language system to encode their mes-
language. They “learn language by using it and sages into a phonological sound system. When
experiencing it rather than by being given rules reading they decode the graphic symbols and
about it to follow” (Tchudi 1994: 8). Their lan- integrate the information embedded in the ortho-

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 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

graphic symbols into their inner language system graphic symbols and motor ability to form the
in order to extract meaning from the text. When symbols correctly while writing.
writing they encode their message from their
inner language system into graphic symbols. [Link] Content (semantics)
While speaking a person is more aware of the To be able to comprehend what they are reading,
message he is transmitting than the language, readers should be familiar with the language the
words and sentence structures he is using. In writer has used when writing the text as well as
reading, his attention shifts from decoding to with the three components of semantics, namely
comprehension, and in writing it shifts from the objects, actions and relations. If learners cannot
letters and spelling to communication (Dednam decode and identify a specific word in the text, it
2000: 147–148). is possible to give meaning to the word by using
Perfetti (1997: 28–29) compares the relation contextual clues based on their knowledge of the
between spelling and reading to the two sides of topic and the structures of the sentences, for
a coin. In spelling the speech sounds are trans- example:
formed (decoded) into written letters and in read-
ing the written letters are transformed (encoded) Unfamiliar word: locomotive
into speech sounds.
Sentence: The locomotive of the train is
All three of the language dimensions (form,
pulling the carriages on the rails.
content and function) are involved while speak-
The words train (object), pulling (action)
ing, reading and writing. In spoken language
and train and rails (relations) give the indica-
learners are less aware of their use of the dimen-
tion of the word and its meaning. At the
sions form and function than during reading and
same time the learner identifies some of the
writing. This is especially true during the first
letters and letter combinations in the word
grades at school while the learners are still learn-
locomotive like lo- in the beginning and possi-
ing to read and write.
bly the -tive at the end. If the reader is famil-
iar with the word locomotive he would know it
[Link] Form (phonemes, morphemes and
syntax) must be locomotive and not engine.
In spoken language the learners utter a combina-
tion of the speech sounds or phonemes and mor- In written language the learners should have a
phemes according to fixed rules to form words message to write down. By means of the rules for
used in such an order that they form sentences. writing words and constructing sentences the
They are not aware of the phonemes, morphemes learner writes his message down.
and syntax and the rules relating to the specific
[Link] Function (pragmatics)
language while talking.
In reading the learners have to decode the writ- Pragmatics is not embedded in word construction
ten word. They should also be able to identify but in the words chosen and the manner in which
written symbols and to relate them to the repre- the sentence is formulated in the text. Punctua-
sentative sounds of the phonemes and mor- tion is further used to express feelings.
phemes. Learners should know the rules relating
to the combinations of phonemes and mor- Compare the following two sentences.
phemes in order to identify the words. They Do they differ in terms of emotion?
should also be aware of the meaning of the words
ACTIVITY

When John saw the snake behind

and sentences to understand the written text. his brother Tim, he shouted that
In written language the learners should know there was a snake behind him.
the relation between the graphic symbols, the let- When John saw the snake behind his
ter sounds and the combinations of letter sounds brother Tim, he shouted: “Look out,
to be able to express themselves through written Tim, there is a snake behind you!”
language. This also requires knowledge of the

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

7.4 READING 7.4.1 The involvement of the language

dimensions in reading
Definition of reading Reading is a language act as all the language
Ekwall and Shanker (1989: 3) use the follow- dimensions are involved while a learner is read-
ing definition to describe reading: ing. In the beginning the learners concentrate
more on the dimension of form for identifying the
“Reading is a process of constructing words and sentences in the written text, although
meaning from written texts. It is a the dimension of function (giving meaning to the
complex skill requiring the coordination written text) is also applicable. The third dimen-
of a number of interrelated sources of sion of pragmatics is less involved in the early
information.” stages of reading but becomes more involved as
the readers’ reading abilities improve.

Richek et al. (1996: 6–7) explain that readers give

7.4.2 The components of reading
meaning to what they are reading. As all readers’
thoughts differ, the meaning and image each one The main components of reading are recognising
gives to the content of the text is unique. Taylor and analysing words (identification of words) and
et al. (1995: 3–5) give the following detailed understanding of words and ideas (comprehension).
description of reading: In the initial school phase, learners learn to read
and in higher grades they read to learn. In the first
• It is a language process of communication and is
two to three grades of the primary school phase,
related to other language processes namely lis-
the basic reading skills are taught to learners who
tening, reading and writing.
learn to recognise words although comprehen-
• It is a cognitive process as reading is also related sion on a direct level of understanding is also
to other cognitive processes like attention, per- involved. In the higher grades reading compre-
ceiving, giving meaning and memory. hension is the main focus of reading although
• It is a socialising process, as an absent writer is word identification is still involved.
influencing the readers’ knowledge and motiva- The scheme (Figure 7.1) for reading enfoldment
tion. It often takes place in a social situation as based on the reading framework of Ekwall and
where more than one person is involved, as in Shanker (1989: 16) illustrates the enfoldment of
school and at home. It groups people together the reading components during the different
in social activities and it also enables individu- school levels. Not all learners reach each level at
als to practise certain careers. exactly the same stage – some reach a higher level
in an earlier or later school level. Older learners
• It is an interactive process where the quality of
may still use the reading skills learned in a previ-
the reader’s comprehension is determined by
ous level when they encounter new and difficult
the reader himself, the text and the writer, as
words.
well as the context in which the reading is tak-
ing place.
(a) Level 1: pre-reading skills (preschool to
Grade 1)
Pike et al. (1997: 24) briefly summarise reading as
1. Phonemic awareness is the ability to recog-
follows: “Reading ... is an interactive process in
nise, identify and manipulate the different
which readers use information from the printed
speech sounds (Shanker & Ekwall 1998: 25).
text along with what is in their heads to construct
meaning in a given situational context.” Most 2. Letter–sound relations is the ability to recog-
authors agree in their definitions that reading is nise the letters and to relate them to their
an interactive and social process, as readers con- associated sounds or vice versa. It is also the
struct meaning of the written word through their ability to identify capital letters as well as
cognitive abilities. scripts in different fonts.

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 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

Preschool to Grade 1

Phonemes Letter–sound relations

Pre-reading skills

Grade 1 to Grade 4

Sight words Decoding Vocabulary Comprehension

Phoneme Literal meaning

analysis

Inference
Structural
analysis
Evaluation

Contextual clues Appreciation

Word identification
Understanding words and ideas
and decoding of words

Oral reading

Grade 4 and onwards

Dictionary
skills

Reading

Study skills
and learning

Figure 7.1 Reading enfoldment based on the reading framework of Ekwall and Shanker
(1989: 16)

125
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

(b) Level 2: word identification and decoding Configuration clues are the external and internal
of words, and understanding words and clues that enable the reader to identify a word.
ideas (Grade 1 to Grade 4) External clues are the external form of the word,
Actual reading only takes place when both the for example letters extending vertically over more
components – word recognition and comprehension than one line (he and me; get and wet) or word
– are simultaneously involved when one is read- length (the and their).
ing. The sequence in which these components are Internal clues are the shape of letters within
involved is not fixed because sometimes readers words such as we and me, shock and shook.
use word recognition skills such as word decoding
• Phoneme analysis. Phoneme analysis means to
to identify a word, or they base their recognition
use the decoding process to analyse a word
of a word on their comprehension skills. For
into its sounds and to synthesise these sounds
example, if a learner cannot identify or decode the
into a spoken word. The analysis of phonemes
word teacher in the following sentence: John asks
is based on certain spelling rules that are famil-
his teacher to help him with a sum, he uses the sen- iar to the learner, for instance the c in the word
tence structure as well as his knowledge of the cat is pronounced as k when it is followed by an
school situation to identify the word teacher. a sound and the c in the word cell is pro-
nounced as s when it is followed by an e sound.
(i) Word identification and analyses
• Structural analysis. This is when a word is
This dimension is mainly based on the form
analysed into syllables, such as word roots and
dimension (phonology, morphology and syntax)
suffixes. The word rhythm gives the main indi-
of spoken language.
cation of the syllables in a word, for example
SIGHT WORDS com-pre-hen-sion. Each syllable contains at least
Sight words are high-utility words appearing fre- one vowel.
quently in text and that are recognised instantly • Contextual clues means to use sentence clues
(Shanker & Ekwall 1998: 77). These words enhance to read an unfamiliar word that is difficult to
reading speed. Ekwall and Shanker (1989: 17) dis- decode; for instance if the word motionlessly is
tinguish between two types of sight words: in the sentence: An eagle hovers ... in the air when
• Basic sight words are high-frequency words it spots prey on the ground, knowledge of the
occurring commonly in all text of a specific lan- sentence content and language structure
guage. They are words such as he, she, it, and enables the reader to read the word motion-
and were. They are generally short and easy lessly.
recognisable.
(ii) Understanding words and ideas
• Other sight words are those often used and
Giving meaning to text enables the reader to com-
read by a specific individual based on his per-
prehend what he is reading.
sonal interest. As a person often reads about a
Ekwall and Shanker (1989: 15–17) classify this
certain topic of interest, certain words that are
component into vocabulary and other reading com-
often included in the text on that topic become
prehension skills.
high-frequency words for that person but not
for others. VOCABULARY

WORD ANALYSIS SKILLS AND DECODING Vocabulary is divided into meaning vocabulary and
utility vocabulary.
According to Richek et al. (2002: 154), readers
first analyse a word into its structural elements • Meaning vocabulary refers to the words a per-
(syllables) to help them to pronounce and under- son understands.
stand the meaning of the word. If they do not • Utility vocabulary refers to the words a person
identify the structures within a word, they analyse actually uses. People’s meaning vocabulary is
the word into its letter–sound elements. always larger than their utility vocabulary

126
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

because they understand more words than they

actually use. Study the components of the reading
enfoldment scheme (Figure 7.1) and the

ACTIVITY
COMPREHENSION information following this scheme.
Decide on a piece of reading material
• Literal meaning and literal comprehension
suitable for Grade 4 learners. Analyse
refer to understanding words and information the material and apply the components
as they are stated in the text; for instance the of the reading enfoldment scheme to
word ice cream is a sweet white/pink ... and cold this text.
substance with a nice flavour.
• Inference refers to information that is not
explicitly stated in the text but that can be 7.5 WRITTEN LANGUAGE
related to the text. When Mary says: I want to go Catach (in Jaffre 1997: 6) states about written lan-
for a swim it may mean: It is hot outside or I want guage: “Scripts are sets of discrete, articulated
to have fun. and arbitrary signs, which enable any constructed
• Evaluation means to determine the correct- message to be transmitted without necessarily
ness, usefulness, applicability and value of the using natural means.” In written language the
information in the text. writer makes an appeal to the reader’s sense of
vision. The reader uses his visual perceptual skills
• Appreciation is an emotional involvement in to convert the perceptual stimuli of the graphic
the text by experiencing a sense of excitement, symbols into spoken language. Readers interpret
fear, sadness and/or pleasure while reading the the written text in their thoughts and convert
text. The sentence: The children jump in the water them into the ideas and messages embedded in
and splash around while throwing a ball and shout- the words and sentences (Dednam 2000: 148).
ing at each other evokes a feeling of excitement The following features are peculiar to written lan-
and pleasure. guage:
• The writer’s message can be interpreted by the
(iii) Oral reading
reader in his absence.
Learners’ oral reading is adequate when they read • The interpretation of the message is possible a
fluently, phrase correctly, and use the correct pro- long time after it has been put into words.
nunciation without any omissions, repetitions, • Non-verbal language such as signs, intonation
substitutions, inversions or reversals, insertions, and facial expressions are not involved when
word guessing or voicing, lip movements, finger the message is interpreted.
pointing and head movements. • In order to interpret the message the reader
must be familiar with the language system the
(c) Level 3: reading and study skills (Grade 4 writer used.
and onwards)
• Dictionary skills. To be able to use a dictionary To convey a message clearly to a reader the writ-
and determine the pronunciation and meaning ten language must be correct. This includes the
of a word, the learners must know the order of prescribed letter formation, as well as the correct
the letters of the alphabet in order to find the spelling and language structures.
word. Their vocabulary should also be devel-
oped to the extent that they understand which 7.5.1 The elements of written language
word in the dictionary is applicable to the text
According to Bratcher (1997: 25), there is no spe-
they are reading.
cific writing process because “[e]ach writer has his
• Study skills and learning. When learners are or her own writing process, and each piece of
skilful in all aspects of reading they are able to writing dictates it own process”. There are three
use reading for studying without any problems. elements of writing, namely the essay, spelling

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

and handwriting. Spelling is prescriptive while • vowel combinations

essay and handwriting contain elements of pre- • consonant combinations
scriptiveness. The essay must be written accord- • consonant–vowel combinations
ing to the conventions of a specific language and • word analysis, synthesis of letters in words and
rules of the language structures. In handwriting syllabication of words
the form of the letters is prescriptive but the let- • spelling rules
ter font, size and line formation are not.
• variations in spelling rules
• affixes and prefixes
[Link] Essay (cognitive component,
linguistic and stylistic components) [Link] Handwriting
(a) The cognitive component
The cognitive component of written language Definition of handwriting
enables the writer to write his message logically According to Hammill and Bartel (1995: 152),
so that the reader can understand it. The cogni- “[Handwriting is] the ability to execute physi-
tive processes in writing an essay are the writer’s cally the graphic marks necessary to produce
thoughts, and expressive and metalinguistic skills. legible compositions or messages.”

(b) The linguistic component

The linguistic component includes the use of pre- The ability to form letters and numbers with a
scribed syntactic and semantic conventions of the writing instrument is a visual-motor skill that
specific language while writing. Pragmatics is only determines the quality and legibility of the writ-
involved in the choice of words and the manner in ten text. A proficient writer’s writing is automatic
which the words and sentences are written down. and fluent, correct and legible without the writer
Punctuation may also be involved. Compare the giving deliberate attention to the writing act.
following two sentences: Handwriting depends on (Dednam 2000: 154)
The teacher asks the class to sit and be quiet. • eye–hand coordination
The teacher commands her class: “Sit down and • knowledge of the writing direction from left to
be quiet!” right
• visual discrimination of letters and words
(c) The stylistic component • intact brain functioning.
The stylistic component of written language
includes the use of capitalisation and punctuation 7.6 BACKGROUND TO PROBLEMS IN
according to prescribed rules: On a cold Monday SPOKEN LANGUAGE, READING AND
morning the children, Mary and Peter, were staring WRITING AND FACTORS UNDERLYING
out of the window at the strong wind lashing the big THESE PROBLEMS
tree next to the house!
McEwan (2002: 1) says about failure in school-
work:
[Link] Spelling
No one wants to fail. Failure has the power
Spelling is the ability to construct the order of let-
to paralyse with fear, enrage with frustra-
ters in words according to prescribed rules. Each
tion, and demoralize with despair. ... Failure
language has its own set of rules for constructing
is particularly traumatic for children and
the order of the letters in a word. To be able to
adolescents because they have so few emo-
spell words correctly, the writer must be familiar
tional, psychological, and intellectual
with the following (Dednam 2000: 154):
resources on which to draw. Failure ... is the
• sound–letter relations beginning of a downward spiral – falling
• variations in the sound–letter relations through the cracks.

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 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

The following problems underlie learners’ failure (a) Speech problems

in all aspects of language. This refers to cases where there is an absence of
speech sound, or poor speech production or qual-
7.6.1 Absence of verbal language ity, etc.
With few exceptions, children who have an (b) Articulation problems
absence of verbal language have striking disabili- Speech sounds are uttered incorrectly or not flu-
ties such as being deaf or deaf-blind, or they are ently, for example stuttering.
intellectually or severely physically impaired.
These children experience problems in all lan- (c) Pronunciation problems
guage fields and need other forms of communica- In South Africa with its 11 official languages, the
tion. (This is discussed in Chapter 9.) pronunciation of the nine indigenous languages
differs to a certain extent from the Germanic lan-
7.6.2 Qualitative language which differs guages, English and Afrikaans. This causes prob-
from the language norm lems in these learners’ spoken language, reading
and written language. This is also applicable to
These learners’ have problems using language
dialects of the first language.
adequately. They find it difficult to express them-
selves through language. This is often caused by
serious emotional and behavioural problems Can you think of examples to illustrate
ACTIVITY

and/or intellectual impairment. They also find it these statements? Turn to Chapter 8.
difficult to understand what others are saying and For example, people from the Western
Cape pronounce the e and r sounds
they use incorrect and inappropriate language.
differently from people in Gauteng.

7.6.3 Language backlog

(d) Problems with sentence structures
These learners’ use of spoken language has a
marked backlog in comparison with the normal The word and sentence structures of indigenous
language use of other learners. This may be due languages also differ from the Germanic lan-
to intellectual impairment, environmental disad- guages. In English and Afrikaans the sentence
vantages and homes where there is little language structures are based mainly on the same syntacti-
stimulation. In South Africa this is one of the main cal principle, namely subject, verb and object. For
problems, as many children’s home language example:
differs from the language of learning and teaching English: The man drinks his tea.
in the schools they attend. Most children are Afrikaans: Die man drink sy tee.
taught in English, which they seldom hear or use
at home or in their community. (See more in To illustrate the differences between the German-
Chapter 8.) ic languages and the indigenous languages, com-
pare the following examples in English and Xhosa:
7.6.4 Interrupted language English: John is riding his bicycle.
development Xhosa: uJohn ukhwele ibhayisekile yakhe.
Literal translation: John climbs on bicycle his.
This condition occurs when language develop-
ment is impaired due to head injuries, infections, (e) Variations in the language system
etc. after the learner has acquired language.
Dialect and communication differences make
communication difficult. In South Africa mixing of
7.6.5 Communication problems languages often occurs. For example:
Communication problems may also be caused by As I am a fundi in reading, I find it very lekker
the following: to read a book.

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

Although this is not seen as an authentic language and 80 per cent of information in a child’s vicinity
problem, it may affect a learner’s communication, is obtained through this sense. The child names
reading and written language. the things he sees, and if he cannot see objects
clearly, his ability to relate what he sees
to language will be affected. (See Chapters 14
Make a list of the different communica- and 15.)
ACTIVITY

tion problems you have encountered in

your relationships with other people
and in your class. This may sensitise 7.6.8 Neurological dysfunctions and
you to language problems that may perceptual problems
occur in your class.
It is important that the brain functions normally if
a child is to learn adequately, and this includes
learning language. Neurological dysfunction caus-
7.6.6 Emotional factors es problems such as paralysis, muscle weakness,
perceptual problems and perseveration (compul-
(a) Anxiety, insecurity and lack of motivation
sive repetition of an activity), which cause prob-
Learners who experience learning problems seem lems in all aspects of language. (See Chapters 12
to be shy when they have to answer questions or and 16.)
communicate in the class situation. They often
give the impression that they are unsure of what
they want to say. 7.6.9 Intellectual impairment
Intellectual impairment causes problems in all
(b) Hostility and aggression aspects of learning, and learners affected in this
Some learners who experience problems with lan- way show a low performance in all aspects of lan-
guage tend to become hostile and aggressive. guage. (See Chapter 17.)
They tend to distance themselves from the class
and other learners, and often associate with a
7.6.10 Gender differences
criminal subculture of delinquents where they use
a distinctive language, which further hampers As boys’ physical and cognitive development is
their language use and development. often slower than that of girls, their language
development tends to lag behind when they enter
(c) Passive distancing school. They also tend to be less interested in
Because of their inability to compete with other aspects relating to schoolwork when they are still
learners due to shyness or other problems, some young.
learners develop low self-esteem and become
depressed. They tend to distance themselves from 7.6.11 Other problems
the learning situation, the teacher and their
peers, which further reduces their opportunities Poor nutrition and health problems may also
to communicate with others. cause learning and language problems as these
influence a child’s ability to give optimal atten-
tion. Health problems often cause absence from
7.6.7 Physical factors school and a resultant backlog in schoolwork.
The most important physical problems causing (See Chapter 19.)
learning difficulties in language, reading and writ- Deprivation at home is caused by problems
ing are aural and vision ones. The inability to hear such as poverty, addiction and neglect, and also
language clearly not only causes problems in all where parents do not have time to talk to their
three language aspects – spoken language, read- children. These children speak mainly to other
ing and written language – but also in all the children they are in contact with and their lan-
other learning areas. The visual sense is dominant guage development often suffers as a result.

130
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

7.7 ASSESSMENT OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE, them. They often give the impression that they
READING AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE are extremely shy or totally lack interest.
The main forms of assessment for learners who • Their vocabulary is limited, and older learners
experience language problems should be done by tend to use concrete sentences. They describe
means of observation; interviews with the parents, in detail what they want to say; for example
teachers and the learners; portfolio assessment; and instead of simply saying: My mother is in bed with
error analysis to determine the general and specif- flu, they would say something like: My mother is
ic manifestations of language problems. (Please ill. She is in bed. She has the flu.
refer to Assessment in Chapter 3.) • Their sentence constructions are short and
often incorrect.
7.8 MANIFESTATIONS OF SPOKEN • They do not understand indirect information in
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS a sentence and concentrate on concrete infor-
7.8.1 General and specific manifesta- mation.
tions of spoken language
problems 7.8.2 Problems with the dimension of
language
The following may indicate spoken language
problems: [Link] Form
• Learners’ use of language is on a lower level (a) Phonemes
than that of their peers of the same age. Some learners have problems uttering the correct
order of the phonemes in words: for example pre-
• They give the impression that they do not
cent in stead of percent; and kelihopter instead of
understand what has been asked and may often
helicopter. They have problems with articulation
ask for the meaning of specific words.
(klee instead of tree); and with pronunciation
• Younger learners tend to speak as little as pos- (inportant instead of important).
sible and answer only with the movement of the
head to indicate a yes or no. Older learners use (b) Morphemes
a minimum of words to answer questions or Learners do not understand the word construc-
when conversing with their teachers. tions and use the wrong suffixes (prefixes or affix-
• Some learners hesitate to speak, and other es): I spended my money on a book; or It is inpossible
learners may avoid or ignore them when they to attend the party.
do speak, or interfere in their attempts at con-
(c) Syntax
versation.
Learners use the wrong word order in sentences:
• Such learners are often loners in the class
I very much like butter and bread. Their vocabulary is
owing to their inability to communicate ade-
limited. They use short and stereotyped sen-
quately or to understand everything they hear.
tences such as: They sit at the table. Then they say
• They have problems finding the correct words grace. Then they eat their food.
and often use phrases such as you know, what-
d’ya-call-it, so-and-so; they use um when trying to [Link] Content
say something, or they stutter and/or gulp Some learners’ understanding of language and
when trying to speak. their utility vocabulary is limited. They give atten-
• They forget what they want to say. tion to a certain aspect of a sentence and ignore
the rest. When they are asked about the content
• They speak very softly and it is hard to hear of a paragraph or story they have heard, they
them. remember only a few facts, or they give the
• They hesitate before starting to talk and form impression that they did not follow it at all. They
the words with their lips before trying to utter have problems understanding what is said to

131
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

them due to a deficiency in the specific language,

or they have little or no knowledge of the topic Note
spoken about. To support a learner who experiences prob-
lems in reading, it is useful to determine his
[Link] Function reading level as it enables the teacher to
Problems with this aspect of language are due to choose suitable reading material.
the inability to understand the socio-linguistic The method of determining the reading
system of the language. Learners are unable to level of learners discussed below is based on
express themselves verbally and non-verbally in a reading material that is standardised for the
social situation. They also find it hard to under- specific reading level. Therefore it gives an
stand non-verbal language and are unable to indication of the grade level on which a spe-
recognise sarcasm. They can hardly distinguish cific learner is reading. Teachers who ignore
between friendliness and hostility in a person’s the reading level of a learner do not always
non-verbal language and facial expressions owing use reading material that is suitable for a spe-
to their poor social perceptions and interpersonal cific learner. If, for instance, a Grade 4
relationships. teacher is using reading material suitable for
Grade 1 or 2, the learners may become frus-
trated, and this will often result in their man-
7.9 READING PROBLEMS
ifesting behaviour problems that they do not
Richek et al. (2002: 3) state that really have.
[s]ociety suffers when citizens cannot read However, this method of determining a
adequately. People with low reading levels learner’s reading level has endless possibili-
comprise many of the unemployed, high ties as a teacher may use any content – espe-
school dropouts, the poor, and those con- cially content that interests a learner. A moti-
victed of crimes. The problems of our vated learner is more willing to learn to read
schools, the growth of poverty, and the loss than one who is bored with reading content
of family values all show some association that is too easy or too difficult. Therefore the
with poor reading. following information is to determine
whether the material the teacher wants to
Richek et al. (2002: 3–4) also say that although use for a specific learner is suitable and to
people of a few generations ago could cope well determine the learner’s reading level.
in business and society without the ability to read
adequately, nowadays it is almost impossible.
People need education and must be able to read level does not give a precise indication of his
at a certain level to obtain jobs and to fulfil a num- actual reading abilities, but it does give an indica-
ber of daily tasks. tion of where to start with reading support.
There are two basic factors that help children Although the formula used to determine the read-
to learn to read: ing level of a learner was developed for English
• They should realise that written text is related reading, it is useful for reading in the other lan-
to spoken language. guages as well. It should, however, not be consid-
ered as the final manner of determining the read-
• They should be motivated and interested in
ing level of a reader. There are three reading lev-
reading, and be able to identify the written
els (Mariotti & Homan 2001: 73; Richek et al.
symbols and associate them with the related
2002: 67):
language sounds.
(a) Independent level
7.9.1 The determination of learners’ On this level learners read the text with ease
reading levels without the support of the teacher. The text could
The method of determining a learner’s reading be used for recreational reading and homework.

132
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

The word recognition accuracy of the learner

should be between 98 and 100 per cent and the Words correct
––––––––––––––––––– 100 =
comprehension between 90 and 100 per cent. Total number of words

(b) Instructional level

Determine the total number of words in the
passage and the number of words read incor-
This is the level on which instruction should take rectly by the learner:
place. Although the reading material is challeng-
ing for the learner, word identification and com- Example
prehension are not too difficult. On this level Number of words in the passage: 150
teachers need to help learners with the vocabu- Number of words read incorrectly: 45
lary and guide them throughout the reading ses- Subtract the number of incorrect words from
sion. The word recognition accuracy of the learn- the total number of words: 150 – 45 = 105
ers should be between 95 and 98 per cent and the
Divide the number of correct words by the
comprehension 70 to 89 per cent.
total number of words in the passage:
(c) Frustration level 105 ÷ 150 = 0,7
Multiply the answer by hundred:
On this level learners find the pronunciation of
words and the understanding of the content diffi- 0,7 100 = 70%
cult. Their word recognition accuracy should be
95 per cent or less and their comprehension 70 The earlier information on the different levels
per cent or less. The following symptoms indicate shows that 70 per cent is on the frustration level,
that a specific piece of text is on the frustration and that the level of the text is too difficult for the
level for a specific learner: reader.
• Oral reading is too loud or too soft.
• Reading is arrhythmic and word by word. [Link] Determination of reading
comprehension
• Reading intonation is inadequate.
The comprehension level is determined during
• Sub-vocalisation, lip-reading and head move-
silent reading. After the reader has read the pas-
ments occur, as well as finger pointing.
sage silently, ask questions on the content of the
• The learner often asks for help.
passage. If the reading material is more than one
• There is little indication of interest in the text page long, questions should be asked after each
and the story, and the learner seems to be page has been read.
tired. Determining the reader’s comprehension level
• The learner refuses to read any further. is based on the following formula:

[Link] Determination of word identification Number of correct answers

–––––––––––––––––––––––––– 100 =
Richek et al. (2002: 67–73) explain the determina- Total number of questions asked
tion of the reading levels as follows: A learner’s
word recognition level is determined during oral Determine the total number of questions as
reading. While the reader is reading, all the errors well as the number of incorrect answers for
and miscues are marked on a copy of the reading the whole passage:
material – even if the same errors or miscues are Example
repeated more than once – to determine the type
Total number of questions: 12
of problems a learner is experiencing in word
identification. This information may later be use- Number of incorrect answers: 3
ful when supporting the reader. Subtract the number of incorrect answers
To determine a learner’s level of word identifi- from the total number of questions:
cation, the following formula should be used: 12 – 3 = 9

133
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

Divide the number of questions answered 7.9.2 Manifestations of reading

correctly by the total number of questions: problems
9 ÷ 12 = 0,75 (a) General manifestations of reading
Multiply the answer by hundred: problems
0,75 100 = 75% There is a resemblance between the reading prob-
lems of learners in the initial school phase and
those of learners in the intermediate phase. How-
According to the earlier information on the differ- ever, the intensity of the problems differs, as the
ent levels, 75 per cent is on the instructional level. reading problems of learners in the initial school
This means that the content is suitable when phase are more conspicuous. Learners in the ini-
teaching the learner new information. tial school phase tend to read out loud and to
sound out the words they cannot identify and to
[Link] Determining the overall reading level repeat the word afterwards. Intermediate learners
of a learner
read the word by synthesising the sounds (a-ppea-
Richek et al. (2002: 73) say that instructional deci- rance – the hyphen indicates a sound which is
sions should be based on both the reading sounded out for a longer period of time while the
modes. The results of word identification and reader decides on the following group of sounds).
comprehension should be put next to each other Learners in the senior phase still experience the
and the learner’s level of reading should be deter- same problems as learners in the intermediate
mined by consulting the third column of the phase, although these occur in more difficult
scheme of Richek et al. (2002: 73). words and word phrases.
Learners experiencing problems with analysing
Comprehension Word recognition Passage level words into phonemes and morphemes and with
identifying the rhythm of words in sentences will
find reading very difficult.
Independent Independent Independent
Other general manifestations of reading prob-
lems are too much dependence on the decoding of
Independent Instructional Instructional words; incoherent, slow and inaccurate reading;
and poor comprehension. The readers’ reading
experience and general knowledge is limited and
Independent Frustration Frustration
they display little interest in reading or are unwill-
ing to read. Their self-images are low, they exhibit
Instructional Instructional Instructional reading fear and they wriggle while reading.

(b) Oral reading problems

Instructional Independent Instructional
Indications of problems are reading word by
word, incorrect phrasing and poor pronunciation.
Instructional Frustration Frustration Such readers omit words in sentences, and repeat
words, sentences or even paragraphs. They invert
Frustration Frustration Frustration (me/we) and reverse (dog/bog) letters, and insert,
substitute and guess at words. They also tend to
voice or sound words, move their lips, point with
Frustration Independent Frustration a finger and move their heads while reading.

Frustration Instructional Frustration [Link] Problems in the components of

reading
Figure 7.2 The overall reading level of Shanker and Ekwall (1998: 197) outline reading
a learner problems as follows – this is based on Figure 7.1:

134
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

(a) Level 1: pre-reading skills (preschool to syllables even when singing a song. They also
Grade 1) do not know the rules on which word syllabifi-
• Phonemic awareness: Preschool children show cation is based.
little interest in the reading process or • Contextual clues. These learners are unable to
phonemes. They cannot remember the identify words on sight. They often concentrate
phonemes and do not even try to do any pre- on sounding out words, but do not remember
school writing. Some of these learners have or know the content of the text as they do not
perception problems and find it hard to dis- understand what they are reading or identify
criminate between the different sounds, or the sentence structures.
they cannot remember the specific letters.
• Letter–sound relations: These learners are not (ii) Understanding words and ideas
interested in the letter–sound relations as they VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

do not know or understand the letters or the These learners’ vocabulary or word meaning and
sounds. They cannot relate the sounds to the comprehension are inadequate. Richek et al.
letters because they cannot discriminate (2002: 150) elucidate: “[I]f a word is not in your
between the letters visually, or they cannot meaning vocabulary, you cannot check pronuncia-
remember or discriminate aurally between the tion against meaning.” This means that these
sounds related to the letters. learners cannot identify words on sight or in a
sentence structure.
(b) Level 2: word identification and decoding
COMPREHENSION SKILLS
of words, and understanding words and
ideas (Grade 1 to Grade 4) • Literal meaning. Some learners have to sound
out every word, and thus lose the meaning of
(i) Recognising and analysing words
the sentence content. They therefore find it dif-
SIGHT WORDS ficult to understand the meaning of the sen-
tence.
• Inadequate ability to identify basic sight
words. Their general sight vocabulary is inade- • Inference. Learners who experience problems
quate due to perception problems, attention with the literal meaning of the text are unable
deficit and poor memory. to follow the underlying information not direct-
ly stated in the text.
WORD ANALYSIS SKILLS AND DECODING
• Evaluation. As such learners do not understand
• Configuration clues. Learners who experience what they are reading or their knowledge of
problems using external and internal clues in the topic is limited due to poor general know-
words are still having difficulty with the let- ledge, they are unable to evaluate the content
ter–sound relations of the preschool phase. of the text.
They also experience problems with sight
• Appreciation. As such learners find the reading
words and rely mainly on word analysis, but
task difficult and do not understand everything
without success as they are unable to identify
they are reading, they cannot appreciate the
letters and remember their sounds.
content.
• Phoneme analysis. Some learners have prob-
lems with consonants, vowels, blends, digraphs (c) Level 3: reading and study skills (Grade 4
and diphthongs. They also find structural analy- and onwards)
sis difficult and do not know the rules that con- (i) Oral reading
structions are based on. They have trouble When reading out loud the learners stutter over
analysing the words into phonemes and mor- words; sound out words; phrase incorrectly; read
phemes. monotonously; repeat words and sentences; omit,
• Structural analysis. Learners experiencing invert or reverse; and insert and substitute letters
problems with rhythm cannot identify the word and words. They guess at words or voice them,

135
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

move their lips, point with a finger and/or move 7.10.1 Essay
their heads while reading. Learners with learning problems are not always
aware that the main aim of written language is for
(ii) Dictionary skills (for older learners)
communication. They presume they have to do it
The dictionary skills of these learners are limited. because the school and their parents expect them
They are unfamiliar with the order of the letters of to. Therefore they do not see the use of it and
the alphabet. They do not know the spelling of tend to neglect it. Their main aim when writing is
words and are unable to interpret the information to finish the task as soon as possible.
in the dictionary. Because of poor language
knowledge they cannot decide on a word applica- (a) Cognitive problems
ble to the text they are reading.
Cognitive problems in written language are diffi-
cult to identify because learners’ spelling and
(iii) Study skills and learning
handwriting may influence the quality of the con-
Poor reading hampers learners’ ability to apply tent of their written work. These learners keep
study skills, as they are unable to follow the text their written sentences as short as possible and
and remember the content. Their reading speed is give little information in order to make fewer mis-
slow and they find it hard to adjust their speed. takes and to limit the writing act.
Some of them read very fast but inaccurately. They do not always understand instructions as
They have problems giving attention to the read- their vocabulary is limited. They avoid discussions
ing content while they read and have to reread as they find it hard to follow narratives. Indica-
parts of the text repeatedly and then lose the tions of cognitive problems are sentences that are
meaning of the rest of what they have already not logically ordered, which is due to disordered
read. They cannot distinguish between relevant thinking. Their sentences are short, without
and unimportant information and read everything depth and with little variation. They tend to
in the same detail. They do not skim and scan, repeat the same sentence structure throughout
and cannot find applicable information in the text. the written text, for example:
He pours tea into his cup. He stirs his tea. He
Make a list of a learner’s reading prob- puts sugar in his tea. He drinks his tea.
ACTIVITY

lems and indicate the component and

its aspect in which the learner is experi-
The content is superficial, concrete, not logically
encing problems. Then decide on the
reading level in which every one of ordered and at a low level (if written by a Grade 4
these problems occurs. learner, for example).

(b) Linguistic problems

7.10 MANIFESTATIONS OF WRITTEN Problems with spoken language cause the learner
LANGUAGE PROBLEMS to use incorrect sentence constructions, wrong
words and short sentences, and to repeat basic,
Most learners who experience spoken language high-frequency words in written language. Learn-
and reading problems also experience problems ers with linguistic difficulties also often repeat the
in written language, as written language is the same type of sentence structure, as follows
highest level of language use. It is also far more
complicated than using spoken language or read- I wake up. I wash my face. I eat my bread. I
ing. It is not always easy to determine in which drink my tea. I go to school.
aspect of written language, namely the essay,
spelling or handwriting and their components, (c) Stylistic problems
the problem lies. Manifestations of problems in These are problems some learners have with cap-
the elements of written language and their com- ital letters and punctuation. They tend to ignore
ponents are the following: them in their written texts, or they use them

136
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

incorrectly in and between words and in sen- write unknown words and words they seldom use
tences as they do not understand when and in written work phonetically and ignore spelling
where to use them. rules.

7.10.2 Spelling 7.10.3 Handwriting

Problems with letter–sound relations (especially The handwriting of these learners is mostly
vowels with inconsistent letter–sound relations untidy, the line formation and size of the letters
such as week and bread; seat, hear and bear; and are uneven, and their writing speed is very slow
call, cellar and cello) are some of the main causes or fast. Slow writers tend to press extremely hard
of learners’ inadequate spelling. They tend to with their pencil or pen while writing. Some learn-

Incorrect letter formation

Addition of unnecessary lines and curls

Poor word and letter spacing

Uneven slant of the letters

Letter size too big or too small

Poor line quality

Incorrect placement of letters

Figure 7.3 Examples of poor handwriting

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

ers’ handwriting gives the impression of neatness guage problems or to make fun of their mistakes.
but it is extremely difficult to read. The following This is applicable to the teacher as well as to the
aspects affect the legibility of a learner’s hand- other learners in the school and the parents.
writing: incorrect letter formation, and the addi- Rather than telling learners that their work is
tion of unnecessary lines and curls (teenage girls, wrong, untidy or not up to standard, the correct
especially, are inclined to do this); poor word and example should be given or explained to the
letter spacing; uneven slant of the letters; poor learner without any negative comments.
line quality; uneven letter size, or too big or too
small letter size; and incorrect placement of the (a) Development of listening skills, vocabulary
letters. and speech abilities
Other problems underlying poor handwriting When assisting learners with spoken language
are problems, avoid questions that could be
• poor visual acuity, perception and motor skills answered with yes or no only.
• uncertainty in hand domination
• emotional problems like anxiety Note
• poor motivation and lack of desire to try. Instead of beginning the question with words
such as: Is/Have/Will/Can ...? commence the
7.11 LEARNING SUPPORT TO LEARNERS question with words like Who/Where/What/
WITH FIRST-LANGUAGE PROBLEMS When/Why...? etc.
Previously, schools dealt with the different lan-
guage areas (essay, composition, grammar, read- Below are a few ideas to help learners to develop
ing, spelling and written language) separately. spoken language skills:
Nowadays the emphasis is on a holistic approach • Listen to stories and conversations.
in which all aspects of language are taught simul- • Follow and carry out instructions.
taneously. Previously teachers supported learners
• Conduct conversations and telephone conver-
only in the aspect of language in which they were
sations.
experiencing problems, such as confusing the ea
• Present formal and informal talks on interest-
sounds in words. Now, when a learner experi-
ing topics.
ences problems in a specific aspect of language,
the teacher has to concentrate on that specific • Tell a story or dramatise a story or happening
aspect without neglecting the others. The point and improvise the happening.
of departure is that learners should be aware of • Construct a puppet theatre.
the place of their problem within the holistic lan- • Read a dialogue.
guage situation. • Take part in choral speech.
These activities must be adapted to the different
7.11.1 General guidelines for learning school phases. Keep these learners in small
support to learners with groups of three to five learners and exclude those
language and communication who may dominate the group.
problems
Language support should take place throughout (b) Learning of language etiquette
the school day and in all the learning areas. Language etiquette used by a community depends
Although teachers should work on all aspects of on the norms of the specific cultural group. In
language simultaneously, they should concentrate South Africa, where there are different cultural
on any problem areas with each learner without groups, it is important that the learners do not
neglecting any other aspects. only know and use their own cultural language
It is very important not to criticise learners with etiquettes, but also respect and be familiar with
any spoken language, reading and written lan- the different courtesy conventions of other cul-

138
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

tural groups. This will enhance the interrelation- spoken word, as written language differs from
ships between the different groups. Some of spoken language. By reading to them often, the
these etiquettes apply to all communities. learners become used to language and sentence
structures in written language, and this may help
them to understand the content better when they
Language etiquette
read.
The language etiquette applicable to all cul- Making use of reading games, and reading in
tural groups is as follows: real-life situations in order to enhance the learn-
• Listen and give attention while another ers’ interest in reading also makes them aware
person is talking and do not interfere in that reading is part of peoples’ daily lives.
the conversation. Learners should always experience reading as a
• Know which language conventions and pleasure as this motivates them to want to read.
topics suit specific situations. Do not criticise every mistake, but acknowledge
• Know the etiquette of the different cultur- every attempt at improvement in a learner’s read-
al groups, like greetings, congratulations ing even if it is only a word or two, or a vague
and condolences. indication of an attempt to improve reading, read-
ing speed or intonation.
• Learn to respect others’ feelings and
behave in accordance with the norms of
[Link] Specific support for reading
the situation, such as keeping silent in a problems
school library or media centre, church and
hospital.
Note
• Learn to be assertive with friends without
becoming aggressive and hostile and too It is not possible here to describe all the
domineering. reading strategies for supporting learners
with reading difficulties. Therefore you are
referred to libraries where books describing
reading problems can be found. Look
7.11.2 Reading support
through the sources on the shelves and
Two to three decades ago when the medical decide on strategies that might be applicable
model was popular for “remediation” (support for for learners in your class and to which you
learning problems), the point of departure was may adapt your specific strategies of teach-
exercises for the “improvement” of perceptual ing.
skills such as visual, auditory and tactual skills. Ini-
tially these exercises had no relation to the read-
ing act itself and gradually they proceeded to work (a) Level 1: pre-reading skills (preschool to
with formal reading material like phonemes, Grade 1)
words, etc. Research has proved that this was a • Phonemic awareness and alphabet knowledge.
waste of the learners’ time – they were already lag- These are problems that should be solved in
ging behind in their reading and the situation was the first two grades of school as learners who
made worse by spending time on these perceptual proceed to higher school levels find reading
exercises even if only for a few weeks. Therefore, extremely difficult if they are still experiencing
although nowadays perception is still included in problems. Older learners find it hard or even
reading support, it concentrates mainly on formal impossible to overcome these problems. For
reading material like phonemes, words, etc. many learners, poor reading has at this stage
become a habit that will affect them emotional-
[Link] General guidelines for reading ly throughout their school career. In higher
support grades the teaching of reading becomes more
A very important aspect of reading support is to superficial and less time is spent on it.
give the learners the opportunity to listen to the Games are an important way of teaching

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

these skills to learners with difficulties. It is approaches include word identification as well
however important that the learners under- as word decoding. It is mainly the order and
stand how these skills fit into reading. strategies used to teach word identification
and comprehension that differ in the other
(b) Level 2: word identification and decoding approaches.
of words, and understanding words and
ideas (Grade 1 to Grade 4) (i) Word identification and analysis
During the initial phase of reading teachers adopt Word identification and analysis are taught main-
a certain reading approach when teaching read- ly at preschool level and in the initial school
ing. The best known reading approaches are the phase. Games are useful as young learners enjoy
bottom-up approach, top-down approach and playing with letters and words. It is, however,
interactive approach. essential that the learners apply these newly
learned skills to formal reading.
• Bottom-up approach. The bottom-up approach
for teaching reading was used for many cen- SIGHT WORDS
turies. Only a few people learned to read and Repetition is the most important method in
the rest remained illiterate. The point of depar- teaching sight words to learners. Shanker and
ture for teaching reading using this approach is Ekwall (1998: 92) emphasise that these words
to teach the learners the letter–sound relations should always be taught in the context of a sen-
and then to sound and say the words. Compre- tence as it helps the learners to identify high-fre-
hension according to this approach developed quency articles, prepositions, nouns, etc. on sight.
automatically. To counteract comprehension Playing word games with the learners by using
problems, teachers started using the top-down word and picture cards is very effective with
approach younger learners. Games allow for repetition
without boring the learners. Older learners also
• Top-down approach. The point of departure in
benefit from games, depending on the type of
the top-down approach is to teach learners to
game used. Discourage learners from sounding
identify whole words and to read sentences
out high-frequency sight words such as were, and,
without sounding the words. According to this
which and that. These words should always be
approach readers become aware of the
given in the context of full sentences to enable
phonemes and the letter–sound relations while
them to understand the words and to know how
they are reading. Their awareness of
they fit into the reading act (Shanker & Ekwall
letter–sound relations develops gradually. As in
1998: 92). Sight words attached to objects in the
the case of the bottom-up approach, all learn-
classroom should also be given in full sentences
ers did not learn to read adequately.
placed under the words.
• Interactive approach. Because of the limited WORD ANALYSIS SKILLS AND DECODING
success of the bottom-up and top-down
In order to decode words, learners should be
approaches, the interactive approach of
able to analyse them in their letter components
Stanovich (1984: 11–18) became popular. This
and to relate the sounds to the letter symbols.
approach tries to accommodate both word
Word games could be useful in teaching the learn-
identification and comprehension at the same
ers to recognise the high-frequency morphemes
time while teaching learners to read. It ensures
on sight and to identify them within words, for
more success than the other two approaches as
example: the -ing in words like drinking, sleeping
it helps learners who tend to concentrate on
and eating; and the -ed in words like walked,
letter–sound relations and those who concen-
jumped and hopped.
trate on comprehension. The principle of this
approach is adapted by many other reading • Configuration clues. Configuration clues are
approaches such as the holistic approach and the external and internal clues that enable
the language experience approach. These readers to identify words. Intact visual percep-

140
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

tion is important here as it helps with the iden- VOCABULARY

tification of letter–sound relations. The better a The larger a learner’s vocabulary, the easier it is
learner is able to identify letter–sound rela- for him to follow the content of a piece of written
tions, the better he will be able to rely on con- text. Learners’ vocabulary can be improved by lis-
figuration clues. tening to stories and reports of actual events to
which they can relate. It is also useful to read daily
• Phoneme analysis. Phoneme analysis is the use
newspapers and magazines to them, as this will
of the decoding process to analyse a word
improve their vocabulary, general knowledge and
sequential into its sound components and to
language. Even young learners find such informa-
synthesise these sounds into a spoken word.
tion interesting.
Games to teach learners the letter–sound rela-
tions are always useful. It is, however, very COMPREHENSION
important that these letter– sound relations are • Literal meaning and literal comprehension.
always related to the written text in words and Reading games can be played. The learners may
sentences. play a game where the instructions are written
• Structural analysis. Structural analysis occurs down and they have to read them and perform
when a word is analysed in syllables, such as an action. Discussions between learners about
word roots and suffixes. By singing and clap- the text are also useful.
ping the sound rhythm of the words, learners Questions about the written text should also
become aware of the syllables in them. They be asked. These questions should begin with
should also know the rules that the analysis of words such as: Who...? Where...? What ...? Avoid
syllables are based upon. They may be asked to questions that could be answered only with the
cut the words, written on pieces of paper, into words yes and no.
syllables. Afterwards they should group togeth- • Inference. Questions on indirect information
er the same syllables of the different words. that is not explicitly stated in the text should
This makes them aware that different words be asked, such as: How do you think the friends
may contain the same syllables. They should are feeling while playing in the park? Why do you
also have the opportunity to build new words think the baby is not happy?
with the syllables. High-frequency syllables may
• Evaluation. Discuss whether the information
be learned on sight.
read in the text is true or false with the learners.
• Contextual clues. If learners do not understand Give them the opportunity to indicate why they
what they are reading they will not be able to think it cannot be true or why they think it is
use contextual clues. By understanding the con- true.
tent of the text, readers are able to guess the • Appreciation. Ask the learners whether they
meaning of a word that is unfamiliar, or too dif- enjoyed the story and which part they enjoyed
ficult to identify or analyse. This understanding most or found less interesting. Then ask them
also enables readers to read an unfamiliar word their reasons.
when they are familiar with some syllables in
the word and with the sentence structures. (iii) Oral reading
Fluent reading can be encouraged by allowing
(ii) Understanding words and ideas enough opportunities to read. If a learner is shy to
Learners who have some knowledge of the con- read aloud in front of the rest of the class, give
tent of the text find it easier to understand him a short piece of written text that he has to
because they can relate the words and sentences prepare beforehand. He may read out questions
in the written text to their knowledge of the infor- or instructions (prepared beforehand) that the
mation. Therefore it is recommended that the rest of the class or certain learners should answer
content of the text be discussed with the learners or execute. These sentences should be short and
when starting a new reading session. within the reading ability of the learner. Games

141
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

may also be played, like a “going shopping” game, should be on that aspect which the learner finds
or “visiting a restaurant” game and other reading difficult.
games. By reading stories, poems and other infor-
mation aloud, the learners become more aware of (a) Writing an essay
the correct phrasing and pronunciation. In group (i) The cognitive component
reading, omissions, repetitions, inversions or
reversals, insertions, substitutions and word By exposing learners to a variety of experiences
guessing can be excluded. Be aware, however, such as outings, pictures, stories and reports,
that poor readers sometimes just move their lips their general knowledge and vocabulary expand.
in a group reading situation and do not always Information on these experiences should be dis-
gain by this method. cussed while the learners are immersed in the
experience. Learners are less interested if this is
done afterwards, and some of the information is
(c) Level 3: reading and study skills (Grade 4
forgotten. During the experience, the learners
and onwards)
make associations and draw comparisons, spot
(i) Dictionary skills contrasts, analyse concepts, and synthesise and
Older learners are able to use dictionary skills to evaluate the information. This makes it easier for
help them to determine the meaning and pronun- them to absorb the information and integrate it
ciation of words. Repeating the alphabetical order into their own world of experience (Dednam
of the letters by means of songs, rhymes and 1998: 114).
other repetitive games can be useful. There are
some learners who find it very hard to remember (ii) The linguistic component
the alphabet. For these learners an alphabet writ-
The practice of correct language use through all
ten on a piece of paper should be available to
learning areas in class should be attended to. The
check when they do not remember the order of
teacher’s example of using good language in class
the letters. When introducing learners to the dic-
is of the utmost importance because it is often the
tionary, start with a very simple one. The teacher
only place where a large number of learners will
may even compile a class dictionary with the help
hear the language in its purest form. Reading sto-
of the learners or each learner may compile his
ries to the learners also gives them an illustration
own dictionary on a computer.
of the correct use of language.

(ii) Study skills and learning

(iii) The stylistic component
Good readers find it much easier to cope with The learners should be aware of and understand
study skills than poor ones do, therefore it is the stylistic component of written language. They
important to teach learners to use study methods should master the constituents of letters, words
such as the brain map, which lessens the amount and sentences. They should, for instance, know
of text to be read. It also sorts information into what a sentence is, and that it begins with a capi-
categories and puts the facts in an easy-to- tal letter and ends with a full stop.
remember order.
(b) Spelling
7.11.3 Written language support Teachers tend to assess spelling in terms of right
When supporting learners in written language, or wrong. This discourages learners to experi-
all three aspects (essay, spelling and hand- ment with written text and to write down their
writing) should be attended to rather than a sin- thoughts spontaneously. In order to exclude
gle one. Support in written language should be spelling errors, their sentences become rigid and
given within the whole or holistic language they tend to keep them short or to write the same
approach where all three the aspects of written sentence structure repeatedly, such as: I lay the
language are simultaneously involved. Emphasis table. I sit on the chair. I eat my lunch. I drink my tea.

142
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

I wash the dishes. Therefore, learners should be ten language should be included in the writing
allowed to make spelling mistakes. session. When practising formal handwriting,
learners tend to write slowly and neatly, but as
soon as they have to write an essay or anything
Decisions to be made before considering a else they do not have the time to attend to the
word as one that needs intensive formation of each letter and their handwriting
attention become untidy and often illegible.
In the initial school phase, the correct forma-
Before concentrating on the spelling errors,
tion of letters as well as the letter–sound relations
teachers should make the following decision
are taught to the learners at the same time. They
on each specific spelling error:
then progress to writing the letters in words dur-
• Is the word relevant in terms of the cur- ing writing sessions. Gradually the letter forma-
riculum set for that particular grade? tion becomes automatic and the learners do not
• Is the word a high-frequency word for concentrate any more on the formation of each
learners in that grade? letter while writing. They mainly concentrate on
• Is the mistake rooted in the spelling struc- the information they are writing down.
tures already taught in that specific grade? When teaching handwriting to a learner who
experiences handwriting problems, the following
If an answer to any one of the above ques- aspects should be attended to:
tions is yes, the teacher should explain the
• The ability to handle the writing apparatus and
mistake and discuss the correct spelling, but
execute the formation of the letters correctly.
if the answer is no, the teacher should rewrite
Skilful eye–hand coordination is important for
the correct word and draw only the learner’s
the correct formation of letters.
attention to the correct spelling.
• Knowledge of the exact formation of the letters
• The direction in which the letters should be
The following spelling components should be formed and the direction in which the letters
attended to if a learner experiences difficulty with and words should follow each other
them:
The following guidelines may help to improve
• Letter–sound relations and variations in let-
learners’ handwriting and give a more tidy
ter–sound relations (e.g. ea in read, hear, head)
impression of the work:
• Short and long vowels
• Consonant combinations • Words should be spaced uniformly.
• Consonant–vowel combinations • Learners should receive positive encourage-
• Word analysis and synthesis ment for each attempt at improvement in hand-
• Spelling rules and variations in spelling rules writing, even if it is only one word in a sentence
• Prefixes and suffixes or even a letter in a word.
• Punctuation (e.g. “Peter, where do you go on • Sweaty hands cause dirty marks in books. Make
Wednesdays?” sure learners wash their hands before each
writing session. If their hands are sweaty,
(c) Handwriting they should put a piece of paper under their
Handwriting contributes to the legibility of writ- hands.
ten text. Although the computer is gradually tak- • Learners should never be allowed to erase a
ing over this component, learners still need to mistake or error. They should make a neat
master the art of writing letters and words legibly cross next to the mistake or draw a neat line
as computers are not always available. through it and write the correct word above
Handwriting is the mechanical act of the writ- the error or next to it where space is available.
ing process and therefore all components of writ- When learners are allowed to use an eraser

143
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

themselves, those with problems tend to erase ken language and therefore most learners who
every letter, word or even sentences repeated- experience problems in spoken language also
ly. This makes the page untidy and is a waste of experience problems in reading and written lan-
time. guage. These problems hamper the learners’
• The teacher should not make corrections in red progress at school and limit their career opportu-
ink as this discourages learners from trying to nities.
improve their handwriting and keeping their Support in language problems should start as
books tidy. A pencil or blue ink, which does not early as possible. A learner who is still experien-
make such a contrast, should rather be used for cing such problems in the higher grades will
these learners. increasingly lag behind in his schoolwork and the
problems will become nearly unsolvable. There-
fore it is important that teachers are aware of
7.12 CONCLUSION every learner’s problem in any aspect of language.
Language is the highest form of communication Teachers should be familiar with spoken lan-
between the members of a species, and humans guage, reading and written language problems as
are the only species using spoken language for well as methods and strategies of assessment and
communication. Language problems cause prob- support for these problems. Motivated teachers
lems with interrelationships and learning. Learn- intervene in all learning areas instead of waiting
ers experiencing spoken language problems also for a specially trained teacher to support the
find it difficult to excel in school. Reading and learners in overcoming their problems in specially
written language are two advanced forms of spo- arranged situations.

144
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

Choose a learner experiencing language problems in any of the grades from 2 to 6. Complete the following
information on this learner.

1. General information on the learner

Name: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Gender: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Grade: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Age: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Home language: ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Lingua franca of the school:___________________________________________________________________________________
[Why is the above information necessary?]

2. Strengths in language

Spoken language: ____________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Reading: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Written language: _____________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Perception: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Other aspects: ________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Language problems

3.1 Cause(s) of problem

Determine the possible cause(s) of the learner's language problems (see paragraph 7.6)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.2 Spoken language problems (see paragraph 7.8)

General manifestation of Language dimension in Subsection of language

Specific spoken
spoken language problem which each problem occurs dimension in which the
language problems
(see paragraph 7.8.1) (see paragraph 7.8.2) problem occurs

Figure 7.4 Sample form for case study

145
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

3.3 Reading problems (see paragraph 7.9)

Use a piece of reading text suitable for the grade the learner is in. Determine his word identification level,
comprehension level and overall reading level on this piece of text (see paragraph 7.9.1).
Reading level: ___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Write down the general manifestations of the learner's reading problems (see paragraph 7.9.2).
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Specific reading component in

Specific reading error which the error occurs Types of reading error
(see paragraph [Link])

3.4 Written language problems (see paragraph 7.10)

Write down the specific written language problems the learner manifests and indicate the component and
subsection of each component in which each of the problems occurs.

Area in which the written

Specific written language error language error occurs Types of written language error
(see paragraph 7.10)

4. Learning support

Note: Always take the age and interest of the learner into consideration when assisting him in any aspect of
language.

4.1 Spoken language support

Indicate the general support this learner needs in spoken language and communication (see paragraph
7.11.1)
General support in spoken language. __________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 7.4 Continued

146
 FIRST LANGUAGE PROBLEMS 7

4.2 Reading support

Indicate the general support you would give the learner in reading (see paragraph 7.11.2)
General support in reading. _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Reading support in each area

Reading component Subsection in which the (indicate how one would follow a
(see paragraph [Link]) reading problem occurs holistic approach while supporting
the learner in each area)

4.3 Written language support

Describe the support you would give the learner in the subcomponent of the areas of written language
(see paragraph 7.11.3).

Support in each area (indicate

how one would follow a holistic
Written language area Specific written language error
approach while supporting the
learner in each area)

Figure 7.4 Continued

147
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

Questions students with learning disabilities. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
1. Indicate how the language dimensions are McEwan, E.K. 2002. Teach them all to read: catching the
related in spoken language, reading and writ- kids who fall through the cracks. Thousand Oaks, CA:
ten language. Corwin Press.
Mercer, C.D. 1992. Students with learning disabilities, 4th
2. Discuss the elements of written language and ed. New York: Merrill.
indicate how you would assist a learner to Ormrod, J.E. 1998. Educational psychology: developing
apply the linguistic component when writing learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
an essay. Perfetti, C.A. 1997. The psycholinguistics of spelling and
3. Describe briefly how you would support a reading. In Perfetti, C.A., Rieben, L. & Fayol, M. (Eds),
Learning to spell: research, theory and practice across
learner to improve his ability to understand
languages. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 21–38.
words and ideas in the intermediate school
Pike, K., Compain, R. & Mumper, J. 1997. An integrated
phase. approach to literacy. New York: Longman.
Richek, M.A., Caldwell, J.S., Jennings, J.H. & Lerner, J.W.
1996. Reading problems: assessment and teaching strate-
Bibliography gies, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Bratcher, S. 1997. The learning-to-write process in ele- Richek, M.A., Caldwell, J.S., Jennings, J.H. & Lerner, J.W.
mentary classrooms. 2002. Reading problems: assessment and teaching strate-
Dednam, A. 1998 Teaching practice: learning difficulties gies, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
(only study guide for FDELPRT-T). Pretoria: Unisa Sampson, M., Sampson M.B. & Van Allen R. 1995. Path-
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Ekwall, E.E. & Shanker, J.L. 1989. Teaching reading in the reading difficulties, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Mer-
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Jaffre, J. 1997. From writing to orthography: the functions Taylor, B., Harris, L.A., Pearson, P.D. & Garcia, C. 1995.
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148
 SECOND LANGUAGE
DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH 8
AFRICAN CONTEXT
NORMA NEL

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πexplain who English second language (ESL) learners are
Πunderstand the reasons for experiencing barriers to learning in ESL
Πknow how to identify and assess learners who experience difficulties
with ESL
Πoffer support to learners regarding ESL.

Key terms becomes a conversational English second lan-

guage classroom designed to encourage talk and
English second language (ESL) ♦ home language interaction between the learners and ultimately to
(mother tongue) ♦ language of learning and teaching produce a stimulating and experiential language-
(LoLT) ♦ bilingualism ♦ multilingualism ♦ code- learning atmosphere. The learners are allowed to
switching ♦ thematic curriculum ♦ functional integrate their backgrounds, interests, strengths
language communication and prior knowledge of language with useful
strategies in order to enhance second language
acquisition and literacy.
CASE STUDY Mrs Dlamini and the teachers in the intermedi-
ate phase do their weekly planning collaborative-
Mrs Dlamini is a head of department (HOD) in the ly, using a thematic focus. They consider the
intermediate phase at a township primary school. learning outcomes and assessment standards of
She teaches a multilingual Grade 4 class, and the the different learning areas and adopt an integra-
language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is Eng- tive approach to their planning and teaching, i.e.
lish. Mrs Dlamini believes that the learners need integrating the different learning areas and using
to think and talk in a language they know and different materials, resources and activities. They
therefore she encourages them to speak their also make provision for learners experiencing
home language in class with their classmates or barriers to learning such as those whose home
with her (if she is able to understand them). She language is not English. They seek ways to adapt
makes use of folk songs and folktales in order to the curriculum, and methods and strategies to
nurture the different cultures. She creates oppor- accommodate all learners. With regard to the lan-
tunities for learners to integrate their new and guage learning area, they have adopted the
past experiences by using the second language whole-language approach where the learners are
as a medium of expression. She makes use of a initially encouraged to use their second language
variety of meaningful and interesting cooperative as a tool to communicate their own experiences
learning activities and arranges the physical set- and ultimately to learn to speak, read and write in
ting of the classroom in such a way that it their second language.

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The principal and staff at Mrs Dlamini’s school ers share the same cultural background, converse
make a concerted effort to communicate with the in the same home language or have the same pre-
parents on a regular basis and to hold parents’ school experiences, and therefore the needs of
evenings where they are informed about their multilingual learners are diverse and need to be
children’s progress and other important matters.
accommodated. The majority of teachers are not
Parents are also encouraged to become involved
prepared for this challenging task and painful
in school, community and cultural activities, and
to cooperate with the governing body on issues change.
such as school funds, policy making, networking It is inevitable that all teachers need to have a
with other organisations, and so on. basic knowledge of how a second language is
learned and how to instruct learners who have
not acquired the ability to use and understand
8.1 INTRODUCTION
English. They need to understand how the dyna-
In South African schools there are many learners mics of classroom communication influences the
who are taught through the medium of English, perceptions and participation in classroom activi-
which is not their home language, and who are ties of ESL learners. They should be able to offer
limited in their English proficiency. These learn- the learners opportunities to interact in authentic
ers include those whose parents have placed ways and to use the language to communicate.
them from the beginning of their school careers This will enable them to monitor and adjust the
in schools where English is the LoLT while they patterns of the classroom communication in order
were brought up using their home language. to create an environment which is conducive to
Other learners have attended schools where they classroom learning and ESL acquisition (Johnson
were taught in their home language but who, out 1995: 3). The main aim of this chapter is to pro-
of choice or uncontrollable circumstances, attend vide primary school teachers with an overall view
schools where the LoLT is English. Learners who of and guidelines for English second language
are immigrants from foreign countries where the teaching and learning.
official language is not English may make up the
last group. Because the curriculum is in English, 1. How do you envisage Mrs Dlamini
they move into bilingualism. They are therefore adapting the curriculum in such a
referred to as English second language (ESL) learn- way that she will be able to cater for
ACTIVITY

ers (Johnson 1995: 3). According to Ramírez (Free- the needs of all the learners in her
man & Freeman 1998: 229), it takes more than six multilingual classroom?
years to develop proficiency in English when Eng- 2. How does OBE make provision for
lish is the second language of learning. the learners whose home language
In South Africa where there are 11 official lan- is other than English in Mrs Dlami-
guages, of which English is the main language of ni’s classroom?
learning and teaching in most of the schools,
teachers in general are not adequately trained and
equipped to cater specifically for the needs of 8.2 ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)
learners learning in their second, third or even Although there are 11 official languages in South
fourth language. This could be ascribed to inade- Africa and the Constitution makes provision for
quate provision of ESL learning and teaching in the language rights of all citizens, the official lan-
their training as teachers. Other contributing fac- guage in most of the schools is English.
tors could be the introduction of outcomes-based Garner (1990: 2) explains that learners who
education (OBE) and teaching a diversity of learn- come from different language backgrounds and
ers in their classes. It has therefore become essen- need to learn English in order to follow the Eng-
tial that teachers equip themselves with the nec- lish-medium school curriculum are referred to as
essary skills to enable them to teach learners com- “English second language learners” (ESL learners)
ing from diverse backgrounds and home lan- as English is not their mother tongue. On the
guages. Teachers need to realise that not all learn- other hand, Freeman and Freeman (1998: xv) are

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of the opinion that to use terms such as “English guistic behaviour and communicative styles are
second language learners” is labelling these learn- not appreciated and not understood and thus
ers and, for them, the term “English language learners experience discontinuity between the
learners” is more acceptable. This term includes home and the school. There are degrees of differ-
learners whose home language is English as well ence in learners’ linguistic and cultural back-
as those whose home language is not English but grounds, such as cultural differences which exist-
who are attending schools where the LoLT is Eng- ed before the population came into contact with
lish. For the sake of clarity we will refer to “ESL the new culture. There are also differences where
learners” as the focus in this chapter is mainly on two populations have been in contact with one
the difficulties ESL learners experience in our another for a considerable period. The learner’s
schools as well as the support teachers may pro- knowledge, use of language and the broader
vide to improve these learners’ English. aspects of the socio-cultural context all cause dis-
The majority of South Africans speak at least continuity between the home and the school
two official languages; however, English may not (Johnson 1995: 65–66).
be one of them. For many learners in South Learners learning in ESL usually begin literacy
African schools, English is learned as a second or instruction in their first language. Academic and
even third language even though it is the LoLT in linguistic skills which have been acquired in the
the majority of classrooms and schools. Although, first language can easily be transferred to the sec-
according to Setati et al. (2002: 73), ESL learners ond language and fluency in the first language
may have the advantage that English is spoken in shortcuts the normal developmental process in
their immediate environment and that this expos- the second language. It is thus very important
es them to many opportunities to learn it (e.g. that teachers encourage the use of the learners’
from television and newspapers), this is mainly primary language skills and allow them to experi-
the case in urban areas in South Africa. In rural ence the normal linguistic developmental mile-
areas learners are hardly exposed to English out- stones. Forcing learners to learn English too early
side the classroom and thus their opportunities to can result in their not speaking, reading or writing
learn it are extremely limited. their first or second language well. Learners who
Setati et al. (2002: 76) express concern regard- experience prolonged exposure to their first lan-
ing the challenges educational practices face in guage strengthen the foundation from which the
teaching and learning in English as second lan- second language is acquired (Lapp et al. 2001: 4).
guage, namely Freeman and Freeman (1998: 192; 223) state
that learners who speak their first language in an
• that English material and its political power has
ESL context only often lose their first language
to be dealt with
(which is a great loss to society) and become
• that English needs to be acquired as early as monolingual English speakers. The first language
possible without serious consideration of main- develops normally until such time as the child
taining the first language starts learning the second language (Frederickson
• the inclusion of other languages beyond Eng- & Cline 2002: 293–295). Learners are inclined to
lish use the second language increasingly in their daily
• that multilingual teaching (teaching in more lives and at school, which stifles first language
than two languages) needs to be supported development and even leads to the loss of some
with appropriate materials and in-service train- language.
ing. Another problem which is a cause for concern is
that the phonological and linguistic demands of
the two languages differ, which causes difficulties
8.2.1 Difficulties in ESL learning that would not have occurred if the child had
Second language learners acquire talking and been exposed to the first language only. Emotion-
communicating abilities differently to first lan- al and social difficulties are secondary. The child
guage learners. When they enter school their lin- develops language skills adequately but is unable

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to use them because of these difficulties. Such example pea and tree, and many words need to be
children resort to selective mutism which general- learned on sight, such as the, as there are no
ly develops round the age of 3 to 5 years when spelling rules which can be applied. The learners
the transition from their homes to organisational also find it difficult to apply closure to words such
life, such as early childhood development centres as cat in The big fat ca[t], and do not use capital let-
or formal school, takes place. They are able to ters correctly. They are unable to apply spelling
speak in some situations but refuse to speak in rules, for example to add the e to fat to make fate.
others and develop effective non-verbal commu- There are many exceptions to the rules which
nication strategies (Frederickson & Cline 2002: learners need to know and they are inclined to
296–297). spell the way they do in their first language. They
According to Rost (2001: 7–13) ESL learners spell many words in different ways, such as pretti
find it difficult to listen to English because the and prety. Where the same letters/letter combina-
phonological system, phonotactic rules (sound tions represent more than one sound (e.g. the -ly
sequences to make up syllables) as well as tone in silly and rely) they become confused, as they do
melodies such as high, low, rising and falling in the use of the apostrophe in the singular and
tones may differ from the first language. This also plural possessive forms (teacher’s and teachers’),
influences their speaking and reading. Where ESL and the use of the articles a and an.
learners read well in their first language, they are
able to generalise their reading abilities across
What are the advantages and disad-
languages. However, where phonic instruction
ACTIVITY

vantages of exposing children to first

takes place there is often a mismatch between the
and second languages simultaneously?
ESL learner’s phonological system of English and Make use of a case study as an exam-
received pronunciation on which phonic practice ple.
is based. When the learner uses the three-cue sys-
tem, namely graphophonic, syntactic and semantic,
ESL learners are inclined to skip non-essential According to Frederickson and Cline (2002: 271),
words and guess at words by using context. teachers feel that teaching standard English to
Sound/letter relations between English and the non-standard English-speaking learners is a way
first language may differ as well as letter combi- of learning more effectively and progressing in
nations, and therefore different ways of decoding the real world. The learners, however, are of the
are used. Because of a lack of vocabulary they find opinion that it is “talking white” and denying
it difficult to guess what strange words might be. them their heritage. The authors conclude that it
The content of the text may not be in their frame “... is a form of cultural subjugation”. Weideman
of reference (culturally) and they find it difficult to (2002: 39) explains that there may be a discrepan-
comprehend. They may read phonetically, for cy between what learners expect from language
example bouquet is read as bouket. They find it dif- learning and how teachers teach it. Teachers may
ficult to break up words into syllables and mis- use methods and approaches which promote flu-
pronounce words such as the, which is read as de ency and communication as opposed to conven-
or ze. Because of these reading errors, their com- tional grammar teaching, which may be in con-
prehension is poor. trast with the learners’ expectations and ultimate-
With reference to writing, Dednam (1997: 135) ly lead to resistance to instructional practices.
gives examples of ESL problems in composition, The language difficulties that ESL learners expe-
spelling and handwriting. ESL learners usually rience can also be ascribed to the fact that they
make the same errors as first language learners, may live in a monolingual society (especially in
such as reversals, and find vowels, vowel combi- the rural areas) where they hear only their first
nations and consonant combinations (sh; ch) diffi- language. They find it difficult to communicate
cult. However, the majority of languages spoken with people and experience limited support in
in South Africa are phonetic. When comparing learning the second language (Frederickson &
words in English we find inconsistencies, for Cline 2002: 292).

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 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

isters and genres in English. Thus they find it

A teacher in Cape Town had a new difficult to reflect on their practice.
learner from Limpopo province who
was Venda speaking and spoke no • Interruptions in the learner’s life, for example
English. The teacher could not speak moving from one province or city to another,
Venda, but rather than allowing the may result in learning backlogs.
learner to languish, she chose to allow • The attitudes of the parents, the school and the
him to teach the class enough of his community towards learning English may be
mother tongue so that they could all negative, thus they do not encourage the chil-
communicate a little bit. The learners
dren to learn English.
got excited about discovering a new
language. This led to the teacher doing Important questions that need to be asked which
ACTIVITY

a unit on Limpopo, complete with a

could shed light on barriers to learning that ESL
wall-size relief mural of the province.
The end result was that the Venda-
learners may experience are as follows:
speaking learner was treated as a val- • How does the home language differ from the
ued part of the class. He was able to LoLT (i.e. the phonological and linguistic
contribute the richness of his culture demands of each language)?
while learning about his new home • What language does the ESL learner use to
(adapted from Freeman & Freeman
speak to his parents, siblings, other family
1992: 73).
Think about alternative ways of
members and friends?
accommodating learners in a similar • Is the ESL learner learning any other language
situation in your class, taking into con- after school over and above the LoLT, such as
sideration the home language, the level extra classes in an Arabic language?
of academic development, etc. • Does the learner have access to first language
support at school?
• Are the learner’s teachers monolingual or bilin-
Other language difficulties ESL learners may expe- gual?
rience are as follows:
• At what age was the learner exposed to Eng-
• Learners’ first language may develop normally lish? Did the learner reach the language devel-
until they learn the second language, and then opmental milestones?
there is an interruption and the first language • Is the learner motivated to become proficient
suffers. Often teachers then identify these in English and maintain proficiency in his home
learners as having a language impairment as language?
they are having difficulties in both languages
(Fredrickson & Cline 2002: 294).
ACTIVITY

• Teachers who are monolingual usually have What are the difficulties and barriers
mixed feelings about learners communicating that the ESL learners and Mrs Dlamini
with their peers in another language. experience in the classroom?
• Teachers are unfamiliar with the different lan-
guages and their structures and do not under-
stand the interference from the first language,
especially word order mistakes and pronuncia- 8.3 ASSESSMENT OF ESL LEARNERS
tion. According to Adler and Reed (2002: 130) Brindley (2001: 131–138) distinguishes between
many teachers in South Africa have a limited proficiency assessment and assessment of achieve-
subject and pedagogic knowledge base. This is ment. Proficiency assessment is used to deter-
especially true of teachers in the rural areas mine the general language abilities which a learn-
who have little exposure in the school and the er has acquired. Standardised language-proficien-
community to a wide range of lexis, syntax, reg- cy tests are usually used in this case. Assessment

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of achievement is used to determine what may not have acquired the language skills to mas-
the learner has learned in a curriculum. This is ter them.
usually based on the specific content of the cur- Frederickson and Cline (2002: 183) pose a cru-
riculum. cial question: When are we looking at learning
According to Krouse (1994: 355–362) the fol- needs or language needs? If it is erroneously
lowing communicational skills are to be assessed, decided that the learner has a learning need, this
which include listening, speaking, reading and can be detrimental to his learning process as the
writing: learner may receive non-challenging learning
• Listening skill – phonic discrimination, under- experiences and be subjected to low expecta-
standing a passage and yes/no-type answers tions. On the other hand if the learner receives a
• Speaking skill – pronunciation, intonation, language support programme of which the pace is
directed response, rejoinders (expressions of too fast and the learning steps are too large, this
social courtesy), stylised idiomatic expression, in turn can also be detrimental. Subsequent
conversational responses, directions, descrip- assessment will continue to reflect language
tions and narrations needs when in actual fact the learner has both
learning and language difficulties. Bilingual learn-
• Reading skill – oral reading and comprehen-
ers who have learning needs will also have lan-
sion
guage needs as their general learning difficulties
• Verse speaking will affect the language of instruction. A curricu-
• Writing – completing sentences, creative writ- lum-based assessment can be used to structure
ing diverse assessment. One needs to determine
• Spelling which tasks the learner can succeed at and which
• Language not. For those the learner is not able to do, the
level of contextual support needs to be increased.
Frederickson and Cline (2002: 180–182) suggest This would involve increasing non-verbal cues in
that when a curriculum-based assessment is envis- order to support the verbal message and to sup-
aged, it is important to determine which tasks the plement the language of tuition with the learner’s
learner is able to succeed in doing and which not. home language. Increased contextual embedding
In this way one is able to get an idea of the learn- will not only assist the learner to succeed, but will
er’s strengths and weaknesses in terms of the cog- make the task easier.
nitive demand of that curriculum area, as well as It needs to be determined what exposure to the
the level of contextual support needed in differ- languages the learners have had, how they use
ent situations. Classroom tasks can be differenti- them and their proficiency. The information gath-
ated, and particular modifications by level or ered will form the basis for further assessment of
method can be done in order for ESL learners to the difficulties in English as a second language
access the curriculum. It is necessary for the and the planning of additional language support.
teacher to be clear about the outcomes of the les- Once the learner’s language background has been
son and have knowledge of the learner’s back- gathered (a list of questions can be used) and it is
ground and try to match the task with the learn- evident that there are problems, one needs to
er’s learning style, proficiency in ESL and inter- determine the learner’s use of language in the fol-
ests. The teacher should not have differentiated lowing ways:
stereotypical expectations based on ethnicity, but
• Formal tests in English as a second language
rather be sensitive to the individual differences
which are associated with linguistic and cultural • Audio or video recording of the learner’s lan-
diversity. The teacher should try to ascertain guage
whether the learner can master tasks when receiv- • Recording of language use in everyday situa-
ing greater contextual support in developing Eng- tions
lish proficiency. Second language learners may be • Questionnaires or structured interviews with
able to cope with cognitively complex tasks but caregivers

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 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

• Meetings and interviews

• Observation and recording of the use of lan- • What is the role of the parents in

ACTIVITY
their child’s acquisition of the second
guage in natural settings
language?
• Drawing on observations of those who live and
• What is the role of the teacher in his
work with the learner (Frederickson & Cline learners’ acquisition of the second
2002: 278–284) language?
ACTIVITY

Draw up a teaching–learning session,

It is necessary that children have time to adjust to
write assessment activities for this ses-
the second language environment and to develop
sion and indicate how many learners
you will be assessing. friendly relations with others in the group. They
need to feel secure and at home in this environ-
ment and to trust their teachers. Teachers need
to encourage a climate of acceptance of these
8.4 SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH SECOND learners by their peers by explaining that the mul-
LANGUAGE LEARNERS tilingual learners need to learn in their second
According to the Revised National Curriculum State- language and that they also need to be proud of
ment Grades R–9 Policy: Languages: English – Second their home language. It is important for teachers
Additional Language (2002: 4), learners need to to treat learners as individuals, to encourage
become competent in their additional language them to use their home language, and to learn the
and at the same time maintain and develop their learners’ language and about their culture. Mak-
home language. The home language should be ing use of the services of a bilingual speaker with
used for learning and teaching at all times. It is a similar cultural background as the ESL learner
stated that where learners’ home language is and creating opportunities for him to participate
other than the language of learning and teaching, in extramural activities will benefit the learner
the LoLT should be introduced in Grade l. These tremendously. Being able to use his first language
learners should receive special assistance and with others provides support and confidence in
supplementary learning of the LoLT. This needs to interacting with them, learning takes place more
continue until the learner can learn effectively in quickly and progress in learning a second lan-
the LoLT. guage is sustained. It is, however, imperative that
It is important for ESL learners to develop a the learners be immersed in experiences in which
love for and therefore enjoyment of listening, they are able to use the second language. They
speaking, reading and writing English and con- need to see and hear it being used.
centrate on what they do know and can do, rather The ways in which parents get their children to
than on what they do not know and cannot do. use their first language must be used by teachers
Children learn to draw on the strategies and skills to get learners to use the second language. These
which they have learnt to use in their first lan- would include pleasurable experiences where
guage. They look for sounds, gestures and actions they speak more slowly, articulate carefully, and
of speakers to identify words as they would in use gestures, facial expressions and tone of voice.
their first language. This trial and error character In this way they become familiar with sounds,
of the children’s attempts as well as responses rhythm and stress. Frequent interaction with the
from competent users in their first language is learners will enable teachers to know whether the
valuable for learning the second language. Strate- learners are ready to proceed; for example, are
gies used to learn the first language can be used they attempting to use a new element of the sec-
when learning a second language, especially if the ond language, which is an indication that they are
circumstances are similar to those of the first. adjusting to the new environment and attuning
Learners should be granted the opportunity to themselves to the second language. This adjust-
experiment with language by making mistakes ment will vary from child to child (Tough 1995:
and learning from them. 219–222).

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All the learners must be involved at all times stand or how they are going to begin their
and the teacher must look at all the learners in work, or ask a learner to repeat the instruction
the class. This prevents learners from feeling dis- in his own words.
liked or ignored and enables the teacher to know • When learners make a mistake it is necessary
what is happening in the class. By making use of for a teacher to concentrate on fluency instead
questions, for example What did the horse do? and of accuracy at the beginning and therefore the
looking around the class, all learners will make an teacher must speak and model the correct lan-
effort to think about the question. The learners guage. Where errors are made regularly the
should be doing most of the talking and be teacher can either discuss them with all the
encouraged at all times to use the grammar which learners or in a small group (those who make
they have learned. Where learners make mistakes the same errors) or individually.
they ought to be corrected in a gentle way by
using the correct word and not by being inter- 8.4.1 Second language learning in a
rupted. Mistakes can be written down and at the multicultural classroom
end of the conversation or lesson the teacher and
the learners can go over them. The teacher must Ernst and Richard (1995: 321) emphasise the
know and understand the grammar she intends importance of the ESL classroom setting. They
teaching. It is also important that when the offer suggestions such as the following to address
teacher writes on the board or overhead projec- the needs of the ESL learners:
tor, the work is neatly and logically set out. • There should be artefacts from different cul-
Diaz-Rico and Weed (1995: 74–83) have the fol- tures, world maps, reading materials, bulletin
lowing to say about language contextualisation: boards, environmental prints, signs and labels,
• The conversation is focused on the task at hand pictures, posters, photographs of learners from
(e.g. a learning activity like experimenting, different cultures, flags and dictionaries in a
cooperative projects such as plays and field variety of languages.
trips). • The classroom can be divided into three cen-
• Vocabulary is used where both the teacher and tres for writing, computer and listening activi-
the learners negotiate meaning. ties based on various topics for a limited time
(week/month) and learners can rotate. These
• The teacher makes use of phrases, vocabulary
activities can include sharing books, conversa-
and gestures to expand the learners’ output.
tions, art projects, thinking and writing activi-
The teachers adapt their speech by making use
ties. Volunteers such as a parent, grandparent
of exact pronunciation, shorter sentences,
or student can assist.
basic vocabulary, longer pauses and exaggerat-
ed stress, and by speaking more slowly. • Plenty of scrap paper, headphones, tape
recorders, a television set and a video recorder
• The teacher may elaborate by using repetition,
are useful to have in the classroom.
paraphrasing and making use of rhetorical
markers. This would involve organisational The diversity of the class population should be
repetition; for example, the teacher can say: In considered a strength as the learners have many
this period we are going to .... or Who can tell me talents and are motivated to learn. However, they
what we did yesterday? These questions can be do also have many needs and are greatly chal-
asked during the rest of the day in different lenged when having to learn in a second lan-
lessons. guage. It is therefore important that teachers
• The teacher can make use of visual and hands- know how a second language is acquired and how
on activities such as models, computers and so to instruct learners who do not understand or
on, in order for language to be made more know how to use English.
comprehensible. When learners are working in cooperative
• It is also important for the teacher to pause groups, code switching should be permissible.
during teaching and ask if the learners under- The learners discuss the report-back in their own

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 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

language with their peers and the report-back experiences and cultural norms is to the learners’
itself is then done in English where the learners advantage and it is the school’s responsibility to
will be able to speak and write it. This technique contribute to the learners’ “cultural capital” (Cor-
should lead to more and more usage of English bett 2001: 63–64).
and is a way of furthering the advancement of Curricular and instructional adaptations should
multilingualism. This in turn will lead to the devel- be designed to facilitate the social and instruc-
opment and value of primary languages, cultures tional participation in the classroom activities.
and additional languages in South Africa and Socialisation is not enough as learners also need
internationally (Wessels & Van den Berg 1998: the opportunity to make progress towards specif-
13–16). ic learning outcomes. These adaptations should
It is of utmost importance that learners make deviate as little as possible from the learning out-
assumptions, deductions and hypotheses about comes but still the learner must benefit by the
how the language works and then try it out, in a activity (Corbett 2001: 2–6).
similar way to that of a young child learning the It is important to make use of a thematic cur-
home language. It is therefore crucial that the riculum as this helps the learners to make a con-
teacher has a positive and supportive attitude nection between other learning areas outside the
towards the learners’ home language and culture school environment, promotes the acquisition of
and is sensitive to how different languages problem-solving skills and provides repeated
express ideas. The teacher should at all times practice. Learners learn about the differences and
shape English to accommodate all learners. If the similarities in culture, race, etc. which supports
teacher has learned a second language, so much respect and understanding of group and individ-
better as he will have an understanding of the ual differences (Janney & Snell 2000: 10).
process of learning the second language and how The following practical examples are very
languages differ. The teacher should also be useful:
aware of how English differs from the learners’
• A lesson plan is needed where the outcome of
home language. Many languages’ alphabets, writ-
the lesson plays a vital role in motivating the
ing conventions and body language differ from
learner. Outcomes and tasks must be set which
English, and this can be offensive to some learn-
the majority of learners can achieve. Teachers
ers as they may misinterpret some of these mes-
must bear in mind that all curricular activities
sages (Garner 1990: 2).
are language based. The aids, the vocabulary,
Where the level of proficiency is varied in a
comprehension and questions, practice activi-
class, the teacher can ask difficult questions of
ties and free activities must be well set out.
those learners who are at a higher level and ask
Well-prepared teachers will be confident in
the same questions again later on of those who
their teaching. Teachers need to consider the
have difficulty. Learners need to teach each other
input (vocabulary and structure) and skills
and those who know more should talk to those
(receptive – listening, reading; and productive –
who are not as advanced. They should be encour-
writing, speaking) of learners when planning a
aged to work on their English outside the class-
lesson. It is also necessary to consider the
room. Where possible the teacher needs to deal
learners’ needs and what they want to do, and
with individual cases in order to find out what the
to offer fun activities as well. A lesson plan
source of any problem is.
should reflect the following:
For many learners who have limited English
proficiency, assemblies are a place where oppor- – Learning area, learning area integration,
tunities are provided for “... affirmations of a valu- learning outcome, assessment standard
ing of difference in a multicultural society” (Cor- – Activity, teaching method, learner activity,
bett 2001: 63–64). This is a display of respect for resources and time-frame
other minority languages and the ethos of inclu- – Curriculum adaptations, adapted teaching
sion is revealed where awareness is regarded as method, adapted learner activity, adapted
valuable. Recognition of learners’ value systems, resources and adapted time-frame

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– Assessment activity, assessment method, from, etc. In this way the teacher can determine
assessment techniques, resources and time- at which level the learners are functioning and
frame will be in a position to note common mistakes
– Adapted assessment activity, adapted which need to be worked on.
assessment method, adapted assessment • Teachers should always have a dictionary and
techniques, adapted resources and adapted grammar book available for those times when
time-frame learners ask questions which are difficult to
• When teaching language, the teacher should answer or where the teacher does not know the
allow the lesson to progress from teaching key answer.
vocabulary and language patterns to dialogue • Teachers should make a point of learning the
on tape or video or in a textbook. The learners learners’ names and using them as soon as pos-
should then be given an opportunity to practice sible by having the learners use name tags.
the dialogue and ultimately to use the new lan-
• Teachers should concentrate on writing clearly
guage in discussions, reading, writing and role-
on the board and setting the work out logically.
play. New vocabulary should be introduced at
the beginning of the theme.
What methods, strategies and activities
• Teacher talk time should be minimised. It is ACTIVITY do you think Mrs Dlamini used in her
important that as many learners say as much as multilingual classroom to ensure the
possible and therefore the teacher must offer as use of a second language as a medium
many interesting topics as possible (real-life sit- of expression and ultimately as a lan-
uation). Before topics are discussed in class, the guage of learning and teaching?
teacher must first present the task by using the
more advanced learners to demonstrate it. The
Wessels and Van den Berg (1998: 17–41) suggest
teacher’s main task initially is to interpret the
the following ways to establish a learner-centred
spoken word for the learner. It would be a good
classroom:
idea for the teacher first to talk to the learners
by asking them questions about their own expe- • Using play. Play allows learners to communi-
riences, to which they know the answers. This cate without having inhibitions. Play gives
could be done by making use of accompanying learners the opportunity to use new words, to
pictures or reading titles. In addition, a tape can express thoughts and ideas, and to become
be used – the learners can read the text and can actively involved in the learning situation
then give a verbal account. The next topic can where their social skills improve as they coop-
be done in the same way, but this time in erate with one another. They begin to learn the
groups or pairs. basic skills of listening, reading, speaking and
writing through play activities. The materials
• Instead of explaining, rather ask questions
used and the type of activities in the various
which elicit short answers. Asking questions is
phases will determine at which level the lan-
one way to get the learners’ attention. The
guage skills are practised; for example, in the
question should be asked in general as all the
foundation phase words and sentences are
learners will attempt to think about the ques-
repeated, pictures, actions and dramatisations
tion. Questions should be asked randomly, not
are used, and so forth.
by starting at one end of the class and ending at
the other side. This causes learners to relax or • Using short grammar explanations. The use of
resort to other behaviour once they have had this technique will depend on the level at which
their turn while those who have not been asked the learner is functioning. If learners are able to
yet can work out the answers. Learners should define and explain rules, for example using
be encouraged to communicate with one anoth- nouns correctly in spoken and written lan-
er as soon as possible by working in pairs e.g. guage, it will increase their talk time.
asking one another’s name, where they come • Using wait time. After a question has been

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asked it is necessary to give the learner enough ous learning experiences in order to prepare vari-
time to think about the answer. ous activities and to keep them involved in new
• Accepting replies. When learners do give incor- tasks. By simply asking learners to complete the
rect answers or make mistakes they should be following two questions, one is able to determine
given the opportunity to correct themselves, their learning preferences:
instead of the teacher always correcting them. I find group work to be more enjoyable and help-
• Allowing preparation time. Learners should be ful when ... because...
allowed enough time to prepare activities as I find group work to be less enjoyable and help-
this will produce good results and make topical ful when ... because...
conversation relevant. (Kinsella 1996: 24–30)
• Designing projects. Projects facilitate pair and Cooperative learning activities include listening,
group work. Before the learners attempt to do telling, sharing, discussing, arguing, convincing,
the project they must be clear about what is persuading, enquiring, teaching, explaining,
expected of them and be given an outline informing, etc. (Wessels & Van den Berg 1998:
which they can follow. It is important that they 28). These activities can take place using different
know where and how to find information. The cooperative learning techniques such as the fol-
learners are then instructed to plan carefully in lowing:
their groups and to decide the different
responsibilities that each participant will have • Buzz groups (three to four learners). The activ-
e.g. scribe, etc. They need to know where and ities are task-centred where discussion takes
how to obtain the information. place in order to answer a question, etc.
• Brainstorming. This technique is used to elicit
8.4.2 Cooperative learning groups many creative ideas. The learners must under-
stand what brainstorming is and the topic must
In learner-centred ESL classrooms where group
be clearly stated. The learners must know what
work is done, learners are able to explore ideas,
is expected of them and a scribe should be
promote communicative competence and develop
appointed to write down ideas. There should
literacy. Learners are able to speak and justify
be a time limit.
their point of view. They are also exposed to new
ideas and approaches. By means of discussion, • Jigsaw activities. Learners are divided into base
questioning, organisation and application their groups which all need to do the same task. This
comprehension, retention of important concepts, task is divided into sub-tasks and each member
attitudes and interpersonal relationships improve. of the group does a sub-task. All the learners
However, learners are not all enthusiastic about from the different groups who worked on the
working in groups and therefore teachers need to same sub-task are then grouped together to
understand their attitudes toward group work. work on the task. Once the time has expired
Many learners are used to teacher-centred the learners return to their base groups and
approaches where the teacher transfers knowl- teach them. A discussion with all the learners
edge and learners record, memorise and recall it. in the class then follows.
Teachers need to consider the learners’ classroom
working preferences, which is sometimes to work • First read paragraph 4.3 (in Chapter
on their own, and that they need to grasp the pur- 4) on cooperative learning. Pay atten-
pose and procedures of that required task. It is tion to the requirements for coopera-
ACTIVITY

tive learning, roles for each learner in

important that group work be used for all learners
the group, etc.
to learn successfully and this can be done by struc-
• Plan a lesson for Mrs Dlamini where
turing the group activities in such a way that all
group work, peer teaching, varied
the learners’ learning-style needs are accommo-
activities, and materials and
dated. It is therefore necessary for teachers to resources feature.
have a knowledge of learners’ strengths and previ-

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8.4.3 Teaching and learning styles communication skills for everyday use. Eventually
It is important for teachers to be aware of the dif- learners need to develop academic language in
ferent learning styles and potential of the learners order to respond to the teacher and to cooperate
in the class. Some learners learn the language with classmates when doing projects, and to use
phrases and expressions orally very quickly while resources to express themselves verbally and in
others need explanations and also need them to writing. The teacher who uses the communicative
be written down. The teacher should endeavour approach needs to focus on content by making
to offer a balance between oral and written work, use of language forms and structures. Listening
carefully controlled and authentic language, and comprehension is the most important aspect of
demonstration and explanation (Meakin 1990: language for beginners, therefore comprehensi-
16–17). ble input is of utmost importance.
The advantage of mixing teaching and learning Total physical response (TPR), association of
styles is that learners who learn better in one way words with people and objects in the immediate
than another have greater opportunities where environment, and the use of pictures will help
group work encourages the maximisation of inter- with listening comprehension skills. Asher (in
ests, experiences and skills. The learners teach Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: 84–89) identified three
and guide one another as they learn from the elements of TPR, namely that listening precedes
teacher and their peers. An innovative teacher speaking, understanding by means of body movement
needs to be reflective and committed in order to and never forcing speaking. The teacher gives a
try out new methods and to get the learners to command while modelling actions and the learner
assess the value thereof as this helps the teacher follows. The teacher repeats this process until the
to find out what works for the different learners. learner is able to perform adequately. Eventually
It is necessary for a school to be committed in the teacher performs less and the group and then
using a wide range of practices in order to meet the individuals respond to the teacher’s command
the needs of all learners. There is the question: is alone. Commands are gradually increased. Com-
withdrawal for special support part of an inclusive mands are also used to introduce reading and
education? To answer this question one must writing; for example the word “stand” is written
consider the availability of diverse teaching and on the board and the teacher gestures to the
learning styles that will cater for individual needs, learner to stand.
which is one of the alternatives for those learners Content-based ESL, where subject matter con-
who do not cope in a whole-class activity (Corbett tent is used, can take place at the same time the
2001: 56–61). learner is learning the basic second language.
Total physical response is an excellent way to
8.4.4 Different teaching approaches reduce anxiety. In cooperative learning groups,
learners can act the role of the teacher and give
[Link] The communicative approach and
commands and ask questions. New vocabulary is
other methods
taught and learners demonstrate their under-
The crux of the communicative approach is to standing by means of actions. They speak when
negotiate for meaning where the teacher and the they are ready. The game “Simple Simon says” can
learners work together to arrive at meaningful, be played – the learners only respond if the com-
shared knowledge. The teacher guides and organ- mand is preceded by “Simon says”.
ises resources and sets up procedures and activi-
ties. The learners, on the other hand, need to take
responsibility for their own learning, sharing it Mrs Dlamini needs to convince her col-
ACTIVITY

with their peers and the teacher. The learners can leagues to make use of the commu-
select and organise the curriculum content. They nicative approach in addition to other
work together using functional language commu- teaching approaches. How would you
nication. Initially learners need to know how to advise her to go about doing it?
gain their basic needs using basic interpersonal

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 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

[Link] The whole language approach • The learners need input from all four modes.
Whole language teachers teach their learners all • Having faith in the learner encourages learning.
the kinds of language which is rich in content, rel-
Learning second language through content
evant, interesting and meaningful right from the
implies a long-term plan and this can be done by
beginning. Language and literacy learning experi-
the teacher and the learners. An example of a
ences can be integrated in order for learners to
whole language content lesson follows:
have maximum opportunity to engage in conver-
sation. It is a stimulating and experiential lan-
guage learning lesson which allows the learners to Activity 1
integrate their backgrounds, interests, strengths The teacher asks learners to think about a
and prior knowledge of English (Ernst & Richard topic, for example: “What do you spend
1995: 321). Learners are taught vocabulary, simple money on?” The learners list ideas and share
sentences and strategies to read and work with them with a peer. The teacher asks the pairs
content learning areas such as geography. The to tell her what they wrote. This is written on
learners are involved in thematic lessons which the board in categories (the learners help to
cater for their present needs as well as for aca- categorise) by making use of symbols for
demic purposes, and they choose the topics. This each category, such as #medicine, #doctor
enables the teacher to contextualise language and and *groceries, *rice, etc. This helps the learn-
to teach language as well as content (Freeman & ers with vocabulary. The teacher is able to
Freeman 1992: 90). It not necessary to use litera- assess the learners’ knowledge as they gener-
ture as other instructional materials may also be ate their own vocabulary. Advanced learners
used, such as signs, cereal boxes and T-shirts provide vocabulary which beginners are not
(Goodman in Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: 101). acquainted with and hence they learn from
Predictable stories or pattern books can also be one another. Beginners can use labelled pic-
used. In a group, a large book with an enlarged tures to categorise.
format can be used. By looking at the cover of the
book the learners are asked to predict what is Activity 2
going to happen in the story. They become inter- On the basis of the learners’ responses to the
ested and it involves their knowledge. The question asked in Activity 1, further ques-
teacher reads the story and the learners listen tions based on a category such as food are
without interrupting. The learners read together asked. Learners then supply the names of
and they share the story, which makes them feel shops and give reasons for shopping there.
that they are able to read the book on their own Shops’ names and reasons are written on the
later on. The learners then discuss the story in board.
groups. The stories in the books have patterned
language, for example repetition and rhyme. By Activity 3
making use of role-play, writing new endings and
A further question is asked, for example:
puppet shows, learners can expand on their read-
“What do smart shoppers do?” In small
ing and they have an opportunity to integrate
groups the learners discuss and write down a
other skills. The learners become able to write
list which they share with the whole class. A
their own stories (Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: 102).
composite list is then written on the board.
Freeman and Freeman (1992: 112) explain
whole language principles as follows:
Activity 4
• Learning takes place from the whole to the Each group receives a copy of a particular
part. magazine (rich with pictures and informa-
• The classes are learner-centred. tion). The learners scan the magazine, pick an
• Learning should be meaningful and purposeful. article and write a brief report which pro-
• Social interaction takes place while learning. vides answers to questions.

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Activity 5 In the light of this outcome, the following support

Small groups choose a product they would strategies to enhance communication are recom-
like to research. They conduct the research mended (Klippel 1985: 12–19):
and then give a written or oral report to the • Cooperative learning, where learners learn
rest of the class. They can conduct interviews group and conversational skills
outside the classroom, study real products • Answering questions, solving problems in small
and read advertisements. groups, playing guessing games and practising
speeches to improve oral communication
• Getting learners to talk in planned lessons,
This lesson can be extended over a few days or
such as lodging complaints or apologising,
weeks and can be used in different grades. It is
etc.
important to note that one begins with what
learners already know. One then encourages • Using jazz chants such as “I’m sorry, I’m so
them to explore what they want to know (Free- sorry, I’m really sorry, I’m terribly sorry”
man & Freeman 1992: 47; 92; 95). • Having real conversations by means of simulat-
Themes are used such as “house”, “school” and ed exchanges in the pharmacy, etc.
so forth, as this creates opportunities for learners • Taking part in role-play, interviews, chain sto-
to use and develop oral language, reading and ries, talks, songs and discussions
writing. For those learners coming from rural
areas books such as City Mouse Country Mouse can Listening is an act of constructing meaning. The
be used as a variety of projects can be based on learner uses his prior knowledge and what he
the story. For example, they can draw maps of the expects of the message in order to understand
city and discuss how to locate places in the city the conversation. Strategies which can be used to
and add street signs. These tasks can be displayed improve listening are as follows:
in the class or any other part of the school. They • Listening to repeat. The learner must listen and
can also draw or write about their home towns repeat a short sentence with one phoneme
and compare urban and rural settings. which differs, e.g. It is a ship/It is a sheep. Anoth-
er example is where the learner needs to repeat
8.4.5 Planning a second language the end of a sentence, then the next part is
lesson according to RNCS added and so it continues, e.g. store/the store/to
outcomes the store/walked to the store/Peter walked to the
According to the Revised National Curriculum State- store.
ment (RNCS) Grades R–9 (Schools) Policy for Lan- • Listening to understand. Learners listen to a
guages: English – Second Additional Language, each story on tape and then complete true/false
of the following sections will be introduced by the exercises; or they listen to a recorded speech
outcome for that specific aspect of language. and then encircle listed vocabulary as it appears
in the text; or they can listen to a speech and
[Link] Listening and speaking then write an outline of it.
• Listening for communication. Total physical
Outcome
response (TPR) can be used where learners lis-
1. The learner will be able to listen for infor- ten to language through movements, observa-
mation and enjoyment, and respond tion, and manipulation of objects and pictures.
appropriately and critically in a wide Initially they demonstrate their understanding
range of situations. by means of physical movements. Interviews
2. The learner will be able to communicate and problem-solving situations (riddles, brain-
confidently and effectively in spoken lan- teasers) are other ways to improve listening
guage in a wide range of situations. skills (Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: 91–98).

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 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

Vocabulary is learned in a situation and language without sound is taking place, the learners can
structures are learned informally by means of describe what is happening and being said. The
games and stories, whereas the sound system is learners can ask one another questions. This
learned by means of imitation and repetition – activity is very useful when introducing vocabu-
the teacher speaks and the learner imitates. The lary. After the listening and speaking activities, a
teacher can say a number of words and when writing activity can follow; for example, the learn-
“river” is said the learners put up one finger and ers can be asked to write five sentences on what
when “liver” is said, they put up two fingers. It is goes on in the class and what does not. This can
important for the teacher to emphasise correct be done in a group where the sentences can be
pronunciation and to use rising intonation in his written on the board or on paper and presented
voice as well as facial expression. The teacher can orally. This activity serves to review vocabulary
show concern for accuracy by stressing the wrong and grammatical structures.
syllable, then correcting himself and emphasising When using songs, the teacher first discusses
the right syllable. the topic of the song, for example “feelings”, and
Structures can be practised as follows: asks questions about the singer and the song-
• Learner X leaves the room and the rest of the writer of the class or small groups. The instruc-
class think of an adverb, e.g. quickly. Learner X tions should then be read with the class, with an
returns and then asks the class to demonstrate explanation of what the song is about. The learn-
the adverb, e.g. Pat writes quickly. Pat then has ers are given the song on a sheet of paper with a
to write quickly and learner X has to guess few words deleted. The deleted words should be
what the adverb is. available for learners to use to fill in the gaps.
Allow the learners to work in groups as they do
this. Dictionaries come in very handy at this stage.
Pronunciation games can also be played, for
Before the song is played, they need to compare
example:
their answers. When the song is played, the learn-
• The teacher can give the learners a shopping ers check to see if they have filled the deleted
list with different items. The learners must then words in the gaps correctly. They are then given a
draw two columns, one for words containing a summary of the song and they need to find the
u sound and the other for words containing an mistakes in it. There are different types of songs
i sound – and write the words from the shop- which can be used, such as songs for special occa-
ping list in the relevant columns. sions, games and so on. It is important that the
• A story can be read where there are two char- songs be selectively chosen to suit the level and
acters. The learners are given a list of adjectives age of the learners, and to consider aspects such
and they must decide which adjectives suit as vocabulary and structures.
which character. Other questions which can be
asked are, for example, what the moral of the
story is. • Think of a way in which a guessing
game can be played where all the
learners can participate.
According to Yang (1995: 65–68), television com-
• How can a Bingo game be used to
mercials such as family relationships, New Year’s
practise nouns or prepositions?
activities and so on provide valuable aural, visual
ACTIVITY

• How can games be adapted to be

and cultural input for discussion. These advertise-
used as a pronunciation game?
ments can be exploited by way of previewing,
• Give an example of a guessing game
viewing and post-viewing activities. The learners and say what language structures
can watch the advertisement without sound, then are being practised in this game.
with sound and lastly again without sound where • Give an example of a game where
they provide the audio part. The teacher can the present/past/future tense is
pause at a certain point and ask questions or dis- being practised.
cuss the characters or setting. When viewing

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

[Link] Reading here is that the learners have the opportunity

to relate their own experiences orally. They
Outcome understand that sounds can be transcribed into
The learner will be able to read and view for symbols which can be used to recreate the
information and enjoyment, and respond ideas they have expressed. It is advisable to
critically to the aesthetic, cultural and emo- make use of an eclectic approach, where the
tional values in texts. strengths of both methods are used to acquire
reading proficiency. The teacher should know
the level of the learners’ language development
It is important to keep in mind that reading does and then make informed decisions on which
not only involve decoding of words (the mechan- approach to use.
ics of reading) but also, most importantly, it
allows the reader to derive meaning from the text • Literature-based curriculum. Using authentic
and acquire knowledge (Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: English works is culturally enriching and
98). Interaction takes place between the text and describes many societies, for example what they
the reader’s experience and therefore readers rely eat, their feelings and so on. This also applies to
on their short- and long-term memory to relate historical literature. Literature also involves
the meaning of the text to their prior knowledge learners personally – they become stimulated
and language ability. It is therefore of utmost and explore other territories while their lan-
importance that the learners work collaboratively guage is developing and they are participating
and read and write in order to communicate. in reading and writing activities. By engaging in
Diaz-Rico and Weed (1995: 99) offer the follow- the reading of literature, the learners develop
ing strategies and techniques for teachers to use left-to-right text direction skills, knowledge of
when helping learners to read to acquire know- print characteristics, and appreciation of graph-
ledge: ics and pictures. It is very important to consider
the learners’ interests, needs, cultural back-
• Preceding activities. By means of preceding ground and language level in order to know
activities such as group brainstorming, pictures, what literature to choose. Literature which
charts, field trips, etc., the learner understands reflects their own culture is exciting for them.
the cultural context of the text, which enables
him to interact with the text, anticipate what is • Genres: patterns and purposes. Teachers
going to happen and gain knowledge. The explain to learners the purpose of the text and
learner is able to understand the vocabulary and the audience for which it is written – for exam-
the concepts in the text. ple a menu in a restaurant – as this helps them
to understand the text. Exposing learners to a
• Initial reading instruction. There are different variety of texts such as recipes, plays and
approaches which a teacher can use, one of poems expands their knowledge of English text.
which is the synthetic approach. Letters, sounds
and syllables are used to build meaning, which • Techniques for learners without literacy in first
works well with languages where the or second languages. Such learners would
speech/print correspondence is regular – i.e. include preschoolers, those who have no
knowing the sounds and how they are com- knowledge of print and those who are partially
bined in order to read for meaning. The analytic literate. It is important that these learners con-
approach emphasises whole words and sen- tinue with preliterate activities and reading pro-
tences such as in the language experience grammes in their home language up to the
approach. The learners relate the story or expe- Grade 4 level, along with exposure to stories
rience (topics they are interested in), the about their culture in English. This enables
teacher writes it down exactly as the learner them to concentrate on language. These learn-
tells it and reads it back to the learners, who ers should try to read by themselves even if they
eventually read it by themselves. The advantage do not understand all the words. The teacher

164
 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

can begin by reading aloud. The learners listen to guess what is written on the card. Pairs of
to discussions about the book, which will learners can also play this game. Each learner
increase their vocabulary. The language experi- has a list of words. One learner reads some of
ence approach is very effective for this group of the words marked with a cross. The other
learners. learner must decide if the word on his list is the
same or not.
The vocabulary self-collection strategy by Haggard • Learners are given a set of pictures from maga-
(Martin et al. 2002: 34) can be useful for vocabu- zines and a set of instructions accompanying
lary building: them. The instructions are scrambled and the
• The learners read part of the text. learners have to match the pictures and sen-
• They then make a list of words of their choice tences.
from the text. • For recipes, learners are given lists of ingredi-
• Each learner then chooses one word from his ents and lists of instructions and they have to
list which he thinks is important for everybody match the right instructions to particular lists
in the class to learn, and supplies reasons for of ingredients.
choosing the word. • Learners are given a cartoon. Pictures 1, 2 and 3
• In small groups (2–5) they present their words have dialogue written in the bubbles. The bub-
and respond to the following questions: Where bles in the rest of the pictures are blank and the
is it in the passage? What does it mean in the text? learners have to write in their own dialogue.
Why is it important for everybody to learn the Alternatively, they are given a number of cap-
word? tions which concentrate on sequencing; for
• The groups must then present their words with example: Later in the afternoon ...; As the evening
their responses to the questions to the whole approached ..., and the learners must match
class. The class is encouraged to add any infor- them with pictures 4, 5 and 6. These activities
mation. can be done in pairs. They can also make up
• Once all the groups have had their turn, the their own story and present it to the class, or
class can agree on a final list of words with the teacher can ask them to write their own
their definitions to add to their notebooks. endings which are then discussed with the
• Learners need to look up each word in their class.
dictionaries to make sure of the meaning. • The teacher can write a story and present it
• Learners are encouraged to use these words with accompanying drawings and captions, or
when speaking and writing English. while the teacher is telling the story a colleague
• It is important that the teacher evaluates the or learner can mime the actions, or the story
word lists. The teacher should listen to the can be presented as a short play by reading it
learners’ reasons for choosing the words, their aloud several times and then performing it for
discussions about the meaning of the words in the learners.
their contexts, and how they use context clues • The learners can listen to a well-known folktale
like syntax and semantics. The learners can also and then write their own story along with a
be evaluated on how they write about their moral. The teacher must make them aware of
assessment of their own performance in the how the story begins and ends.
group and the class discussions. • Meaningful texts should be used and should be
accompanied by example exercises, graphs,
The following reading activities can be useful: illustrations and photos. Email can also become
• Flashcards are used, for example Sing to me. reading material as well as tape recordings of
Mary stands behind the teacher. The teacher learners’ life stories. The teacher transcribes
shows the flashcard to the class and they and edits them, and these become reading
demonstrate what is on the card. Mary then has materials.

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

• Teachers can read aloud to learners. Books er via a tape recorder is very effective. Peer
should have attractive illustrations, repetitive response can also be used as learners are guided
language and a predictable story structure. by questions while reading each other’s work. Flu-
During the early stages of reading, internation- ency is the first priority rather than accuracy.
ally known stories such as Red Riding Hood and When working with younger learners, the teacher
Cinderella are recommended (Ernst & Richard should concentrate on getting the learners to
1994: 324). express ideas, rather than on correcting their
grammar (Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: 104–106).
Internet technology is very useful in the teach-
ACTIVITY

Why is it important for teachers to read ing of ESL. The teacher needs to arrange learning
stories aloud to learners? What are the environments that include learning aids which
benefits for the learners? will meet the needs, interests and language abili-
ties of the learners and to consider their back-
grounds. The teacher can design a website by
[Link] Writing finding relevant ones and providing learners with
guidance and an apprenticeship. The teacher can
Outcome download the necessary documents, divide them
into a sub-web, and thus construct an intranet. As
The learners will be able to write different
the learners progress they are allowed more free-
kinds of factual and imaginative texts for a
dom to explore and attempt to answer more
wide range of purposes.
open-ended questions (Yang 2001: 92).
Before a writing activity begins, the teacher
The essence of writing as a communicative task is should use aids which will stimulate the learners.
to relate it to the real world. The teacher needs to The use of pictures, photographs, newspapers
follow the process approach which includes plan- and articles on current events will get learners in
ning, writing and editing. During the planning a group started. Other activities can include real
stage the learners have oral experiences – such as objects such as modern music, folktales, excur-
speaking, listening, reading and brainstorming – sions and role-playing. Topics which learners can
which motivate them to write. During the writing choose from include rhymes, songs, feelings and
stage they write as quickly as they can, concen- directions. Learners begin writing by tracing let-
trating on spelling, vocabulary and syntax without ters, words and sentences. Grammatical patterns
worrying about accuracy. The learners can inter- and functional rules – for example simple present
act with one another by way of sharing and dis- tense to describe everyday routines – can be
cussing. During the editing stage the teacher taught. Simple sentences can be written on the
helps the learners fix spelling, etc. The main aim board and learners then write on the board
of this whole process of writing to communicate adding onto the sentences. They can also make up
is to generate writing which captures shared ideas sentences of words that all begin with the same
(Diaz-Rico & Weed 1995: 104). sound; for example “Careful Carmen can’t come”.
This reinforces vocabulary development. Other
The writing workshop activities which can be used here include
Learners are responsible for their own learning. unscrambling muddled sentence parts, planning a
They work on projects and have material and party by making two lists, such as “Things to do”
resources available. English home language and “Things to buy”. The learners can work in
speakers and the teacher can act as resources. groups or pairs and even do related tasks such as
The teacher is the facilitator and works on the writing invitations and so on. More advanced
progress of each learner during certain times by learners can read and write public notices, such as
listening to him and asking questions, which notices on bulletin boards, and role-play tele-
helps him to control, organise and focus on the phone conversations.
writing. Oral feedback by the teacher to the learn- During the early stages of writing the ESL learn-

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 SECOND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 8

ers’ writing efforts should be accompanied by with their children’s education at home. At school
drawings. They can start by dictating the story to they can help the teacher with the language, pro-
the teacher and the teacher then writes the story, vide information about the culture, and help to
or they can organise a set of drawings to tell the translate letters and stories in the home language.
story. Collaborative efforts with peers to organ- It is of the utmost importance for parents to
ise, write, revise, edit and publish their written participate in the activities of the school. The
work are of value in developing writing skills. It is school’s communication with parents in the form
important that ESL learners make use of tradition- of letters, notifications and reports in the home
al literary language formats such as nursery language enhances the relationship between the
rhymes (Ernst & Richard 1995: 325). parents and the school. Parents can be involved by
• having representative parent committees to
It is your colleague’s first day of teach- advise on cultural and linguistic issues
ing 15 ESL learners who are totally • using the library with their children to work on
ACTIVITY

immersed in her Grade 4 class (38 projects

learners). What advice would you give
• using the school facilities for community meet-
her to get through the first hour? Key
words: names; talk; textbook; frame of
ings.
reference; correct; questions; answer- It is important for schools to encourage the fos-
ing; pronunciation; lesson progress tering of good relations with parents and commu-
nities by means of orientations, home language
newsletters and committees.
8.4.6 Parental involvement
It is important for teachers to communicate with
Make suggestions on how the principal,
parents of ESL learners by means of handouts
ACTIVITY

school governing body (SGB), school

(typed) and personal meetings. Parents need to be management team (SMT) and teachers
informed about the progress and problems their can encourage parents to become
children are experiencing and about the correct involved in their children’s acquisition
type of support they need to provide. This means of the second language, English.
that parents must be encouraged not to drop the
home language in order to speak English at home.
Instead, the home language should be supple-
8.5 CONCLUSION
mented by the language of learning and teaching
used at school as well as by other media such as Learners who are taught in schools where English
newspapers, television, discussions and so on. is the language of learning and teaching but not
However, parents should help their children with their home language are usually referred to as
their English assignments. They should understand English second language (ESL) learners. In this
that ESL is a support programme whereby the chapter we highlight the difficulties these learn-
learners benefit in all learning areas. It is also ers may experience in school to access the cur-
important that the parents understand why, riculum. Guidelines to support these learners to
because of ESL, their children do not achieve as improve their skills in speaking, reading and writ-
they would in their first language (Garner 1990: ing are offered.
127–129). Parents should provide teachers with
information regarding their children’s language Questions
development, such as how old they were when
they were confronted with a new language; who 1. What do you think are the main reasons for so
they communicate with at home; whether they are many learners in South Africa learning in their
exposed to reading material, television, etc. Teach- second or even third language?
ers should be in close contact with parents, who 2. Compile a lesson plan to teach English second
need to be involved in the school’s activities and language by means of a holistic approach.

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and enhances diverse classroom work styles. Tesol Jour-
Adler, J. & Reed, Y. 2002. Challenges of teacher develop- nal, 6(1): 24–30.
ment. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Klippel, F. 1985. Keep talking. Cambridge: Cambridge
Brindley, G. 2001. Assessment. In Carter, R. & Nunan, D. University Press.
(Eds), Teaching English to speakers of other languages. Krouse, M.A. 1994. Communicative English. Cape Town:
Madrid: Cambridge University Press. Maskew Miller Longman.
Bygate, M. 2001. Speaking. In Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Lapp, D., Fisher, D., Flood, J. & Cabello, A. 2001. Are L
(Eds), Teaching English to speakers of other languages. One and L Two complementary? In Hurley, S.R. & Tina-
Madrid: Cambridge University Press. jero, J.V. (Eds), Literacy assessment of second language
learners. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 3–24.
Corbett, J. 2001. Supporting inclusive education. London:
Routledge Falmer. Martin, A., Martin, S.H. & Ying, W. 2002. The vocabulary
self-collection strategy in the ESL classroom. TESOL
Dednam, A. 1997. Learners with special educational
Journal, 11(2): 34.
needs. Study guide for FDESEL-L. Pretoria: Unisa.
Meakin, S. 1990. Some theoretical considerations. In Mur-
Department of Education. 1997. Language in Education phy, E. (Ed.), ESL: a handbook for teachers and adminis-
Policy of South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Education. trators in international schools. Philadelphia: Multilingual
Department of Education. 2002. Revised National Curricu- Matters Ltd, 11–17.
lum Statement Grades R–9 (Schools) Policy. Languages: Rost, M. 2001. Listening. In Carter, R. & Nunan, D. (Eds),
English – Second Additional Language. Cape Town: Teaching English to speakers of other languages. Madrid:
Department of Education. Cambridge University Press.
Diaz-Rico, L.T. & Weed, K.Z. 1995. The cross-cultural, Setati, M., Adler, J., Reed, Y. & Bapoo, A. 2002. Code-
language, and academic development handbook. Boston: switching and other language practices in mathematics,
Allyn & Bacon. science and English language classrooms in South Africa.
Ellis, G. 1996. How culturally appropriate is the commu- In Adler, J. & Reed, Y. (Eds), Challenges of teacher devel-
nicative approach? ELT Journal, 50(3), 213–218. opment. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 72–91.
Tough, J. 1995. Young children learning languages. In
Ernst, G. & Richard, K.J. 1995. Reading and writing path-
Brumfit, C., Moon, J. & Tongue, R. (Eds), Teaching English
ways to conversation in the ESL classroom. The Reading
to children. Essex: Longman, 213–227
Teacher, 46(4), 320–326.
Weideman, A. 2002. Unit for language skills development.
Frederickson, N. & Cline, T. 2002. Special educational
Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
needs, inclusion and diversity. Buckingham: Open Univer-
sity Press. Wessels, M. & Van den Berg, R. 1998. Practical guide to
facilitating language learning. Johannesburg: International
Freeman, Y.S. & Freeman, D.E. 1992. Whole language for
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second language learners. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Williams, M. 1996. A framework for teaching English to
Freeman, Y.S. & Freeman D.E. 1998. ESL/ECL teaching. young learners. In Brumfit, C., Moon J. & Tongue, R.
Portsmouth: Heinemann. (Eds), Teaching English to children. Essex: Longman.
Garner, D. 1990. The teacher’s task: the work of the Wilson, G. & Wilson, A. 1971. Teaching English to foreign-
classroom. In Murphy, E. (Ed.), ESL: a handbook for ers. London: BT Batsford Ltd.
teachers and administrators in international schools.
Yang, J.P. 1995. Integrating authentic materials into the
Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 105–130.
intermediate classroom with Taiwan TV ads. Journal of
Janney, R. & Snell, M.E. 2000. Modifying schoolwork. Bal- the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 30(1):
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University Press. ed Learning, 17: 85–93.

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND
ALTERNATIVE 9
COMMUNICATION
JUAN BORNMAN

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand why learners with little or no functional speech should be
exposed to augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)
strategies to facilitate learning
Œ define “aided” and “unaided” communication systems and provide
examples of each
Πselect an aided and/or unaided system for a particular learner
Πdescribe different forms of AAC that may be implemented in the
classroom
Πdispel general myths related to AAC.

CASE STUDY
The closest simile as to how people treat non-
speech people is how they treat pet dogs ... think
about that for a minute. How much difference is Background
there? People take good care of pet dogs. They Jabulani Kabini is ten years old and attends the
give them love, food, warm homes, attention Golden Acres School in Pretoria. He is in a wheel-
when they are not busy. And people don’t expect chair as he is unable to walk, but he can use his
much out of their pet dogs. Just affection and right hand quite effectively. He has a severe intel-
obedience. This is the sad part. People just don’t lectual impairment.
expect much from non-speech people.
Communication skills
(Rick Creech, AAC user in Musselwhite & Jabulani has only a few intelligible words, e.g.
St Louis 1988: ix) “uh” to indicate “yes” and “Mama”. When he is
thirsty, he will show his cup. When he finishes
any task he smiles and tries to point to something
else to do. Sometimes the other learners will
Key terms notice that Jabulani is pointing to something in
particular, and they will give it to him. When his
augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)
pointing attempts are not understood, he reacts
♦ aided systems ♦ high technology ♦ little or no by crying and screaming. He has invented a sign
functional speech ♦ low technology ♦ manual signs (using his right hand) for when he wants to dance,
♦ unaided systems one of his favourite activities.

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Teacher’s impressions scientist who cannot talk and has to communicate

It is unclear how much Jabulani understands, but by using a computer device.
his teacher, Mrs Nkosi, is sure that he under- An aura of charity also still pervades many of
stands more than he is able to articulate. She the services provided to such individuals, and
feels that he can follow simple instructions, and often the focus falls on care and love, but not real-
sometimes when something funny happens in ly on teaching them new skills, just like the pet
the classroom, he will laugh. She feels she under- dogs Creech talks about at the beginning of the
stands him well even though he cannot talk. Dur- chapter. This implies that these learners are often
ing class he generally sits quietly doing his own
not given opportunities to control their own envi-
thing.
ronments successfully and develop new skills as
everything is done for them, based on long-held,
Family perspective
low expectations. Consequently, these learners’
Mrs Kabini has been to the school a couple of passivity and dependence on others are increas-
times and has told the teacher that Jabulani is ed, resulting in “learned helplessness” (Rowland
mostly on his own at home. The other children in
& Schweigert 1999). We simply cannot make
the family help to dress and feed him, but he
does not really have any friends. Mrs Kabini’s
assumptions about learners who cannot talk if
mother, however, goes for walks with Jabulani or they have no means to express themselves.
sits with him while watching television. Teachers are often unaware of the impact of
statements like the one made by Jabulani’s
How much do you think Jabulani has gained by teacher – “I understand him well” – on the learn-
being in school up to this point? Why? er. Clearly this statement has no substance, firstly
because the teacher cannot know whether she
understands Jabulani well (he cannot tell her if she
9.1 INTRODUCTION misunderstands!) and secondly, it reflects a per-
Jabulani’s case highlights some important issues ception that she does not really think he needs
for teachers. This chapter will systematically go additional means of communication. This kind of
through some of these issues to show why specif- misperception result in learners not receiving any
ic attention to how learners communicate is vital intervention or help, as the urgency of the need
in facilitating learning. to assist them in communication is not recog-
With reference to the case study, Jabulani clear- nised. This clearly has a major impact on Jabu-
ly does not have functional speech. He is unable lani’s learning opportunities as he is not able to
to express his needs and thoughts through express himself. In addition to this, his teacher is
speech, making meaningful participation in what not expecting him to learn through active partici-
is going on around him impossible. This lack of pation.
speech not only hinders his classroom participa- Sadly, Jabulani is not an isolated case within the
tion, but also makes it difficult for his peers and South African context. In fact, a study conducted
teachers to interact with him as they find it diffi- in South Africa (Alant 1999; Bornman & Alant
cult to understand what Jabulani wants to com- 1997) indicated that 38 per cent of learners in
municate and thus it becomes easier rather to schools for children with severe intellectual
avoid or ignore him. One of the biggest difficul- impairment can be regarded as non-speaking or
ties in cases like Jabulani’s has to do with the per- having little or no functional speech, as described
ceptions of teachers and peers towards learners by their own teachers. This incidence in South
who are unable to speak. A lack of speech is fre- Africa is about 200 per cent higher than that
quently seen as a reflection of “severe intellectual reported in comparable international studies
impairment” or “inability to learn”. This, however, (Burd et al. 1988; Matas et al. 1985). The reasons
is a false assumption as there are many people for this high incidence are multiple but one of the
who are unable to express themselves (for what- major factors relates to the lack of intervention
ever reason) that are highly intelligent, such as that these learners receive. Parents and teachers
Stephen Hawking, the internationally acclaimed seem to be unaware of the vital importance of a

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

child’s ability to interact or communicate as a Rett syndrome and Angelman syndrome/Happy

basic requirement for learning and social adapta- Puppet syndrome); sensory impairments (e.g. deaf-
tion. The basic attitude of “let’s wait and see if the blindness); neurological impairments (e.g. cerebral
child won’t start speaking later on” or “the child is palsy, apraxia, aphasia, traumatic brain injury and
just a bit slow” basically leads to an extensive progressive muscular dystrophy like multiple scle-
“waiting period”. If individuals cannot speak, rosis, myasthenia gravis and amyotrophic lateral
other ways have to be found to assist them in get- sclerosis), psychological impairments (e.g. elective
ting their messages across so that they are able to mutism and childhood psychosis), structural
express themselves and make contact with oth- impairments (e.g. glossectomy, laryngectomy and
ers, which in turn will allow them to develop as permanent tracheotomy) and other conditions
learners. (e.g. attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
The use of augmentative and alternative com- (AD/HD) and pervasive developmental disorders
munication (AAC) strategies focuses on how the (e.g. autism and Asperger syndrome)) (Mussel-
learners’ current communication efforts can be white & St Louis 1988). Grouping this heteroge-
supplemented to enhance their ability to commu- neous population into specific categories is, how-
nicate and subsequently improve their chances of ever, not easy as there is overlap between differ-
leading independent and more fulfilling lives, tak- ent categories. All developmental disabilities do
ing up their place in the community as contribut- not necessarily imply intellectual impairment, and
ing members (Carter 2003). The importance of some of the syndromes, for example Rett syn-
AAC strategies to enable these learners to engage drome, are characterised by profound intellectual
in developmental experiences and the learning impairment despite neurological involvement.
process has also been acknowledged at policy
level (Department of Education 2002). 9.3 WHAT IS AAC AND WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT IN THE CLASSROOM?
9.2 WHO CAN BENEFIT FROM AAC Communication comes from the Latin word com-
INTERVENTION STRATEGIES? municare which means to share or make common. In
AAC strategies are recommended for all individu- general, any intentional or unintentional transfer
als for whom speech, gestures and/or written of information about needs, desires, perceptions,
communication is inadequate to meet all their knowledge or emotions might be considered to
daily communication needs (ASHA 1991). Indivi- be communication. But defined in its academic
duals with severe disabilities who fit this descrip- sense, communication generally needs to be
tion are heterogeneous. They are of all ages and intentional, meaning that a person who communi-
both genders, and have different personalities cates intends to convey something to another per-
and interests. The greatest common factor, how- son (Von Tetzchner & Martinsen 2000). The
ever, is their high support needs as these indivi- nature of this transfer can take many different
duals typically require extensive, ongoing support forms, including verbal and/or non-verbal, and
to enable full participation in society (Carter may occur through a variety of modes. Speech is
2003). usually the preferred mode of interaction, but in
The primary group of people who will be using particular contexts other modes may be pre-
AAC strategies will be able to hear adequately and ferred, for example when calling a person over a
for them speech will be their primary input mode. vast distance, a gesture for “come here” might
Deaf learners on the whole will be using sign lan- rather be used, or when wanting to ask a question
guage, and therefore they will not fall into the in a quiet situation, writing may be preferred.
domain of learners who require AAC strategies. However, for Jabulani and others like him, using a
Some of the conditions that can contribute to lit- different communication mode (e.g. pointing) is
tle or no functional speech include intellectual essential in assisting them to get their messages
impairments (e.g. developmental disabilities and across to others.
various different syndromes like Down syndrome, When we view communication, it is clear that

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there are two major skills involved in the process. ties in trying to produce speech, decreasing the
The first is the ability to understand the messages stress on the communication process and
of others; for example Jabulani needs to under- thereby facilitating the development of speech.
stand the teacher and other learners in the class- It is not uncommon for AAC strategies to be
room. This is referred to as receptive language provided and for the learner to start talking
skills. The second is the expressive language after a relatively short period (Bornman et al.
skills, which refer to learners’ ability to speak, use 2001).
signs or other ways to get the message across.
Clearly, the fastest and easiest way to communi- • By combining these strategies, depending on
cate is through speech, so this is what we want to the individual learner and the context.
encourage in three ways:
• By concentrating only on speech, which, how- AAC refers to a broad variety of strategies (prima-
ever, can often be very discouraging for the rily non-verbal in nature) that can be used to sup-
learners as it focuses on what they cannot do plement the existing communication efforts of
and/or have severe difficulty with. the individual by using either aided and/or unaid-
• By providing the learners with another way of ed symbols (Lloyd et al. 1997a). Aided symbols
communicating, i.e. a strategy like AAC that require a medium of transmission (e.g. real
would allow participation without focusing objects, photographs, line drawings, devices with
only on speech. The advantage of using AAC speech output), while unaided symbols require
strategies is firstly that the learners remain in only the body (e.g. gestures, manual signs, finger
contact with the people around them, can spelling). A wide variety of these aided and unaid-
participate and are therefore motivated to ed symbols have been developed (Lloyd et al.
communicate. Secondly, the use of AAC 1997b; Von Tetzchner & Martinsen 2000) and are
strategies takes the attention off their difficul- outlined in Figure 9.1.

AAC SYSTEMS

Unaided systems Aided systems

Non-linguistic Linguistic Tangible, pictorial and orthographic symbol sets/systems

features features Objects – Photographs – Line drawings – Print

• vocalisations • natural speech e.g. Low-technology aids High-technology aids

• common gestures, English, Setswana
e.g. pointing; yes/no • sign languages
headshakes e.g. SASL e.g. communication digital speech synthesised
natural/cultural • alphabet-based boards output speech output
gestures symbols, e.g. finger e.g. communication
• pantomime spelling vests
• manually coded
languages e.g.
Signed English

Figure 9.1 Outline of different AAC systems

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

9.3.1 Unaided systems is required as they are learned in ordinary interac-

[Link] Different types of unaided systems tions. However, as the name infers, they are cul-
turally specific, and therefore open to misinter-
Unaided communication means that nothing pretation if one is not from the same community.
more than the communicator’s body is required Natural gestures work effectively to communicate
to communicate a particular message, and would a few basic concepts, but when developing a use-
include vocalisations, gestures and signs, to name ful vocabulary for a specific learner such as Jabu-
a few. Therefore one can say that unaided com- lani, the repertoire of natural gestures is too lim-
munication messages are produced as opposed to ited. Likewise, important classroom concepts, for
aided messages which are selected (Von Tetzch- example concepts related to life skills, cannot be
ner & Martinsen 2000). They can be divided into communicated via natural gestures, and therefore
those with non-linguistic features and those with manual signs (e.g. from a formal sign language)
linguistic features (Loncke & Bos 1997). Systems are required.
that have non-linguistic features are those with a It is also important to remember that some
limited set of symbols or signs that can be used learners with severe disabilities might grab
for communication, for example natural/cultural objects to indicate that they want the object, and
gestures, which results in a limited number of in such cases the grabbing can be shaped and
communication messages. Figure 9.1 shows this moulded to become a point for indicating a
to be vocalisations, common gestures and pan- request. A few natural gestures that will be under-
tomime. stood by most South Africans are shown in Figure
Vocalisations, the first group, focus on volun- 9.2. The third group, pantomime, can best be
tary vocalisations and are sometimes used as a described as the performance of a pretend action
substitute for speech, e.g. uh or eee for “yes” and usually involving the whole body. It is generally
uh uh for “no”. The second group, common ges- presented more as acting and can be used as an
tures, include pointing, head nodding and shak- initial technique before moving towards the use
ing as well as natural/cultural gestures which refer of linguistically unaided systems or other aided
to the spontaneous gestures for which no training systems (Silverman 1995).

Figure 9.2 Natural/cultural gestures

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

On the other hand, unaided systems with lin- jector”, and “group” vs “word” (Figure 9.3). It is
guistic features include natural speech, sign lan- also important to remember that all signs can be
guages and alphabet-based symbols such as finger simplified and that young children will have a
spelling. They are more extensive and have lin- childish articulation in signs as they do in speech
guistic features, thus they resemble generative (Grove 1990). Hence the meaning is more impor-
systems. This means that the use of the signs can tant than the form. Secondly, research has shown
be described by rules, and they can be combined that signs where the hands make contact are
in various ways to create new meaning. Clearly learned more easily than non-touch signs, and this
the messages these strategies can communicate may be attributable to the higher tactile and
are unlimited, just as is the case for any other lan- kinaesthetical control. Examples of such signs
guage. Sign language used by the Deaf communi- would be “list”; “clay”; “stamp”; and “pencil” (Fig-
ty is a good example. A sign language, such as the ure 9.3). Thirdly, signs with the easiest hand
South African Sign Language (SASL) is a fully- shape and/or movement are more easily learned
fledged language with its own grammar rules and than those with complex hand shapes e.g.
syntax, which means that it has the same expres- “teacher” vs “old” (Figure 9.3).
sive ability as any other language, although it uses Finally, iconicity also influences ease of learn-
signs to express these. In South Africa, SASL is ing. Iconicity refers to the degree with which a
used, as American Sign Language (ASL) is used in sign resembles its referent, making it easier to
America, and British Sign Language (BSL) is used guess its meaning, and it is classified in terms of
in Britain. There is thus no such a thing as a “uni- transparency and translucency (Lloyd et al.
versal sign language”. It is also important to note 1997a). Signs that are easier to guess (thus trans-
that sign language is a visual language without parent signs) are easier to learn than the more
accompanying speech. abstract signs (translucent signs); for example it is
When using unaided communication with indi- easier to guess “motor car” than “red” (the sign
viduals with little or no functional speech, inter- for “red” is easily confused with “smile”). Howev-
vention does not focus on teaching them sign lan- er, once the learner is taught that the symbol
guage, but some signs from SASL are used within refers to the lips and that the lips are “red”, it
the sentence structure of a spoken language (e.g. facilitates later recognition and production (Fig-
English, Afrikaans, isiZulu, etc.). This strategy is ure 9.3). In addition, it may be beneficial to use
referred to as key word signing, which means that iconic signs, as people to whom they are un-
within a particular sentence only the key concepts familiar understand them with limited instruction.
and not all the words are signed while the
speaker is speaking. However, in some instances, [Link] Advantages and disadvantages of
manually coded languages such as “Signed Eng- unaided systems
lish” is used where full sentences are spoken and The most obvious advantage is that the learner
each word is signed, but with the syntax and does not have to carry anything around, which is
grammar of the spoken language (English) rather something that appeals particularly to ambulatory
than the signed language. For finger spelling, users. For example, when Thembi is in the play-
each individual letter of the alphabet is formed by ground and she wants to request “more swing”
different hand shapes and put together to spell she needs to have her communication system
words. There are different alphabets that are available. As signs are thus “portable” she will
used, some of which are one-handed and others have them available, as opposed to a communi-
two-handed. cation book that might have been left in the
Are some signs easier to make than others? classroom. Signing is also useful when teaching
Yes, a few general rules apply (Loncke & Bos learners with challenging behaviour to replace
1997). Firstly, signs that require both hands and that behaviour with something more appropriate;
where both hands make the same movement For example, kicking and screaming can be
(thus symmetrical actions) are usually easier to replaced with the sign for “leave me alone” or “I
make than asymmetrical signs e.g. “book” vs “pro- need a break”.

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

Figure 9.3 Twelve manual signs from South African Sign Language (SASL)

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

It is important that the replacement signs can munication that uses various symbols, strategies,
be done as quickly and with the same ease as the techniques or assistive communication devices
challenging behaviour, otherwise they simply will that use something external to the body to repre-
not be used (Durand 1990). Signs are always avail- sent, select or transmit a message (Lloyd et
able; for example a learner can quickly sign “help” al.1997a).
as opposed to taking out a communication book,
finding the symbol, drawing the listener’s atten-

ACTIVITY
tion and then indicating “help”. By that time it What type of communication that fits
may be too late! Particularly in situations such as the above description will be useful in
these where interaction has to happen quickly, the classroom?
the availability of the signs is crucial. Finally, many
learners with little or no functional speech find it
easier to learn the meanings of manual signs as Although there are many different types of aided
opposed to graphic symbols. communication systems available, the focus of
Despite all these advantages, signs can be prob- this chapter will be on tangible symbols, pictorial
lematic when learners have to communicate with symbols and traditional orthography (print). For
uninitiated partners who do not understand the the purpose of this chapter, tangible symbols can
signs, particularly when a sign is translucent (e.g. also be called object symbols and typically refer to
“red”). It is difficult for inexperienced people to three-dimensional aided symbols that are perma-
interpret it correctly. This is different from graph- nent, manipulable with a simple motor behaviour,
ic symbols where the symbol is always accompa- can be discriminated tactilely and are highly icon-
nied by the written word. In reality, however, ic (transparent) (Rowland & Schweigert 2000;
these learners do not communicate with many Rowland et al. 2001). Object symbols are usually
strangers. Their small social network (which identical to, similar to or associated with their ref-
includes the teacher) can be taught signs with rel- erent. That means that Jabulani will be taught to
ative ease. Signing also requires some degree of use a cup to request something to drink. Like-
motor control; for example if Alice is not able to wise, learners can use parts of an activity to
use her hands due to cerebral palsy, she will be request the particular activity, e.g. one block to
unable to make the signs, and if Johannes has request “I want to build blocks”. It is important to
motor planning problems (e.g. apraxia) he will note that the actual object is not used (e.g. the
also find it difficult to make gestures. Lastly, ges- cup or the block), but that the cup or block is used
tures are dynamic (e.g. movement or change is as a symbol to represent something else; for exam-
necessary to understand their meaning). This ple the cup represents “I am thirsty”. However,
means that learners have to remember what the when using objects for communication, the
sign looks like and how to produce it if they want objects need not be real ones (e.g. a cup); they
to use it, as opposed to a communication board can also be associated symbols, for example when
that has a static display, i.e. all the symbols are using a piece of chain to indicate an outdoor
displayed on the board and the learner only has to swing, or an audiocassette or CD to indicate
make a selection from these options. “music time” (Bornman 2001). Sometimes it is
impractical to use a real object (e.g. bus to indi-
9.3.2 Aided systems cate “going-home time”) and then miniatures can
be used. These should, however, always be used
[Link] Different types of aided systems with caution by learners with visual impairments,
The other major category of AAC systems is the as the relationship between the miniature and the
aided systems (see Figure 9.1). While unaided real object might not be clear (Beukelman &
communication messages are produced (e.g. manu- Mirenda 1998). The use of objects for communi-
al signs), aided communication messages are cation purposes is limited due to the fact that
selected (e.g. pointing to a line drawing) (Von Tet- they are concrete (e.g. cannot indicate emotions
zchner & Martinsen 2000), and they refer to com- by using object symbols), and therefore attempts

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

should be made to move from tangible symbols to als have been set out according to themes (e.g.
pictorial representations as soon as the learner “fire brigade”), making it easy to use within the
understands the concepts. outcomes-based education paradigm. By using
line drawings, the learners’ receptive language
skills are stimulated and expanded, as they
Would a miniature plastic horse be
receive a visual cue together with an auditory
effective for representing “horse riding”
for Kumbi, a young boy with severe
one, and at the same time they are also provided
intellectual impairments and low vision? with a means of expression as they can point to
Give reasons for your answer. the line drawings.
It is unlikely that this “object symbol” Finally, aided systems also include orthograph-
ACTIVITY

will be recognised, as it feels different ic systems such as traditional orthography/print,

to the real thing with regard to size, as well as techniques that represent traditional
shape, texture, etc. In this case, a piece orthography (e.g. Braille). Orthography refers to
of leather (to indicate the reins and alphabet letters (or characters) that are used to
saddle) might be much more under- encode the language of the particular community
standable, as Kumbi might associate in written form (e.g. the 26 letters of the English,
horse riding with the feel of the leather
Afrikaans, and isiXhosa alphabets). When orthog-
saddle on which he sits. The leather
thus represents horse riding.
raphy is used as part of an AAC system, in other
words to replace speech, it could include single
letters, words, syllables (e.g. prefixes and suffix-
Pictorial symbols are two-dimensional and, for the es), phrases or sentences (Beukelman & Mirenda
purpose of this chapter, include photographs and 1998).
line drawings. Photographs can be either black- It is important to remember that all aided sym-
and-white or colour and may be used to represent bol systems can be used in combination with each
objects (e.g. “ball”), verbs (e.g. “sleeping”), people other; for example PCS can be used with a few
(e.g. “Oupa”) and places (e.g. “Wimpy”). Pho- written words and a few photographs of familiar
tographs can be obtained from different sources, and favourite places. The mode of representation
for example produced with a camera (regular pho- (i.e. the symbol system) is determined by the
tographs, with a digital camera and printed, or learner’s competencies and requirements (Sen
with a Polaroid producing instant pictures), or 2003).
from catalogues and advertisements (e.g.
Shoprite/Checkers) or product labels (e.g. Five [Link] Advantages and disadvantages of
Roses tea). aided systems
The next type of pictorial symbols is line draw- Aided systems provide a way of participation for
ings. There are numerous systems available, for learners with little or no functional speech with a
example Pictogram, Blissymbols, Picture Commu- greater variety of communication partners (e.g.
nication Symbols (PCS) and Widgit Rebus, which they are not restricted to communicating only
are displayed in Table 9.1. For the purpose of this with partners who know and understand their
chapter, however, only PCS will be discussed as it communication attempts), in a variety of contexts
is used most widely in South Africa. PCS consists (e.g. they can be more independent and venture
of more than 7000 clear, simple line drawings that into situations that had been inaccessible in the
are available with either English labels or no past, like a video shop) and access to an extensive
labels, enabling the user to type in the mother repertoire of communication functions, (e.g.
tongue of the child (King 2001). At present an ini- engaging in general social interactions, providing
tiative to include symbols specific to the African and requesting information and help, and draw-
context (e.g. pap, kwaito, koeksisters) is under way, ing attention). The displays are also permanent
and these symbols should be available in Novem- and thus allow learners to look at individual sym-
ber 2004. PCS is effective in the classroom as bols for any length of time. Learners do not have
many teaching materials are available and materi- to remember how to make the symbols in order

177
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

Table 9.1 Examples of various pictorial representational sets/systems

Picture
Text (traditional
Pictogram Blissymbols Communication Widgit Rebus
orthography)
Symbols (PCS)

Book

Teacher

Read

Listen

Angry

Funny

In
·

Small

Source: Petra Hagen (VIATAAL, The Netherlands) & Martin Pistorius (CAAC, Pretoria)

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

to reproduce them, as is the case with unaided most appropriate for the learner, the size and
systems. Portability, on the other hand, is one of shape of the display (largely dependent on the
the factors that limits the extensive use of aided learner’s vision and range of movement), the size
systems (Von Tetzchner & Martinsen 2000). When and shape of the symbols, as well as the vocabu-
using a communication board or book, it might lary needs of the learner (Musselwhite & St Louis
also be difficult to expand the system, because 1988). In most cases, learners will not be able to
there might not be sufficient space to add sym- rely on only one communication board to meet all
bols. their classroom needs, and will require a generic
board to talk about general aspects (e.g. one that
[Link] Displays of aided strategies: low contains often-used terms), as well as boards that
technology and high technology could be used for specific activities (e.g. story
Having discussed the different types of aided sys- time, music ring, arts and crafts) (Westling & Fox
tems and their uses for a variety of communica- 2000).
tion functions, the issue of how they can be dis- With activity-specific boards, consistency in the
played should be investigated. As shown in Figure placement of symbols is recommended in order to
9.1, aided systems can be displayed as either low increase the speed of interaction (e.g. “help me”
technology or high technology. or “more” should be found at the same location
Low technology refers to any device that does across all activities). In addition, the Fitzgerald
not use a computer chip or integrated circuit and key is logical as it groups word classes (verbs,
typically refers to all the pen-and-paper-based sys- nouns, adjectives) together in syntactical order
tems. High technology, on the other hand, refers from left to right (Musselwhite & St Louis 1988).
to all technology that uses a computer chip or These grammatical categories are usually colour
integrated circuit and typically includes all com- coded to facilitate visual and cognitive processing
munication devices that have speech and/or print- (Goossens’ et al.1994). Obviously, if traditional
ed output as well as programming and editing orthography is used and the learner is able to
capabilities (Lloyd et al. 1997a). spell individual words, an alphabet board that can
All low-technology options have the same pur- be used for spelling is advisable.
pose in mind: to be as portable as possible, to If learners indicate their selection on a commu-
provide as many options as possible, to be as easy nication board by means of touching or pointing
to use as possible (for the user and partner) and to to the symbol, it is called direct selection, and can
be produced (customised, reorganised and updat- be done with the hand, finger, foot or any other
ed) at the lowest possible cost (Wasson et al. body part, as well as through a pointer attached
1997). Low-technology systems also work well to the body (e.g. head pointer or mouth stick) or
together; for example in the classroom, Jabulani eye gaze (Westling & Fox 2000). If, due to physical
would benefit from the implementation of a and/or visual impairments, consistent, reliable
schedule to organise his day and he might also direct selection is not possible, or if this process
use a communication board. Although a variety of fatigues the individual excessively, scanning is
low-technology systems are available, only two used. In scanning, the learner indicates a selection
types, namely communication boards and com- by signally to the partner that the desired item
munication vests, will be discussed, due to their has been reached. This can be done either via
suitability and value in the classroom context. auditory scanning or visual scanning. In auditory
A communication board displays pictorial scanning the partner speaks the items one at a
and/or orthographic symbols on paper, poster time, and the learner indicates his selection by
boards or any other suitable surface, and may be any voluntary movement such as a purposeful eye
positioned horizontally (e.g. on a desk or lap blink or head nod (Shane 1996). Visual scanning is
tray), at an incline (e.g. on a sloped table or pil- done on high-technology systems and is typically
low) or vertically (Rose & Bornman in press). independent, with the learner activating a switch
When designing a board, a number of issues have to signal a choice. Various types of scanning (e.g.
to be considered, i.e. the type of symbol system linear scanning, row-column scanning and group

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

Figure 9.4 Example of a communication board using PCS

Source: Board design by CAAC / Made with BoardmakerTM. Picture Communication Symbols (PCS) © Copyright 1981002004
Mayer-Johnson, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. [Link]

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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

item scanning) and switches (e.g. pressure switch, looking down to find it. Learners will then have
leaf switch, button switch, pillow switch and eye- their own communication boards (similar to the
blink switch) are available to enable independent teacher’s) in front of them, to facilitate response
access of the device (Rose & Bornman in press). and interaction.
Teachers can also wear communication vests
(or aprons) with the symbols displayed on them
for particular situations, e.g. during circle time.
These vests are usually made from a fabric to
which Velcro attaches easily. Vests are particular-
ly useful when moving around; for example, in the
classroom context when the teacher is teaching a
new concept, as she will have her hands free so
that she can point to the symbols on the vest
(Goossens’ 2001). This can only be done in special
situations, however, as it is problematic if the
communication system is linked to a person who
often walks away. Vests are also useful in situa-
tions where communication boards are not easy
to use, for example in the swimming pool. It is
important that the teacher knows the exact loca-
Figure 9.5 Example of a communication
tion of all the symbols so as to be able to point to vest worn by a teacher
each one while speaking, without continually

What low-technology systems do you think would best suit Jabulani?

Jabulani is already using object symbols (e.g. his cup) to communicate. This system will
ACTIVITY

be expanded to include pictorial systems such as PCS. A number of different options relat-
ed to free-play activities can be presented to him, e.g. for sand play, swinging, ball play and
building blocks. These can then be presented on a communication board (e.g. attaching the
symbols with Velcro onto a car mat) and Jabulani can then be asked: “Do you want to play
in the sand, swing, play with the ball or play with the blocks? Show me what you want to
do” while pointing to each symbol.

Aided systems can also be displayed on high-tech-

If Jabulani should use a Macaw digital
nology systems and these can have either digital
speech output system with an overlay
or synthesised speech output. Digital speech
that has eight options, which eight
refers to speech that is electronically produced messages would you record for the
ACTIVITY

when the human voice is recorded and digitised “making a sandwich” activity?
(Lloyd et al. 1997a). These devices typically make Naturally there may be many different
use of squares on which messages have been pre- possibilities, and only some examples
recorded and which the learner then has to acti- are given and not an absolute list. “My
vate, usually by means of pressure. These devices turn”; “Please help me”; “I want more”;
thus function as elaborate tape recorders as a dif- “That’s enough”; “Yum, tastes good”;
ferent message is recorded on each of the “What a mess!”; “Cut it”; “Spread it”.
squares. These individual squares are then com-
bined to form an “overlay”. EasyTalk, which has the capacity for two or four
Some devices with digital speech output have options, or for more extensive messages such as
the capacity for only limited messages such as the the Macaw that has 36 options on eight levels (see
little step-by-step communicator, the iTalk2 and the Figure 9.7). The biggest advantage of using digital

181
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

speakers in the multilingual South African context itated, delivering speeches (with the aid of the
is that they are language appropriate, which memory function, lengthy pre-stored messages
means that Setswana can be recorded for Jabu- are possible) and making leisure-time activities
lani, Afrikaans for Kobus and isiZulu for Patience. possible (e.g. playing computer games or writing
Having a speech output device with a natural- letters). The majority of devices with synthesised
sounding voice enables communication with a speech output also have word prediction, which
variety of communication partners (both familiar means that when a letter is typed, a small screen
and unfamiliar) (Church & Glennen 1992), and also appears with a number of possibilities, e.g. when
increases the learners’ motivation to communi- the learner types “p” a screen will appear, display-
cate as they view themselves as “having a voice”. ing “1 = paper; 2 = person; 3 = purpose; 4 =
Illiterate or pre-literate learners can also use digi- pain; 5 = pocket”. If the learner had wanted to
tal speakers as any symbols can be used, including use the word “purpose” he would merely type “3”
objects in certain cases, as shown in Figure 9.7. and the word “purpose” would appear. That
The speech recorded on digital speakers can also means that only two keystrokes were used (“p”
ensure that the learner speaks in an age- and gen- and “3”) to type a word that has seven keystrokes.
der-appropriate voice, e.g. for Jabulani, a young If the word that the learner wants does not
boy’s voice will be recorded on the device. appear on the initial list, typing will continue as
the list will change and become more specific
after every letter that is typed. Word prediction is
a popular method for reducing the amount of
effort needed from learners with physical disabili-
ties to produce written work as it reduces the
number of keystrokes required to type a particu-
lar message, thereby increasing typing accuracy
and speed, enhancing the quality of written work
and reducing fatigue (Newell et al. 1992).
ACTIVITY

See if your cellular phone has a “word

prediction” option, switch it on, and
type an SMS.
Figure 9.6 Example of the use of a
speech output device

[Link] Advantages and disadvantages of low

On the other hand, devices with synthesised technology and high technology
speech output typically have keyboards, with One of the biggest advantages of low technology,
either regular keyboard features such as the particularly in the South African context, is surely
LightWRITER (Figure 9.7) or with icons such as the the fact that it is inexpensive to produce, and that
Pathfinder or Vantage (Figure 9.7), and learners maintenance and repair costs are therefore also
are encouraged to type their own messages (thus low, particularly if precautions were taken and the
generating language). This type of speech output communication board was covered with plastic or
is therefore also sometimes referred to as “text- laminated. Low-technology systems are relatively
to-speech” (Church & Glennen 1992). Devices with easy and quick to develop, and communication
synthesised output typically provide either print- partners require little training in using them
ed or speech output and are useful for enabling (except in cases where eye-gaze systems are
the learner to perform multiple tasks, e.g. broad- used). Low technology can be used effectively as a
ening educational possibilities as academic tasks tool to enrich and expand language. They are gen-
are expanded and independent homework is facil- erally portable (e.g. a pocket-sized communica-

182
 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

2
5

7
3

1. Little step-by-step communicator (Ablenet Inc, see 5. Pathfinder (Prentke Romich Company, see website
website [Link] [Link]
2. iTalk2 (Ablenet, Inc, see website 6. LightWRITER SL35 LQBDO (Toby Churchill Ltd, see
[Link] website [Link]
3. EasyTalk 2-option with object symbols (Enabling Devices, 7. Vantage (Prentke Romich Company, see website
see website [Link] com) [Link]
4. EasyTalk 4-option with PCS symbols (Enabling Devices, 8. Macaw (Zygo Industries Inc. see website
see website [Link] com) [Link]

Figure 9.7 Examples of voice output devices

tion book), easily mounted on wheelchairs for sibly one of the biggest disadvantages is the fact
non-ambulatory users, useful in many different that people who are not familiar have to be close
environments (e.g. bath, beach, and playground) to the learner who uses the system to see what
and new symbols can be added with ease if provi- the learner is trying to communicate. Therefore,
sion was made from the start. Low technology is communication in a group is also difficult, unless
also essential as a back-up system when high- there is a person in the group who can act as facil-
technology systems fail e.g. if a person’s device itator, for example by saying the messages out
breaks down he uses an alphabet-based board. loud that are being communicated by the learner
Regarding disadvantages, low-technology sys- using the communication board.
tems impact negatively on eye contact (as both High-technology systems have the advantage
the learner and the communication partner have that the output can be either printed or oral. The
to look at the board), and the majority of low- power of having a voice to communicate with (as
technology options lack voice output and do not provided with high technology) cannot be
have memory capabilities (no lengthy pre-stored overemphasised. It has the potential to give learn-
sentences that increase communication rate). Pos- ers previously destined to live isolated, depend-

183
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

ent lives the ability to move into the mainstream 9.4 AAC SYSTEM SELECTION: HOW TO
and become participating and productive mem- DECIDE WHICH SYSTEM TO USE
bers of society. It means that we can now listen to Having looked at the various AAC systems, the
lectures by people who cannot “speak” and read question arises of how to choose one. What
books by people who cannot “write”. However, would Jabulani need? Will he benefit from an
the mere provision of a high-technology device aided or an unaided system, or maybe from both?
cannot make a person a communicator, just as the The successful selection of a system depends on
provision of a microphone does not make a per- the extent to which the features of a system
son a singer! But when such a device is applied (aided and/or unaided) are matched to the abili-
appropriately to functionally address the commu- ties and needs of the learner.
nication needs and wants of a learner, it has great
In the above section the features of the differ-
potential to provide greater independence. More
ent systems were described and therefore this
often than not, these devices have word predic-
section will deal only with the selection of an
tion possibilities (which have already been dis-
appropriate system. Firstly the teacher should
cussed), and they generally can be used in differ-
determine how the learner functions in the most
ent communication situations (e.g. for telephone
important areas of development (i.e. communica-
conversations) and they also provide opportuni-
tion and language; cognitive, perceptual and rep-
ties for increased communication functions (e.g. resentational; motor; sensory and social skills).
singing). As with low technology, high technology These areas are interlinked, and attempts to seg-
can also be mounted on wheelchairs if needed. regate them are merely done for clarity. It is also
On the negative side, learners and their com- important that these guidelines should not be
munication partners (e.g. teachers and parents) seen as so-called prerequisites for communica-
may be hesitant to start using high technology tion, and intervention can commence before they
due to the fact that these systems might look very are in place. Rather they should be viewed as
complicated to operate, inducing “technological pointers that can indicate where intervention
anxiety” (Church & Glennen 1992). Devices with should start and be used to guide the process.
digital speech output typically make use of pre- The first choice that must be made is whether an
recorded sentences and therefore learners cannot aided or an unaided system, or both, would be
generate new messages. This can be particularly most appropriate.
frustrating for learners with intact intellectual and
literacy skills. Synthesised speech output devices,
on the other hand, are not available in 10 of the 9.4.1 Communication and language
11 official South African languages, some individ- skills
uals do not like quality of the computer-generated A few pointers should be kept in mind when
voice (describing it as too tinny), and literacy skills describing communication skills: Does the learner
are required to generate novel messages which show an intention to communicate? All individuals
are not mere combinations of already existing are born with the desire to communicate and do
phrases. All high-technology systems are relatively communicate in some way or the other. However,
expensive (in terms of the device itself, the cost of for those with little or no speech, this process
training the learner and communication partners, breaks down, resulting in their becoming pas-
and maintenance, insurance and repairs). Digital sive/withdrawn or displaying challenging behav-
speakers on average appear to be slightly less iour. The goal of intervention for passive/with-
expensive than devices with synthesised output. drawn learners is to create an environment in
Some devices are heavy, thus reducing portability, which they are stimulated to want to interact.
which is a particular concern for ambulatory users. Sometimes a device with digital speech output
Finally, high-technology devices cannot be used in such as the iTalk2 (Figure 9.7) could be effective in
all environments, for example where there is a lot enticing a learner into interaction. A generic mes-
of moisture like in the bathroom or on the beach, sage such as: “Hello, can I play with you?” is effec-
or when it is raining. tive as the communication partners will under-

184
 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

stand the message immediately and, as it is put in one else’s attention to the focus of his own atten-
question format, respond to it. The second ques- tion? The aim might be to draw someone’s atten-
tion that should be asked is: What does this learner tion to something in the physical surroundings
understand? (receptive language). Determine (e.g. an object or event) or to convey an idea.
whether the learner understands single words Joint attention has been claimed to be the
and/or simple phrases, if he is able to follow a essence of communication and is necessary for
conversation, understands humour, etc. Usually language acquisition. Is the learner aware of cause-
when receptive language is limited, learners will and-effect relationships? i.e. that he has an influence
mostly make use of object symbols and/or pictori- on the environment, for example when pressing a
al symbols displayed on either low or high tech- light switch to switch the light on, or making a
nology, and/or gestures. sound (vocalisation) to call somebody.
Thirdly, ask: What modes of communication does Does the learner have object permanence? Sometimes
the learner currently use? When attempting to communication is about something that is not
implement any AAC system, the focus is not on present, for example requesting milk that is in the
replacing existing communication but on expan- fridge. This implies that the learner needs to
sion; for example if Maria is already using some know that the milk exists even if he cannot see it.
manual signs, this might be the preferred modali- Object symbols often provide the easiest level of
ty and could be expanded, or if Neo is already entrance into a communication system. There-
pointing to objects, this might be expanded to fore, if learners are still acquiring cause-and-effect
include graphic symbols (keeping in mind that and/or object permanence, this would be the level
interaction is usually multimodal, i.e. using more at which intervention would start. As this is mas-
than one system). The fourth question deals with tered, attempts can be made to move to pictorial
communication functions: What does the learner symbols that are slightly more difficult to under-
want to achieve by communicating? These could be stand.
informational functions (e.g. requesting help and However, Von Tetzchner & Martinsen (2000)
requesting information) or could be social (e.g. found signs to be more meaningful to individuals
greeting and protesting), and attempts should be with severe intellectual impairments than pictori-
made to teach the learner a broad repertoire of al symbols. It is difficult to attach a so-called cog-
functions, otherwise only the “request” function nitive age level to the different levels of represen-
is used (Romski & Sevcik 1988). tation and teachers should rather attempt to
determine if the learner understands photo-
graphs, line drawings (e.g. PCS) or print. Print will
Jabulani makes use of multimodal
always be the most difficult to acquire as it is an
communication. What different commu-
ACTIVITY

nication means can you identify? arbitrary system. Literacy forms an important part
Speech (few intelligible words); point- of AAC intervention, and if a learner is literate,
ing to objects (e.g. a cup); facial many options are available, for example low-tech-
expressions, vocalisations (crying and nology alphabet-based boards or high-technology
screaming); gestures synthesised speech output. Learners who are
visually impaired can often comprehend the man-
ual signs more easily than pictorial (graphic) sym-
bols due to the kinaesthetic feedback they pro-
9.4.2 Cognitive/perceptual and
vide (Von Tetzchner & Martinsen 1993).
representational skills
It is difficult to separate communication and cog-
9.4.3 Motor skills
nition in young children and in learners with little
or no functional speech. However, a few ques- This area has a direct influence on the selection of
tions that could be asked in this domain are: Is the a particular symbol system. Questions such as
learner able to establish joint attention? In other How effectively can the learner use his hands? should
words, is the learner capable of directing some- be asked, as this can be indicative of the extent to

185
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

which signs might be used. Generally the rule of The second question is: How well can the learner
thumb is that the more physically involved the hear for communication purposes? With the high
learner is, the higher the need for a high-technol- incidence of middle-ear infection for some learn-
ogy system becomes. If little hand function is ers with little or no functional speech (e.g. learn-
present, alternatives such as using a switch to ers with Down syndrome), it is important to have
activate a device with speech output can be con- regular hearing tests. If learners are unable to rely
sidered. Selecting an appropriate switch is on auditory input, it is important to increase the
dependent of the movement the learner can make use of visual stimuli, for example through the use
(e.g. slight pressure or a sweeping movement), of signs and/or graphic symbols. For the purpose
the site at which the switch will be positioned of this chapter, learners who are deaf-blind will
(e.g. the arm, head, leg, chin), the type of switch not be described although they rely on tactile
(e.g. pressure switch, sip-puff switch, eye-blink symbols, for example through the use of the four-
switch) and how the switch will be mounted and handed sign system.
positioned (e.g. by means of a gooseneck). Cor-
rect positioning is an important part of interven- 9.4.5 Social skills
tion for learners with motor impairments, and This relates to what learners are able to do with
this will influence switch selection. If the learner their communication skills, and the environment
has minimal hand or head function, direct selec- in which they are expected to function. Ask: Who
tion will be preferable, as this is significantly does the learner communicate with? bearing in mind
faster than scanning. Learners with apraxia expe- that the choice of communication partners for
rience signing as difficult due to the problems learners with little or no functional speech is
they experience with motor planning. often restricted. More often than not interaction
with peers is limited and most of the interaction
is with adults.
9.4.4 Sensory skills
The most important senses for communication 9.4.6 Communication needs
purposes are vision and hearing. The first ques- Communication needs, based on interests,
tion therefore is: How well can the learner see for thoughts and activities and how they can be
communication purposes? focusing on functional included in an optimal vocabulary, should be
vision and not on visual acuity. This has implica- addressed.
tions for the graphic symbols that are used, for
example what type of symbol is selected (e.g. • How extensive is the vocabulary that the learn-
er would require? What would allow optimal
object symbols are easy to feel, as are pictorial
participation in the current situation? What are
symbols where the lines of the symbols have been
the learner’s interests? How old is the learner?
raised so that the learner can feel them), the back-
Remember that the vocabulary you choose
ground colour of the symbol (generally it is easier
should be age-appropriate, e.g. for a teenager,
to see a white symbol on a black background), the
one would not include the phrase “Hello, how
size of the symbol, and the placement of the sym-
are you?” on the device for peer interaction, but
bol (e.g. if a learner has peripheral vision the sym-
rather “Howzit?”
bols might be placed to the side as opposed to
the more common “in the middle” position). For • The vocabulary should cater for the interests of
blind learners, exposure to Braille is essential. the individual, e.g. if the learner particularly
However, when the learner is not yet able to learn likes the Teletubbies, provision should be
and use Braille, adaptations can be made to make made to include vocabulary that would allow
symbols more tactile (e.g. by changing the surface for that.
of the symbol). This means that pasting a piece of • The vocabulary that is selected for the learner
sandpaper on the symbol for “sand play” enriches should also enable communication in as many
it as the learner receives the tactile cue for “sand”. settings as possible, for example by using the

186
 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

word “more” the learner can indicate “more anticipate what will happen next and reduce anx-
painting”, “more play”, “more juice”, etc. iety between transitions (decreased anxiety often
• Finally, the needs and the priorities for the fam- means decreased challenging behaviour) (De Cler-
ily should be considered. If they feel that phras- cq 2003; DePaepe et al. 1993). However, it is
es such as “thank you” and “please” should be impossible to maintain absolute sameness, day in
included as this would make the learner more and day out. When changes occur, schedules can
acceptable in their community, these phrases be used effectively to explain these changes to
should be added. In addition, things of impor- the learners, giving them the opportunity to
tance for a family, for example family jokes and adjust to the idea and instilling a feeling of having
stories, should be added (e.g. “When Granny some control over the day (Sewell 1998). For the
burnt the cake”). purposes of this chapter, a general preschool
classroom schedule will be described and not a
specific schedule for an individual learner, as that
9.5 CLASSROOM STRATEGIES would imply that the schedule needs to be adapt-
Learners who are taught AAC have been unable to ed for that learner’s unique needs.
acquire communication skills in a typical environ- When constructing a schedule, start by writing
ment. Therefore they require an adapted environ- down, in chronological order, the classroom
ment, which in essence means that they should be timetable, and identify the type of aided symbol(s)
provided with the most effective communication that will be used to represent the activities. Irre-
means (aided and/or unaided) that will enable spective of the type of symbol selected, it will
interaction in all situations with as many commu- always be accompanied by the written word.
nication partners as required. A number of differ- Finally, a decision regarding the format of the dis-
ent strategies for implementing AAC in the class- play (e.g. shoe boxes, plastic bags, schedule
room context will be discussed. boards or books) should be made and all the sym-
bols should be collected in one place.
9.5.1 Schedules When implementing a schedule in the class-
room, the schedule should be displayed at an
Schedules are not communication systems per se, appropriate eye level where all learners can see
but rather tools to provide a structure and and access it. The teacher should point to the
overview of classroom activities, and they are symbol for the next activity and discuss it. Sym-
included in this chapter due to their appropriate- bols might also be taken from the schedule and
ness in the classroom (Figure 9.8). Most teachers handed to a particular learner, with an instruction
have some way of indicating their classroom rou- such as: “It is snack-time, Jabulani. Look, snack-
tine, but more often than not it is only presented time. Let’s get the placemats.” Jabulani can then
in written form, making it incomprehensible for use the symbol as a memory cue for getting out
the learners with severe disabilities who are the placemats. Placing the symbol in a “discard”
unable to read. Think about it, we would not box, turning the symbol over, or moving an arrow
write our personal “to do” list in a language (e.g. to the next activity can all be used to indicate a
Russian) that we do not understand! completed activity. It is vital that teachers look for
In classrooms, schedules using aided systems indicators that learners understand the schedule,
(objects, photographs, line drawings or print) can for example taking a symbol and then moving to
be displayed to indicate the activities the learners the area where the next activity will occur, smiling
will be carrying out on that day. Learners with or laughing when seeing a symbol for a preferred
autism, learners with challenging behaviour and activity, or crying for an activity that is disliked.
many learners with learning impairments, in par-
ticular, may benefit from schedules. Schedules
9.5.2 General classroom strategies
provide learners with consistent cues about the
daily routine so that they can understand the In order to set realistic goals and expectations
structure or sequence of events, enabling them to that will facilitate effective learning, teachers have

187
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

PHOTOGRAPH OR
ACTIVITY OBJECT/SYMBOL
LINE DRAWING

Circle time
Opening
carpet time

Weather
weather

Theme
discussion
wool

Snack
time
snack

Arts and
crafts
paint

Outside
play
play

Figure 9.8 Schedule

to understand the different learners and their tiful” should be kept in mind. This is in line with
abilities. It is also important that teachers under- the new National Curriculum (to be implemented
stand why what they are teaching is important for in 2006) with specific subject content and clear
these learners and how it will influence their lives guidelines for assessment. Not having specific
– now and later – and that this impact will be outcomes in mind could also result in monoto-
either positive or negative. nous, boring teaching with meaningless repeti-
Classroom-based AAC instruction is, however, tion, which has a detrimental effect on both learn-
not always straightforward. Teachers often view ers and teachers (Smith 2004).
teaching as “one-way” communication where they Owing to the heterogeneity of the learners
have the knowledge and the learners have to lis- who might benefit from AAC and the vast number
ten, disregarding the important principle of reci- of possibilities, it is difficult to provide general
procity (alternating between giving and receiv- principles for classroom implementation. Howev-
ing), in spite of outcomes-based education that er, three of the most obvious ones will be
promotes participation. This phenomenon described briefly.
decreases participation and learners become
either increasingly passive or withdrawn or start (a) Multimodality
displaying challenging behaviour as a sign of their As described in the previous section, learners will
general level of frustration. usually benefit from using a combination of
When teaching learners with little or no func- unaided and aided strategies, which implies that
tional speech, it is imperative that anticipated teachers need to use these strategies in teaching.
gains are broken into small, measurable units, or Teachers can make use of keyword signing (i.e.
else it is very easy to miss these advantages, signing the most important concepts while dis-
which may result in teachers becoming increas- cussing a theme) or keyword graphics (i.e. the
ingly discouraged. The concept of “small is beau- teacher highlights symbols by pointing to them

188
 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

while talking naturally). For example the teacher immersion approaches for teaching learners to
would say “Who is at school today?” while either understand and use unaided or aided systems, by
signing “who”, “school” and “today” (keyword providing them with a strong receptive language
signing) or while pointing to the symbols for foundation (Dada 2003; Goossens’ 2001). An
“who”, “school” and “today” on the communica- example of a song board (Figure 9.9) and a rhyme
tion board or communication vest. For both these board (Figure 9.10), both locally developed, are
strategies the auditory input (speech) is thus sup- included to illustrate some of the teaching mate-
plemented by the visual input (signs or pointing rials that teachers might use while implementing
on the communication board). These are total keyword graphics.

Figure 9.9 Example of a song board (Bana ba sekholo)

189
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

when the teacher wants to teach the concept

“more”, a mealtime activity can be selected, and
the learners’ sandwiches can be cut into small
squares (as opposed to the traditional half slice)
so that they have many opportunities to indicated
Akkedis Akkedis “more” to request every piece of the sandwich.

How could Jabulani’s teacher go about

teaching him to request help?
An activity that he already knows and
likes can be selected, e.g. stringing

ACTIVITY
vir wat is jy lus? beads. The beads can then be placed
in a see-through container that Jabulani
is unable to open independently. When
the teacher sees that he is having diffi-
culty, she can say “Must I help you?”
while signing “help” or pointing to the
vir lekkers of roomys symbol for “help”.

Planned teaching in natural environments also

gives the teacher the opportunity to provide logi-
cal stimuli (e.g. when Precious requests milk, she
receives milk) and naturally occurring, real conse-
sê my gerus jy maak ’n groot fout
quences. This means that the learners’ communi-
cation attempts will affect the environment,
which in turn corresponds with the intention of
the communication – increasing the learners’
motivation (Kaiser et al. 1992; Light 1997). This is
jy het jou misgis vir vliegies in stark contrast to giving praise in an attempt to
reinforce a specific behaviour, for example where
a learner conveys a message and the teacher
responds with verbal praise: “Good talking!” or
“Clever boy!” or tangible rewards like a star or
sweets. By providing logical, naturally occurring
en muggies vir dit is ek lus ! consequences, learners start realising that they
are able to control their environments, thus
Figure 9.10 Example of a rhyme board heightening their desire to participate.
(Akkedis)
(c) Watch – wait – react – positive feedback
(b) Planned teaching in natural situations This is a powerful teaching strategy when imple-
It is generally accepted that learners with severe menting AAC strategies. It is important for the
disabilities learn best when they are in situations teacher to take time to observe the learner in
that they perceive to be familiar and non-threat- order to note any individual (idiosyncratic) forms
ening. Research has also indicated that these nat- of communication. In other words, Jabulani’s
ural situations are appropriate for teaching these teacher has to observe him in order to find out
learners to use aided and/or unaided systems that he shows his cup every time he is thirsty. She
(Blischak et al. 1997; Kaiser et al. 1992). In will also need to observe how he reacts when she
planned teaching a specific teaching goal has introduces any of the planned strategies in the
been decided on in advance. This means that natural environment. Sufficient waiting time

190
 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

(10–30 seconds) should be provided after using a ed with an appropriate system/strategy (Bornman
particular strategy in order to note any interac- et al. 2001; Silverman 1995).
tion behaviour. Should nothing be noted, a
cue/prompt can be given (verbal or tactile), and if Myth 2: AAC can only be introduced when
some behaviour is seen – for example an attempt prerequisite skills have been mastered
to make the sign, pointing, smiling, and/or a Some assessment scales are based on Piaget’s
vocalisation – the teacher should react by provid- stages of cognitive development and provide
ing a natural, logical consequence. By implement- clear guidelines for “critical developmental levels”
ing this strategy, the learners will become aware before AAC can be considered (e.g. joint attention
of the relationship between what is happening in and object permanence). However, with the
a situation, their own activities and the reactions movement towards the social model for disability
of people in the environment (Von Tetzchner & and a focus on functionality, these prerequisites
Martinsen 1993). have been abandoned. Currently the focus is on
ability (as opposed to disability), and how the
How can the “watch–wait–react–feed- environment can be adapted to provide opportu-
back” strategy be implemented on a nities for interaction (Bornman 2004). Too much
playground? time has been wasted in the past while waiting for
The teacher watches Jabulani and certain prerequisites to develop.
notes that he loves to swing. She
decides to push him once or twice and Myth 3: Providing an AAC system will make
then holds the swing back so that he learners communicatively competent
ACTIVITY

has the opportunity to request “more”

Communication is much more than using an AAC
(a planned strategy in a natural environ-
ment). While holding the swing back
system or strategy. It is about sharing thoughts,
she waits and notices that he tries to stories, desires, emotions, etc. “Technology (or
move forward with his upper body. She any other AAC system) alone does not make a
interprets this as “more” and immedi- competent communicator, any more than a piano
ately reacts by saying, “Jabulani wants makes a musician, or a basketball and a hoop
more swinging”, and then pushes him. make an athlete” (Beukelman & Mirenda 1998:
When he has mastered this, she will 115).
expect him to sign “more” or point to
the symbol for “more”. Myth 4: AAC will solve all the learner’s
communication problems
Sometimes the assumption is made that providing
9.6 GENERAL MYTHS RELATED TO AAC an AAC system/strategy is all that is needed to
From the above discussion it is clear that imple- solve all the learner’s communication difficulties.
menting AAC systems and strategies in the class- That is incorrect. Sometimes providing AAC cre-
room context is a natural part of good teaching ates even more problems, for example when given
practice. However, due to limited insight into the a method by which to communicate, the learner
implementation of AAC, certain misconceptions may express things that others in the environment
and myths prevail. Five of the most common ones may not want to hear about, like abuse and neg-
will briefly be described (UAP 505 1993). lect.

Myth 1: Giving learners access to AAC will Myth 5: AAC requires sophisticated
inhibit their desire to use speech knowledge on the part of teachers and
Many people believe that once individuals use learners to be used effectively
AAC they will stop trying to develop speech. The This myth might stem from “technological anxi-
reverse is true in many cases. Research has shown ety” and the belief that the majority of AAC sys-
that individuals who use AAC will actually attempt tems are high technology. However, more than 80
to communicate verbally more after being provid- per cent of AAC is low-end, simple technology

191
SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

that requires very little training to use (UAP 505 Zanne Bosman, for allowing me to use her cre-
1993). ative “Akkedis” (Gecko) rhyme; to Terry Johnson
from Mayer Johnson Inc. for permission to use the
9.7 CONCLUSION communication board that was developed for the
first regional African AAC conference in 2004; and
In this chapter augmentative and alternative com- to Petra Hagen (VIATAAL, The Netherlands) and
munication means and strategies are discussed as Martin Pistorius (CAAC, Pretoria) for their kind
a way of providing communication opportunities assistance in compiling Table 9.1.
to learners with little or no functional speech.
Being able to recognise all communication
attempts by these learners and responding appro- Bibliography
priately is a vital part of getting to know and Alant, E. 1999. Students with little or no functional speech
understanding them. Having a means of commu- in schools for students with severe mental retardation in
nication is a vital part of interaction and learning South Africa. Augmentative and Alternative Communica-
tion, 15(2): 83–94.
within the classroom context (Bornman & Alant
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA).
1997). Teachers cannot teach these learners effec-
1991. Augmentative and Alternative Communication.
tively if they do not understand their thoughts, ASHA, 33(Supplement 5): 9–12.
wants and abilities. Strategies that are particular- Beukelman, D.R. & Mirenda, P. 1998. Augmentative and
ly useful in the classroom context such as sched- Alternative Communication: management of severe com-
ules, communication boards, and communication munication disorders in children and adults, 2nd ed. Balti-
vests are highlighted. more: Paul H. Brookes.

All individuals, irrespective of the complexity of Blischak, D.M., Loncke, F. & Waller, A.1997. Intervention
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This notion has to be embodied in the belief that Alternative Communication: a handbook of principles and
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your answer. digital voice output device to facilitate language develop-
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2. What AAC system would you select for Jabu- case study. Disability and Rehabilitation, 23(14): 623–634.
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you would take into consideration and justify A North Dakota prevalence study of non-verbal school-
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high-technology systems are superior to low- with high support needs who use augmentative and alter-
technology systems. What is your viewpoint native communication systems I: classroom spontaneity,
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 AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION 9

De Clercq, H. 2003. Mum, is that a human being or an ani- Newell, A.F., Arnott, J.L., Booth, L., Beattie, W., Brophy,
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intervention series. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 237–262. tive and Alternative Communication, 4(2): 83–93.
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 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
AND DIFFICULTIES IN 10
MATHEMATICS
ANNATJIE DEDNAM

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdetermine the level of mathematical knowledge acquired when
working with learners experiencing difficulties with mathematics
Πidentify underlying problems causing mathematical difficulties
Œ assess a learner’s mathematical difficulties
Πuse error analysis to determine the problems learners experience in
mathematics
Πhelp learners to overcome mathematical anxiety and change their
attitude toward mathematics
Πsupport learners who experience difficulties with mathematics through
the different phases of a mathematical lesson.

Key terms Children come across mathematical concepts in

their daily activities. At a young age children
mathematical concepts and processes ♦ cognitive and reveal their awareness of basic mathematical
perceptual skills ♦ mathematical skills ♦ abstract and concepts by protesting if they think a sibling’s
symbolic thinking piece of cake is bigger or sweets are more than
theirs.
10.1 INTRODUCTION Perry and Conroy (1994: 145–146) emphasise
that no child is able to avoid experiencing mathe-
Mathematics is important for learners in their suc-
matics just as they experience language. Both are
cess at school and to fulfil their potential later as
commodities of human existence. Each activity of
adults (Hammill & Bartel 1995: 252; Stiff 1993: 3).
a person has the potential to increase his know-
According to Bezuk et al. (1993: 2), teachers are
ledge of mathematics.
not the only ones who should be responsible for
guiding learners to master mathematics. Even at
primary school level, the learners themselves,
Can you think of mathematical activi-
their parents and their peers should also be
ACTIVITY

ties babies and toddlers experience in

involved in supporting learners to master mathe- the first two years of their lives? Think
matics. Some people believe that learners should of stretching to reach the feeding bot-
start formal mathematics at school from their tle, crawling after objects on the floor,
eleventh year when they are able to work with the etc.
abstract concepts.

194
 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

10.2 MATHEMATICS: A SHORT OVERVIEW and outcomes of process) and the term
Since the origin of the human race, mathematics assessment standards for specific content to
has been part of mankind. In the earliest years, be learned in each outcome will be used.
humans used mathematical concepts in their daily • Outcomes in the concepts area are num-
lives even though they did not have any terms to bers and operations, algebra, geometry,
formulate them. They used mathematical princi- measurements, data analysis and proper-
ples for survival purposes enabling them, for ties.
instance, to withstand the attacks of hostile tribes • Outcomes in the process area are problem
and to find food. People in the modern world also solving, reasoning and proof, communica-
depend on mathematics to survive, but there is a tion, connections and representation.
difference, as these concepts nowadays are not
only used for basic survival purposes but also to
satisfy higher needs. 10.4 CURRICULUM CHANGES IN TEACHING
MATHEMATICS AT SCHOOL
10.3 THE CONCEPT “MATHEMATICS” According to Brown (1999: 3) through the years
Rosner (1993: 81) describes mathematics as “the there was a pendulum swing in the school curric-
mapping of language onto symbols”. Mathematics ula between “... accurate use of calculation proce-
is basically about the properties of numbers and dures and the possession of the ‘number-sense’
figures. Mathematics which underlies the ability to apply such proce-
• focuses on patterns and relations dures sensibly”. Brown characterised these two
positions as procedural (calculation accuracy) and
• has a language of its own which requires the
conceptual (the sensible application of proce-
use of precise mathematical terms and symbols
dures) (Brown 1999: 3).
• is an organised field of knowledge with interre- As the mathematical concepts and procedures
lated and interdependent “content and process became more sophisticated and involved more
standards or strands” (Van de Walle 2004: 4). than the traditional computation skills, changes in
mathematical education during the past 15 years
Note became obvious (Van de Walle 2004: 1) and will
To avoid confusion, instead of using the become more important and crucial in future.
terms “standards” or “strands” as used by
Van de Walle, the term mathematical areas
ACTIVITY

will be used. In addition the terms used by Describe the changes in the mathemat-
the education system in South Africa, namely ics curriculum since you were at
school, up to the new curriculum.
outcomes for the main aspects within each
mathematical area (outcomes of concepts

Table 10.1 Examples of mathematical concepts as basic needs centuries ago in com-
parison with higher needs in modern times
Maths concept Basic use of maths concepts Higher use of maths concepts
Length/distance Distance to hunting field Distance of the moon from the earth
Mass Mass of a stone Mass of a piece of concrete to be lifted
Time Leave at dawn to hunt School starts at 8 o’clock
Speed Speed of animals to be hunted Speed of an aeroplane to stay in the air
Height Height of mountains to cross Height of a skyscraper building
Order or rank Chief of the tribe Rector; vice-rector; dean; head of department; senior
lecturers; junior lecturers and assistants of a university

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10.5 AREAS, OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT STANDARDS OF MATHEMATICS TO BE

MASTERED BY LEARNERS IN THE FOUNDATION AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL PHASES
Hierarchical and parallel developments of mathe- level, learners master the concepts of addition
matical literacy in the different fields take place and subtraction at the same time. For example,
from a very young age and proceed even after the the higher the price of an object (i.e. more money
person has became an adult. Hierarchically, learn- is needed), the less money there will be left in
ers first need to understand the elementary one’s purse. Learners are not supposed to master
aspects of mathematical content, such as number the area of concepts first and afterwards start
concepts, before they will be able to master with the area of process. These two areas are
the more complicated content such as formal integrated and should be attended to at the same
addition and subtraction concepts. On a parallel time.

10.5.1 Content to master in the area of concepts

Table 10.2 Basic knowledge and abilities to apply in daily situations

Outcomes Assessment standards

1. Number and operations • Understand numbers, their representations, relationships and systems.
• Understand operations and their interrelationships.
• Be able to compute and estimate fluently.

2. Algebra • Understand patterns, relations and functions.

• Represent and analyse mathematical situations and structures using
algebraic symbols.
• Use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative
relationships.
• Analyse change in various contexts.

3. Geometry • Analyse two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and know their
geometric relationships.
• Specify locations and describe spatial relationships.
• Apply transformations and use symmetry to analyse mathematical situations.
• Solve problems through visualisation, spatial reasoning, and geometric
modelling.

4. Measurement • Know measurable attributes and processes of measurement.

• Apply techniques, tools and formulas to determine measurements.

5. Data analysis and • Formulate questions on data, and collect, organise, and display the data to
probability answer the questions.
• Use appropriate statistical methods to analyse data.
• Develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data.
• Understand and apply basic concepts of probability.

Source: Adapted from Van de Walle 2004: Appendix A

10.5.2 Concepts to master in the area of process (Van de Walle 2004: 4–5)
The process area for mathematics enables learners to apply their basic mathematical knowledge to more
complicated situations.

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 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

Table 10.3 Concepts to master in the area of process

Outcomes Assessment standards

1. Problem solving A vehicle with which to build new mathematical knowledge
2. Reasoning and proof The ability to provide an argument or rationale as an integral part of every answer
3. Communication The ability to talk or write about, describe or explain mathematical ideas
4. Connections The relations between mathematical concepts and insight into how mathematical
concepts build on one another
5. Presentation Mathematical ideas presented through charts and other visual aids become easier
to understand

Source: Adapted from Van de Walle 2004: Appendix A

10.6 PREREQUISITES FOR LEARNERS TO 10.6.5 Contextual level

START WITH FORMAL MATHEMATICAL Learners should realise that mathematical con-
CONCEPTS cepts can be related to their daily lives and they
Underhill (in Kennedy & Tipps 1994: 104–105) dis- should know how to apply these concepts in real-
cusses the following development levels that life situations.
learners should have reached before being suc-
cessful in formal mathematics at school.
10.7 COGNITIVE PREREQUISITES FOR
MASTERING MATHEMATICAL
10.6.1 Content level
CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES
Learners should, for example, be able to count
objects correctly and significantly (which differs Hammill and Bartel (1995: 254–255) base the pre-
from rote counting) as well as understand and use conditions for mastering mathematics on two lev-
the basic addition and subtraction, and multipli- els of cognitive development. Learners should
cation and division operations. understand and acquire elementary mathematical
concepts on the first level, and on the higher level
10.6.2 Educational level they should be able to work with advanced mathe-
matical concepts. Cognitive skills develop while
When learners can relate pictures to mathemati- learners are involved in their daily activities, there-
cal computations they are also able to relate the fore they are unaware of the mathematical con-
mathematical concepts to practical situations in cepts and processes involved in these activities.
their surroundings and to solve the mathematical
The two levels of cognitive development do not
problems.
always follow each other consecutively but the
higher cognitive level gradually develops together
10.6.3 Development level
with the lower cognitive level.
Intellectual development is mainly involved here –
it is the ability to work with mathematical con-
10.7.1 Cognitive skills for mastering
cepts. In the initial school years while learners are
lower level mathematical
still concrete-orientated, they form visual images
concepts and processes
of objects they use in mathematics. Together with
this their mathematical knowledge increases. The elementary cognitive skills are, according to
Hammill and Bartel (1995: 255), the ability to
10.6.4 Emotional level • remember arbitrary associations: five stars are
Emotionally, learners develop a positive attitude the same as five sweets, five dogs, etc.
towards mathematics and a will to work with the • understand basic relationships:
concepts. are four boys

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• make low-level generalisations: two sweets Knowledge of the different mathematical con-
plus one sweet is three sweets. cepts and processes is not enough to know which
strategy to use to solve a problem correctly.
Elementary cognitive skills are based on aware- Learners should also be aware of their own knowl-
ness of the following: edge of the mathematical concepts and processes
• Classification of objects according to common (metacognition). This knowledge would enable
characteristics, such as form or colour them to use the applicable strategies and meth-
• Seriation of objects by arranging and process- ods to solve a mathematical problem and be able
ing them in a logical order, e.g. from short to to monitor the application of the strategies and
tall methods used while solving the problem. The
• Relations between mathematical units such as learners’ metacognitive skills enable them to
numbers, e.g. in the number order 2 4 6 8, each apply more complicated mathematical skills.
number increases by the same number of units,
namely 2 Metacognitive knowledge and
• Temporal awareness, i.e. executing events in mathematics
the correct order According to Meese (1994: 21), “metacogni-
• Spatial relationships, i.e. seeing that an object tion means knowledge about one’s own
is in front of or behind another (or nearer to or thought processes and learning. It involves
further from another) not only an awareness of the strategies and
• Conservation of form, i.e. knowing that the skills necessary to accomplish a task effec-
mass of two objects of the same shape and size tively, but also the ability to monitor one’s
may differ performance while completing the task.”
• Conservation of liquids, i.e. realising that the Learners with good metacognitive skills
volume of liquid in a narrow glass may be the are, according to Schoenfeld,
same as the liquid in a wide one “[g]ood problem solvers [who] monitor
• Conservation of numbers, i.e. understanding their thinking regularly and automati-
that if the arrangement of a number of objects cally. They recognize when they are
is changed, e.g. from a row to a disordered stuck or do not fully understand. They
arrangement, the number stays the same make constant decisions to switch
strategies, rethink the problem, search
10.7.2 Cognitive skills for mastering for related content knowledge that may
more advanced mathematical help [them], or simply start afresh” (Van
concepts and processes de Walle 2004: 54).
Higher-level cognitive skills become crucial as the
Borasi (1996: 32) discusses the three
learners proceed to higher school grades where metacognitive categories that, according to
more complicated mathematical concepts and
Schoenfeld, are important for mathematics:
processes are taught. The learners should be
aware of strategies for applying their acquired 1. “Individuals’ declarative knowledge about
knowledge and for solving problems that enable their cognitive processes.” This is the
them to execute specific mathematical tasks. knowledge one has about mathematics.
2. “Self-regulatory procedures, including
monitoring and ‘on-line’ decision-mak-
If a learner experiences difficulties with
ing.” This is the ability to monitor one’s
ACTIVITY

borrowing from the tens to subtract 57

from 82, will he be able to subtract success and relate it to the task one is
fractions? This is highly unlikely, as busy with by changing strategies if the
using fractions is on a higher level than task is not successfully accomplished and,
using whole numbers. lastly, to check the answer against the
estimation made earlier.

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 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

3. “Beliefs and affects and their effects on Mathematical difficulties can be caused by
performance.” This is about one’s intrinsic and extrinsic barriers. The latter include
endurance and self-monitoring about the barriers caused by the system, the school and
importance of a task and of the time spent environment. Intrinsic barriers refer to barriers
on it, and deciding whether the task was within the learner that may hamper his ability to
accomplished or not. cope with mathematics.

List the factors that may be related to

10.8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF
the school and the system and indicate
MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE how they affect a learner’s knowledge

ACTIVITY
Mathematical knowledge starts at a concrete level of mathematics. For example, can the
and advances through a semi-concrete level to the teacher be the cause of a learner’s
abstract level on which the learners are able to mathematical difficulties, and if so,
work without concrete apparatus. All learners do how? Also indicate the underlying rela-
tionships between these factors before
not reach the abstract level at the same time and
reading further.
some never reach it. The time it takes them to
reach this level depends on the contribution of
parents, peers and mainly on the teaching strate-
10.9.1 Systemic barriers
gies and methods applied by teachers. Because of
a lack of lower-level cognitive knowledge, some [Link] Absence from and changes of
learners may find it difficult to master mathemat- school
ical concepts and processes. When working with Regular absence from school and change of
new mathematical concepts, learners proceed schools are two of the most important causes of
more or less through the following phases: mathematical difficulties, as they cause backlogs
• Phase 1: The first impression of a new concept in mathematical knowledge. Learners who are
is initially generally intuitive, vague and often absent from school miss work, which causes
unanalysed. gaps in their mathematical knowledge and they
find it difficult to catch up. When changing
• Phase 2: When encountering a number of simi-
schools they may miss concepts that were already
lar examples, their grasp of the concept
being taught in the new school. Learners who
improves.
experience backlogs find it extremely difficult to
• Phase 3: By exploring the concept systematical- catch up, especially if the teacher is not adequate-
ly, there is an improvement in understanding it. ly trained to render teaching support or, due to a
• Phase 4: The grasp of the principle is so well variety of factors, fails to identify and rectify the
established that it is possible to describe it in problem.
precise mathematical terms.
10.9.2 Inadequate teaching
All learners do not go through all these phases
but skip some of them. Others never reach the For Riedesel (1990: 2) and Hammill and Bartel
last one or two levels and they continue to make (1995: 258) the teaching of mathematics is the
errors. most important factor that enables learners to
master it. Freudenthal (Treffers & Beishuizen
1999: 27) accuses of neglect those educators who
10.9 BARRIERS CAUSING MATHEMATICAL presume that mathematics is only subject matter
DIFFICULTIES to be transmitted instead of “... a human activity”.
All barriers influencing a learner’s ability to mas- Learners should always be “involved in mathema-
ter mathematical concepts and processes are tization”.
linked. As they affect each other it is not always Learners who have already mastered the basic
easy to pinpoint a specific one. mathematical skills find the advanced mathemati-

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cal processes less difficult. Many teachers tend to on the correct answer and do not determine the
presume that all learners have the basic preschool step(s) in the process in which the learner made a
mathematical knowledge when they enter school mistake.
for the first time. As this is often not the case, There are teachers who label learners who have
teachers should determine what the learners problems in mathematics as “lazy” or say that
already know. This is also applicable to learners they do “not have the ability to do maths” instead
who come from a lower grade at the end of the of finding the reasons for the learners’ difficulties.
previous year or from another school.
When teaching mathematics, some teachers 10.9.3 Barriers within the learner
leave the learners to discover new mathematical
[Link] Difficulties with abstract and
concepts and processes haphazardly on their own
symbolic thinking
instead of explaining unfamiliar concepts step by
step. Some learners may be able to discover the Learners experiencing difficulties in abstract
concepts on their own, but most need detailed or thinking find it difficult to see the relationships
at least some explanation, while others do not between numbers and objects and are unable to
understand them even with explanation. They measure unfamiliar units. Teachers tend to teach
know few strategies or methods to solve the these learners to manipulate the numbers, which
problems, and guess the answers. If they answer a gives the impression that they are “good at math-
question correctly they are unable to explain how ematics” although they have little understanding
they arrived at the answer. Some learners do have of the actual mathematical concepts.
good insight into concepts they learned outside
the school or in the preschool years, but cannot [Link] Reading difficulties
understand them when they are explained to Poor reading causes difficulties in reading mathe-
them at school, or cannot relate them to relevant matical combinations and constructions of word
explanations at school. sums. These learners often get high marks for
Parker (1993: 64) mentions that some teachers mental arithmetic and mathematical competence
are not familiar with all mathematical concepts tests but struggle with mathematical processes
themselves and they do not know how to teach and word sums as they cannot read and compre-
the concepts to the learners. Others are not inter- hend the text.
ested enough in mathematics and are unable to
detect any inadequate knowledge a learner may [Link] Emotional problems
manifest. • A negative attitude towards mathematics.
Some teachers teach subject matter that the These learners become stressed while busy
learners do not understand as it is at too high a with mathematics so they tend to avoid it. They
level. These learners execute the mathematical have hypochondriac complaints, and their poor
steps as shown but have no idea what the benefit attention during the lesson or absence from
might be of knowing the concepts or how to school causes such a backlog that they cannot
apply them in the real world, since the teacher catch up with the work.
also fails to provide real-life experiences.
• Lack of self-confidence when doing mathemat-
There are still teachers who concentrate mainly
ics. These learners believe that they cannot do
on the cramming of the plus, minus, multiplica-
mathematics and are easily discouraged if the
tion and division combinations without making
work seems difficult.
sure that the learners understand the underlying
processes of these combinations. Teachers who • Passivity. These learners give the impression of
are rigid in their teaching of mathematics expect a lack of interest, and as if they are tired, sleepy
the learners to use only the problem-solving or ill.
strategies taught to them in class and do not • Anxiety. These learners become anxious, as
allow them to use, experiment with or explore they are afraid to make mistakes, especially if
other methods. Other teachers concentrate only their teacher’s demands are very high.

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 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

[Link] Attention deficit-related problems to their surrounding space cannot orientate

• Short attention span and attention distrac- themselves in space. They will not be aware of
tion. These learners do not follow all the steps the direction of objects, the relationships
needed to complete a mathematical problem. between the objects, and their differences and
Others leave the work uncompleted or they similarities, which are important concepts for
skip some steps. They often ask the teacher to mathematics. They may experience problems
repeat the explanations or for help. with place value and would find it hard to
understand that the value of the 4 on the left in
• Hyperactivity and impulsivity. These learners
the number 44 is 40 units and the one on the
seem to be careless and inattentive and they
right is only 4. In a problem such as 34 + 61 =
make lots of unnecessary mistakes. They tend
□, they confuse the tens and units. They
to give an answer before thinking carefully
become confused when working on a number
about it. (There is more about this topic in
line. They find decimals and negative numbers
Chapter 16 on learning impairments.)
difficult.
[Link] Problems with basic underlying skills • Visual discrimination and form constancy.
They confuse numbers such as 3, 8 and 5, and
Note the + and , and – and ÷ signs, etc.
As problems with basic underlying skills are • Figure ground discrimination. These learners
discussed in full detail in Chapter 16 on learn- tend to lose their place, especially when they
ing impairments, you are referred to that revise the steps or order in which they com-
chapter. Here only the effect they have on pleted a mathematical problem.
mathematics is discussed.
• Visual memory. These learners find it difficult
to remember the steps they have to use to
The previously mentioned factors giving rise to solve a problem. They often check the exam-
mathematical difficulties may be directly involved. ples in order to follow every step.
There are, however, underlying skills that are sec-
ondary in mathematical difficulties. Auditory perceptual problems
1. Gross motor, visual motor and tactual motor Auditory perceptual problems have less effect on
skills. Especially in the preschool phase, if mathematics than visual perceptual problems.
learners do not perceive and manipulate There are, however, aspects in mathematics that
objects around them with attention, they often can be affected by auditory perceptual problems.
experience problems in mathematics later on
at school • Auditory discrimination. These learners have
difficulty distinguishing between numbers that
2. Fine motor coordination, tactual kinaesthetic
sound nearly the same, such as seven and eleven.
and visual motor integration skills. Learners
In higher numbers, they find it difficult to dis-
who did not have opportunities to manipulate
criminate between numbers such as fifteen and
three-dimensional objects to perceive their
fifty.
texture, size, mass and form may find mathe-
matics difficult. They may also find it difficult • Auditory sequencing. This problem affects the
to write letters and numbers. learners’ ability to count correctly in the right
3. Perceptual skills. These skills enable one to order. They will also experience problems in
give meaning to data perceived through ones counting multiplied numbers.
senses. • Auditory memory. These learners cannot
remember the simple combinations of addition
Visual perceptual difficulties and subtraction. They still count on their fin-
• Space orientation and the determination of gers or use concrete objects to get to the
direction. Learners who do not give attention answer.

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mathematical knowledge. Errors enable the learn-

Although the above are listed as intrin-
ers to develop independent and well-formulated
sic factors, the system, including the
problem-solving strategies, and to check and cor-
school and the parents, can be respon-
rect their answers. Learners should become aware
ACTIVITY

sible for many of them. For example, if

a learner was not stimulated as a young of the fact that it is also their own obligation to
child to develop his perceptual skills identify errors and not only that of the teacher.
such as listening to different sounds, Errors give an indication to teachers of aspects
recalling stories, etc., this can con- or steps in mathematics that learners or individu-
tribute to difficulties with mathematics. als still do not fully understand. They also give an
Can you give more examples? indication of the level on which the learner has
mastered the steps. Teachers should not only con-
centrate on the final answer as correct or incor-
10.9.4 Problems caused by attitudes
rect. The whole process or method used by the
and beliefs of parents
learner to get to the answer should be analysed
The effect of the attitude and beliefs of parents step by step in order to determine the type of
may cause a learner to experience difficulties in problem the learner is experiencing. This also
mathematics. gives an indication of the methods and strategies
• Parents whose demands are too high regarding the teacher should apply to support the learner to
their children’s achievement in mathematics overcome the problem. The mathematical errors
may cause anxiety. are therefore just as important as the answers.
• If parents’ demands are too low regarding their
children’s mathematical achievement or if they 10.10.2 General manifestations of
show little interest in it, the children will also mathematical difficulties
lack interest in mathematics.
Harwell (1995: 215) estimates that one in seven
• Some parents presume that if they experienced
learners experience problems with mathematics
difficulties with mathematics in their school
at school. Most of these difficulties start in the
years, their children may also not succeed. They
learners’ first school year, although they may also
do not expect better achievement from their
start at a later stage. The first symptoms of math-
children. These learners believe that they are not
ematical difficulties are a learner’s tendency to
able to cope with mathematics and therefore do
avoid mathematics as it causes anxiety. One clear
not do their best to improve their mathematics.
manifestation of mathematical anxiety is sweaty
• Some parents believe that mathematics is less hands when the learner has to do written work in
important for girls than for boys. Therefore the mathematics. (Note, however, that some learners’
girls do not even try to improve their mathe- hands may sweat excessively without any relation
matical knowledge. to anxiety.)
• There are parents who try to take over the Confusion is a general symptom of mathemati-
teaching of mathematics at home without find- cal difficulties. Learners are not sure where to
ing out which approaches the teachers follow. start and their methods and strategies of problem
This may confuse the learners, especially if they solving are without structure. They work very
find the mathematic concepts and processes slowly and think for a long time before giving an
difficult. answer. If asked to give an answer orally, they
first repeat the question before trying to get to
10.10 MANIFESTATIONS OF PROBLEMS IN the answer. By the time they do get the answer
MATHEMATICS the teacher has already asked another learner to
10.10.1 The importance of the role answer the question, a practice which is unac-
errors play in mathematics ceptable from an educational point of view.
Borasi (1996: 32) accentuates the importance of These learners work very slowly and they often
errors in mathematics when a learner is acquiring make errors even with the simplest problems.

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 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

They make use of dots or count on their fingers to • cannot count backwards
get to an answer. Even in the intermediate school • cannot count forwards or backwards from a
phase they use dots or their fingers to add or sub- specific number
tract one unit. • do not understand and cannot use the number
line
ACTIVITY

• cannot count in multiples of twos and threes

Observe the learners in your class and
write down the manifestations that may • cannot relate simple mathematical concepts to
be related to mathematical anxiety. their daily life situations
• do not understand the value of numbers
• do not understand place values
10.10.3 Specific manifestations of • cannot discriminate between the different
mathematical difficulties mathematical symbols such as +, –, and ÷
In the foundation phase learners mainly work on a • do not understand and know the attributes of
low level in the content and process areas of the main combinations of adding and subtract-
mathematics (consult the school year plan for ing (in addition the number becomes more and
mathematics). In the intermediate phase they still in subtraction it becomes less.)
work with the lower-level content together with • do not understand that in subtraction, the
higher-level content. In the foundation phase the smaller number should be subtracted from the
learners use straightforward strategies in the larger one
process area; for example: John has 10 sweets and • do not understand the = sign, that it means
Peter 15. How many more sweets does Peter have than that the numbers at both sides of the = sign
John? In the intermediate school phase the strate- have the same value: 3 + 9 = 6 + 6 (3 + 9 =
gies used in the process area become more com- 12 and 6 + 6 = 12)
plicated. • do not understand the concept of tens and
It is not possible to discuss all the types of units
errors learners can make in a specific grade,
• cannot analyse and apply the operation they
therefore you are referred to the school year plan
should use to solve word sums
again. If an error occurs on a lower level of math-
ematics than the grade in which the learner is, it is • rely in every situation on concrete material
important to give attention to that specific kind of • persevere on the same combination e.g. (addi-
problem. If the problem is on a level applicable to tion in this instance) 4 + 3 = 7, 6 – 4 = 10, 2
a higher grade, the method for solving the prob- 5 = 7, 8 ÷ 2 = 10
lem should not be ignored but only briefly • do not understand the concept of 0
explained to the learner. If a learner cannot • do not understand the repetitive concept of
achieve specific outcomes for a grade, he may not multiplication and division, e.g. 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
be able to achieve the outcomes for a higher is the same as 4 2 = 8 and 18 – 3 – 3 – 3 – 3
grade. – 3 – 3 is the same as 18 ÷ 3 = 6
• do not understand that 6 + 2 is the same as 2
[Link] The foundation phase + 6 and 3 4 as 4 3 (the commutative aspect
These learners of numbers)
• experience problems sorting objects according • cannot identify the basic coins and cannot
to different characteristics determine the price of objects
• cannot estimate quantities • do not understand mass and volume
• count without insight • cannot read half-hours and quarter-hours on a
• count slowly because they first have to decide watch and their concept of time is poor
which number follows • cannot do simple measurements.

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

with the parents, teachers and the learners and error

Look at the learners in the classroom
analysis of their work to determine the general and
and their workbooks and give examples
specific manifestations of the problems. As
of each of the above difficulties. For
assessment is discussed in Chapter 3, no detailed
ACTIVITY

example, if they experience problems

sorting objects according to different information on assessment will be given here.
characteristics, they cannot sort
objects according to form, colour and Note
size. If you ask them to name all the
square objects in the classroom, they It is important to remember that mathemati-
are not able to do so. cal assessment is not about how many
answers are correct but about the problem-
solving procedures the learners followed
[Link] The intermediate school phase (process area).
These learners often experience the same prob-
lems as learners in the foundation phase although Hammill and Bartel (1995: 259–261; 270) mention
the problems are less conspicuous. They the following assessment material that could be
• rely mainly on mathematical operations and used by teachers to determine learners’ mathe-
answers familiar to them matics difficulties:
• cannot find solving strategies for more compli-
cated mathematical operations Commercially available tests
• make mistakes in the four main combinations, These are standardised mathematical tests, pro-
which gives the impression of carelessness grammes and teaching systems. The advantage of
• do not understand a problem such as “How these programmes is that they give teachers a
many will be left if you take away 7 from 9” clear indication of the level on which a learner
(They tend to subtract the second number from functions in mathematics. However, they are con-
the first and their answer is 0.) sidered as norm-based tests and are not recom-
• do not understand the carry-over concept from mended for regular assessment purposes in class.
tens to units and vice versa The disadvantage is that they are not specifically
• do not understand that a horizontal combina- compiled for a particular grade or class. The mate-
tion has the same principle as a vertical combi- rial in the programme may not include all the con-
nation cepts and processes that have been taught to the
• find it hard to read numbers higher than 100 class. (A learning support teacher might find it
• have problems with the place value of numbers useful to include this type of test as part of her
higher than 100 initial assessment.)
• do not understand even and uneven numbers
Curriculum-based tests
• cannot round numbers up to ten
• experience problems with the concepts of These tests are based on the work the learners
angles. have learned in the classroom. They are taken
every week or month in order to assess the learn-
ers’ progress in mathematics.
10.11 ASSESSMENT AND SUPPORT OF
LEARNERS EXPERIENCING MATHE- Assessment batteries compiled by the
MATICAL PROBLEMS IN THE FOUNDA- teacher
TION AND INTERMEDIATE PHASES
These tests focus on what the learners can do in
10.11.1 Identification and assessment their daily work and on errors in their class work-
of mathematical difficulties books. They give teachers an indication of where
The main assessment tools for learners with to start supporting learners with mathematical
mathematical difficulties are observation, interviews difficulties.

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 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

Interviews with learners Thorough assessment and clear guidelines

In this assessment test, a learner is required to without being too strict about the problem-
think aloud when solving mathematical problems, solving methods are very important.
which enables the teacher to assess the strategies Learners who are able to use their own
the learner uses. Although it is a time-consuming strategies and methods that are not the same
assessment strategy, it enables the teacher to as those taught in the classroom should
support a learner in the specific problems he never be discouraged to use and build on
experiences. their own knowledge.
Teachers should avoid making insensitive
Error analysis remarks about wrong strategies and methods
Error analysis is based mainly on a learner’s writ- used by learners. They need to be sympathet-
ten mathematics and enables the teacher to iden- ic and patient, and admit that some aspects
tify and interpret the errors the learner has made. of mathematics are difficult. The teachers’
undertaking to help learners to overcome
their problems will encourage them to work
10.12 THE TEACHER’S ROLE IN SUPPORT-
harder.
ING LEARNERS WITH MATHE-
If teachers develop an attitude of enthusi-
MATICAL DIFFICULTIES AS WELL AS
asm towards mathematics, it may also inspire
A CHANGE IN THE APPROACH TO
a positive and enthusiastic attitude in the
MATHEMATICAL SUPPORT
learners towards the learning area.
Teachers who are not sure of mathematics them-
selves avoid supporting learners experiencing dif-
ficulties in mathematics. Some may not even 10.12.1 Support of learners experienc-
understand why learners cannot grasp the mathe- ing mathematical difficulties
matical concepts. For them, knowledge of mathe- [Link] Overcoming mathematical anxiety
matics is obvious and there is no particular reason
According Barooski and Coslick (1998: 20–21), “...
why all learners cannot grasp it. Other teachers
anxiety is learned and ... can be prevented or
find it easy to determine the type of problem the
unlearned.” They give the following guidelines to
learners experience but are not capable of sup-
minimise fear:
porting the learners in mathematics. These teach-
ers have to improve their knowledge and insight – emphasize understanding and thinking
into mathematical difficulties, or they have to rather than memorizing and quickly
change their attitude towards mathematics and regurgitating the correct answer;
towards the learners who experience problems. – encourage a variety of strategies, includ-
ing children’s own informal methods,
instead of requiring children to learn a
ACTIVITY

What can you do to improve your

single school procedure;
knowledge of mathematics? Is listening
to lectures enough? Do you participate – treat questions and errors as learning
in discussions during workshops? opportunities and as signs of active intelli-
gence, not as interruptions or signs of
stupidity;
– choose experiences carefully so that chil-
Teachers should remember dren generally experience success; and
There are learners who are not able to con- – encourage children to work in groups
struct and apply their own strategies and (Barooski & Coslick 1998: 20–21).
methods to solve mathematical problems,
and teachers should teach them prescribed Teachers should also
strategies and methods to solve certain kinds • give a learner his assessment results in such a
of problems. way as not to harm his self-image

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

• give positive comments on aspects in which the explaining the concepts and processes again by
learner has succeeded means of the methods and strategies already used
• give the learner the opportunity to rewrite a in the classroom. This is re-teaching. This may be
test in which he was not successful after he has useful for learners who were absent from school
been supported in the same type of content. but not for those who did not succeed with the
same methods and strategies the first time. These
[Link] General guidelines for supporting learners need more intensive teaching strategies
learners in mathematics and methods, repetition and intensive support.
Hammill and Bartel (1995: 270–275) discuss the
following principles for mathematical support: Advice to parents regarding development of
their children’s mathematical skills
• Use a vast variety of concrete teaching and
learning material to give learners opportunities Underhill (in Kennedy & Tipps 1994: 104–105)
to visualise the mathematical concepts and to recommends that learners manipulate concrete
explore and communicate them. objects deliberately. Parents can, for instance,
• Use a variety of thinking strategies to solve the develop their children’s mathematical skills in the
problems. kitchen. All children enjoy kitchen activities. Con-
tent awareness includes the following (examples
• Relate the mathematical outcomes to the real-
of kitchen activities are provided in brackets):
world context.
• Be ready to change the lesson plan if it seems • Quantities and numbers (how many cookies have
as if the learners do not have the basic know- we baked?)
ledge for the material to be applied. • Mathematical activities such as counting,
• Present the curriculum content in a flexible adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing
manner by showing the learners that there is a (we have already added one cup of milk; how many
variety of methods to solve a problem. cups of milk must we still add?)
• Simple fractions with rational numbers such as
Other general guidelines for supporting learners halves and quarters (you can cut the scone in half)
in mathematics: • Length and distance, mass and content (the
• Allow enough time for learners to exercise the mass of the sugar is 2 kg)
mathematical problem-solving strategies until • Forms and angles (the cake is round)
they can apply them automatically. • Perimeters and areas (how many cookies would fit
• Give learners the opportunity to monitor their into the pan?)
own progress from time to time. This can be • Time, speed and relationships (the cookies take
done by using calculators or by comparing 10 minutes to bake; if we put them in the oven at 10
answers with those of other learners. o’clock, at what time should we take them out?)

Rosner (1993: 140–143) stresses the following: Cooperative learning

• Learners should have the basic mathematical Cooperative learning may be useful to support
knowledge and language before the content to learners who experience problems in mathemat-
be taught in one period is increased. ics, as they tend to learn from the example of the
• If a learner can apply small units, they can be others during cooperative learning. Some of these
increased gradually. learners tend to understand the content better if
• Use analysing techniques instead of synthesis- peers help them because their peers are on the
ing techniques to teach mathematics. same cognitive level and their explanations are
simpler and clearer than those of the teacher. It is,
The improvement of the quality of support to however, important that the teacher takes note if
learners experiencing mathematical difficulties a learner with problems tends to “disappear” in
For a number of teachers, support to learners the group. Some learners do not function well in
experiencing mathematical difficulties means groups and become just one of the group without

206
 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

giving any input, especially if the other learners er for the learners to understand the purpose of
are well equipped with the concepts. Such learn- the concepts and how they could be integrated
ers should not be put in groups with one or two into their daily activities. The lesson should then
dominant learners as these learners tend to take move to a schematic or semi-concrete level and
over and do everything in the group and for the finally, if it is clear that the learners have grasped
group. (Read Chapter 4 on cooperative learning the concept and process, to the abstract level of
groups.) numbers and signs. While the learners are busy
on a concrete and semi-concrete level of mathe-
[Link] Specific guidelines for supporting matical content, they should be introduced to the
learners experiencing abstract level by showing them the written num-
mathematical difficulties bers and signs at the same time. The course of
each lesson should follow certain phases. It is
Note possible that the first three phases may occur
concurrently, although normally they occur con-
It is impossible to give examples of methods
secutively.
and strategies for every aspect of mathemat-
ics as well as the processes in the different
[Link] Phases of the mathematics lesson
grades. There are general guidelines as well
as specific methods to follow when support- (a) Revision
ing learners with mathematical difficulties. Revision is also a kind of assessment, as it enables
These guidelines and methods depend main- the teacher to determine what the learner already
ly on the learner’s specific problems and knows about the content underlying the new
grade, as well as the particular teaching style information to be taught in that session. Without
of the teacher. It is therefore important to do this knowledge the teacher cannot be sure
a shelf search on the different topics on whether the learner is ready for the new mathe-
mathematics in the library. matical content.
Teachers should consult books in the
library of any tertiary educational institution (b) Explanation
with information on different teaching meth- After the teacher has determined the level of
ods and strategies in mathematics and adapt background knowledge of the learner, he should
these to their own teaching style. Mathemat- start explaining the new concepts and processes.
ical teaching methods and strategies should It is, however, important that he relates this infor-
never be prescriptive, therefore careful plan- mation back to the learner’s basic knowledge
ning on how to adapt them is essential. assessment during the revision phase.

(c) Experiencing
10.12.2 The mathematics lesson This is the most important phase of the lesson for
structure learners experiencing mathematical difficulties as
Every mathematics lesson for learners who expe- they have to experience the concrete or practical
rience mathematical difficulties needs to be well situation and then relate it to abstract concepts.
planned to be purposeful. The information should There are mathematical concepts that are easy to
be applied in a specific order to avoid a haphaz- relate to the real-world situation without experi-
ardly delivered lesson which the learners cannot encing the concrete situation during the lesson.
follow and understand. The lesson should always Some concepts are rather abstract and should be
start at a concrete and practical level, even for related to the practical situation to make them
learners in the intermediate phase who experi- accessible for the learner. Learners should work
ence mathematical difficulties. At this stage the and play with or experience the real material,
mathematical concepts to be learned should be such as in baking a cake. Obtain the ingredients
related to all learning areas, as this makes it easi- and let the learners measure them. Learners

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SECTION D ADDRESSING LITERACY BARRIERS

should experience the time it takes to prepare the process. Mastery of mathematics is important in
batter and to bake the cake. order for learners to be successful at school and
later on as adults.
(d) Discussion Learners will have to reach the content, educa-
At this stage of the lesson individual learners tional, developmental, emotional and contextual
should have the opportunity to discuss and solve levels before they will be able to work with math-
the problems. This is also a form of assessment as ematics on a formal level at school. Before they
the teacher can assess the learners’ knowledge of are able to work with advanced mathematical
new concepts presented during the lesson. (If concepts and processes, they will have to acquire
some learners are too shy or anxious to discuss higher cognitive and metacognitive skills, and
their understanding of a concept and process in understand and acquire elementary mathematical
front of others, they can discuss it in small groups concepts on the first level. Mathematics starts at a
or just with the teacher.) concrete level and proceeds to the abstract level.
Awareness of underlying problems such as
(e) Generalisation absence from school, changes of school, inade-
At this stage the teacher should give the learners quate teaching, problems within the learner, and
the opportunity to apply the concepts in another the attitudes and beliefs of the parents are impor-
but similar situation. This is to determine if learn- tant when working with learners experiencing
ers can apply and solve a similar type of problem mathematical difficulties.
in a similar situation.

(f) Implementation Choose a learner experiencing mathe-

At this stage the learners should have the oppor- matical difficulties in any of the grades
tunity to apply this new knowledge to similar sit- from 2 to 6. Complete the following
information on this learner:
uations. For example if money was the topic dur-
ing the lesson, learners should now have the 1. General information on the
opportunity to go to the school tuck shop and buy learner
something such as a pencil, a sweet or a book. Gender: ____________________________
They then have to decide whether the change is
Grade: _____________________________
correct.
This information should serve as the starting Age: _______________________________
point for the next lesson. [Why is this information important?]
ACTIVITY

2. Mathematical difficulties (see

Many learners are interested in team paragraph 10.9)
sport. How can you use a soccer
2.1 Factors underlying mathematical
match, for instance, to teach basic
difficulties
ACTIVITY

problem-solving skills such as counting

(the members of the team; how many Determine the possible cause(s) of the
substitutes are allowed on the field); the learner’s mathematical difficulties
positions they play (goalie at the back,
3. Assessment
striker in front); the goals they concede
and achieve (the winning or losing mar- After assessing the learner, write down
gin), etc. the types of errors he makes. Try to
determine the reasons for these errors.

4. Teaching strategies
10.13 CONCLUSION
Write down a few teaching strategies
Mathematics focuses on patterns and relations, that you may use to support this learner
has its own language and is an organised field of to solve his problems.
knowledge with interrelated areas of content and

208
 MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND DIFFICULTIES IN MATHEMATICS 10

Errors are important as they enable learners to Bezuk, N.S., Armstrong, B.E., Elllis, A.L., Holmes, F.A. &
Sowder, L.K. 1993. Educators and parents working
develop independent and well-formulated prob-
together to help all students live up to their dreams with
lem-solving strategies, and teachers to identify mathematics. In Cuevas, G. & Driscoll, M.H. (Eds), Reach-
the learners’ mathematical difficulties. ing all students with mathematics. Reston, VA: The
The first symptoms of mathematical difficulties National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 23–44.
manifest in anxiety, confusion, a slow work rate Borasi, R. 1996. Reconceiving mathematics instruction: a
focus on errors. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
and identifiable mathematical errors.
Assessment of such learners’ mathematics Brown, M. 1999. Swing of the pendulum. In Thompson, I.
(Ed.), Issues in teaching numeracy in primary schools.
enables teachers to assist them to overcome their Buckingham: Open University, 3–16.
problems. Teachers should first change their own Hammill, D.D. & Bartel, N.R. 1995. Teaching students with
attitudes towards mathematics and towards learning and behavior problems: managing mild to moder-
learners who are experiencing problems before ate difficulties in resource and inclusive settings, 6th ed.
they will be able to change the learners’ attitudes Austin, TX: Pro-ed.

towards mathematics and help them to overcome Harwell, J.M. 1995. Ready-to-use: information and materi-
als for assessing specific learning disabilities, Volume 1.
their problems. The lessons for mathematical sup- New York: West Nyack.
port should be well planned and developed
Kennedy, L.M. & Tipps, S. 1994. Guiding children’s learn-
through the phases of revision, explanation, expe- ing of mathematics, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
riencing, discussion, generalisation and imple- Meese, R.L. 1994. Teaching learners with mild disabilities:
mentation to be successful. integrating research and practice. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Parker, R.E. 1993. Mathematical power: lessons from a
Questions classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
1. Indicate how you would motivate learners to Perry, B. & Conroy, J. 1994. Early childhood and primary
use their own strategies when solving mathe- mathematics: a participative text for teachers. Sydney:
Harcourt Brace.
matical problems.
Riedesel, C.A 1990. Teaching elementary school mathe-
2. State how you would revise the information in matics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
the first stage of your lesson by making use of Rosner, J. 1993. Helping children overcome learning diffi-
information related to the learners’ real-world culties, 3rd ed. New York: Walker.
situation. Stiff, V.L. 1993. Introduction – reaching all students: a
3. Give an indication of the new information you vision of learning mathematics. In Cuevas, G. & Driscoll,
M.H. (Eds), Reaching all students with mathematics.
taught to the learners and describe how you Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathe-
would generalise and implement this informa- matics, 3–6.
tion in the last phase of the lesson. Treffers, A. & Beishuizen, M. 1999. Realistic mathematics
education in the Netherlands. In Thompson, I. (Ed.), Issues
in teaching numeracy in primary schools. Buckingham:
Bibliography Open University, 27–38.
Barooski, A.J. & Coslick, R.T. 1998. Fostering children’s Van de Walle, J.A. 2004. Elementary and middle school
mathematical power: an investigative approach to K8 mathematics: teaching developmentally. Boston: Pearson
mathematics instruction. London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Education.

209
 Section

Addressing
attitude
barriers

211
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY 11
PARTNERSHIPS

ESTELLE SWART & TLAKALE PHASHA

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the theoretical framework for understanding
family–school–community partnerships
Πunderstand how partnership/collaboration and its components can
work
Œ implement the different forms of school–community
partnerships/collaboration
Œ identify the barriers to effective school–community
partnerships/collaboration.

Key terms members as partners with a shared interest in

children’s learning, welfare and development.
inclusive learning communities ♦ school communities
It is strongly believed that the active involve-
♦ collaboration ♦ involvement
ment of families and the wider community in the
teaching and learning process of children is fun-
11.1 INTRODUCTION damental to the development of an effective
Joyce L. Epstein makes a powerful statement in inclusive learning community (Christenson &
saying that: “The way schools care about children Sheridan 2001: 9; Simon & Epstein 2001: 1; Horn-
is reflected in the way schools care about the chil- by 1995: 127; Seligman 2000: 1; Wall 2003:
dren’s families” (Epstein 2002: 7). This statement 50–52). This belief is based on growing evidence
challenges educators to reflect critically and in the international research literature on how
therefore honestly about their personal views and schools can build links with families and commu-
values with regard to children’s learning and nities, and how these links can foster school
development, and more specifically the role that achievement and development, better atten-
families and communities play in their education. dance, positive attitudes and self-concepts, good
If educators narrowly perceive children as learners behaviour and homework completion. The idea of
only, then they will expect the families to leave involving families and communities is, however,
education to the school. The role of families in not a new one but a re-emergence of a phenome-
their children’s learning therefore ends at the non that goes back many centuries. Yet the mean-
school gate. On the other hand, if educators per- ing of the concept “involvement” changed over
ceive children as children with unique needs and time, from parents becoming involved when and
individual social circumstances, they are more how the school required, to their becoming an
likely to regard both the families and community equal partner in a mutual relationship with one

213
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

goal in mind – the enhancement of every child’s ties recognise that every child can learn and
learning and development. Being equal partners belongs in the mainstream of both school and
in education resembles the idea of a “whole vil- community life. For children to become partici-
lage taking responsibility for raising a child” and pating and contributing members of a community
reflects the broader principles of inclusion. Estab- it is essential to create an emotional sense of com-
lishing partnerships between the three most munity based on the fundamental principles of
important contexts in a child’s life, namely the respect, belonging, diversity, trust, collaboration
school, family and community, not only holds and caring in inclusive learning communities. To
promises but also provides new challenges to all achieve this ideal requires the collective and cohe-
parties involved. sive effort of every child, family, peer, school pro-
In South Africa, the critical role which parents1 fessional and community member as equal mem-
and the community need to play in the education bers of an inclusive community. Members of such
and development of children has been given offi- a community learn to communicate honestly and
cial recognition through legislation and education share a commitment to celebrate together, grieve
policies such as the South African Schools Act together, enjoy each other’s company and care for
(1996), the National Plan of Action for Children each other, much like the villagers referred to ear-
(1996) and the Education White Paper 6 (2001). The lier. If any child needs support, the whole learning
national Department of Education envisions the community responds to meet the needs. In these
provision of quality education for all children in communities, children, their families and commu-
an education and training system that respects nity members participate with school personnel
and responds effectively to the diverse learning in making decisions and providing resources to
needs of every child. These learning needs include support the child’s learning and development.
everyday developmental and learning needs, but Learning is a broad yet core concept which indi-
may also refer to needs arising from a range of cates not only the focus of the school–
factors including physical, mental, sensory, neuro- family–community partnership, namely to sup-
logical and developmental impairments; psy- port the learning and development of the individ-
chosocial disturbances; differences in intellectual ual child, but also refers to how school communi-
ability; particular life experiences or socio-eco- ties as “learning organisations” learn to work and
nomic deprivation. The full range of these learn- live together in the process of becoming more
ing needs can only be addressed effectively in inclusive (Swart & Pettipher 2001).
partnership with other role-players that can pro- The aim of this chapter is to provide a frame-
vide the necessary support, sources and expert- work for understanding schools, families and
ise. The Education White Paper 6 in particular communities as partners and how these partner-
acknowledges that inclusive education is broader ships can be established. We will first explain the
than formal schooling and for that reason also theories of Bronfenbrenner and Epstein for under-
incorporates the roles of the home and the com- standing family–school–community partnerships.
munity. As a result, the right of access and partic- This will be followed by an analysis of
ipation of all parents in the education of their chil- family–school partnerships and the factors related
dren as well as the collaborative roles of commu- to these partnerships. The chapter concludes with
nities are formally recognised. a discussion of school–community partnerships
This chapter promotes the idea of creating inclu- and the cornerstone of partnerships, namely col-
sive learning communities as proposed by Sands et laboration.
al. (2000) and Bauer and Brown (2001). The verb
creating indicates a visionary process that is
unique to every context and school, and inclusive 11.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR
reflects the ideal of developing inclusive school UNDERSTANDING FAMILY–SCHOOL–
communities and a society based on the princi- COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
ples of democracy, equity and social justice The three contexts – family, school and commu-
(Sands et al. 2000: 5). Inclusive learning communi- nity – and the interconnections between them are

214
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

important influences in children’s lives. Urie Bron- systems theory therefore represents the family as
fenbrenner’s ecological systems approach to par- a system, nested in a number of other societal sys-
ent involvement provides a conceptual framework tems and the effect of the family–school relation-
for understanding how families and schools are ship on children’s learning and development. As
embedded in the community (Bronfenbrenner & illustrated in Figure 11.1, the developing child
Morris 1998; Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 32, and his family present a microsystem at the inner-
38; Hornby 1995: 43–52; Seligman 2000: 60–62; most level of the ecosystem. The child and the
Wall 2003: 25). His perspective, as described in family unit are embedded in the broader mesosys-
Chapter 1, explains the multidirectionality of the tems, consisting of peers, extended family, educa-
relationships within families as well as between tors, neighbours and close personal acquaintanc-
families, schools and communities. It emphasises es with which the child actively interacts. These
that schools influence families, families influence units are further embedded in the even larger
schools and both affect and are affected by the exosystem that includes the broader education,
communities in which they are located (Christen- health and social systems as well as other social
son & Sheridan 2001: 39). The family, school and organisations and professional agencies that do
community contexts are also influenced by the not involve the child as active participant but
larger social, political and economic realities affect and are affected by what happens in the set-
(Seligman 2000: 62). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological tings that do involve the child. This model helps

Macrosystem
Community • Culture • Ethnicity • Religion

Exosystem
Education • Health • Social welfare

Mesosystem
Extended family • Friends • Neighbours
Other parents • Close personal acquaintances

Microsystem
Child and
nuclear family

Teachers • Medical and support personnel

Media • Support groups • Recreation • Housing • Employment

Economics • Politics • Legal system • Policies

Figure 11.1 An illustration of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Source: Adapted from Seligman 1989

215
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

us to understand the complexity of the family as a tion of children laid the foundation for under-
system and how the individual child functions standing and promoting cooperation and collabo-
within the family and society. It is also important ration between the most important systems in
to remember that the family’s interaction with the children’s lives.
school, community, extended family members Bronfenbrenner’s theory also informed other
and friends is fundamental to the functioning of theories such as Joyce Epstein’s theory of overlap-
the family unit. Although the other systems are ping spheres of influence that emphasise the
not intimately linked to the family, they do impact importance of the family–school relationship and
on the family and the child in various ways, such the mutual responsibility for children’s learning
as the educational and negative influence of tele- and development (Epstein 2002; Simon & Epstein
vision, the socio-economic situation of the coun- 2001: 2; Turnbull & Turnbull 1997: 17–20). She
try, and new legislation and policies, for example emphasises that children are best supported
in education. Bronfenbrenner’s model is also use- when schools and families work together in a
ful for analysing the influence of social factors partnership to reach shared educational goals.
such as poverty, discrimination and immigration Epstein devised a model to illustrate that there
on children’s learning and family functioning are overlapping spheres of activity or influence
(Gibbs & Huang in Frederickson & Cline 2002: between the families, schools and communities
110). (Bronfenbrenner’s mesosystems) that can be
Bronfenbrenner’s theory contributed to the pushed together to generate an area of partner-
growing appreciation of “contextualism” and ship (See Figure 11.2).
“ecological settings” (see Chapter 1). More specif- She distinguishes between an external and an
ically, his interpretation of the critical and contin- internal model of influence. The external model of
uous role that parents play in the informal educa- the three spheres of influence demonstrates that

EXTERNAL MODEL
Force B
Experience, philosophy and practices of family

Family

Community School
Force D Force C
Experience, Experience,
philosophy philosophy
and practices and practices
of community of school

Force A
Time/Age/Grade

Figure 11.2 Joyce Epstein’s model of overlapping spheres of influence of family, school
and community on children’s learning
Source: Adapted from Epstein et al. 2002

216
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

the extent of overlap is in interaction with and munity members (see Davies 2001: 111; Simon &
affected by the forces of time and the forces asso- Epstein 2001: 4). For example, more effective
ciated with the experience, philosophy and prac- communication between schools and families
tices of every sphere. The force of time relates to benefits all parties and can therefore be regarded
the age and grade level of the child as well as the as social capital.
influence of historical changes (compare with Epstein’s model targets the children as benefi-
Bronfenbrenner’s chronosystem in Chapter 1). ciaries of the overlapping spheres and therefore
The interaction between the spheres can also places the child at the centre of involvement
change over time. For example, it is a common (Turnbull & Turnbull 1997: 18). The learning and
experience that as children grow older the development of children are the main reasons for
spheres are often pulled apart, based on the the partnership. These partnerships are aimed at
beliefs of parents that children are more inde- increasing the children’s self-esteem, motivation,
pendent and that they feel less competent to sup- academic skills, independence and other charac-
port them, or on the attitudes of educators that teristics of successful children so that they them-
do not recruit parent support. selves can achieve success and develop their
The three spheres in the diagram indicate areas potential.
of overlap signifying areas of interdependence Implementing this model in practice is synony-
and independence. Some activities in families, mous with what was referred to earlier, namely
schools and communities are performed inde- creating inclusive school communities. The
pendently, as indicated by the spheres not over- schools and educators work at establishing what
lapping. However, there are activities conducted Epstein calls more family-like schools that appreci-
mutually by two or three contexts as indicated by ate the individuality of every child and welcome
the intersections. The intersections or shaded all families at the school. Parents, on the other
areas represent spaces where families and hand, create school-like families that acknowledge
schools, schools and communities, or families, each child as a learner by valuing the importance
schools and communities share the responsibility of education, homework and other school-related
for children’s learning and development. Depend- activities. Both spheres therefore actively build
ing on the perspectives and actions of educators, children’s skills and feelings of success. Communi-
families and members of the community, these ties, including groups of parents working togeth-
spheres can be pushed together to increase over- er, create school-like opportunities and events that
lap when schools and families work together, or recognise and reward learning and progress. Com-
pulled apart when they do not. munities also create family-like resources, settings
The internal model of interaction of the three and services to support families in their roles to
spheres therefore demonstrates how and where support their children. Furthermore, community-
complex interpersonal interactions take place minded families and children help other families
between school, family and community. These and community members in the process.
interpersonal interactions may occur at both insti- Based on extensive research in all the school
tutional level and at individual level. The school phases, Epstein identified and described six types
may, for example, invite all families and commu- of partnerships of care that can support the suc-
nity members to the school, or otherwise a spe- cessful learning and development of children (see
cific family where it concerns an individual child. Table 11.1).
However, the focus and purpose of the interaction is The types of involvement are not hierarchical,
always on how these contexts can best support the but all six are important to establish a strong part-
achievement and development of the child. These nership that will benefit successful learning. For a
relationships are powerful when developing inclu- step-by-step description of this model, consult
sive school communities. If these relationships the comprehensive handbook (Epstein et al.
and interactions are successful, they generate 2002).
what is referred to as “social capital” that may In conclusion, both theories recognise the sig-
benefit all children, families, educators and com- nificance of families and the efforts of schools in the

217
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

Table 11.1 Epstein’s Model for Partnership illustrating six types of involvement and six-
types of caring
Type 1 – Parenting: supporting, nurturing, child rearing
Parents work hard to raise healthy, well-adjusted children. Partnerships can support families with the basic par-
enting responsibilities and establishing home environments for optimal learning at each age and grade level.
Type 2 – Communicating: relating, reviewing, overseeing
Schools have an explicit responsibility to share clear information about the children’s progress, curricula, edu-
cational policies and school activities with families. Parents, on the other hand, are eager to obtain this informa-
tion to better support their children’s learning and development. This involves effective school-to-home and
home-to-school communication.
Type 3 – Volunteering: supervising, fostering
Anyone can support school goals and the learning and development of children, in any way, at any place and at
any time. Parents can volunteer their time, talents and resources in different ways. This type of involvement
implies the improvement of recruitment, training, organisation and schedules to involve volunteers, as well as
the establishment of interests, talents and availability of families in supporting their children.
Type 4 – Extending learning at home: managing, recognising, rewarding
Parents are eager to support their children at home, but many are unsure how to address issues such as home-
work and other curricular-related activities. This type of involvement provides families with information and
strategies on supporting learning at home.
Type 5 – Decision making: contributing, considering, judging
Many choices regarding children should be made with parents. This type refers to the inclusion of families in
decision making, governance and advocacy, and the development of parent leaders.
Type 6 – Collaborating with the community: sharing, giving
Community means all who are interested in and affected by quality education. Local community groups, individ-
uals and businesses can provide different types of support to schools, families and the children. This type
involves the coordination of these resources to benefit the children.

learning and development of children. The focus to facilitate the best possible learning and devel-
on the interaction between the systems or opment for any child, it makes good sense to see
spheres requires a paradigm shift in research and the family as within the school’s circle of influence
practice away from identifying influences in each and care (Montgomery 1999: 11).
separate context to focusing on the reciprocal
influences of these systems on learning and devel-
11.3 FAMILY–SCHOOL PARTNERSHIPS
opment. These theories also highlight the essen-
tial, and not only the desirable roles of both par- Historically, there have been major changes in the
ents and communities, as well as the continuity beliefs and practices of family and community
between school and home. This continuity pro- involvement in schools. In the early years, there
vides the basis for a shared relationship with a used to be substantial overlap between the influ-
mutual vested interest, namely the learning and ences of the school, family and community on a
development of the child (Montgomery 1999: 5). child’s learning (i.e. for those who had the privi-
This shared relationship for the education of chil- lege of attending school). Later on, changing
dren forms what Christenson (in Christenson & social and economic circumstances resulted in the
Sheridan 2001: 7) and Montgomery (1999: 5) development of the distinct educational leader-
called a “supportive safety net” of adults that will ship and professional roles of the school, separate
never let them drop beyond reach. The creation from the families and communities that they
of such a net facilitates and supports learning as served (Simon & Epstein 2001: 21). More recently,
the product of education. Therefore, if we want however, the interest in family–school relations

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 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

has increased due to several factors, including the

following, summarised from a variety of sources Reflect on the following questions:
(Frederickson & Cline 2002: 4, 15; Christenson & What role did your parents play in your
Sheridan 2001: 54; Sands et al. 2000: 4): own learning and development?
• Changing perceptions of human rights and How were they involved with the
school? What effect did this involve-
social responsibilities
ment have on you as a learner?

ACTIVITY
• Changing views of the role of schools
What role did their own experience of
• Dramatic changes in family structures and func- education play in their involvement?
tions What meanings do you attach to the
• Increased mobility of families that contributes concept “learner” that is now widely
to the growing numbers of children with used?
diverse cultural, racial, socio-economic and lin- How does this perception frame your
guistic backgrounds and abilities in classrooms relationship with the children in your
and schools (Helping these parents to support class and with the other significant
their children can improve their achievement. people in children’s lives?
Parents, on the other hand, can also help the
school to learn how to deal more effectively
with this diversity.) relationships. For this reason, the concept “fami-
• An increasing appreciation of contextualism ly” or alternatively “parent” may refer to birth par-
and ecological views ents in some contexts, but it also includes legal
• A shift from a deficit orientation to a focus on guardians or caregivers such as grandparents,
systems change and competency building in brothers and sisters, and other close family (or
education community) members that can contribute towards
the educational outcomes of a child in other con-
• A focus on the development of collaborative texts (Turnbull & Turnbull 1997: 11; Department
partnerships to promote healthy and inclusive of Education 1997: vii). A useful definition for the
learning communities concept “family” in this regard is
• Growing evidence about the important role
...two or more people who regard them-
that parents can play in supporting their chil-
selves as family and who perform some of
dren’s learning and development in this era of
the functions that families typically perform.
change
These people may or may not be related by
• Parental involvement as a means to enhance blood or marriage and may or may not
the school’s accountability usually live together (Turnbull & Turnbull
• Acknowledgement of the curriculum of the 1997: 11).
home
• Recognition of the important influence of out- This section focuses on the overlapping point
of-school time on learning between schools and families with the mutual pur-
pose and shared responsibility of promoting and sup-
The growing complexity of society and the man- porting effective learning and development of learners
date of democracy challenges us to consider new and addressing barriers that obstruct it. The most
ways of thinking and doing in education. basic level of this partnership starts with the
There also appears to be a major shift away building of a relationship (Wall 2003: 46). Further-
from how to get parents involved in schools to more, working in this relationship signifies an
how to develop partnerships with families that attitude and a process and not merely an activity.
will facilitate and sustain positive child develop- It therefore suggests that it takes time and effort
ment and learning (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: to develop these significant relationships.
18). As a result, family–school relationships are Christenson and Sheridan (2001: 37–38)
broader and not synonymous with parent–teacher describe family–school partnerships as

219
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

• a child-focused philosophy that guides educators [Link] Factors related to the family
and families to cooperate and collaborate in Families differ in terms of their skills, knowledge,
enhancing learning opportunities and success resources and time available to promote the learn-
for children in four areas, namely academic, ing and development of their children. Research
social, emotional and behavioural has identified a number of familial factors related
• a belief in shared responsibility for educating and to involvement in education. These factors include
socialising children, recognising that both edu- issues such as family structure, employment,
cators and families are important (Roles are not parental socio-economic status, level of educa-
prescribed but opportunities for active and tion, parental attitudes towards education, sense
realistic participation are created.) of self-efficacy with regard to the involvement, lin-
guistic and cultural differences, and parents’
• an emphasis on the relationship between fami-
expectations of their child’s performance. These
lies and schools and how they work together in
factors are related to Force B in Epstein’s model
supporting the learning and development of
(Figure 11.2).
children
Understanding the dynamic and complex nature
• a preventive, solution-focused approach in which of changing family structures is the key to devel-
both partners attempt to develop learning com- oping sustained family– school partnerships. The
munities that support learning and develop- stereotypical view of the nuclear family is still evi-
ment, and address barriers as they arise. dent in children’s books, in the media and also in
some classrooms today. However, the number of
The concept of a partnership as explained in these families with an atypical composition has
definitions therefore signifies a shift from educa- increased dramatically since the 1980s. There are
tors and other professionals as the sole “experts” more blended families today including single-par-
to parents with regard to the education of their ent families; extended families; stepfamilies; fami-
children, and to working with family members as lies of mixed religion, language and ethnicity; fam-
equal partners with relevant and valuable expert- ilies with same-sex parents; families with adopted
ise. This shift challenges all parties involved to or foster children; and grandparents raising grand-
reframe their roles and responsibilities in the edu- children (Friend & Cook 2003: 218; Sands et al.
cation of children. 2000: 78–79; Seligman 2000: 70). In addition,
child-headed families that have lost their biologi-
cal parents and extended family members due to
11.3.1 Ecological factors related to HIV/Aids, or whose parents are employed far from
family–school partnerships
home are now becoming a common phenomenon
An understanding of the ecological factors related in South Africa. These structural changes add to
to the partners can support the development of the diversity educators have to deal with. It
more effective family–school partnerships. School should be noted that diversity in itself is not harm-
and community climate, educator practices, ful, but that discontinuities in care, support and
parental background and attitudes have all been relationships often associated with divorce, mari-
identified as factors contributing to establishing tal problems, family violence and abuse, alcohol
effective partnerships. Although reference will be and substance abuse, unemployment and poverty
made to some of the most important factors iden- can have detrimental effects on learning and
tified in the research, the reader must be cau- development. On the other hand, the quality of
tioned not to single out individual factors as parenting and other supportive relationships with
“causes” for non-involvement or learning difficul- schools and communities are found to foster
ties, thereby slipping back into the linear thinking resilience and secure attachments.
of the medical paradigm. The uniqueness of every Another factor that has become much more
individual context, as well as the interrelatedness common in the past few years is children growing
and reciprocity of these factors should therefore up in homes where both parents are employed
always be kept in mind. outside of the home (Christenson & Sheridan

220
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

Parental socio-economic status (SES) and level of

Reflect on the following: education are particularly relevant in South Africa.
Identify and describe different types
We live in a country with vast inequalities. The
of families by referring to children and
ACTIVITY

effects of poverty, unemployment and high illiter-

families in your class and school.
Analyse their assets, strengths and acy rates should be considered when working
specific support needs. Make a list of with families and communities. There are varied
considerations and strategies that you findings in the international literature on the rela-
are going to employ to strengthen part- tionship between SES and parent involvement.
nerships with these families. Most of these findings suggest that overall family
involvement is not related to SES, but the nature
of involvement varies depending on the SES
2001: 84; Wolfendale & Einzig 1999: 35). Adverse (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 111). School-based
economic circumstances and technological family involvement, for example, is significantly
changes often result in over-demanding jobs and related to SES, whereas home-based involvement
long working hours. This may contribute to logis- is not. This means that some parents may find it
tical and practical difficulties like child-care needs difficult to attend school activities but are still
and transportation issues. Furthermore, many involved in their children’s learning at home.
parents in South Africa work in urban areas to Furthermore, the type of home involvement is
earn money for the household, leaving parenting also closely related to SES. Parents of low SES are
to siblings or members of the extended family. found to be less involved in the teaching of new
Parents therefore often have little time and ener- learning skills and cognitive-intellectual activities
gy to be involved in their children’s learning at such as preparation for examinations. They are,
home or at school. Educators should for that rea- however, involved on a personal-affective level by
son take cognisance of the challenges that some showing an interest in their children’s education
families face when attempting to involve them in and motivating them to go to school. What par-
children’s learning. ents do is therefore regarded as more important
than who they are. Researchers have found that the
Schools have developed interesting following factors in the home environment had a
strategies to accommodate working greater impact on learner success than SES as a
families: single variable: parents’ attitudes, guidance and
• Parent days over weekends instead expectations of education; quality of verbal inter-
of evenings during the week action; participation in cultural and learning-relat-
• Parent workshops where they learn ed activities; and overall stability in the home
more about the new curriculum and (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 53). There are, for
how to support their children with example, high-achieving children who live in
homework and preparation for tests
impoverished family environments. Christenson
and examinations
ACTIVITY

and Sheridan (2001) therefore conclude that back-

• Advance notification of specific proj-
ground knowledge about socio-economic status
ects and tests, and items that their
children need for school may be used to identify children who are at risk of
• Homework hotline where teachers failure, but under no circumstances should it be
outline criteria and support for home- concluded that the background characteristics are
work completion the reasons why children do not succeed or that
• Homework tutoring after school so parents are not interested in their children’s edu-
that parents can spend more time cation.
with their children after work Parents’ own perceptions and experiences of
Can you think of any other ideas that education are further factors that can influence
you can try in your school to help family involvement (Christenson & Sheridan 2001:
accommodate working parents? 83; Wall 2003: 45). The legacy of education dur-
ing the apartheid years left millions of parents

221
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

illiterate and therefore unfamiliar with the rou- Understanding a family’s culture is therefore criti-
tines, structures and expectations of schools. cal to understanding the family. Culture in this
These particular parents had no role models or context refers to the beliefs, values and expecta-
experiences to draw on and may feel inadequate tions of people that give meaning to our experi-
and unwelcome in the school environment. Other ence. Lynch (1998 in Bauer & Brown 2001: 57)
parents may have had negative experiences that states that it is important to remember that
created negative attitudes such as mistrust that [c]ulture is dynamic and ever changing ...
prevent them from participating. Some may lack Culture, language, ethnicity, and race are
confidence in their own ability to support and not the only determinants of one’s values,
participate in their child’s learning. Their percep- beliefs, and behaviours. Socio-economic sta-
tions of their own efficacy can for that reason also tus, educational level, occupation, personal
be linked to the child’s achievement and their experience, and personality all exert a pow-
own participation. A positive indicator related to erful influence over how individuals view
partnerships is that these perceptions can be themselves and how families function. In any
changed by educators through building and group, within-group differences are as great
strengthening partnerships. How can you deal as across-group differences. Within any cul-
with parents’ perceptions and experiences in your ture there is a wide variation in attitudes,
own context? beliefs, and behaviours.
One of the major changes that educators have
to deal with in education is the diversity of chil- This reminds us that no culture should be viewed
dren and parents in schools. Although diversity is stereotypically (Friend & Cook 2003: 228), “mak-
an asset in an inclusive community, linguistic and ing it dangerous to paint all people from a partic-
cultural differences can create communication ular group with the same brush” (Seligman 2000:
problems and be the reason why some parents 70). The continua of values presented in Table
feel out of place and unwelcome at the school 11.2 (adapted from Bauer & Brown 2001: 58, and
(Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 86). These differ- Friend & Cook 2003: 229–230) can serve as a use-
ences often lead to distrust and distance between ful framework for understanding and respecting
families and schools (Hiatt-Michael 2001: 43). cultural values:

Table 11.2 Continua of cultural values

Family constellation
Large families with extended Smaller family units of one or two
support networks intimately responsible adults with little
involved in the family’s daily life reliance on extended family

Nurturance and independence

Interdependence is highly valued. Individuality as the expression of
Individuality can be seen as selfish one’s uniqueness is seen as a
and rejecting the family. great asset.

Value of time
A task or interaction is given the A task or interaction is given only
amount of time needed to the amount of time that has been
complete it. scheduled for it.

Tradition/technology
Respect for age, tradition and Greater value is placed on the
ritual provides a solid base for future, technology and youth.
contemporary life.

Ownership
Sharing is broadly defined. Things are individually owned. @

222
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

Table 11.2 Continued

Rights and responsibilities

Rights and responsibilities are Equal rights and responsibilities
differentiated, e.g. women are the are valued. The roles between
caregivers, and men the providers men and women are not
and mediators between family and differentiated.
community.

Life goals
Living in harmony with the It is important to control the
environment is valued. environment and events in
one’s life.

Parents want the best for their own children

Use the table as a framework to com-
and want the school, and more specifically teach-
pare and illustrate the cultural values of
ACTIVITY

ers, to treat them as unique individuals. When

three different families in your school
community. Explain how you would they visit the school they expect individualised
accommodate and develop an under- feedback about their children’s progress. Teach-
standing and respect for their values in ers, on the other hand, are concerned with the
your classroom and school. group of children they are responsible for and
often compare children with the group when pro-
The logical differences between family and school viding feedback to parents. Different perspectives
responsibilities, and therefore different perspec- should therefore be taken into consideration
tives about the responsibilities, have the potential when working with parents. How will you go
to create communication difficulties and misun- about doing just that?
derstanding (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 81;
Seligman 2000). These conflicting perspectives Parents of children with impairments
are presented in Table 11.3.
A note of caution: The medical model that
Table 11.3 Conflicting perspectives of was explained in the first chapter framed the
families and educators research and professional assumptions from
1920–1980 (Ferguson 2002). During this peri-
Families Educators
od, professionals and researchers explicitly
• Child is a cherished • Child is only one mem- assumed an intrinsic and harmful connection
individual ber of a group of learn-
ers between children with impairments and fam-
ily functioning. No matter how families
• Concerned with their • Responsible for and
own child’s progress focus on the whole
responded to the birth of a child with an
and needs class impairment, professionals had pathological
• Interested in what their • Can report on the out-
explanations such as denial, displaced anger
child is learning comes that the child or feelings of guilt. If parents, for example,
has mastered expressed dissatisfaction with professional
• Have the complete pic- • More concerned with services it was interpreted as displaced anger
ture of their child’s the snapshot perform- towards the child with the impairment.
progress ance on the present Parental involvement, on the other hand, has
level
often been presented as compensation for
• Emotionally involved • More cognitively
underlying guilt feelings. The dominant body
with their child involved
of research findings suggests an overall pat-
• Expect individual • Uses best approach to
accommodations and teach all the learners in
tern of adjustment and well-being of families.
adaptations the class A significant number of parents raising chil-
dren with impairments report several bene-
Source: Adapted from Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 81;
Seligman 2000: 31 fits and positive effects such as coping skills,

223
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

family harmony, spiritual growth, shared • adaptation

roles, communication (Ferguson 2002), per- • problem-solving competence.
sonal growth, lessons learned, a sense of
meaningfulness and the strengthening of the Research evidence suggests that an open climate
marriage (Singer 2002: 149). where parents and other family members are wel-
come in the physical and psychological environ-
ment of the school is a prerequisite for family
This section raised awareness of some of the fac- involvement. A school’s climate can therefore
tors that can impact on family functioning and inhibit or facilitate parental involvement, and
participation. One realises that every family is parental involvement on the other hand can
unique, making it important to understand who enhance school climate. It is also apparent from
they are, and to embrace and appreciate their dif- the research that most families want to be and can
ferences. Family involvement cannot be success- be involved in their children’s learning (Christen-
fully facilitated unless educators and other profes- son & Sheridan 2001: 104; Epstein 2002: 11). The
sionals learn not only about families, but also with school’s climate should for that reason be particu-
and from them (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 77, larly responsive to diversity by sending a message
104; Mastropieri & Scruggs 2000: 62). that all parents are welcome and valued.
A number of barriers to creating a climate that
[Link] Factors related to teachers and invites parents to participate have been identified
schools that are particularly relevant in the South African
A consistent and significant research finding is schools’ context. These barriers prevent parents
that educator and school practices are more from participating and educators from reaching
important predictors of family involvement than out. In attempts to make school premises secure,
family variables such as SES, gender, ethnicity or families are often “fenced out” too. The question
race (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 88, 109; Hiatt- is: How do schools send an inviting message to
Michael 2001: 41). School and educator factors families in spite of the burglar bars and security
often associated with family involvement include fences? Children often enter the schoolyard on
school climate, responsiveness to family needs, their own and as a result, teachers and parents
school policies and procedures, beliefs and atti- have little face-to-face contact. Another reality
tudes, teacher competency and self-efficacy, and that educators have to cope with is dealing with
communication and collaboration skills. (Force C large classes and a vast number of educational
in Epstein’s model of philosophy, beliefs and val- changes. These overwhelming responsibilities
ues of the school in Figure 11.2). and pressures put a heavy demand on teachers’
There appears to be a reciprocal relationship personal and professional lives. These pressures
between school climate and family involvement can lead to the “avoidance” of parents. Working
(Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 101). School cli- with families requires extra time and energy, and
mate can be described as the atmosphere of a without the necessary resources and support of
school experienced by its members and that influ- the school system, this can become a burden. In
ences their behaviour. The climate of an inclusive an attempt to cope, schools therefore often
school should display the characteristics of a resort to parents’ evenings at times and with
healthy school, such as agendas that suit the school. The traditional
“one-shot” back-to-school parent evenings at
• a sense of care
the beginning of the year and occasional school
• cohesiveness and synergy that bonds people functions are barely sufficient to get to know
together families.
• direct communication that is open and honest Schools that are responsive to the needs of par-
• equitable distribution of influence and power ents report high levels of parental involvement.
between role-players The question is: What message do schools reflect
• innovativeness in their school policies and procedures? Policies

224
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

and procedures can either facilitate or inhibit to facilitate their learning and achievement at
parental involvement. It was found that policies school and at home.
tend to concentrate primarily on what the parents Other important factors that impact on devel-
can offer and not on what schools and teachers oping effective family–school relationships are
can provide for parents. Parents are often unsure the teachers’ own competency and self-efficacy
about school policies concerning homework and (one’s belief in one’s own capabilities) related to
discipline and other important procedures. Simi- establishing relationships with parents and com-
larly, although these policies and procedures munities. People tend to avoid activities and situ-
affect families’ lives directly, they are seldom ations where they feel they cannot succeed, but
developed and implemented with any parental they undertake activities in which they believe
input. The active involvement of parents in devel- they can achieve. Research indicates that higher
oping policies can create common ground and teacher self-efficacy may encourage more active
mutual understanding. Yet procedures of involv- parental involvement based on higher levels of
ing parents are often “menu-driven” in assuming appreciation of parental efficacy. This recipro-
that all families need the same general tailor- cates the response because the more parents feel
made plans and procedures (Turnbull & Turnbull appreciated, the more they participate in their
1997). Problems are also frequently allowed to children’s learning.
escalate before parents are contacted. In the A factor that can contribute towards or hamper
process of dealing with these problems, schools teacher efficacy is teacher training. Teachers are
often focus on the child’s and the family’s prob- taught essential teaching skills during their initial
lems and deficits, failing to recognise their assets training, but receive limited if any training in
and their “expertise” in solving these problems. how to work with parents and the community
Where parents are viewed as assets and there- (Christenson & Sheridan 2001: 109, 140; Epstein
fore rich resources of information and support, et al. 2002: 24; Hiatt-Michael 2001: 45). Most
more frequent contacts are established with par-
teachers would like to involve parents, but many
ents. However, families are often still viewed from
do not know how and are subsequently afraid to
a pathological perspective (Seligman 2000: 32).
take action (Epstein et al. 2002: 11). In addition,
How easily do we not label parents as “difficult”,
teachers also have to deal with the negative
“a problem”, “hard to reach”, and “not interest-
publicity and criticism about education and the
ed”, “in denial” or “absent” and ascribe children’s
decreasing respect, trust and support accorded
problems to their parents? This is more often the
to teachers by parents in the past. All these
case with families with children with impair-
experiences impact on self-efficacy. It therefore
ments, and with different linguistic and cultural
seems crucial for the success of inclusion that
backgrounds. These parents report that they are
teachers be trained to collaborate effectively with
frequently viewed as incompetent, and the prob-
parents and be informed about the unique and
lems that their children may experience are often
common characteristics of family dynamics.
ascribed to their negligence or their distortion of
reality such as denial or displaced anger (Fergu-
son 2002). They are therefore often analysed and
criticised, and regarded as defensive and demand- Teachers can work on their own knowledge
ing. These attitudes contribute towards the feel- and skills by paying attention to the follow-
ings of guilt and frustration in families and ing:
adversely affect participation. On the other hand, 1. Knowing oneself – accurate self-know-
inclusive learning communities celebrate the ledge of one’s own perspectives,
diversity in families (Sands et al. 2000). Families strengths and needs
and parents are regarded as resources and con- 2. Knowing families – identifying the partic-
tact with families is not aimed at “fixing” families ular characteristics of every family and
that do not fit the “norm”. These communities responding in personalised ways to
collaborate with the adults in the children’s lives respect the families’ individuality

225
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

3. Honouring cultural diversity – relating to • Demonstrating a willingness to learn from mis-

others in a personalised and respectful takes and share successes
way
4. Affirming and building on family strengths To conclude this section, developing and sustain-
– identifying and appreciating family ing family–school relationships does not happen
strengths overnight. Forming partnerships is an intentional
5. Promoting family choices and ongoing process. Furthermore, there is not a
6. Envisioning great expectations for every “one size fits all” or single most effective
child and family approach to developing these relationships.
Developing partnerships is an attitude or ethic
7. Practising positive communication skills –
and not an activity. Building a “sense of communi-
using communication skills that most sen-
ty” characterised by a sense of belonging, mutual
sitively and respectfully connect with fam-
trust and respect can be a catalyst for such a rela-
ilies
tionship. Open and frequent communications as
8. Ensuring trust and respect – having the well as mutual support are two cornerstones of
confidence that everyone is working this relationship. This implies that communication
together in a caring, non-judgemental and should not only take place when children have
supportive way problems. It is much easier to contact a partner
about a problem when you already have regular
Effective collaboration is the cornerstone for contact about achievements. This section empha-
forming partnerships with families and communi- sises the overlapping sphere of influence between
ties. Christenson and Sheridan (2002: 95) identify families and schools
the building of collaborative relationships as the
common denominator in all models of effective 11.4 SCHOOL–COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
school–home partnerships. This process requires
a collaborative ethic, time and effort of every part- This section demonstrates that the community at
ner involved. A willingness to work collaborative- large could also serve as an important supporter
ly with parents is reflected in actions such as cul- of home and school by making services available
tivating two-way communication, increasing to all children and families, and thus increase the
learning opportunities for every child, providing educational participation for all learners. For edu-
mutual support, and engaging in joint decision cators to continue to work in isolation would be
making. These are new skills that teachers and to undermine the notion that schools, families
parents must acquire that can be demonstrated and communities share goals related to education
by the following: and the socialisation of the young (Taylor & Adel-
man 2000: 1; Epstein 1995: 702 – Force D of
• Listening to and acknowledging one another’s
Epstein’s model in Figure 11.2). Moreover, limited
perspective
resources and expertise for dealing with barriers
• Regarding differences as assets, e.g. different to learning further explain why educational insti-
occupations, cultures, abilities etc. tutions in South African should draw on the
• Focusing on mutual interests, e.g. the child’s strengths of existing community support systems
progress, reading, behaviour etc. so as to sustain active learning for all (Muthu-
• Sharing information and resources to develop a krishna 2001: 47; Department of Education 1997).
mutual understanding and support plan Neither the schools nor any other agency can pro-
• Respecting each other’s skills and knowledge vide the full range of services needed to ade-
by asking for inputs and ideas quately address social, emotional and behavioural
• Planning and making decisions mutually to barriers to learning. To justify the necessity for
support parents, teachers and children school–community collaborations, we will use
• Demonstrating a willingness to address conflict three examples often cited in the literature,
in a constructive way namely learners’ well-being, capable workforce

226
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

and the development of healthy communities asserts that children need competence in lan-
(Sanders 2003: 162–164; Jehl et al. 2001: 3). guage as well as technical and communication
skills to succeed in the type of jobs that are avail-
Learners’ well-being able. Therefore developing partnerships with
Well-being in this section refers to proper mental community organisations such as business and
and health development. Such a state of health is business leaders puts the school in a better posi-
often facilitated by easy access to social resources tion to know what is relevant to the world of
such as security and nutrition, to mention a few. work and thus it is able to prepare its workforce
Exposure to common societal problems such as accordingly.
poverty, crime and violence tends to encourage
learners’ engagement in violent behaviour – such The development of healthy communities
as rape, murder, bullying and even harassment of Healthy communities are peaceful and strive to
their own peers and educators – within the school live harmoniously with each other regardless of
environment. They also carry dangerous items in the prevailing differences. Communities in South
their schoolbags such as drugs, guns and knives. Africa differ in terms of race, class, religious and
These factors turn schools into unsafe and cultural backgrounds, ability and language. Again,
unhealthy environments and can ultimately some people still hold particular misconceptions
impede one’s ability to learn. For example, the about those who are different from them. It is
study conducted in South Africa among young without doubt that misconceptions are potential
people (Phasha 2002: 94–135) demonstrates a barriers to learning and can cause hatred among
strong link between the emotional consequences individuals. To reduce such possibilities, schools
of exposure to sexual violence and three areas of and communities need to work collaboratively to
school functioning, namely educational progres- destroy such misconceptions for the sake of
sion (dropping out, failing, placement in special future healthier communities. Such efforts can
classes); interest in school activities (non-atten- involve instilling in their youngsters the values of
dance, incomplete school assignments) and tolerance, understanding, appreciation and
behaviour at school (aggression, disruption, rebel- respect for diversity. For example, learners could
liousness). This link further bears evidence to the be afforded opportunities to attend educational
fact that the prevention of inappropriate behav- and extracurricular programmes/activities at
iour in schools and society requires the involve- schools or community facilities that are located in
ment of the whole community towards the cre- the different settings of South Africa. Here we are
ation of safe places where both learning and referring to rural, urban, semi-urban and informal
healthy development will flourish (US Department settlement settings. Through these efforts learn-
of Education 2001: 26). Therefore, concerns for ers would become more understanding and
violence at schools provide opportunities for appreciative of the lives and practices in settings
enhancing connections with families and other that are different from theirs. Such strategies
community resources. could correct common misconceptions that often
create barriers to learning and proper develop-
Capable workforce ment. Problems stemming from poor understand-
The term “capable workforce” refers to learners ing of each other, such as bullying and school
who are well equipped with the skills and knowl- dropout, would also be reduced.
edge necessary to become productive members We conclude this section by remarking that
of society. Subjects or skills that are irrelevant to there is a great potential for school–community
the world of work can discourage learners from collaborations to flourish in South Africa because
studying and eventually lead to school dropout. community members embrace the philosophy of
To curb this barrier, schools need to keep up with ubuntu. The ubuntu principle puts emphasis on
what is relevant to the job market. Jobs in the respect for human beings, for human dignity and
21st century require workers who are competent for human life, collective sharing, obedience,
beyond basic skills level. Sanders (2003: 162) humility, solidarity, caring, hospitality, interde-

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pendence, communalism and so on (Kamwanga- • The issue with regard to the availability of
malu 1999: 2). For example, children in South human and material resources to support the
Africa are not perceived as belonging only to their teacher in implementing the recommendations
biological parents. Rather, children’s welfare and is not addressed, as the recommendations are
development are the responsibility of any adult in focused on the intervention with the learner.
the community. For that matter, teamwork and a • Rather than having one joint recommendation,
sense of group responsibility in addressing barri- each team member is expected to produce a
ers to learning should not be perceived as a far- report often with conflicting recommenda-
fetched dream. tions.

Collaboration goes beyond obtaining information

Bearing in mind the situation in South
ACTIVITY

from experts and/or just working with someone.

Africa, can you think of other reasons
why school–community collaboration is It involves the manner in which people work as a
essential, particularly in helping learn- team to accomplish shared and clear goals. Friend
ers overcome barriers to learning? and Cook (2003: 6) mention that collaboration
conveys how the activity is occurring, i.e. the
nature of the interpersonal relationship occurring
during the interaction and the ways in which indi-
11.5 COLLABORATION AND ITS viduals communicate with each other. Sources
COMPONENTS describe collaboration in terms of the following
Professionals are likely to construe collaboration key elements: volunteer participation, parity
in terms of teams created to work together in a among participants, mutual goals, shared respon-
multidisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary style. In sibility and decision making, sharing of resources
essence, these two approaches lack the collabora- and accountability for outcomes (Friend & Cook
tive element that will facilitate support service 2003; Friend & Bursuck 2002; Sands et al. 2000:
delivery by the school, families and communities. 121). A collaborative relationship is also charac-
Lacey and Lomas (1993: 14) explain that in a mul- terised by the following:
tidisciplinary approach the learner is seen individ-
ually by a number of professionals representing Volunteer participation
various disciplines, who then send their recom- Collaboration is a personal choice. Individuals
mendations to the educator. Professionals do not who participate in a team because they were man-
meet for a joint discussion regarding the imple- dated, asked or ordered to do so are not really
mentation of the recommendations and the sup- collaborating because that choice was not made
port to be provided to the educator. Likewise, an willingly.
interdisciplinary approach offers an attempt for
professionals to meet and discuss their findings;
however, the responsibility of implementing the Consider the situation of a teacher who
findings also lies solely with the educator. In both has been asked by the principal to
work collaboratively with the school-
approaches, there is a likelihood that the educa-
based support teacher (learning sup-
tor might receive conflicting recommendations,
port teacher) in helping the learner who
ACTIVITY

or might even choose to ignore some of them. is experiencing a barrier to learning.

Lacey and Lomas (1993: 14–16) criticise these two The two teachers agree to meet regu-
approaches on the basis of the following: larly as requested by the principal. Dur-
• The expertise of team members is sought only ing the meeting the learning support
teacher decides to undermine the
when there is a crisis.
inputs of the regular teacher because
• The responsibility for implementing the recom- he thinks the other teacher knows
mendations reached by the team members lies nothing about addressing barriers to
solely with the educator. learning. Or the regular teacher decides

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 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

to assume a passive role because he bution should be valued because she possesses
thinks he is highly qualified and does information that none of the other participants
not need the inputs of the learning sup- have.
port teacher. Would you regard their
working relationship as collaborative? Shared goal
Under no circumstances would we
regard this relationship as collabora- Collaboration does not necessarily require partici-
pants to share all goals. However, it is vital that
ACTIVITY

tive. The responsibility of designing and

implementing an appropriate pro- they commit themselves to the attainment of one
gramme for the learner will end up with major goal. Sharing a common goal makes it pos-
one teacher. This situation will definitely sible for participants to pool their knowledge and
disadvantage the learner because he resources and make a joint plan. Let us take an
will not have an opportunity to benefit example of team members who hold different
from the inputs of the other teacher. opinions regarding the educational placement of a
Moreover, the working relationship learner who experiences reading difficulties. Par-
between these two teachers will be
ents, owing to limited information about inclusive
negatively affected.
school practices, may hold a strong belief that
their child needs placement in a special class
because they believe that he will get special atten-
Collaboration would exist only if the teachers tion that is not available in an inclusive class. Some
embrace the idea of working together. Partici- educators may think it will be appropriate to let
pants should be prepared to share their own ideas the learner remain in the same class as his peers
and be open to other people’s suggestions so as but have an intervention programme adjusted
to agree on responsibilities, best practices and according to his educational needs. Other partici-
relevant content to help the learner experience pants may suggest that the learner spend part of
success. his time in a regular class and visit a special class at
particular times. It is without doubt that the par-
Parity
ticipants do not share the same opinion regarding
Parity occurs when participants interact as co- the placement of the learner, but they have one
equals. Participants do not necessarily have to common goal and that is to ensure that the learn-
make equal contributions, be on the same educa- er experiences educational success. The decision
tional level or hold the same post level. Partici- regarding appropriate placement of the learner
pants’ contributions toward a goal should carry will have to be negotiated by all participants, or
equal value. Let us think about the participation else collaborative efforts will be hindered.
of the learner’s teacher (with no formal training in
barriers to learning), a psychologist, learning sup- Shared responsibility for key decisions and
port teacher and a parent (e.g. an unemployed accountability
and uneducated mother). If during the meeting, Shared responsibility should not be confused with
the learner’s parent is not given an opportunity to equal division of the workload. Shared responsi-
make a contribution and/or her inputs are ignored bility requires participants to exercise equal influ-
because her level of education is lower than that ence over the decisions taken regarding an activity
of the other participants, then collaboration does or an endeavour. In addition, participants should
not occur. All the participants, irrespective of be equally answerable for the outcomes of their
their level of education, are capable of making decisions, whether the results are successful or
sound contributions regarding the development not. For example, an attempt to help a learner
of the learner because they are involved with the overcome a barrier to learning would require
learner in one way or another. For example, the team members to assume different responsibili-
parent is in a better position to inform the other ties in that matter. In this case, the extent and
participants about her child’s history and behav- number of responsibilities assigned to partici-
iour at home. For that reason, the parent’s contri- pants would not necessarily be equal. One partic-

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SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

ipant may be asked to perform one activity, while als be in possession of good communication
another is asked to execute more than one. What skills. These skills include listening, under-
is important is that all participants would have standing of non-verbal signs and the ability to
participated equally and actively in the decisions ask questions in a non-threatening way (Friend
regarding the allocation of responsibilities. & Bursuck 2002: 79). Words such as “okay” and
“uh-huh” assure the listener that one is atten-
Sharing of resources tive. Other skills such as shared problem solv-
All participants in a collaborative effort are in pos- ing; conflict resolution, and the ability to
session of some kind of a resource, be it in the respond to resistance and to persuade others
form of expertise, time, space, equipment or are also necessary. Proper interaction skills will
assets. Such resources are equally important for help one deal effectively with disagreements
attaining the shared goal. Collaboration occurs and prevent monopolisation of the conversa-
when participants share these resources. Let us tion.
use an example of team members who are inter- • Contribution to supporting environments.
ested in helping learners whose bullying behav- Collaboration requires nurturing of each other,
iour impacts negatively on their school function- such as making time for the team members and
ing. The school psychologist may offer helpful encouraging others to talk.
techniques on dealing with the bullies. The learn-
ing support teacher offers to organise learning
materials related to bullying. Another educator 11.6 FORMS OF SCHOOL–COMMUNITY
may offer to teach these learners during week- COLLABORATION
ends, while the school principal agrees to make a School–community collaboration occurs when
class available for such activity. Friend and Cook human resources and services from both sectors
(2003: 11) warn that professionals who cannot are drawn together to support an endeavour and
contribute any form of resources may be per- to address priorities (Muthukrishna 2001: 47). The
ceived as being less serious about the collabora- definition challenges educational institutions to
tive goal and may encounter difficulty in estab- guard against focusing on pooling resources only
lishing parity. from formal service agencies. Adelman (2000: 3)
In conclusion, collaboration is an evolving explains that the range of resources in a commu-
process and therefore it cannot be achieved nity is much greater than the service agencies and
overnight. At the beginning of collaboration, most community-based organisations that are often
people still hold different beliefs regarding how invited to the table. Community-based support
things should be done. But if they believe in team- systems can be drawn from individuals, business,
work, collaboration will flourish, and trust and civic groups, and various sources of social and
respect will prevail among participants. There- financial capital including youth, families, reli-
fore, it is clear that it requires effort on every par- gious groups and community-based organisa-
ticipant’s part. Friend and Bursuck (2002: 77–81) tions. In fact, the type of resource the school may
identify the following attributes as essential for choose to mobilise would depend on the type of
fostering the growth of collaboration: barrier that is being addressed. To be specific,
Taylor and Adelman (2003: 3) highlight that
• Refinement of one’s personal belief system.
school–community collaboration might target any
This involves thorough checking of oneself, i.e.
and/or some of the following issues:
asking oneself whether one is able to abandon
one’s ideas in favour of another’s. An individual • Sharing the use of school or neighbourhood
has to be prepared to share views, even if they facilities, equipment and other resources
are weak, and to respect other people’s view- • Enhancing safety
points. • Raising funds
• Refinement of interaction skills. Collaboration • Underwriting activity
as an interactive process requires that individu- • Sharing and disseminating information

230
 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

• Networking and providing mutual support financial support (bursaries) to learners who are
• Sharing responsibility for planning, implemen- studying computer sciences. On completion of
tation and evaluation of programmes and serv- their studies, the company could employ these
ices youngsters. Business can also make its resources
• Building and maintaining infrastructure available to schools by providing learners with
• Expanding opportunities for community serv- opportunities to gain first-hand experience of par-
ice, internships, jobs, and recreation and ticular subjects (learning areas) taught at school.
enrichment activities/facilities For example, a tourism agency could provide
• Enhancing public relations learnerships to learners who are taking tourism as
• Sharing celebrations a subject, or organise a tourism lesson for the
learners.
• Building a sense of community
Small businesses can also make a major contri-
In the following section, the discussion is focused bution to schools if they are involved. They could
on common forms of community partnership so assist with food and clothes that schools can
as to facilitate an understanding regarding how donate to learners who are in need, such as those
collaboration between schools and community coming from poverty-stricken backgrounds and/or
organisations/individuals can contribute towards those that have been orphaned by HIV/Aids. For
addressing barriers to learning (Sanders 2003: instance, a small pharmacy in central Pretoria has
165–172; US Department of Education 2001: 36). committed itself to working closely with a few
schools in townships in the area to help learners
in need of such a form of support. It has spon-
11.6.1 Business partnerships
sored a soccer club in one of the schools and is
The Department of Education (1998: 77) argues now extending its support to provide food parcels
that the education system in South Africa has for a few learners who have been orphaned by
often been criticised for its weaknesses in prepar- HIV/Aids.
ing learners for life and the world of work. To The involvement of business in schools does
address this issue, the school curriculum has to not only benefit learners and schools. Businesses
equip learners with knowledge, competencies also gain from this endeavour. By helping schools
and orientations to facilitate future active work- design the kind of educational programmes and
ing participation. Therefore, strategies should be environments which will better prepare learners
put in place to ensure the successful transition of to enter the modern workforce, corporations can
learners experiencing barriers to learning from save more money in future training costs (US
school to the world of work. Businesses depend- Department of Education, 2001: 36).
ent on schools for their labour force have particu-
lar needs and perspectives to add to matters that
affect schools, such as curriculum development 11.6.2 Partnering institutions of higher
and career education. Their involvement in this learning
matter will enable the education institutions to Schools may decide to partner with institutions of
respond appropriately to the needs of the labour higher learning such as universities, technikons
market. and technical colleges for a number of reasons,
Let us take an example of a large computer which include exposing learners to careers in par-
company that is interested in providing jobs for ticular fields and enhancing education in schools.
individuals coming from disadvantaged communi- Strategies to enhance education include making
ties. The business and the school may join forces resources such as laboratories, libraries and uni-
to design a curriculum that is tailor-made for the versity sports fields available to learners. Universi-
needs of that company. This involves teaching ty lecturers and students can also contribute by
computer science-related subjects (learning engaging in activities such as preparing learners
areas), and building a computer laboratory for the for examinations, offering extra lessons over
school. The business may also decide to provide weekends and during the winter school holidays.

231
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

University students can also be given opportuni- services. In this way, the provision of integrated
ties to do research and apply the theories learned services can benefit learners who live in commu-
in programmes to real-life situations. A partner- nities where such services are limited, such as
ship between the three rural schools in a disad- rural and/or informal settlement areas.
vantaged area and a university serves as an illus- Health services can be brought to the school in
tration (Hall 2002: 31–37). Teachers, university forms such as mobile clinics (think about the
staff and full-time postgraduate students enrolled Phelophepa train), regular school visits by school
in a programme for the support of learners expe- nurses and health promoters. The clinics and
riencing barriers to learning joined forces in a school nurses can provide health maintenance
research study that focused on the development examinations, immunisations, and dental check-
of inclusive educational practices such as teach- ups. They can also attend to learners who have
ing, assessment and support in inclusive educa- chronic diseases such as diabetes, asthma and so
tion. These efforts afforded both parties opportu- on. In this manner, learners’ problems can be pre-
nities to gain insight into barriers that affect the vented, or identified and addressed immediately
effective implementation of inclusive practice. before they become barriers.
Furthermore, students had the chance to put their Mental health professionals can serve as part-
theoretical knowledge into practice while teach- ners with life orientation coordinators to address
ers benefited from the support of university stu- issues pertaining to the promotion of the well-
dents and lecturers. being of learners. Issues such as dating, violence,
Another important and unique role that a uni- relationships, teenage pregnancy and HIV/Aids are
versity could play involves the provision of pro- often addressed together with the schools.
fessional development (Sanders 2003: 166). Stud- With regard to safety and child protection,
ies in South Africa have demonstrated that most “adopt a cop” is often used as a strategy to enable
professionals in the education system are still schools and child protection services to work
struggling to understand the term “inclusion”. closely with each other. According to this strate-
Most teachers lack the knowledge and skills to gy, one police officer becomes responsible for
accommodate diversity in their classrooms (Swart handling crime and prevention issues that affect
& Pettipher 2001: 184; Hay et al. 2001: 213–218). learners in a particular school or cluster of
As institutions of higher learning are the only schools. This strategy gives schools and learners
ones that can offer extensive teacher education an opportunity to develop stronger ties with their
programmes in this discipline, their partnership “adopted” police officer.
with schools will give them insight into the train- This form of service delivery can occur at differ-
ing needs of teachers and thus they can design ent levels, as identified by Stone (1995: 1). Level
their programmes accordingly. one involves collaboration among chief executive
officers of agencies. This is top-level planning
11.6.3 Integrated services (health, where collaborators develop policies to guide the
mental health and safety) implementation of joint service delivery. For
The emergence of the concept of full-service example, representatives from sectors such as
schools demonstrates South Africa’s commitment social welfare, education, health and labour could
to ensuring that educational institutions provide come together to develop policies related to the
quality education for all learners through flexibly support of families infected and affected by the
meeting the full range of learning needs in an HIV/Aids pandemic. Social welfare policies could
equitable manner (Department of Education focus on identifying HIV/Aids-stricken families and
2002: 43). The concept of full-service schools children. Education policies could focus on poli-
embraces the role of the school in bringing com- cies that ensure that children from such families
plementary services and resources to the school. are not discriminated against at school. Health
Common problems that prevail in schools and can focus on the provision of medicines (anti-
communities suggest a great demand for health, retrovirals) for such families. The labour depart-
social welfare, mental health and child protection ment could also focus on promoting the rights of

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 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

such parents to employment opportunities. Col- Educational institutions should also consider
laboration at level two occurs among frontline involving individuals who can render services such
service providers of different agencies. This as transporting or accompanying learners to
involves principals of schools and managers of schools. Learners with visual, physical and intel-
agencies. Collaborators could form teams for lectual impairments may need to be accompanied
sharing knowledge, responsibilities and services. by adults to and from schools. Schools could
For example, they could decide on how services mobilise such forms of support from senior citi-
are going to be divided according to school clus- zens and unemployed adults. For example, senior
ters and/or how a service in a particular school citizens from a small township in Limpopo
can be made available to other schools located in province take turns in the mornings and after-
the same cluster/area. These forms of teams could noons to accompany children to and from school.
coordinate services and ensure that they are They drop and pick them up at the bus stops and
equally accessible and shared by schools. Collabo- also help them cross at traffic lights. The strategy
ration on level three occurs on site among academ- was intended to protect children from perpetra-
ic and support staff and parents. This could tors of abuse because they were often victimised
involve the participation of parents as volunteers (mostly sexually) on their way to and from schools.
during school trips or the rendering of any other
service related to their educational background/
expertise. Academic staff could also arrange edu- • Identify five different ways in which
cational programmes for parents, such as work- you can involve members of the
community.
ACTIVITY

shops about teenage pregnancy, violence and

crime. • Provide a list of other organisations
that are available in your community
and explain how their involvement
11.6.4 Organisations for people with could benefit your school in address-
impairments ing barriers to learning.
These types of organisations are not necessarily
constituted from individuals with impairments.
Some organisations are run by people without 11.7 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE
impairments and others are run by parents of chil- SCHOOL–COMMUNITY
dren with impairments. Generally, these organisa- COLLABORATION
tions perform various tasks such as promoting the
rights of those individuals, support training, and Considering the fact that schools and community
providing information and advice to their mem- organisations have never worked closely togeth-
bers. The involvement of such organisations can er, it can be expected that an attempt to bring
facilitate the accommodation and acceptance of people from these different organisations togeth-
learners with impairments into mainstream edu- er will never be without problems. The following
cation, and promote awareness and understand- challenges are bound to surface.
ing of such learners. Unesco (2001: 110) high- Firstly, differences in organisational structure
lights the following advantages of working with and philosophy between different governmental
such groups: sectors and some informal community organisa-
tions can make understanding between partici-
• They can give teachers advice and guidance on pants difficult. In general, governmental sectors
how to deal with specific impairments. such as education, health, and social welfare are
• They may be able to supply schools with assis- hierarchical in nature. Professionals in those
tive devices needed by such a learner, offer in- organisations are accustomed to their organisa-
service training and serve on school governing tions’ procedures of communication and dealing
bodies. with issues. In addition, informal community
• They can be valuable role models for young organisations do not follow such procedures.
people with impairments. These differing working styles may affect collabo-

233
SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

ration when participants have to work together. 11.8 CONCLUSION

Even simple things such as a preference for com-
We conclude this section with the words of
municating orally rather than in writing can get in
Epstein (1995: 702):
the way of collaboration, unless conscious efforts
are made to focus on achieving common goals When schools regard their relationship with
for the team (Dryfoos 2001: 72). Ordinary com- families as a partnership in which school and
munity members may find working through chan- home share responsibility for children’s
nels frustrating while their lack of knowledge learning, the result is an increase in the lev-
regarding “how things are done in formal organi- els and types of parent involvement as well
sations” can frustrate school personnel (Jehl et al. as the support that families demonstrate for
2001: 2). the school. When this partnership is extend-
Secondly, different working styles can cause ed to include the larger community, the ben-
friction, especially if members who are used to efits are greater yet. Most important is that
working independently and directly with the when the school, home and community
learner are expected to work closely with others share responsibility for children’s well-being,
from different disciplines. Such individuals may children have more opportunity for mean-
feel threatened by working with schools, as the ingful and engaged learning. Children are
ethos of their organisations is not based on shar- able to see the connections between the
ing of ideas or resources (Lacey & Lomas 1993: 4). curriculum in the school and the skills that
Thirdly, another potential barrier to effective are required in the real world.
collaboration may stem from the collaborators’
different perceptions about the roles of schools. The aim of establishing partnerships is to change
As noted by Jehl et al. (2001: 9), schools are aca- the interface between families, schools and com-
demically oriented hence their concern for learn- munities and not merely to solve immediate
ers’ performance in academic subjects. They may school-based concerns. This interface must fit the
even perceive activities related to guidance, life context. There is no “one size fits all” or single
skills and health matters as disturbing the focus of most effective approach to achieve this aim. How-
the school. In contrast, communities expect the ever, the most important principle is to focus our
school to equip learners with personal and social efforts on building supportive, collaborative rela-
skills. These differences in views about the role of tionships and to recognise every member in this
the school may drive the school and the commu- relationship as a partner. Every effort should be
nity partners away from each other and thus make made always to have the child’s well-being in
collaboration difficult. mind.
Fourthly, unequal relationships between pro-
fessionals and ordinary community members can
contaminate collaborative efforts. Communities Questions
often hold professionals and well-to-do individu-
als in high esteem. Status differentials mean that 1. Define family–school partnerships and explain
it is hard for collaborating professionals to feel the ecological factors that impact on the devel-
they can contribute equally (Lacey & Lomas 1993: opment of these partnerships.
3). Community members may perceive profession- 2. Use your own school as a case study and
als as more knowledgeable in dealing with educa- explain how the school’s climate, responsive-
tion-related matters. School professionals may ness to family needs, school policies and pro-
also undermine contributions by community cedures, management and support, beliefs and
members who do not have advanced qualifica- attitudes, educators’ competencies and self-
tions. For the partnership to succeed all members efficacy, and communication and collaboration
have to be recognised and to respect the strength skills impact on the development of partner-
that comes from each other’s experiences (Dry- ships with the parents and families of your spe-
foos 2001: 72–73). cific school.

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 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 11

3. Discuss the steps you will follow in preparing needs, inclusion and diversity: a textbook. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
educators at your school for school–communi-
Friend, M.P. & Bursuck, W. 2002. Including students with
ty partnership.
special needs: a practical guide for classroom teachers.
3rd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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paper undertaken for the Children’s Aids Society. New tion programmes. In Hiatt-Michael, D.B. (Ed.), Promising
York: CAS. practices for family involvement in schools: Family School
Epstein, J.L. 1995. School/family/community partnership: Community partnerships. Greenwich, CT: Information Age
caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9): Publishing, 25–38.
701–712. Montgomery, M.J. 1999. Building bridges with parents:
Epstein, J.L. 2002. School, family, and community part- tools and techniques for counsellors. Thousand Oaks, CA:
nerships: caring for children we share. In Epstein, J.L., Corwin Press.
Sanders, M.G., Simon, B.S., Salinas, K.C. & Jansorn, N.R. Muthukrisha, N. 2001. Changing roles for schools and
(Eds), School, family, and community partnerships: tour communities. In Engelbrecht, P. & Green, L. (Eds), Pro-
handbook for action, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin moting learner development: preventing and working with
Press, 7–29. barriers to learning. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 45–56.
Epstein, J.L., Sanders, M.G., Simon, B.S., Salinas, K.C. & Phasha T.N. 2002. Child sexual abuse in South Africa: its
Jansorn, N.R. (Eds). 2002. School, family, and community impact on school functioning. Unpublished doctoral the-
partnerships: tour handbook for action, 2nd ed. Thousand sis. University of Cambridge. Cambridge.
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Rubin, H. 2002. Collaborative leadership: developing
Ferguson, P.M. 2002. A place in the family: an historical effective partnerships in communities and schools. Thou-
interpretation of research on parental reactions to having sand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
a child with a disability. Journal of Special Education, Sanders, M.G. 2003. Community involvement in schools:
36(3): 124–130, 147. from concept to practice. Education and Urban Society,
Frederickson, N. & Cline, T. 2002. Special educational 35(2): 161–180.

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SECTION E ADDRESSING ATTITUDE BARRIERS

Sands, D.J., Kozleski, E.B. & French, N.K. 2000. Inclusive Turnbull, A.P. & Turnbull, H.R. 1997. Families, profession-
education for the 21st century. Belmont, CA: als and exceptionality: a special partnership, 3rd ed.
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Seligman, M. 1989. Ordinary families, special children: a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organ-
systems approach to childhood disability. New York: Guil- isation (Unesco). 2001. Understanding and responding to
ford Press. children’s needs in inclusive classrooms: a guide for
Seligman, M. 2000. Conducting effective conferences teachers. Division of Basic Education: Paris.
with parents of children with disabilities: a guide for teach- US Department of Education. 2001. Building community
ers. New York: Guilford Press. schools, 3rd ed. New York: The Children’s Society.
Simon, B.S. & Epstein, J.L. 2001. School, family, and Walker, J. 1999. Families and society: change and conti-
community partnerships. In Hiatt-Michael, D.B. (Ed.), nuity. In Wolfendale, S. & Einzig, H. (Eds), Parenting edu-
Promising practices for family involvement in schools. cation and support: new opportunities. London: David
Family School Community partnerships. Greenwich, CT: Fulton Publishers, 33–47.
Information Age Publishing, 1–24. Wall, K. 2003. Special needs and early years: a practition-
Singer, G.H.S. 2002. Suggestions for pragmatic programs er’s guide. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
of research on families and disability. Journal of Special Wolfendale, S. & Einzig, H. (Eds). 1999. Parenting educa-
Education, 36(3): 148–154. tion and support: new opportunities. London: David Ful-
Stone, C.R. 1995. School-community collaboration. Phi ton Publishers.
Delta Kappan, 76(10): 1–10.
Swart, E. & Pettipher, R. 2001. Changing roles for princi-
pals and schools. In Engelbrecht, P. & Green, L. (Eds), Notes
Promoting learner development: preventing and working 1 “Parents” is the preferred term used in South African
with barriers to learning. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 30–44. legislation and policies, e.g. the SA Schools Act 84 of
Taylor, L. & Adelman, H. 2000. Connecting schools, fami- 1996. The concept “parents” is therefore used in the
lies and communities. Professional School Counselling, broadest sense to include legal guardians as well as
3(5): 298–308. primary caregivers such as grandparents.

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 Section

Addressing
disability

237
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY
IN AN EDUCATIONAL
12
PERSPECTIVE
Written by P A U L B O T H A
Revised by D E I R D R É K R Ü G E R

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdiscuss the neuron and its functions
Πunderstand neural development and growth
Πunderstand the functions of a few substructures of the brain
Πindicate how malfunctioning of or damage to certain substructures of
the brain influence the learner’s learning
Πexplain the role of the reticular system in relation to teaching and
learning
Πunderstand the visual pathways
Πunderstand the auditory pathways
Πdiscuss the general or basic causes of brain damage.

Key terms 12.1 INTRODUCTION

central nervous system (CNS) ♦ peripheral nervous This chapter contains a basic introduction to neu-
system ♦ autonomous nervous system ♦ neuron ♦ rology, the purpose of which is to describe the
structure and function of the human brain and
axon ♦ dendrite ♦ synapse ♦ neurotransmitter ♦
related nervous structures. An understanding of
neural development and growth ♦ brain stem ♦
basic neurology will enable teachers to acquaint
midbrain ♦ pons ♦ medulla oblongata ♦ brain
themselves more easily with various kinds of
(cerebrum) ♦ spinal cord ♦ cerebellum ♦ impairment that will be discussed in chapters to
mesencephalon (midbrain) ♦ cortex ♦ diencephalon follow.
♦ basal ganglia ♦ the reticular formation ♦ The human central nervous system comprises
thalamus ♦ hypothalamus ♦ hypophysis ♦ cerebral the spinal cord and the brain. The nervous system
hemisphere ♦ corpus callosum ♦ frontal lobe ♦ consists of nerve cells or neurons. Neurons come
parietal lobe ♦ occipital lobe ♦ temporal lobe ♦ in different shapes and sizes and fulfil different
limbic lobe ♦ spinal nerves ♦ motor pathways ♦ functions, the primary one being to generate and
visual pathways ♦ auditory pathways ♦ basic transmit nerve impulses.
causes of brain damage The human nervous system is a unit, although
two parts may be identified:

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

• The central nervous system. This comprises rons. In order to understand the functioning of
the brain, midbrain, brainstem, cerebellum and the nervous system as a whole, it is essential to
spinal bulb (also called the medulla oblongata) know what occurs in the single nerve cell or neu-
which is situated in the skull as well as the ron. Attention will be given only to the neural
spinal marrow (spinal cord) that is enclosed and processes in the individual nerve cells which best
protected by the spine. illustrate the essentials of nerve functioning as
• The peripheral nervous system. This comprises manifested by and involved in man’s physical and
the nerves (cranial and spinal) that run from the mental processes.
spinal cord and the brainstem to all the other The nervous system basically consists of a
parts and organs of the body. There are 43 variety of nerve cells, of which only the neurons
pairs of nerves which emanate from each side will be discussed. They are of different shapes
of the spinal cord and which together are and sizes and perform different functions in vari-
known as the peripheral nervous system. The ous parts of the central nervous system, but basi-
peripheral nervous system consists of 31 pairs cally they contain the same elements. Their
of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves, essential function is to generate or conduct nerve
ganglia and nerve plexuses (Reid 1996: 1). impulses.

The nervous system is concerned with the inte-

12.2.1 The structure of the neuron
gration and control of all bodily functions. In par-
ticular, the central nervous system is concerned The nerve cells consist of cell bodies and their
with irritability (the ability to receive and respond axons. The axons form what are basically known
to messages from the external and internal envi- as “nerves”. Certain parts of the central nervous
ronments) and conduction (the ability to transmit system are predominantly white, while others are
messages to and from coordinating centres). The predominantly grey in appearance. The grey parts
autonomous nervous system is also a subsystem consist mainly of grey cell bodies (Batshaw 1997:
of the nervous system and has two separate parts, 301). The axons, on the other hand, are encased
namely the parasympathetic and sympathetic in a sheath (the myelin sheath) which consists of a
nervous systems. The parasympathetic nervous white fatty layer. As a result, large sections of the
system promotes general vegetative functions of brain and spinal cord where cell bodies of neu-
the body (such as the digestive system, blood cir- rons are grouped together are grey, while the rest
culation and excretory processes) and the sympa- – the so-called pathways of the central nervous
thetic nervous system mobilises the resources of system consisting mainly of bundles of axons –
the body to meet emergencies. are white in appearance.
The nervous system basically consists of a vari-
How will you explain a person being
ety of nerve cells, of which only the neurons will
able to jump over a high wall when be discussed here.
Neurons and nerves should not be spoken of
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chased by a vicious dog?

The sympathetic nervous system is separately. Nerves constitute part of the neurons,
one of the wonderful attributes of our being offshoots or extensions of the nerve cells
bodies and ensures survival in various along which nerve impulses are transmitted.
emergencies, such as giving us the When a neuron dies the nerve will die off too,
ability to jump over a high wall. since the latter is nourished and sustained by the
neurons.
The neuron is a cell body consisting of a mem-
12.2 THE NEURON AND ITS FUNCTIONS brane or sac filled with a variety of tissues and flu-
A neuron is a cell that forms part of the human ids, and contains a nucleus which determines the
nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) functions and survival of the neuron. The cell
of the human body consists of the spinal cord and body is also known as the soma of the nerve cell.
the brain, and is made up of nerve cells or neu- On both sides of the nerve cell are offshoots,

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 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

also known as processes. On the one side is one the axon are short, fine terminal branches known
process only – the axon – whose length varies as telodendria which resemble dendrites except
with the different nerve cells, sometimes reaching for a thickening at the ends (terminal buds). An
a length of a metre or more. important point to note is that the membrane
On the other side of the neuron are dendrites, a which encases the nerve cell stretches over the
number of offshoots that are thick when close to entire axon and dendrites, so that the whole neu-
the cell body but gradually taper off to become ron with its offshoots is encased by the same
fine at the extremities. These dendrites are short membrane. Were it not so, no impulse could orig-
and point in all directions. In some cells the den- inate in or be conducted by a nerve cell, the mem-
drites can run into thousands. At the extremity of brane being essential for this purpose.

Cell body

Nucleolus

Nucleus

Dendrites

Axon hillock

Schwann cell
Myelin sheath

Node of Ranvier

Schwann cell nucleus

Terminal buds
(Note that only a very short part
of the axon has been drawn. The
terminal segment of the axon Telodendria
appears below the broken lines.)

Figure 12.1 A highly simplified representation of a peripheral neuron

Source: Kapp 1994: 203

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

12.2.2 The synapse

If you are to learn now that excessive
discharges in the brain are involved in Nerve impulses cannot be restricted to the neu-
epileptic processes, where would you ron in which they originate as this would serve no
say that a neuron would fit into the pic- purpose whatsoever. The impulses must be trans-
ACTIVITY

ture? mitted to the following neuron, through to the

The essential function of neurons is end of the chain of neurons involved in the spe-
to generate or conduct nerve impulses. cific activity. This transmission of nerve impulses
For some or other reason an excessive to subsequent neurons occurs through a system
amount of activity is generated and dis- of “junctions” between neurons which are known
charged, thus causing an epileptic as synapses. These are the “meeting points”
process to take place.
between the extremities of, for example, the axon
of one neuron and the dendrites of the next.
When damaged, regeneration of nerve fibres in There is no physical continuity at the point of
the central nervous system is minimal and the “contact”. There is a small gap between these
affected region is changed into a scar. In spite of extremities, which is known as the synaptic cleft.
negligible regeneration a very large degree of The nerve cell conducting an impulse to the
functional recovery can take place if the extent of next neuron is known as a presynaptic neuron,
the damage is limited. This functional recovery is and the one receiving the impulse is called a post-
due to the reorganisation of connections within synaptic neuron. The latter, of course, becomes a
the brain and the term “plasticity” is given to the presynaptic neuron as soon as it in turn transmits
possibility of rearrangement (Reid 1996: 46). Note the impulse. We therefore refer to a presynaptic
that the Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation and postsynaptic membrane at the point of “con-
is currently engaged in exciting groundbreaking tact” in the synapses (see Figure12.2).
research; regrowth of neurons in mice has already The extremities of the axon (telodendria) of the
been achieved. presynaptic neuron can make “contact” with the

Synaptic cleft

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion

Terminal button

Presynaptic vesicle
Postsynaptic membrane

Figure 12.2 A diagram representing the synapse between an axon terminal bud and the
membrane of a postsynaptic neuron (Note the neurotransmitters being
released in the synaptic cleft.)
Source: Kapp 1994: 206

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 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

postsynaptic neuron in several ways. As already impulse from one neuron to another. Secondly,
explained, at no point is there complete contact, the release of a second type of substance can
since a gap – known as the synaptic cleft – always inhibit conduction of the impulse from one neu-
remains in the regions of “contact”. It is estimated ron to the next section.
that on average every nerve cell in the central
nervous system is connected to 100 other neu- 12.2.4 Neural development and growth
rons and receives impulses from 100 other neu-
rons. One neuron could therefore be pre- and It is important to remember that neurons are not
post-synaptically connected to many other neu- yet fully developed at birth, although it is ques-
rons. tionable whether new neurons can be formed
An almost infinite number of connections are after birth. Myelination increases constantly and
possible between the approximately 30 billion dendrites are formed in large numbers, at least
neurons of the central nervous system. This indi- during the first two years of a child’s life. The
cates the complex connections that are feasible growth of the neurons, through myelination and
and the numerous possibilities for utilising alter- dendritic proliferation, is mainly responsible for
native connecting pathways in the central nervous the increase in the mass of the brain. Further-
system. This fact assumes importance when more, there is good reason to believe that axons
thought is given to the possibility that one part of develop new collaterals and that telodendria
the brain may take over the functions of another, increase likewise.
damaged part. Myelination refers to the process whereby an
external sheath develops to cover and protect the
nerves. At birth, the body’s nervous system is not
12.2.3 Neurotransmitters
yet completely developed (Batshaw 1997: 301)
There are many different kinds of neurotransmit- and the functional areas in the brain which myeli-
ters – too many to discuss fully here. Over the nate last are consequently exposed for a longer
years a tremendous amount of research has been period to possible damage from outside.
conducted on the chemicals involved in synaptic
transmission. There are two main groups of trans-
Why would you say is it important that
mitters, namely cholinergic and adrenergic sub-
an infant receives nutritional food and
stances. An explanation of their structure and is stimulated?
ACTIVITY

function is highly technical and is not relevant This is important in order to facilitate
here. the development of the neurons
The substances are found in free forms in the (remember that neurons are not yet
neurons and collect in vesicula (little bags) in the fully developed at birth) and the neural
axon terminals or terminal buds. When the neuro- pathways (dendrites are formed in large
transmitters are released into the synaptic cleft numbers).
during the conduction of an impulse, they have
one of two effects. Firstly, one group of sub-
stances can stimulate the postsynaptic wall suffi- 12.3 A FEW SUBSTRUCTURES OF THE
ciently to facilitate further conduction of the BRAIN
In a previous section the structure and function-
Did you know that certain antidepres- ing of neurons as “building blocks” in the nervous
sants inhibit the reabsorption/reuptake system were discussed. Such a building block
ACTIVITY

of selected/some serotonin (a neuro-

would be meaningless, however, if it were to
transmitter)? This type of antidepres-
function in isolation. Its functioning only becomes
sant is known as an SSRI. See if you
can decipher what SSRI stands for. significant once it forms part of a functional sys-
SSRI stands for “selective serotonin tem of the nervous system (NS) as a whole. How-
reuptake inhibitor”. ever, one should guard against the erroneous
assumption that the NS can be rigidly divided into

243
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

loosely functioning centres or units, since the sys- The actual mesencephalon (midbrain), which is
tem in its totality forms one single functional enti- only approximately 2 cm long, forms part of the
ty. The parts flow from or into one another and brain stem. It is here that the two large cerebral
thus it is not a case of loose parts which are con- peduncles (by means of which the two hemi-
nected to one another. In this section some of the spheres of the cerebrum are attached to the brain
substructures of the NS will be studied, with spe- stem) flow out of the brain stem. At the back of
cial reference to the significance of their dysfunc- the midbrain there are also four small knobs (col-
tion and the resultant forms of impairment. licula) forming the corpora quadrigemina (quadru-
ple bodies), which are involved with the reflexes
of vision and hearing (see Figures 12.8 and 12.9).
12.3.1 The brain stem The mesencephalon also contains a number of
The brain stem is a comprehensive term for the smaller structures such as the red nucleus (nucleus
midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata (elongated ruber) and the black matter (substantia nigra),
spinal cord). The anatomic structures it contains which will not be discussed any further.
serve as a junction between the brain (cerebrum), In the same way in which the thalamus (see sec-
the spinal cord and the cerebellum (see Figure tion [Link]) relays sensory impulses from the
12.3). Together, these parts send out 12 cranial skin, muscles and tendons to the sensory area of
nerves that control such diverse functions as the brain, the midbrain receives, arranges and
breathing, swallowing, seeing and hearing. These relays impulses from the eye and ear. However,
nerves also affect facial expression, eye and the auditory and visual pathways reach the mid-
tongue movements, and salivation. This then brain via the cranial nerves and not via the spinal
explains why children with cerebral palsy (due to chord.
damage to the brainstem) may have – in addition The pons (also called bridge or metencephalon)
to motor problems – sucking and swallowing is about 5 cm long and is formed by cross-fibres
problems, strabismus, excessive salivation and situated in the anterior of the brain stem,
speech disorders (Batshaw 1997: 305). between the mesencephalon (midbrain) and the

Cerebrum

Back Front

Midbrain

Pons Brain stem

Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum

Figure 12.3 Sketch indicating the location of the most important divisions on the right
side of the brain
Source: Kapp 1994: 211

244
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

medulla oblongata (elongated spinal cord). Its from the afferent (sensory) nerves of the body and
importance lies mainly in the fact that it is the transmits or conducts them to the correct centres
section through which the so-called cerebellar (lit- in the cerebral cortex via the specific sensory pro-
tle brain) peduncles pass en route to joining the jections. Impulses from all parts of the cortex also
small brain with the spinal cord and the midbrain. arrive at the thalami (plural of thalamus) and the
All voluntary motor impulses coming from the latter in turn pass them on to their further desti-
cortex are first relayed via the pons to the cere- nations. In fact, the thalamus has to-and-fro con-
bellum for coordination. nections with almost all parts of the central nerv-
ous system –- with the cerebral cortex; with the
If a person sustains damage to the
cerebellum; with the structures and nuclei of the
cerebellum, which motor area will be brain stem; with the spinal cord and the nuclei of
affected? the cranial nerves; with the other nuclei in the
Injuries to the cerebellum are called middle of the brain; and even with itself as a
ACTIVITY

ataxia if this results in cerebral palsy. A result of connections between the various parts of
person with ataxia, a form of cerebral the thalamus.
palsy (discussed in Chapter 13C), will This comprehensive network of connecting
thus experience problems with ...? tracts with other parts of the brain makes the
The motor area that will be affected thalamus the great coordinator of the brain. It
is coordination. Ataxia is characterised correlates the operation of all parts of the brain
by poor coordination.
and ensures that they function together as one
integrated unit. The thalamus does not only relay,
The medulla oblongata is about 8 cm long and however. It also has the function of promoting
most nerve pathways cross here. Since the motor and retaining impulses. It can give preference to
nerve pathways cross in the elongated spinal certain impulses while inhibiting impulses of less-
cord, an injury or lesion on one side of the brain er importance. Acute sensations of pain, heat and
will affect the motor functioning of the body on cold can already be interpreted here.
the opposite side.
If the functions of the thalamus can be
12.3.2 Grey matter in the centre of the translated into an ordinary metaphor,
brain which one will be most suitable? The
The “centre of the brain” refers here to the deeply thalamus can be best compared to a
embedded sections of the brain situated between switchboard at a big business, a rail-
way station or an undercover agent.
the midbrain and the cortex. Of particular impor-
Choose one and motivate your answer.
tance for this chapter are the diencephalon, basal
In this case the thalamus can be best
ganglia and the reticular formation. These struc- compared to a switchboard of a huge
tures are sometimes referred to as the subcortical
ACTIVITY

business that receives all the incoming

structures of the cerebrum (large brain) which calls and diverts them to the correct
indicates that they are situated below the cortex. destinations or receivers at the other
(A discussion on the cortex follows later.) end. The switchboard operator/s can
also decide to relay emergency or very
[Link] The thalamus important calls more quickly and put
less important calls on hold. If you have
The thalamus constitutes the first and major part
argued that a railway station (such as
of the diencephalon and is a very important part
the large one in Germiston) can also be
of the subcortical structures in the centre of the used as a metaphor for the thalamus,
brain. It is divided into two parts, one in each you are quite right, because a railway
hemisphere. station can divert trains to various
The main function of the thalamus is to relay directions and to various destinations.
nerve impulses. In particular, it receives impulses

245
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

[Link] The hypothalamus

“In reality, conscious control of emo-
The second part of the diencephalon (literally
tional conditions by means of the cere-
meaning “double head”) is known as the hypo- bral cortex is limited.” If there is a
thalamus. It is usually mentioned in conjunction learner in your class who has problems
with its appendage, the hypophysis (pituitary with explosive behaviour (bouts of
gland), since the hypothalamus performs its main anger), will you reprimand the learner to
functions through the latter. The functions of the control himself?
hypophysis are chiefly physiological and will You have learned in the above sec-

ACTIVITY
therefore not be discussed here in detail. tion that the “hypothalamus exercises
As its name indicates, the hypothalamus is situ- its control over body processes and
ated below the thalamus and constitutes what over emotional conditions by means of
the autonomic nervous system”, mean-
may probably be regarded as the most powerful
ing that the learner’s aggression will
four grams of cell tissue in the entire human body!
most probably not be under voluntary
In one way or another it is involved in most forms control. The learner’s aggression will
of physical activity, especially those relating to need more specialised support, which
the so-called vital functions. can range from a neurological examina-
The functions of the hypothalamus and tion to an investigation into the learn-
hypophysis may be divided into the following er’s environment.
groups:
1. Those regulating body temperature and the
phenomena related to it, such as sweat secre- [Link] The basal ganglia
tion and heat production The “basal ganglia” is a term used for a number of
2. Those regulating the cardiovascular functions bodies extremely complex in structure (the singu-
(the heart and vascular system), such as the lar of ganglia is ganglion, which is the Greek word
heartbeat and blood pressure for a knot of nerves). The basal ganglia are situat-
3. Those regulating the metabolism, e.g. appetite ed in the proximity of the thalamus and reach as
behaviour, such as hunger and thirst, mainte- far as the brain stem. The details of their complex
nance of the water balance in the body, diges- structure and functioning will not be discussed
tive processes, and the speed of metabolism, here, but the most important functions of the
e.g. rate of consumption of carbohydrates basal ganglia will be dealt with briefly.
They play a vital role in body movement espe-
4. Those regulating the secretions from the
cially in the control of muscle movements. When
endocrine glands which affect or control so
damaged, a major form of cerebral palsy, known
many body functions, e.g. metabolism, growth
as athetosis, may result (this condition is dis-
processes, sexual characteristics, reproductive
cussed in Chapter 13C).
processes
The basal ganglia are subcortically located (i.e.
5. Those regulating the sleeping cycle, conditions below the cortex) and are situated alongside and
of sleeping and wakefulness, etc. below the thalamus as far as the brain stem. They
are therefore situated at the base (bottom) of the
The hypothalamus and the thalamus (seen as part cerebrum, hence the name basal ganglia.
of the limbic system) jointly constitute the major There are a number of other nuclei that are con-
control centres of man’s emotional life. In reality, sidered to form part of the basal ganglia but
conscious control of emotional conditions by which will not be discussed further here (e.g. the
means of the cerebral cortex is limited. One red nucleus and the substantia nigra).
should always bear this in mind. The hypothala-
mus exercises its control over body processes and
over emotional conditions by means of the auto- 12.3.3 The cerebellum
nomic nervous system, of which it is the most The study of the cerebellum links up with that
important centre of control in the brain. of the basal ganglia since it, too, is concerned

246
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

with the control of movement.

The cerebellum (or little brain) lies behind the Earlier on we said that ataxia – a form
brain stem and below the posterior parts of the of cerebral palsy – is characterised by
poor coordination. (Remember that
cerebral hemispheres (large brain). The cerebel-
ataxia results from damage to the cere-
lum consists of two hemispheres, joined together
bellum.)
in the middle by the vermis, a wormlike structure.

ACTIVITY
Apart from a problem with coordina-
The cerebellum has a corrugated appearance, and tion, what other problems might a per-
each half is connected to the rest of the central son with ataxia also experience?
nervous system by means of three fibre masses, The answer is in the section above.
the cerebellar peduncles. Now you know that a person with atax-
The three pairs of peduncles connect the two ia may experience problems with bal-
hemispheres of the cerebellum with the midbrain ance, upright posture of the body, and
(the top pair), the pons (the middle pair) and the the coordination of voluntary muscle
medulla oblongata (the bottom pair). Figure 12.3 movements.
shows how the pons and cerebellum are folded
around the brain stem.
Further, the cerebellum supplies the cerebral
An important aspect of the operation of the
cortex with information predicting the anticipat-
cerebellum is that the body is ipsilaterally (i.e. the
ed results of body movements so that the plan-
same side) represented there (motorially and sen-
ning of movement can be suitably adjusted, and
sorially) because double crossings of the nerve
movements executed effectively and purposively.
tracts to and from the cerebellum take place. A
The cerebellum cannot initiate movement. It
detailed explanation of these crossings is unnec-
can only lead and direct movements that have
essary. Their net result is, for example, that the
been initiated by the cerebral cortex. Since the
left hemisphere of the cerebellum receives senso-
cerebellum has such an important role in control-
ry information from the left side of the body and
ling complicated body movements and voluntary
controls motor activity on the same side of the
actions, damage to it will obviously have far-reach-
body. This is different from processes in the corti-
ing consequences. Any dysfunction of the cerebel-
cal hemispheres, as will be evident later on.
lum seriously impairs coordination, muscle tonus,
It is the main centre for coordination of muscu-
maintenance of body posture and balance, delib-
lar movement, i.e. for the harmonious coopera-
erateness and effectiveness of actions, etc.
tion of the different muscle groups, by which the
smooth execution of various complicated actions
are made possible. The cerebellum seems to be 12.3.4 The cerebrum
especially involved with three types of activity: The outer layer of the large brain (cerebrum) is
• Balance called the cerebral neocortex. The large brain
• The upright posture of the body consists of billions of neurons and its thickness
• The coordination of voluntary muscle move- varies between 2,5 cm and 5 cm. The larger part
ments consists of white matter – in other words, myeli-
nated axons. The outer layer of the cortex is grey
By the delicate regulation and grading of muscu- (“grey matter”) and is formed by the cell bodies of
lar tone in the relevant muscles, the cerebellum the neurons. Their thickness varies between 3
makes body movements smooth and flowing. mm and 4 mm.
Maintenance of muscle tone (tonus) is one of the The cerebral cortex forms by far the greater
basic functions of the cerebellum. The tonus is part of the human brain. Its area is so extensive
also important for the maintenance and correct- that it can be fitted into the skull cavity only by
ing of body posture and serves as a stable muscu- intricate convolutions. Of the whole area of the
lar background for the execution of movement. cortex, only about one-third is visible at the outer
The speed of one’s reflexes (reaction time) also convexity of the brain. The rest lies within the
depends on muscular tone. convolutions formed by the cortex.

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The cortex, together with other parts above the The two hemispheres are also connected to cer-
brain stem, is known as the cerebrum and the two tain structures located in the centre of the brain
halves are referred to as the cerebral hemi- and usually referred to as the subcortical centres.
spheres. The two hemispheres of the cortex are The diencephalon and the basal ganglia have been
almost completely separated, their only connec- dealt with in this regard in a separate section (see
tion being certain structures deep in the brain. above).
The most important connection between the The convolutions of the cortex do not follow
hemispheres is the corpus callosum, an arched, straight lines but show intricate contortions and
relatively thick layer of transverse fibres that are frequently branch into smaller convolutions. The
part of the white matter (group of axons) of the rounded convoluted parts are called cortical con-
brain which form the connecting neurons. The volutions or gyri (singular: gyrus) and many of
corpus callosum permits the exchange of informa- them have definite names. The fissures or folds
tion between the two hemispheres (Batshaw are called grooves or sulci (singular: sulcus), and
1997: 301). The two hemispheres are further con- some of the larger grooves are known as fissurae
nected to the brain stem by two thick bundles of (singular: fissura). These fissurae also have special
white fibres known as the cerebral peduncles. On names, which will not be dealt with here (see Fig-
the upper side and at the front and back, the two ure 12.4).
hemispheres of the brain are separated by a deep The sketches in this chapter (especially Figure
longitudinal fissure. 12.5) indicate the approximate division of the cor-

Longitudinal fissure Central fissure (Rolando)

Parietal lobe

Frontal lobe

Cerebellum

Lateral fissure
(Sylvius)

Temporal lobe

Figure 12.4 Drawing indicating the position of the brain in the skull. The lobes and fis-
sures are clearly visible.
Source: Kapp 1994: 217

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 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

tex into lobes. This is a traditional and somewhat which runs parallel to the fissure from top to bot-
arbitrary division used for practical purposes. It tom, called the primary motor area. Each locus on
does not correspond completely to the functional the strip is associated with the muscles of specific
organisation of the cortex, though specific func- parts of the body. It is interesting to note that the
tions may be located in particular lobes. muscles responsible for the finer coordinated
On the outer circumference of the cortex four movements of, for example, the fingers and the
lobes are distinguished, i.e. the frontal, parietal, lips, represent a larger surface on the motor area
occipital and temporal lobes. The location of the than muscles performing simpler movements,
different lobes can be seen on the drawings. Note such as those of the torso.
that the central fissure (Rolando’s fissure) sepa- Directly adjoining the primary motor area is an
rates the frontal and parietal lobes, while the tem- area with an inhibitory function. Adjacent to the
poral lobes are situated below the lateral fissure inhibitory area is the secondary motor area. The
(Sylvian fissure). The separation between the pari- rest of the frontal lobe (also known as the pre-
etal, temporal and occipital lobes towards the frontal lobe) is concerned with association. In the
back of the brain is arbitrary and is indicated by left frontal lobe, in the primary motor area, we
imaginary lines in the drawings. find an expressive (motor) speech area.
Each of the four main types of lobe of the brain It is important to note that this lobe is especial-
will now be discussed briefly. ly associated with the initiation of movement,
with expressive language and with behaviour. A
[Link] The frontal lobes dysfunction in this lobe can therefore affect the
Apart from planning and controlling all the body’s learner by giving rise to poor short-term memory,
muscle activity (motor output), these lobes also impulsiveness and incapacity for abstract think-
play a role in the higher mental functions of plan- ing, expressive aphasia (inability to produce
ning and abstract thinking. speech) and a general lack of initiative and spon-
Directly in front of the fissure there is a strip taneity.

Central fissure
(Rolando’s)

Front
Sulcus

PARIETAL LOBE
FRONTAL LOBE
Frontal gyrus
below the
operculum
Gyrus

TEMPORAL LOBE
BE

Back
O

L
L
TA
I PI
O CC

Lateral fissure
(Sylvian)

Figure 12.5 Lateral view of left cortical hemisphere of the cerebrum

Source: Kapp 1994: 218

249
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Secondary motor area

Primary motor area

Primary sensory area

Secondary sensory area

Secondary visual area

Broca’s area
(expressive language)
Primary visual area
Primary auditory area Wernicke’s area
(Heschl’s gyrus) (receptive language)

Figure 12.6 Motor and sensory areas of the brain

Source: Kapp 1994: 218

[Link] The parietal lobes Deviations in this lobe give rise to problems
These lobes are responsible for all the somatosen- with spatial orientation, tactile discrimination,
sory or somaesthetic functions. In other words, body consciousness, visual perception and visual
this part of the brain receives all the tactile, memory.
kinaesthetic, proprioceptive and other physical-
sensory impulses sent to it from special receptor [Link] The temporal lobes
organs throughout the body. These probably Below and diagonally behind Sylvius’ lateral fis-
include olfactory and gustatory impulses. sure we find the temporal lobes whose main
Directly behind the central fissure, parallel to responsibility is to control auditory abilities and
the primary motor area of the frontal lobe, we associated language activities. These lobes also
find the primary somaesthetic area (which has to have a share in controlling human emotions and
do with the body’s sensory impressions). Informa- memory. The temporal lobe is situated below the
tion from the sensory organs in the skin (touch, lateral sulcus, approximately opposite the exter-
pressure, warmth, cold, pain) comes to this area nal ear. The largest part of the temporal lobe is
via the thalamus (remember the “switchboard”?). classified as an association area. The primary
As in the case of the primary motor area, a spe- auditory area (Heschl’s gyrus) is approximately in
cific part of the body is represented at each locus the middle of the top convolution of the temporal
on the primary sensory area. Directly behind the lobe. This is the cortical area for the reception of
primary somaesthetic area is the secondary information received via the ears. Wernicke’s area
somaesthetic or the somaesthetic association (Figure 12.6), which is associated with language
area. comprehension, is also found in this lobe.

250
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

Dysfunctioning of this lobe can give rise to [Link] The limbic lobes
numerous problems, including faulty reception, These lobes lie deeply hidden in the interior of
comprehension and interpretation of auditory the brain, but are part of the cortex. Formerly
stimuli and problems with memory, especially they were known as the olfactory or nose brain
short-term memory. Damage to Wernicke’s area (rhinencephalon), because they include the olfac-
causes problems with language comprehension, tory centre. It is part of what is known as the old
and serious damage may even cause receptive brain (allocortex), in contrast to the rest of the
aphasia (inability to understand language) in the cortex, which is called the new brain (neocortex).
person concerned. (The old brain further consists of other subcortical
areas of the brain.) The limbic lobe comprises a
number of deeply hidden cortical areas. The so-
You receive a report from a neurologist called limbic system is formed by these cortical
stating that a learner is suffering from
areas.
left temporal lobe epilepsy (or complex
partial seizures). How will you explain The limbic system links up with parts of the
to the parent where the left temporal basal ganglia, the hypothalamus and the thala-
lobe is, using your own head as a refer- mus. The limbic system, together with the above-
ence? mentioned subcortical parts, deals with various
First of all you will briefly explain that important psychological functions such as control
the brain has two hemispheres and that of excessive activity (restlessness or hyperactivity)
on the outer circumference of the brain and aggression, the emotional life in general
ACTIVITY

four lobes are distinguished. The frontal (Noback et al. 1991: 357) and the human memory.
lobes are in the front, pointing to the
two bumps that you can feel on your
forehead. The occipital lobes are at the 12.3.5 The spinal nerves
back of your head (more or less in line The spinal cord basically forms a nerve “junction”
with your eyes) and they are involved between the higher centres in the cerebrum and
with vision, that is perhaps why the
brain stem on the one hand and the rest of the
saying originates that a person has
eyes in the back of his head. The pari-
body on the other. Capacity for movement is a
etal lobes are like an Alice band across basic attribute of life. Hence the existence of
the head. Point to your temples to indi- descending pathways (efferent) leading from the
cate where the temporal lobes are brain to the rest of the body, and ascending path-
located. ways (afferent) proceeding in the opposite direc-
tion, the latter providing feedback to the spinal
cord and the rest of the central nervous system.
The neurons in the spinal cord form a nerve
[Link] The occipital lobes centre of their own on a lower level and directly
These are the smallest of all the cortical lobes. control a number of reflex actions. At times the
Their main responsibility is to ensure that visual neurons in the spinal cord perform an important
impulses relayed to these areas are analysed and function, namely the provisional or intermediary
interpreted by the cortex. processing of impulses to or from the central
These lobes are situated behind the occipital nervous system. Incoming and outgoing impulses
fissure. It is the hindmost part of the cerebrum are thus regulated, adjusted, muted, reinforced,
and constitutes mainly the visual area of the cere- rerouted, etc. on various levels as, for instance, in
bral cortex (cf. Figure 12.6). The primary visual the grey matter of the spinal cord.
area receives sensory input via the thalamus. A horizontal cross-section of the spinal cord
Adjacent to the primary visual area is the visual will reveal grey matter in the shape of a butterfly
association area. In this lobe the visual motor area with two “horns” at both its anterior and posteri-
is also found. Deviations in this lobe affect visual or. The spinal nerves leave the spinal cord
perception as well as reading. through these horns on their way to the different

251
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

parts of the body. (Note: the “nerves” are formed descending efferent pathway from the CNS via the
by the axons of neurons.) spinal cord to the muscles. From the cerebral cor-
The nerves proceeding to other parts of the tex two neurons lead to the muscles. The motor
body leave the front (ventral) horns and are neurons which transmit the impulses from the
known as motor nerves, through which “mes- brain to the spinal cord are jointly known as the
sages” are sent from the brain to the muscles. Fig- upper motor neuron. Those proceeding from the
ure 12.7 shows a branch or ramus which serves spinal cord and carrying the impulses further
the front portion of the body (the anterior pri- along to the muscles are jointly known as the
mary ramus) and another which serves the back lower motor neuron. Hence the latter are neurons
portion (i.e. the posterior) of the body (the poste- which originate in the ventral horn of the spinal
rior primary ramus). cord. The axons proceeding from these neurons
From this figure you will further note that cer- to a muscle are known as the final common motor
tain nerves enter the spinal cord through the back pathway, so named because this constitutes the
(dorsal) horn (via the dorsal root). These are only way along which a motor impulse can reach
known as sensory nerves which carry “messages” the muscles – irrespective of whether the impulse
from the kinaesthetic, proprioceptive and intero- originates in the brain, the cerebellum or the
ceptive senses in the skin, muscles, joints and reticular nuclei in the brain stem. The impulses
intestines, to the brain. from these structures must therefore be conduct-
Figure 12.7 also shows that the ventral and dor- ed by means of the final common motor pathway
sal roots initially merge to form one nerve root of the lower motor neuron.
and then divide immediately outside the spinal
cord into dorsal and ventral nerve rami (plural of
Are you aware of an exceptionally bril-
ramus), the latter possessing both motor and sen-
liant person who suffers from upper
sory nerves. The nerves of the autonomic nervous
motor neuron disease – he is in a
system also merge with the body nerves (somatic wheelchair and unable to speak (he is
nerves) and run with them for a short distance, also mentioned in the chapter on aug-
after which they separate to form their own nerv- mentative communication) – who is
ous system which then runs parallel with the
ACTIVITY

currently filling the position that was

spinal column. previously held by Isaac Newton?
Figure 12.7 shows the right half only. The entire Professor Stephan Hawking suffers
system is repeated in the left section. Note too from upper motor neuron disease
that each of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves leaves which is a debilitating disease because
the spinal column on either side of its segment, it affects the motor system as a whole.
Note that his intellectual abilities are
while the spinal cord lies safely shielded within
not affected, otherwise he would not be
the vertebrae and runs from the top (head and able to fill his position at the Cambridge
neck) downwards to the upper lumbar area of the University.
spine. The spinal cord is protected not only by the
vertebrae and their ligaments but also by the
membranes surrounding and covering the cord, The motor pathways of the spinal nerves are
namely the meninges, and by a cushion of cere- formed by axons of neurons situated in the poste-
brospinal fluid. There are three layers of rior and central parts of the spinal cord. Some of
meninges: the outer thick, fibrous dura mater; the them form thicker fibres which constitute the
delicate arachnoid, which lines the dura mater; alpha system and lead to muscles which control
and the thin pia mater, which is closely wrapped movement. Other, thinner fibres, lead to the mus-
round the spinal cord. The pia mater and the cle spindles and form the gamma system, which is
arachnoid form the boundaries of the subarach- responsible for muscle tone and posture.
noid space which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Afferent (sensory) nerves entering the spinal
(Reid 1996: 17). cord through the posterior roots can now make
The motor impulses thus proceed along a connection with motor cells at the same level (i.e.

252
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

Back
Posterior primary
ramus
Dorsal root
Grey matter

White matter

Anterior primary
ramus White
ramus
Grey
ramus Ventral root
Paravertebral
sympathetic
ganglion
Pre-vertebral
sympathetic
ganglion

Involuntary muscles
e.g. heart muscle
or glandular cells

Front

Figure 12.7 Spinal nerve. The sketch shows a segment of the spinal cord with the nerve
and its ramifications as it emerges from one side of the segment and divides
into somatic and autonomic nerves (the arrows indicate the direction in
which impulses are conducted).
Source: Kapp 1994: 224

in the same segment) as in the simplest form of reflex centres) or up into the thalamus. If they go
reflex; or they can make connection with connect- up into the brain stem they can make connection
ing neurons (interneurons) which conduct the there with the cells of the reticular formation of
impulses further to the motor neurons in the the brain stem. (The functioning and importance
anterior horns of the spinal cord in the same seg- of the reticular formation will be discussed next.)
ment, or at a higher or lower level. Alternatively, The nerves do not all follow a simple path or
they can first go up or down in the spinal cord and pattern. There is, in fact, an intricate variety of
then make connection with other neurons. The possibilities. Some nerve tracts go to the cerebel-
connecting neurons with which they form synaps- lum, which needs the sensory information
es can take the impulse right up the spinal cord because it plays an important part in the control
into the brain stem (where there are important of movement.

253
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

12.4 THE ROLE OF THE RETICULAR SYSTEM The main function of the reticular system, as
The reticular formation in the medulla oblongata regards the sensory and motor processes in the
and brain stem (medulla, pons and midbrain) is a central nervous system, is to regulate the input
large complex set of nerve cells and nerve fibres and output of nerve impulses. The name “reticular
forming the central sections of these structures system” indicates this. (To illustrate this, one may
and continuing into the thalamus. These are main- refer to the reticular system as, for example, a
ly scattered nerve cells, although they also form municipality, which is concerned with the distri-
smaller nerve groups, but without constituting bution of water and electricity. It regulates the
definite nerve centres. In the thalamus the reticu- flow of water or power to the points where they
lar formation is present in specific groups of are required.)
nuclei. Generally speaking, however, the function The reticular system fills an important function
of the reticular formation may be described as rel- in habituation to constantly repeated stimuli. This
atively diffuse. is necessary because a person cannot possibly
The reticular system extends further into the attend to all the stimuli impinging upon him. Dis-
spinal cord and comprises more than just the tracting sounds, noises, etc., which would
reticular formation of the brain stem and thala- adversely affect him are therefore subdued and
mus. In the spinal cord it exists as the reticular checked by the reticular formation.
nerve tracts, but there are also other scattered The reticular formation also has a role in the
spinal nerve cells of the reticular formation, so activation of attention (Noback et al. 1991: 351).
that almost half the grey matter of the spinal cord One of the functions it exercises (through the
consists of reticular cells. In the cortical direction non-specific projections to the cortex) is the regu-
the reticular formation has projections to the lation of the state of arousal of the cortex. When
cerebral cortex itself, and to the basal ganglia. It the cortex is stimulated by impulses from the
also has projections to the cerebellum. Further, reticular formation, it is brought to a state of
the reticular formation receives its incoming readiness to receive the sensory stimuli along
impulses from virtually the whole central nervous the specific projection tracts. This action of the
system (Noback et al. 1991: 351). All these con- reticular system is termed the reticular activation
nections contribute to the fact that the reticular response or the arousal response. The reticular
system acts as the most important linking system formation is therefore also referred to as the
between the widely scattered nerve centres of the reticular activation system (RAS).
central nervous system. The role of the reticular formation in attention
The reticular formation is regarded as one of and consciousness explains why the reticular
the oldest parts of the central nervous system. It formation is so exceptionally sensitive to anaes-
is a primitive integration centre. The central posi- thetics, being one of the first centres of the cen-
tion it occupies in the nervous system and the tral nervous system to be affected by them. It is
impressive number of connections it has with also very sensitive to disturbances by epileptic
other parts of the nervous system, afford the discharges in the centrencephalic area (the dien-
reticular formation a virtually unlimited ability to cephalon or brain stem) so that consciousness is
influence the rest of the nervous system. The immediately dulled or disturbed by these dis-
afferent and efferent axons of the cells of the charges. In this way the reticular arousal response
reticular formation run up and down the neuraxis, is suspended.
forming numerous branches. The cells have par-
ticularly large dendritic systems lying across the Did you know that because the RAS is
neuraxis. This arrangement of the cells and their
ACTIVITY

a very primitive system it accepts

processes enables them to make a very large num- everything it hears as a fact, it cannot
ber of connections with one another and with the distinguish between right and wrong,
axons of cells situated elsewhere in the central nor can it interpret on a judgemental
nervous system. level? In your opinion what will the
effect be if a learner is repeatedly told

254
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

that he is unable to master certain 12.5 THE VISUAL PATHWAYS

skills?
Figure 12.8 gives a clear indication of the pathway
If the RAS hears the information
repeatedly, it will accept it as the truth that a visual stimulus (light waves) follows after it
(because it cannot distinguish between has been converted (transduced) by the retina of
ACTIVITY

right and wrong) and act accordingly. the eye into a visual impulse. Note that the
For instance, if a learner is convinced impulse is conducted from the right visual half of
that he cannot read, he will be unable the retina of each eye to the right side of the
to read. This is one of the reasons why brain. The impulses from the left sides of both
labelling is totally unacceptable and retinas are in turn conducted to the left side of
can in fact be described as emotional the brain – in both cases via the optic chiasma to
abuse in some cases. the occipital lobes.

Visual fields
Left Right

Retina

Optic nerve

Optic chiasma

Geniculate body

Brain stem

Upper colliculus

Optic projection tract

Right occipital lobe

Figure 12.8 A diagrammatic representation of the pathways of the optic nerves

Source: Kapp 1994: 227

255
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

The sketch shows that only those impulses modation of the lens. (See Figure 14.1 for a draw-
which are conducted from the retinal halves abut- ing of the eye.)
ting the nose cross to the opposite side of the
brain. The optic nerve therefore forms the path-
12.6 THE AUDITORY PATHWAYS
way along which the optic impulses are conduct-
ed from the retinas of the eyes to the occipital Figure 12.9 gives a simplified representation of
lobes where they are processed in the primary the auditory or aural nerve pathways. The audito-
visual area into percepts, and meaning is ascribed ry pathways are without doubt among the most
to them in conjunction with the secondary and complex in the nervous system.
tertiary visual areas. On its way to the occipital The process of hearing begins in the ear, where
lobes the pathway runs via the optic chiasma auditory stimuli are caught up by the outer ear
(where crossing occurs as described above) to the and conducted to the inner ear by way of the ham-
lateral parts of the thalamus. The thalamus in turn mer, stirrup and anvil of the middle ear. In the
is responsible for relaying the impulse to the spe- inner ear the stimuli (in the form of sound waves)
cific projection area of the cortex which is associ- are converted (transduced) into auditory impulses
ated with vision, namely the occipital lobes. which are conducted along the auditory nerve to
There is another lesser pathway involving the the primary auditory area of the temporal lobe.
upper two colliculi of the midbrain. This pathway This area is sometimes called Heschl’s gyrus.
conducts certain impulses from the retina to the The complex part of the auditory pathway is
colliculi before proceeding to the thalamus and situated between these two points (ear and tem-
on to the occipital lobes. This pathway deals with poral lobe). To make it somewhat easier to follow,
reflex movements of the eye such as blinking, only the pathway which runs from the right ear
dilation or contraction of the pupils and accom- will be described. The auditory impulses are con-

Middle
thalamic
bodies

Heschl’s gyrus
Thalamus

Lower colliculus Midbrain

Olive nucleus Medulla

oblongata

Left cochlea Right cochlea

Auditory nerve
Cochlear nucleus

Figure 12.9 A simplified diagram of the pathways of the auditory nerves

Source: Kapp 1994: 229

256
 ORIENTATION: NEUROLOGY IN AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 12

ducted along the cochlear nucleus where there is (neurons) can be injured or damaged. These may
a partial crossing of pathways. A few of the path- be called the basic causes of brain damage.
ways from the right ear lead to the right temporal
lobe, but the majority cross to the left temporal [Link] Tissue damage
lobe. This refers to the destruction of brain tissue
From the cochlear nucleus, the pathways lead through physical force. Obviously fractures, bruis-
first to the medulla oblongata (specifically the oli- es and other injuries can destroy both the grey
vary nucleus). As can be seen from Figure 12.9, and the white matter of the brain. If, in addition,
the auditory pathways from both ears cross here – the blood vessels are torn, the haemorrhage that
the majority from the opposite (contralateral) and accompanies such injuries aggravates the dam-
a smaller number from the same side (ipsilateral) age. The brain attempts to remedy this by pro-
of the head. All the pathways then move to the ducing connective tissue, but it cannot restore the
midbrain (specifically to the lower pair of colliculi) nerve tissue, and adhesions (lesion forming) may
and from there to the medial bodies of the thala- cause further damage to the brain cells and may
mus. even negatively affect the functioning of adjacent
The thalamus is known as the point from which brain areas.
impulses are projected to specific areas of the
cortex. The same happens to auditory impulses – [Link] Anoxia
they are relayed from the thalamus to the specific
auditory projection area of the function of hear- Anoxia (i.e. lack of oxygen) is certainly the great-
ing, namely Heschl’s gyrus in the temporal lobe. est single factor in the destruction of brain cells. If
What was said about the right pathways natu- the oxygen supply to the brain cells is interrupted
rally also applies to the pathways running from for even a few minutes, changes set in and necro-
the left ear. However, an interesting and extreme- sis (death of cells) takes place, which can never be
ly important discovery has been made regarding remedied. With lack of oxygen it is the brain cells
the difference in function between the left and that die first long before other organs or body sys-
right temporal lobes. It has been found that the tems are affected.
left temporal lobe (in other words, largely the One should remember that there is a difference
right ear), is language dominant and therefore between suffocation/asphyxiation and anoxia. Suf-
sensitive to receiving and processing language focation and asphyxiation can lead to anoxia
sounds. Conversely, the right temporal lobe (and (shortage of oxygen) because insufficient or no air
the left ear) is more sensitive to music, especially is inhaled.
melody and rhythm, and the environmental Anoxia may have various causes. Asphyxiation
sounds (in other words, all sounds not related to and suffocation are, of course, only two such
language). causes. They may even be due to defects in the
lungs or breathing. Poisons like carbon monoxide
destroy the capacity of the blood to absorb oxy-
12.7 GENERAL CAUSES OF BRAIN DAMAGE
gen and to carry it to the body cells. The blood
Brain damage or injury is often the cause of may be deficient in haemoglobin, which is respon-
impairments. This includes cerebral palsy, epilep- sible for the assimilation of oxygen, as well as in
sy, and intellectual, visual and hearing impair- red blood cells which contain the haemoglobin.
ments. The damage, mal-development or injury of All these facts eventually produce anoxia. The
parts of the brain may lead to obvious signs of process of birth is especially prone to accidents
impairment. The symptoms may, however, also be likely to cut off the child’s oxygen supply and thus
less evident as the damage to the brain could be cause anoxia.
microscopic.
[Link] Ischaemia
12.7.1 Basic causes of brain damage Ischaemia is a local deficiency of blood and forms
There are only a few ways in which brain cells one of the main causes of local lesions to the

257
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

brain. Local ischaemia first causes local anoxia [Link] Neoplasms

and it is this that causes the damage. If the flow of A neoplasm or tumour refers to the growth of
blood to a part of the brain is impeded, that part new tissue that grows in places where it does not
cannot be supplied with oxygen. The conse- belong, such as in cancerous growths (Brett 1997:
quence is brain damage as a result of the brain 556). Not all neoplasms are malignant, but in the
cells dying. brain they are likely to cause damage to adjacent
brain cells or brain structures due to the pressure
[Link] Haemorrhage they exert.
Haemorrhage can be a secondary result of anoxia,
which, by damaging the walls of the blood ves- 12.8 CONCLUSION
sels, may cause seepage of blood. In the young
child it is the traumatic damage to blood vessels This chapter provides a brief overview of the
that causes haemorrhage. Characteristic is the human nervous system. A human being without a
subdural haematoma (blood clot) due to haemor- brain cannot exist, but a human being with a brain
rhage between the dura mater and arachnoid is so much more than just a brain – the end result
meninges. is a human being that can, among other things,
Whenever there is haemorrhaging in the brain, interact, love and learn.
oedema and increased intracranial pressure
occur, and the brain cells at the centre of the Questions
haemorrhaging are smothered. In addition, haem-
orrhage and blood clots may result in the forma- 1. Describe the functions of the hypothalamus
tion of cysts. and hypophysis.
Children are sometimes born with a congenital 2. Describe the main function of the thalamus
weakness of the blood vessels. A local weakening and compare the thalamus to a common
of the walls of a blood vessel could, for example, metaphor.
cause it to bulge. This is known as an aneurism. A 3. Which types of activity will be affected by dam-
blood vessel rupture could easily occur there. age to the cerebellum?

[Link] Agenesis
Bibliography
Agenesis is not really a type of damage but refers
Batshaw, M.L. (Ed.). 1997. Children with disabilities, 4th
to imperfect development and as such results in ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
abnormalities. It could be the result of genetic Brett, E.M. (Ed.). 1997. Paediatric neurology, 3rd ed. New
causes or of an early destructive process. York: Churchill Livingstone.
Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation. Available at:
[Link] Dysplasia [Link] (accessed on 1 May 2003).

Dysplasia refers to incorrect or defective develop- Kapp, J.A. (Ed.). 1994. Children with problems: an
orthopedagogical perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
ment of tissue. It causes uneven development, the
Noback, C.R., Strominger, N.L. & Demarest, R.J. 1991.
presence of brain cells in places where they do The human nervous system: introduction and review, 4th
not belong and the presence of other types of tis- ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
sue in places in the brain where that type of cell Reid, C. 1996. A primer of human neuroanatomy. Pretoria:
does not belong (Batshaw 1997: 795). Van Schaik.

258
 PHYSICAL 13 A
IMPAIRMENT

Written by R I E K I E S M I T H
Revised by D E I R D R É K R Ü G E R

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdistinguish between physical impairments that are neurologically
related and those that relate to the skeleton and muscles
Πunderstand the various forms of spina bifida
Πknow the problems that are associated with spina bifida and address
related barriers to learning
Πidentify particular problems connected with traumatic paraplegia and
quadriplegia
Πknow what traumatic brain injury entails and educate learners to deal
with it
Πunderstand poliomyelitis as an acute illness which results in physical
impairment
Πidentify the initial signs of muscular distrophy
Œ display a basic knowledge of multiple sclerosis and Friedreich’s ataxia
Πaccommodate the needs and problems arising from physical
impairment by rendering support
Πventure collaboration.

Key terms subchapters deal with physical impairment, but

owing to the extent of physical impairment it is
physical impairments that are neurologically related best to deal with it in separate subchapters. Phys-
♦ spina bifida ♦ traumatic paraplegia and ical impairment is divided into two broad sec-
quadriplegia ♦ traumatic brain injury ♦ post- tions. The first section deals with physical impair-
poliomyelitis ♦ muscular dystrophy ♦ multiple ments that are neurologically related. Here you
sclerosis ♦ Friedreich’s ataxia ♦ needs and problems will find impairments such as epilepsy and spina
arising from physical impairment ♦ psychosocial bifida. The second section deals with physical
needs ♦ mobility ♦ loss of sensation and pressure impairments that relate to the skeleton and mus-
sores ♦ incontinence ♦ support to learners with cles. Burn lesions and amputations are, among
physical impairment ♦ collaboration others, included in this section. The last section
deals with autism and other pervasive develop-
mental disorders.
13A.1 INTRODUCTION According to Krüger (2002: 1) an overview of
You will notice that Chapter 13 is divided into five learners with physical impairment would include
subchapters, ranging from 13A to 13E. All five physical impairment as a result of the following:

259
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

• Neurological problems, e.g. epilepsy, cerebral learning differences”. Nevertheless we believe

palsy, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy that teachers are eager to extend their repetoire
• Skeletal and muscular impairment, e.g. ampu- of skills as much as possible.
tations, osteogenesis imperfecta, burn lesions

You can thus expect to find the following in the Discuss the advantages that a very
various subchapters of Chapter 13: basic knowledge about medical condi-
tions might hold for a teacher.
A basic knowledge about medical
Chapter 13A: physical impairments that are conditions provides a better under-
neurologically related standing of the impairment, thus
changing negative attitudes and stereo-
Chapter 13B: separate discussion on epilep-
typing of differences which are consid-
sy as a physical impairment that is neurologi- ered as barriers to learning. Once
cally related empowered with the knowledge, the
Chapter 13C: separate discussion on cere- next step of accommodation and sup-
bral palsy as a physical impairment that is port is much easier (according to Hen-
neurologically related ning & Mitchell (2002: 27–28)) and also
ACTIVITY
includes the sensitisation of other
Chapter 13D: physical impairments that
learners to diversity. Teachers are able
relate to the skeleton and muscles
to explain the physical impairment to
Chapter 13E: developmental disorders that other learners so that they can appreci-
are bioneurological in nature ate the “dos and don’ts” of the impair-
ment.
Furthermore, a teacher may be more
Chronically ill learners, i.e. those with health receptive to early warning signs instead
impairments, are not included in these subchap- of offending a learner by misinterpret-
ters on physical impairment. Physical impairment ing behaviour. For example, when a
affects skeletal, muscular and/or neurological sys- teacher notices that a learner exhibits a
“drunken gait” (falling and stumbling),
tems whereas health impairments are diseases,
he will not automatically assume that
infections or conditions that affect the life-main- the learner is showing off or simply
taining systems of the body (Culatta et al. 2003: clumsy. The possibility of muscular
210). dystrophy will also come to mind.
Although these chapters on physical impair-
ment rely heavily on medical terms, the ultimate
aim is to empower teachers to comprehend, iden-
tify and accommodate potential barriers to learn- 13A.2 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT
ing (that may be caused by the physical impair- Physical impairment may occur in various degrees
ment itself or by the environment) in order to of severity from barely perceptible to profound. It
realise the optimal learning potential of each and may be congenital (originating prior to birth) or
every learner. Donald et al. (2002: 23) explain that acquired through illness or an accident. It may
inclusive education “must ensure that the full vari- also be the result of a hereditary syndrome, or
ety of educational needs are optimally accommo- damage caused to the foetus before birth through
dated and included in a single education system”. disease or medication taken by the mother.
We are aware of the huge challenge that teachers General characteristics of learners who are
are confronted with, and Ferguson and Ralph physically impaired are that they experience prob-
(1996: 51) maintain that “it seems foolhardy to lems in the area of mobility and physical vitality.
believe that a single teacher could possess all the They may also experience problems with regard
skills to create rich and effective learning oppor- to their self-concept which are ascribed to the
tunities for all children regardless of their family, negative reactions that their bodies evoke from
socioeconomic, cultural, linguistic [sic], ability, or other people due to the conspicuousness of their

260
 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT 13 A

impairments. They may be intensely affected by da, one or more of the vertebrae of the vertebral
their “being different” from others. Affective and column is not completely formed. It is usually the
social problems may also be experienced as a posterior process (back part) which is lacking. Lit-
result of their inability to control their bodies as erally, spina bifida means “vertebra in two parts”.
they would wish to. At the opening the membrane may bulge to
In this chapter a few of the more common phys- form a sac containing cerebrospinal fluid and part
ical impairments resulting from neurologically of the spinal cord. The sac is usually not covered
related conditions (excluding epilepsy and cere- with skin. The degree of severity in spina bifida
bral palsy) will be selected and discussed briefly. varies from very mild to irreconcilable with life.
However there are many other physical impair- The opening may appear at any place on the
ments of sporadic incidence that will not be men- spinal column – from the head to the coccyx – but
tioned here. it usually occurs in the lower part of the spinal
column. The consequences of spina bifida depend
13A.2.1 Neurologically related physical on the place in the spinal column at which the
impairments opening appears and the organs that are affected.
Neurologically related physical impairments are Spina bifida manifests itself in one of three forms,
caused by damage to the nervous system – espe- namely spina bifida meningocele, spina bifida
cially the lower motor neuron (cf. Chapter 12). myelomeningocele and spina bifida occulta (Bat-
With some of the neurologically related physical shaw 1997: 529–549; Brett 1997: 477–490,
impairments, there is an inability to voluntarily 523–526, 889).
control muscular movements.
(a) Spina bifida meningocele
13A.2.1.1 Spina bifida Spina bifida meningocele is a less common form.
Spina bifida, also called spinal fissure, is a multi- The sac which forms consists only of cere-
factorial genetic abnormality. It is one of the most brospinal fluid and the membranes which cover
common abnormalities with which a baby may be the spinal cord. (It does not contain part of the
born. Spina bifida is a congenital deviation of the spinal cord.)
neural tube – the spinal cord with the spinal col-
umn which normally surrounds and protects it (b) Spina bifida myelomeningocele
(Culatta et al. 2003: 216). Spina bifida is a neuro- Spina bifida myelomeningocele occurs more often
logical abnormality which may permanently affect and is of a serious nature. In this case the sac also
many other systems of the body. With spina bifi- contains part of the spinal cord but the membrane

You are informed by the school principal that a learner with spina bifida myelomeningocele
will join your class shortly. The principal requests you to determine beforehand whether you
will be able to accommodate her and to report any potential barrier to learning that may
hamper her scholastic progress so that attention can be paid to it before she arrives. How
will you react to it?
Perhaps you will feel out of your depth upon hearing the news from your principal, par-
ACTIVITY

ticularly if you are not familiar with the medical term. First of all, you will have to determine
what this condition entails. You will find a description of spina bifida myelomeningocele in
section 13A.2.1.1(b). But that is not enough. Now you must acquaint yourself with the par-
ticular needs that arise from this condition. You will also find the problems that are associat-
ed with spina bifida on page 263. After you have determined these, you will have to evaluate
your physical environment, teaching methodology, other learners and yourself to identify
any possible barriers to learning that the new learner may experience in your class and in
the school. What do all these aspects entail? Think about it, because we will return later on
in the chapter to this question.

261
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

surrounding the sac may be complete or it may be boys. No bulge occurs at the opening in the spinal
broken or perforated. In this form of spina bifida, column. Strong membranes usually develop in
the spinal cord is vulnerable to injury, desiccation this area. The opening is only revealed by a dim-
and infection. ple or a tuft of hair in the area on the back – usu-
ally in the area of the coccyx. Such persons are
(c) Spina bifida occulta usually symptom free. Sometimes there is a meas-
Spina bifida occulta appears in 5 to 25 per cent of ure of urinary incontinence and some persons
the population. It affects twice as many girls as develop back problems years later.

A B
Skin
Vertebral promontory
Clump of hair
Skin

Spinal cord
Fibrous
Nerve mass

Vertebral Spinal cord

body

Membranes C Cerebrospinal fluid D

Cerebrospinal
fluid Membranes

Skin Skin

Spinal cord Spinal cord

A: Normal spine – lateral and cross-section views C: Meningocele – no nerves from the spinal cord are
B: Spina bifida occulta – fatty mass and hair may or displaced
may not be present D: Myelomeningocele – spinal cord and nerves are
disrupted and abnormal

Figure 13A.1 Vertebral column in spina bifida

Source: Kapp 1994: 422

An adolescent girl approaches you because a close relationship has been established
between the two of you. She entrusts you with her most personal secrets. She suffers from
spina bifida occulta, although it is not conspicuous, but she has already told you about the
hair – like a “ponytail” – that is growing on her lower back. You know for instance that is
ACTIVITY

why she always wears a T-shirt with her swimming costume. Today she asks your advice
because she considers removing the hair on her back in some or other way, because she
has become increasingly self-conscious about it. How will you advise her?
You will advise her that she must not remove the hair. Some instances of removing the
hair such as plucking it out can have far-reaching consequences. The hair forms part of the
abnormalities of the surrounding area of the vertebrae (which is close to the spinal cord) and
thus cannot be treated as ordinary hair that can be removed.

262
 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT 13 A

The opening in the spinal column and the sac adolescents constipation often occurs and to
which develops can usually be surgically corrected such a degree that an obstruction may occur.
shortly after birth, although foetal surgery is also
• Hydrocephalus (water on the brain) occurs in
possible. In spite of extensive medical treatment,
the majority of children with myelomeningo-
there is little hope for improvement. Deteriora-
cele. A small pump, called a shunt, is used in
tion is merely prevented. These children may
the treatment of hydrocephalus. A small tube
experience serious neurological problems which
with a one-way valve is implanted in the open-
may permanently affect other body systems. The
ing in the brain where the fluid collects. The
symptoms of spina bifida vary according to the
tube runs under the scalp, under the skin
position of the opening in the spinal column, the
alongside the neck and into the abdominal cav-
degree of bulging which occurs, and the neuro-
ity into which the excess fluid drains and is
logical damage. The following problems are com-
absorbed by the body. The tube must be
mon: replaced when it blocks, if inflammation de-
• Limited mobility occurs as a result of motor velops or if it moves out of position. A hard
loss and orthopaedic deviations. The extent of blow to the head may also cause problems.
the limitation depends on the location of the Vomiting, irritability and headaches are indica-
defect in the spinal cord. The higher the level of tions of a faulty pump.
the defect, the greater the muscle weakness • Intellectual impairment occurs in approxi-
will be. (Sensory and motor function below that mately 10 per cent of children with spina bifida
point are affected.) Flaccid paralysis, especially who do not have accompanying hydrocephalus.
of the lower limbs, occurs. Curvature of the In children with hydrocephalus the approxi-
spine, dislocation of the hips and contractures mately 25 per cent who are intellectually
(irreversible shortening of muscle fibres that impaired usually have had a complicating brain
causes decreased joint mobility) occur at the infection as a result of an infected shunt or pre-
hips, knees and ankles. Surgery is often neces- natal hydrocephalus. Although the majority of
sary, and usually physiotherapy and occupa- learners with spina bifida have normal intelli-
tional therapy. gence, significant impairments regarding their
• Sensory loss occurs, especially in the feet, the perceptual skills, attention, memory and organ-
buttocks and between the legs around the anus isational abilities may be evident, resulting in
and genitalia. The loss of sensation is more learning problems.
marked on the back of the legs than on the • Epileptic seizures tend to develop in approxi-
front. (The loss of motor and sensory function mately 15 per cent of children with spina bifida
is not always symmetrical, as one side may have myelomeningocele. This is usually successfully
better motor function or sensation than the controlled with antiepileptic medication (cf.
other.) The loss may be for superficial skin sen- Chapter 13B). If new seizures develop unex-
sation and for deep pressure on the area. Pres- pectedly, the possibility of a blocked shunt or a
sure sores may develop and such children may shunt infection should be investigated.
suffer from burns, for example from bath water
which is too hot and from the sun, because • Visual impairments in the form of strabismus
they do not feel the warning pain. (squint eyes) may be present.

• Incontinence of urine and stools almost always Learners with spina bifida can be included in gen-
occurs. The urine drips at short intervals day eral classrooms. Apart from their learning pro-
and night. Due to the loss of sensation such gramme, special attention must be paid to their
children do not realise that they are wet. Uri- social development because their self-image may
nary infections often occur. In younger children be poor. Brett (1997: 490–491) summarises the
the incontinence of stools causes problems problems of a teenager with spina bifida as being
only due to their inability to control it. In “obese, with deformed legs and trunk, totally

263
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

dependent and perhaps smelly” and emphasises receive (Batshaw 1997: 306). The level at which
the importance of their social adjustment and the injury to the spinal column occurs determines
development, in particular “during their second which muscles are affected – only the legs or both
decade”. the legs and the arms. The bladder and the mus-
cles of the rectum may also be affected. If the
damage is high up in the neck, the respiratory
We are now returning to the first activi-
muscles may be affected as well (Culatta et al.
ty of this chapter where the principal
2003: 219).
informed you about the learner with
spina bifida myelomeningocele joining There are various causes for traumatic paraple-
your class. By now you are familiar with gia and quadriplegia such as vehicle accidents,
the condition as well as the needs due falls from heights, sports injuries and shooting
to associated problems that the learner accidents.
may exhibit. Now we are briefly going Traumatic spinal column injuries cause far-
to look at the potential barriers to learn- reaching changes in the lives of such children.
ing that may hamper her scholastic Particular problems connected with traumatic
progress. (You will find more on learn- paraplegia and quadriplegia may include the fol-
ing support at the end of this chapter.)
lowing:
With all the information that you have
gathered so far, which potential barriers • Psychological aspects of the child. The morale
come to mind? of such children is the main problematic aspect.
ACTIVITY

If the following are not accommo- Prior to the accident these children were all
dated, they can become barriers to active and mobile. Now their personal goals
learning: must be lowered. They often show rebellious-
• Limited mobility – inaccessible ness and a lack of motivation to participate in
buildings, e.g. the classroom, cloak- rehabilitation programmes. They often mourn
room and school hall
their loss of body function (Kennedy et al. 2003:
• Appearance – negative attitudes of 41).
teacher and learners as well inappro-
priate communication, perhaps a • Pain. These children frequently experience pain
total lack of communication, from the and surgery is often undertaken. Some also
teacher’s side to inform the learners experience the so-called “after pain” in the
about their new classmate’s condi- form of painful spasms in a part of the body.
tion
• Mobility. Traumatic paraplegia and quadriple-
• Learning problems – stereotyping of
differences if the assumption is made gia cause a loss of mobility and these children
that she is intellectually impaired or have to make use of wheelchairs. They require
intellectually dull physiotherapy as well as occupational therapy
to assist mobility. With the help of therapy they
can often walk with callipers and crutches later
on. Propulsion in wheelchairs is often easier for
13A.2.1.2 Traumatic paraplegia and
them and more elegant. They are usually unmo-
quadriplegia
tivated to try to walk and offer little coopera-
Paraplegia is the inability to move and an absence tion.
of sensation in the lower limbs, while quadriple-
gia involves all four limbs. Injuries or damage to • Loss of sensation in the affected limbs. Pres-
the spinal column suppresses the transmission of sure sores and burns often occur.
impulses between the brain and the muscles. The • Incontinence. This is common. Reflexive emp-
suppression does not stop the brain from plan- tying of the bladder occurs when it contains a
ning the desired movements. The muscles are quantity of urine. Often catheters are used for
also ready and in contact with the “energy these children. Bladder infections as well as
source” and await the instructions they never kidney stones often occur.

264
 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT 13 A

13A.2.1.3 Traumatic brain injury are the result of direct external trauma to the
Traumatic brain injury is caused by severe trauma brain. Associated problems with traumatic brain
to the head that results in lasting physical and injury might include chronic fatigue, pain, epilep-
cognitive impairments. Closed head injuries com- sy, memory impairment, paralysis, poor balance
prise brain damage as a result of the brain boun- as well as emotional problems. Vision, speech and
cing against the skull due to rapid acceleration hearing problems may also occur (Culatta et al.
and deceleration in accidents. Open head injuries 2003: 217).

You are requested to write an article on recovery after brain damage in your school’s
newsletter. You are aware of at least one Grade 9 learner who has sustained brain damage
after a motor vehicle accident. He has recently returned to school. You are also expected to
educate the other learners so that they can understand and accommodate people who are
recovering from a traumatic brain injury. How will you write your article?
Perhaps your article can look like this:
Accidents happen so fast and, if you have ever been in an accident yourself, you will
know that your life can change completely in an instant. Some people escape with a
few light scratches, but others’ lives are altered irreversibly. Today we talk to learners
who have sustained head injuries and walked the long road to recovery, or who are per-
haps still walking that road. Although car and motorbike accidents are responsible for a
large percentage of head injuries, assaults, contact sport and freak accidents, among
others, also play a role. The extent of the recovery depends on the kind of injury. If the
brain itself has been injured, the site of the injury determines the problems encountered
afterwards. When you realise that the brain needs a period of about two years to recov-
er, you might find it easier to understand why the recovery process takes so long. Even
one’s personality can change, depending on the site of the injury, but never be too
quick to make judgements about personality changes, because the brain’s recovery
process can also affect behaviour. Aggression, irritability and tantrums are common in
ACTIVITY

people who have suffered a brain injury and are in the process of recovery.
The long path of recovery referred to above can, for instance, involve speech thera-
py if the speech has been affected, or if the person has to learn to speak all over again.
People say it is extremely frustrating when they recognise an object and even know
what it is used for, but cannot remember its name. Memory problems over a short or
long period are common. If one has to learn to walk again, or has other problems with
movement, physiotherapy and occupational therapy are most beneficial. It takes great
effort and determination to make a little progress each day. Someone once said that
she had to develop from baby to teenager in one year after a brain injury. Everything
that had previously been so easy and automatic was suddenly difficult – even putting
on mascara. A boy who was trapped under a tractor during a freak accident says that
for him it was most difficult to accept that his intellectual ability was no longer the
same as before the accident. Remember that not everyone who has a brain injury
experiences the same problems, if any. Some people’s hearing or eyesight is partially
or totally lost in the accident. Others have problems that are relatively similar to cere-
bral palsy, which has already been discussed. Epilepsy can also occur.
And for those of you who have suffered a brain injury, don’t worry unnecessarily
about what other people think about you. Be particularly careful not to think for other
people. When people are friendly, don’t imagine that they just feel sorry for you. Don’t
think that people are watching for you to make a mistake so that they can see how bad
your brain damage is. When people talk softly, never assume that they are discussing
you. It is quite natural to feel very self-conscious and afraid of being forgetful or clum-
sy. But if you can be open about it (naturally it takes time to reach this point), you will
be surprised to find that most people admire rather than criticise you.

265
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

And yes, you may recall times before the accident when everything was different.
You may grieve over what you have lost. This is all part of the recovery process. You
ACTIVITY

may also be angry or wonder why this should happen to you. Apart from the process
of physical recovery, these experiences take a high toll psychologically. However, as
you begin to make progress from day to day, later even you will look back on yourself
with admiration! (Krüger & Groenewald 2004b: 22–23)

13A.2.1.4 Post-poliomyelitis fibrous cells. It tends to run in families and is usu-

Poliomyelitis is an acute illness which results in ally transferred from mother to son. The cause of
physical impairment. It is a neurotropic viral infec- muscular dystrophy is unknown although
tion which damages the motor cells (the anterior research has recently begun to elucidate the eti-
horn cells – see Chapter 12) of the spinal cord and ologies. It cannot be cured. Duchenne muscular
the brain stem. Muscle contraction is impeded dystrophy, occurring only in boys and usually
and flaccid paralysis of the muscles follows. between the ages of three to six years, is the most
Where only swelling of the motor cells occurs, common type (Roberts 1995: 396).
recovery follows gradually within a few months. The disease progresses slowly and the initial
However, where the cells are damaged, there is signs may include an awkward swaying walking
no recovery. pattern as well as difficulty when climbing stairs
The muscles are affected in a great variety of (gross motor signs). Rising from a sitting position
ways. Different groups of cells which control dif- is difficult and the learner may hold on to some-
ferent muscles may be affected. It is often the thing for assistance. Eventually getting up after a
lower limbs and muscles of the trunk which are fall is also difficult (Culatta et al. 2003: 217).
affected. The paralysis may be symmetrical or Deformities of the back – scoliosis in 95 per cent
asymmetrical. It is a flaccid paralysis accompanied of cases (Roberts 1995: 396) – as well as a pot
by atrophy (wasting away) of the muscles. Defor- belly occur. By the age of ten, children may lose
mity occurs because the affected limb remains ambulation and depend on a wheelchair. Later on
small. Curvature of the spine often occurs because they may become bedridden.
the muscles are weak and there are problems with
contractures in the affected muscles. There is no 13A.2.1.6 Multiple sclerosis
loss of sensation in the affected muscles and con- Multiple sclerosis is another example of a pro-
sequently pain is often experienced. Pressure gressive illness which causes a neurologically
sores occur less often because the children can related physical disability. It occurs in the late
feel pressure and abrasions, and complain. The teens and early adulthood. The cause is unknown.
blood supply is, however, impeded and the affec- Multiple sclerosis is the progressive hardening
ted muscles are cold. These children often have to and damaging of the protective sheath of the
make use of orthopaedic aids such as callipers nerve fibres. The myelin sheath around the nerve
and wheelchairs for mobility. The intellect and is destroyed. The symptoms of the illness are
excretory organs remain unaffected. divergent and the course of the illness is unpre-
It was once a major disease affecting learners, dictable. Intelligence is unaffected, but progres-
but preventive medical treatment in the form of sive muscle weakness, spasticity, speech disor-
vaccines has made it rare (Culatta et al. 2003: ders and visual disturbances occur.
219).

13A.2.1.5 Muscular dystrophy Why will the speech of a learner with

ACTIVITY

multiple sclerosis also become affec-

Muscular dystrophy – a group of hereditary dis- ted?
eases – is a neuromuscular disease causing the The muscles controlling the articula-
progressive weakening of the muscles. More and tion of sounds weaken progressively.
more of the muscle tissue is replaced by fat and

266
 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT 13 A

13A.2.1.7 Friedreich’s ataxia aids to a great extent. Such aids are often clumsy
Friedreich’s ataxia is another well-known neuro- and a bother to put on and take off. Orthopaedic
logically related physical impairment. It is a gene- aids can include, for example, splints to prevent
tic illness where there is progressive degenera- feet from dropping when they are lifted to move
tion of the nerves of the limbs and trunk. There is forward or leg braces to stabilise joints, as well as
a hardening of parts of the spinal cord. With the specially designed shoes. Because children grow
progress of the illness, deviations of the skeleton so fast, the aids may become too small and cause
often also occur – especially the spinal column pain. The adjustments or making of new aids
and the feet. The illness becomes obvious during often takes time and then the learners are left
the first or second decade of the person’s life. The without the aid for that period of time, which
child’s balance is poor and he often falls, and implies either immobility or using a wheelchair.
walks with an unsteady gait. Clumsiness and The learners are thus at times or even perma-
trembling occur and can be seen in the child’s nently dependent on wheelchairs for mobility.
writing. Feeding is a problem and speech The wheelchairs also need care and problems with
becomes increasingly indistinct. the wheels, such as a flat tyre, often occur. It is
also not always possible to move everywhere with
a wheelchair. Some buildings have toilet facilities
13A.3 NEEDS ARISING FROM PHYSICAL
which make no provision for the entry of wheel-
IMPAIRMENT
chairs. Electric wheelchairs require even more
Physical impairment is very divergent by nature space than ordinary ones to move around in.
and it is not always possible to generalise. In this
chapter only a few of the more general needs and 13A.3.3 Loss of sensation and pressure
problems will be noted. The needs discussed are sores
not necessarily manifested by all learners with
physical impairment. With some physical impairment there is a loss of
sensation, especially with regard to the lower
limbs and the parts between the legs. As a result
13A.3.1 Psychosocial needs of the loss of sensation, learners may injure their
Learners with physical impairment often have a lower limbs. For instance, the learner may drag
poor self-image which results in the formation of his foot on the ground while in the wheelchair
a negative self-concept. They experience being without feeling it. Poorly fitting callipers or shoes
different from other people and they feel inferior. which pinch may cause pressure sores. The pres-
Negative thoughts may lead to poor intrinsic sure sores heal slowly because the learners who
motivation, which also affects the learners’ require walking aids usually have poor blood cir-
scholastic progress. culation. Pressure sores also occur when the
Learners with physical impairment may also learners sit for too long in one position and the
experience that other people consider them dif- blood circulation is impeded in the particular
ferent and conspicuous. This causes a distance area.
between these learners and others. Consequently, Learners who have no sensation loss may also
learners with a physical impairment may experi- develop pressure sores. The difference, however,
ence socialising problems. is that they can feel the pressure points and chaf-
ing and complain as pressure sores are very
13A.3.2 Mobility painful.
Learners with physical impairment generally expe-
rience problems with mobility. Access to build- 13A.3.4 Incontinence
ings and particular areas may cause problems. Some learners who are physically impaired suffer
Where no special provision is made, certain build- from incontinence, which has serious implications
ings and areas remain inaccessible to them. for them. It is often found that the learner has to
In order to move they have to use orthopaedic wear a diaper even though he is already a teen-

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

ager. This may contribute to the formation of a ers with physical impairment are often absent
negative self-concept. Often the learners have no from school for long periods because of surgery
sensation between the legs (in the area of the gen- or other medical treatment, which disrupts their
italia) and do not feel it when they are wet. There learning programme.
is also adaptation to smells: the learners cannot
smell when they urinate or defecate – they can
13A.4 SUPPORT TO LEARNERS WITH
smell something for a few moments and then they
PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENTS
lose the smell – but it is unfortunately not lost for
other people. Incontinence has serious psychoso- Support to learners with physical impairments
cial implications for the learners. Because they varies according to the specific nature of the
may remain wet for long periods without feeling it impairment.
and without putting on dry clothes, the skin can
become irritated. The urine may burn the skin and 13A.4.1 Psychosocial support
a rash and sores may develop which are difficult to
heal because of the continual leakage of urine The formation of a positive but realistic self-con-
which further damages the skin. cept is of great importance to these learners and
they need active support. It is necessary to help
such a learner to form a realistic image of his own
13A.3.5 Other implications body and its composition so that he will have an
As a result of postural problems or impairment of understanding of the possibilities of his body and
the upper limbs, they may experience writing its limitations. The learner should form a realistic
problems. Some of these learners tire easily. Prob- image of himself as a person with an impairment,
lems may arise in accommodating learners with but also as a person of worth and one with poten-
their particular orthopaedic aids in a room. Learn- tial i.e. a person with abilities.

How will you go about establishing someone’s value for himself in the class context?
(Bear in mind that inclusive education requires that all the learners should be equally
accommodated, which is not always possible, but the process of including the learner/s
with physical impairment may not be at the expense of other learners. Therefore, you must
strive to work as inclusively as possible.)
The next activity is merely an example of what can be done. It can help to establish
someone’s value for himself. It will not take up much teaching time, but will need a little
preparation on your part.
• Cut a number of sheets of paper in half.
• Take the class register and write each learner’s name on a sheet of paper.
ACTIVITY

• Before starting the lesson or at the end, hand out the papers in class with the following
instruction: Write something positive about the person whose name appears at the top
of the paper. (There will always be clowns in class, or learners who will not cooperate.
Just note the culprits’ names.)
• Collect the papers (maybe they will only be handed out again in another period).
• Read the positive characteristics, taking note of them, because this will also help you
get to know your own learners better.
• If things do not go according to plan, you can do one of three things:
– those learners who played the fool or would not cooperate should not get their own
papers back (but explain why)
– if the remark on the paper is unacceptable, you can write something positive about
that learner yourself
– you can talk to the learners individually, pointing out their positive characteristics.

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 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT 13 A

It is actually important that learners are not left out when the papers are handed out (except
for the clowns). In every class there are usually one or more “invisible” learners (“insignifi-
ACTIVITY

cant” people) apart from those with physical impairment. They simply disappear in a group
and no one really notices them. If you overlook them, it will only reinforce their lack of self-
esteem. You will know best how to deal with the situation. And even though you may never
be aware of it, one positive remark can mean the world to somebody (Krüger & Groenewald
2004a: 11).

These learners should be actively assisted regard- example, a frame around the table and the provi-
ing socialisation should the need arise, and spe- sion of bags on the sides of the table. Care should
cial opportunities should be arranged to this end. be taken to see that learners who cannot sit firm-
Correct behaviour towards others sometimes ly are strapped securely into their wheelchairs.
needs to be taught. Role-play is sometimes of Also read section 13C.6 in Chapter 13C for more
great value in this regard. These learners should information on learners in wheelchairs.
also be taught consideration for others. Learners with callipers need room to move
because they are often clumsy and bump against
doors and walls. The learners often have to be
13A.4.2 Improvement of mobility helped to sit or to stand. The learner’s chair may,
Mobility should be improved as far as possible as for instance, have to be held firmly for him. Furni-
it contributes to the learner’s independence. The ture should be so arranged that it is as easy as
learner should, as far as possible, act independ- possible for the learner to move.
ently and move on his own. Wheelchairs need Learners with callipers and back braces often
room to manoeuvre – this is a factor, especially need help with putting them on and taking them
inside a building. The furniture should accommo- off. This takes time. Note should be taken of
date the learner so that the wheelchair fits under unequally worn and broken shoes, and should be
the table and the learner is in the correct position reported to the parents. The learners walk slowly
to sit and work at the table. The falling of books and often fall, and care should be taken that the
and writing materials should be limited by, for floors are not slippery.

How will you educate your learners to treat people in wheelchairs?

First, we can treat them just as we treat anyone else. Because people in wheelchairs are
not at the same eye level as others when they walk or stand, people tend to ignore them by
looking over their heads. Sometimes we talk too loudly, as if they have a hearing problem.
Even worse is when people talk for them in their presence as if they can’t voice their own
opinion. So, try to talk in an ordinary way directly to the person, just as you would with any-
one else (Krüger & Groenewald 2004b: 11). Offer your assistance. Pick up things that have
ACTIVITY

fallen to the ground. You can even push the wheelchair provided that you know how to do
it. The person in the wheelchair will inform you, for example, when to tilt the wheelchair or
turn the wheelchair backwards when going down a steep incline with your back in the direc-
tion you plan to go, looking backwards occasionally to avoid collisions. Remember that a
motorised wheelchair is a necessary support and not a toy (Smith et al. 2001: 285). If you
have the physical strength, you can also assist the person to change position from time to
time if he is unable to move himself or needs assistance. Be careful not to hurt your back.
Did you know that we are constantly changing our positions, even when we are asleep? It is
to ensure good blood circulation, otherwise sores, called pressure sores, will occur. In order
to prevent pressure sores, people in wheelchairs constantly have to – say every half-hour –
change their position.

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13A.4.3 Prevention of pressure sores have a stoma from which the urinary tract dispels
and injuries urine into a bag. The bag also requires special care
Particular attention should be paid to the preven- as it may leak or smell offensively.
tion of pressure sores. Continual attention should Note should also be regularly taken of the peri-
be given to the fitting of shoes and orthopaedic neum (the area between the legs) to ensure that
aids, and any red pressure points must be report- the skin is not red and irritated. The learners are
ed. Note should especially be taken of shoes and taught to check this themselves with the use of a
aids which have become too small. Particular mirror.
attention should also be given to learners who The learners should also learn to pick up the
experience sensation loss. non-verbal communication of others so that they
To improve circulation and to lessen pressure, know when their body odours are offensive. The
especially for learners who sit most of the time, teachers should also, in a kind way, let the learn-
they should be encouraged to rise every half-hour. er know that it is time he attended to himself
Those who can stand should pull themselves up again.
from their seats. Learners in wheelchairs can raise When the learners’ urine has a sharp smell they
themselves in their wheelchairs by pushing with should be referred to a doctor because this could
their arms on the supports. The learners who can- be an indication of infection.
not raise themselves must be helped to do so. Particular attention should be paid to the
Opportunities should be given for learners to hygiene of the learners in order to improve their
change their positions. socialisation. The other learners in the class
Pressure points that are red should be treated should also be educated to give particular support
preventatively and the areas may be rubbed to to these learners.
improve circulation. Red pressure points should
be reported to the parents. 13A.4.5 Improving the teaching
situation
13A.4.4 Care of learners with Read section 13C.7 in Chapter 13C to find out
incontinence about learning support. Bear in mind that each
particular physical impairment and even every
Learners with incontinence need particular atten-
learner with that particular impairment may
tion and guidance and should be taught to remain
require adjustments to the general support sug-
as dry as possible. These learners should be
gested in Chapter 13C.
checked every two hours. It may have to be done
at shorter intervals if they pass urine often.
The learners should not have to wear diapers 13A.5 COLLABORATION
but special underpants/panties that button on the It was noted at the beginning of the chapter that
sides and that are provided with extra layers of one teacher can hardly possess all the skills
the same or more absorbent material between the required for inclusive education. Welch and
legs. An extra layer of disposable, absorbent Brownell (2002: 133) consider collaboration
material may be placed inside. If they are attrac- between all the partners in education as a solu-
tively made, they can contribute to the child’s tion to this problem but mention that teachers
feeling of self-worth. have to be trained to deal with all the “complexi-
There are different ways in which learners’ blad- ties and procedures of collaboration”. Beliefs
ders may be emptied of excess urine, for example about ourselves and others can pose barriers to
the credo method where external pressure is collaboration. If we view ourselves in one particu-
applied to the bladder or the learners are lar narrow and specialised role, for example as a
catheterised every four hours. The learners should secondary school mathematics teacher, we may
be taught from early on to do this themselves. The resist collaboration. We can hold negative views
method to be followed is the one recommended on other teachers and parents which may also
by the learner’s urologist or doctor. Some learners interfere with our ability to collaborate. Some-

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 PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT 13 A

times we even isolate ourselves of our colleagues, ted to prevent barriers to learning. Teachers
depriving ourselves of opportunities to enrich our should collaborate in order to provide the optimal
teaching skills. We can assess our own collabora- learning environment.
tion skills e.g. with the school-based support
team or the district-based support team, by ask- Questions
ing the following questions:
1. One of your learners had a brain tumour that
• How do we operate in groups?
was surgically removed. After the operation his
• Are we open-minded about other people’s per-
parents complain to you about their child’s
spectives?
behaviour. The child is difficult. He is irritated
• Do we really try to understand other people’s with everybody, moody and aggressive. How
concerns and views without being critical? will you explain the child’s behaviour to the
• Do we actively listen to other people? parents?
• Do we express our ideas in language that is eas- 2. What types of physical impairment can be pre-
ily understood by our partners-in-teaching? vented? How can they be prevented?
• Are we able to compromise in problem-solving
situations so that everyone can win? (Bondy &
Brownell 1997: 113–114) Bibliography
Batshaw, M.L. (Ed.). 1997. Children with disabilities, 4th
Schnorr et al (2000: 13) have learned many “les- ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
sons” regarding the inclusion of secondary school Bondy, E. & Brownell, M.T. 1997. Overcoming barriers to
collaboration among partners-in-teaching. Intervention in
learners, one of which is that “general and special
School and Clinic 33(2): 112–115.
educators have complementary areas of expertise
Brett, E.M. (Ed.). 1997. Paediatric neurology, 3rd ed. New
and that taking advantage of this expertise can York: Churchill Livingstone.
assist each teacher in reaching their goals”. Culatta, R.A., Tompkins, J.R. & Werts, M.G. 2003. Funda-
mentals of special education – what every teacher needs
to know, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
How can we maintain learners as the
Donald, D., Lazarus S. & Lolwana, P. 2002. Educational
focus of our collaborative efforts?
psychology in social context, 2nd ed. Cape Town: Oxford
(Sometimes collaboration can serve as University Press.
an “ego trip” for the person advising Ferguson, D.L. & Ralph, G.R. 1996. The changing role of
others, in which case the learner is not special educators: a development waiting for a trend.
the focus of the collaborative effort Contemporary Education 68(1): 49–51.
anymore.) Henning, M.B. & Mitchell, L.C. 2002. Preparing for inclu-
ACTIVITY

To keep learners at the top of the list, sion. Child Study Journal 32(1): 19–29.
all partners must ask themselves how Kapp, J.A. (Ed.). 1994. Children with problems: an
they can help learners to orthopedagogical perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
• be successful in their learning Kennedy, P., Duff, J., Evans, M. & Beedie, A. 2003. Cop-
• become productive and happy peo- ing effectiveness training reduces depression and anxiety
ple following traumatic spinal cord injuries. British Journal of
Clinical Psychology 42(1): 41–52.
• develop the knowledge, skills and
Krüger, D. & Groenewald, S. 2004a. A practical guide for
attitudes of responsible citizens educators to accommodate diversities in inclusive educa-
• achieve the goals they value (Bondy tion – secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE
& Brownell 1997: 114). Publishers.
Krüger, D & Groenewald, S. 2004b. A practical guide for
learners to accommodate diversities in inclusive education
– secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE Pub-
13A.6 CONCLUSION lishers.
Learners with physical impairments have unique Krüger, D. 2002. Problems to learn. Workshop for Galaxy
needs and problems, which differ according to Presentations. Pretoria: University of South Africa, April.
the particular nature of the physical impairment. Roberts, M.C. (Ed.). 1995. Handbook of pediatric psycho-
logy, 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press.
These needs and problems must be accommoda-

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Schnorr, R.F., Black, J.W. & Davern, L. 2000. Restructur- Welch, M. & Brownell, K. 2002. Are professionals ready
ing high schools to include all students: lessons learned. for educational partnerships? The evaluation of a techno-
The High School Magazine 7(7): 10–15. logy-enhanced course to prepare educators for collabora-
Smith, T.E.C., Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R. & Dowdy, C.A. tion. Teacher Education and Special Education 25(2):
2001. Teaching students with special needs in inclusive 133–144.
settings, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

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 EPILEPSY
13 B

Written by A T T I E K A P P
Revised by D E I R D R É K R Ü G E R

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdefine epilepsy
Πexplain the nature of epilepsy
Πdiscuss the two broad groupings of epilepsy
Πknow what unclassified epileptic seizures are
Œ explain a person’s susceptibility or inclination to epilepsy
Πpoint out the causes of epilepsy
Πidentify epilepsy
Πindicate how epilepsy affects learning
Πprovide learning support to learners with epilepsy.

Key terms
epilepsy ♦ epileptic seizures ♦ seizure threshold ♦ electroencephalograms (EEGs) ♦ general seizure ♦ partial
seizure ♦ primary and secondary epilepsy ♦ central nervous system ♦ neuron ♦ centrencephalic structures ♦ focal
epilepsy ♦ non-convulsive general seizures ♦ absence ♦ petit mal seizure ♦ convulsive general seizures ♦ myoclonic
spasms ♦ tonic convulsions ♦ clonic convulsions ♦ tonic-clonic convulsive seizures ♦ status epilepticus ♦ partial
seizures with simple symptoms ♦ epileptic aura ♦ partial seizures with complex symptoms ♦ partial seizures that
become secondary generalised seizures ♦ seizure pattern ♦ epilepsy and learning ♦ subclinical seizures ♦
medication ♦ epilepsy and learning support

13B.1 EPILEPSY: A DEFINITION

Epilepsy is a sudden disturbance of or change in ment, sensation, behaviour and perception may
brain function as a result of unusual electrical take place.
activity in the brain cells. Its characteristics • Seizures can occur repeatedly, but the intervals
include the following: between them may vary from minutes to years
• It is temporary, i.e. after the disturbance has (Appleton et al. 1992: 1).
passed completely, the person functions in
the same way as before the seizure occurred. Physical impairments that are neurologically related
• A lowering or loss of consciousness usually, indicate impairments resulting from the malfunc-
but not always, occurs. Disturbances in move- tion of some part of the central nervous system.

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A seizure is an “attack” of epilepsy. One mani- Bear in mind that the very nature of epilepsy
festation of epilepsy is a convulsion, which is implies a physical condition and it cannot be
characterised by extensive involuntary muscular described without using terminology from the
contractions mostly occurring rhythmically (clonic medical field. This does not, however, imply a
contractions). In contrast there are some seizures medical deficit perspective. Teachers will, for
that do not involve convulsions, e.g. the absence instance, not be able to identify epilepsy without
(petit mal), which will be explained later. a basic knowledge of the phenomenon, nor will
they be able to include a learner with epilepsy suc-
Do we say that a person was attacked cessfully in their classes if they are unfamiliar with
by epilepsy? Or had an epilepsy attack? the condition. We agree with Simpson and Garri-
ACTIVITY

No, we always refer to a seizure, i.e. son (1995: 252) when they promote moral percep-
the person had an epileptic seizure. tion in education that boils down to the “capacity
People suffer from heart attacks, but to comprehend the unique needs and aspirations
they have epileptic seizures (Krüger et of individual persons and the best possibilities of
al. 2002: 3). equally unique social contexts”. This chapter aims
to highlight the needs of the learner with epilepsy
and to broaden the skills of the teacher to accom-
13B.2 THE NATURE OF EPILEPSY modate and appreciate the unique abilities of the
According to the definition above, epilepsy is a learner (Oswald et al. 2000: 315).
condition caused by sudden brain dysrhythmia.
The neurons or brain cells may be so excessively 13B.3 TWO BROAD GROUPINGS OF
excited because of various factors such as irrita- EPILEPSY
tion through brain lesions, high fever, toxins and
external stimuli that epileptic seizures may fol- One should not think of “epilepsy” as a single type
low. In fact, any living brain may be brought to of illness, but rather as a group of disturbances
the point of epileptic seizure, depending on the called “the epilepsies”. The disturbance of brain
intensity of the stimulus and the natural resist- functions may occur in various anatomical areas
ance of the person’s brain. In some children exter- of the brain; it is caused by various factors, and if
nal stimuli such as a flickering light, for example electroencephalograms (EEGs) of the different
when driving through a lane of trees with the sun seizures were to be done, the EEG would be dif-
shining from the side, or a poorly functioning ferent for each type. There are different systems
television set, may cause a seizure. Physical indis- of classification for epilepsy, but the one below is
positions such as teething, fever or fatigue, may a simplified form of that of the International
precipitate seizures in children, as may emotional League against Epilepsy (Appleton et al. 1992:
stress (Batshaw 1997: 555; Brett 1997: 375). 4–5; Bennett 1992: 20; Batshaw 1997: 555).
One can discern a continuum (distribution) In identifying the different forms of epilepsy
among people who have epileptic seizures; two matters are important, namely
experts speak of the seizure threshold of the • the nature of the seizure
brain. One person’s seizure threshold may be • the underlying cause of the seizure.
higher than another’s and he will be able to offer
greater resistance to circumstances precipitating One speaks of a general seizure if the whole brain
epileptic seizures. The typical person with epilep- is involved. In a partial seizure only a specific area
sy obviously has a low seizure threshold. of the brain is involved, i.e. the specific spot
where the epileptic focus is situated, which is
then called focal epilepsy. Hence there are two
ACTIVITY

Is it possible that any person at any broad groupings of epilepsy – general seizures
stage of his life may develop epilepsy? and partial seizures.
The answer is an unequivocal “yes”. An aetiological classification of the epilepsies is
based on the causes of seizures. In this regard a

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 EPILEPSY 13 B

distinction is made between primary and secondary The origin of general seizures is extraordinary
epilepsy. In primary epilepsy there is no evident electrical discharges in the centrencephalic struc-
cause, i.e. the cause is unknown. The condition is tures situated in the middle of the brain. They
also known as idiopathic (Greek: a condition include the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia
unique to the individual), cryptogenic (Greek: con- and reticular formation. These structures have
cealed, hidden) or essential epilepsy. Heredity may direct associative neural connections with all
play a role here. other parts of the central nervous system. The
In the case of secondary epilepsy the cause can whole brain is therefore involved in general
be identified. It is usually the result of brain dam- seizures.
age, i.e. an injury to the brain, though the cause of Partial seizures are, as mentioned, of focal ori-
the injury may not always be known. gin. They may extend and become generalised
General epilepsy may be primary or secondary, seizures, which are then called secondary general
but partial or focal epilepsy can only be secondary or generalised seizures. This occurs when partial
(i.e. the cause is known, namely a focal lesion in seizures spread to the rest of the central nervous
the brain). system.

From the above explanation it is clear that epilepsy involves an abnormal functioning of the
various structures of the brain. Are you aware of the myths that surround epilepsy? How do
you think these affect the person who has these seizures? What barrier to learning (BtL),
according to the Education White Paper 6, applies particularly to this instance?
ACTIVITY

People are still very ignorant about epilepsy and in some instances word still goes round
that such people are bewitched or mad. Some people think that people with epilepsy are
dangerous and strong. One of the most common myths is that people with epilepsy are
intellectually impaired, but nothing could be further from the truth.
Apart from dealing with the epilepsy, the person also has to deal with the unfair precon-
ceived ideas of uninformed people. Carrying this double burden may contribute to the mar-
ginalisation of the person, and it is of paramount importance that the teacher eradicates
these perceptions. The barrier to learning will be “stereotyping of differences”.

13B.3.1 General seizures Here the disturbance of consciousness is more

(centrencephalic seizures) complex. The following are distinguished:
13B.3.1.1 Non-convulsive general seizures clonic movements (slight, non-jerky move-
ments); tonic absences (increased muscular ten-
Convulsions are absent in these seizures. Two
sion); atonic absences (reduced muscular ten-
groups are distinguished as follows:
sion); absences with automatisms (person auto-
• Seizures where only fluctuations in conscious- matically continues an action, e.g. cycling);
ness occur. These can again be subdivided into absences with autonomic symptoms (e.g.
the typical absence or petit mal, where the per- sphincter muscles relax, and bladder and bow-
son is immobile and/or simply stares only for a els are voided).
few moments; atypical absence (the same
symptoms as in typical absence, “with a slight Important: Absences may also occur in people
excess of motor accompaniment such as orofa- who have other types of seizures, but the two
cial clonic twitching” (Niedermeyer 1990: 58)); types do not occur simultaneously.
absence status or petit mal status (protracted
trancelike condition, or consciousness shows 13B.3.1.2 Convulsive general seizures
more or less continuous fluctuation).
These are seizures where convulsive spasms of
• Seizures where the fluctuation of conscious- the body occur. The following can be distin-
ness is accompanied by other phenomena. guished:

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• Seizures with myoclonic spasms (one or more short, it is dangerous and medical assistance
isolated but massive spasms involving virtually should be sought immediately (Batshaw 1997:
the entire muscular system) 571). This condition is known as status epilepticus.
• Seizures with tonic convulsions (of centren- The seizure manifestations create “a fixed or last-
cephalic origin – stiff, tense posture) ing epileptic condition” (Niedermeyer 1990: 193).
• Seizures with clonic convulsions (of centren-
cephalic origin – the same symptoms as in the 13B.3.2 Partial seizures
phase of tonic-clonic convulsive seizures) Partial seizures are always the result of injury to
• Tonic-clonic convulsive seizures of centren- or a deviation in the functioning of a specific area
cephalic origin. Here we find the typical grand of the brain, also known as a focal lesion or injury.
mal pattern (previously known as “falling sick- The following types can be distinguished:
ness”). The seizure begins suddenly, without
warning or premonitory symptoms. The 13B.3.2.1 Partial seizures that do not
seizures are violent and there is immediate loss become secondary generalised
of consciousness. seizures
(a) Partial seizures with simple symptoms
Three phases can be identified in tonic-clonic con- Symptoms are observed on the side of the body
vulsive seizures, according to Wilkinson (1993: opposite to the side of the brain where the injury
18), Batshaw (1997: 556), Brett (1997: 352) and is localised, for example:
Krüger et al. (2001: 60):
• Focal motor symptoms. These are the clonic
1. Tonic phase. The trunk stiffens, wrists are con- movements of a single group of muscles, and
tracted, breathing stops, air is exhaled from the person is fully conscious.
the lungs, eyes are half-open while the eyelids
and jaws are stiff. Groaning or grunting sounds • Jacksonian seizures. The symptoms are the
may be made or an “epileptic scream” may same as for focal motor seizures, except that
occur while air is exhaled from the lungs. the jerky movements spread to adjacent muscle
groups. The person may lose consciousness if a
2. Clonic phase. The clonic phase directly follows large section of the body is involved in the
the tonic phase. It begins with violent, rapid “march” or if the seizure spreads to the other
spasms and ends in irregular, great spasmodic side of the body.
jerks. It is sometimes accompanied by loss of
sphincter control. Respiration is resumed • Versive or adversive seizures. If the focus is sit-
slowly and foam may appear at the mouth. The uated far to the front of the brain, the person
person sometimes tends to bite his tongue and may lose consciousness. The external symp-
the inside of his mouth during a seizure, con- toms are that the eyes and head turn towards
sequently the foam may be bloody. one side. According to Brett (1997: 367, 370)
similarities can be found between this kind of
3. Coma. The clonic phase is followed by deep seizure and postural seizures.
unconsciousness or coma. The muscles relax
gradually, the limbs relax and the person • Postural seizures. The learner assumes a typical
sometimes goes into an ordinary form of deep half-seated position with one arm raised and
sleep. the head and eyes turned in the direction of the
raised arm. If the seizure spreads in the brain,
Seizure patterns differ from person to person. clonic movements of the arm and leg, and
The duration of each phase and the after-effects, sometimes the facial muscles as well, occur on
such as headaches, listlessness and so on, may the same side of the body.
also differ from person to person. The whole • Seizures with somatic inhibition. A temporary
seizure usually lasts no longer than two or three kind of apraxia (inability to move muscles)
minutes. If the period between seizures is very occurs for the duration of the seizure.

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 EPILEPSY 13 B

• Seizures with speech inhibition or aphasic • Sensory seizures. These are related to the brain
seizures. These involve temporary impediment areas controlling somatic, aural, visual, olfacto-
of speech or use of language. Aphasia indicates ry and gustatory sensations. During sensory
the loss of or disturbance in the ability to seizures the person often experiences these
understand spoken language (receptive apha- sensations as the initial symptom of a full
sia) or to voice thoughts by means of spoken epileptic seizure. The condition may occur in
language (expressive aphasia) (Krüger et al. isolation and is sometimes called the epileptic
2001: 251). aura. Autonomous symptoms such as nausea,
palpitations, changes in blood pressure and cir-
• Seizures with vocalisation. Vocalisation alone
culation, increase or decrease of body tempera-
occurs infrequently and is usually the initial
ture, deviations in glandular functioning, skin
sign of an oncoming full convulsive seizure. A
reactions and, sometimes, sexual stimulation,
sound – usually “aaah” – is uttered evenly or
may also occur as sensory seizures (Wyllie
quaveringly.
1993: 372–375).

During a physical education period, one of the learners squats down, lifts her arm pointing
to the sky and also looks in that direction. You attend to her and are also looking towards
the sky because you think at first that she is trying to show you something. When you look
ACTIVITY

back at the learner, you realise that her face has twitching movements. What has happened
and what should you do?
The learner is having a postural seizure. You will stay with her until the seizure stops and
observe her closely afterwards for any after-effects. You will then report the seizure to her
parents and school authorities. She will most probably be able to continue with her school
activities.

(b) Partial seizures with complex symptoms • Disturbances of emotions

This type of seizure is caused by lesions in the • Psychosensory symptoms (e.g. epileptic halluci-
area of the brain around the temporal lobe. In this nations)
area, and particularly in the deeper areas, there • Psychomotor symptoms (this kind of symptom
are complex anatomical structures, hence the is associated primarily with epilepsy caused by
complexity of these seizure patterns. Distur- injury or damage to the temporal lobe). The
bances of consciousness often occur. During these best known symptoms are automatisms, i.e.
seizures the following disturbances may occur: automatic movements, as well as characteristic
• Fluctuations of consciousness actions such as chewing and swallowing move-
• Disturbances of memory ments, self-inspection of the body and irrele-
• Disturbances of thought vant speech often occur.

During an examination session, just before you hand out the examination papers, one of the
learners jumps up and starts to walk aimlessly around in the class while uttering funny
sounds. One of the girls tries to calm him down and direct him to his seat, but he keeps on
ACTIVITY

walking.
• What are you witnessing?
• What would you say brought on this behaviour?
• Will you let this learner write the examination paper?
• How will you deal with the rest of the class?
• Which barriers to learning (BtL), according to the Education White Paper 6, will apply if
the learner is not accommodated?

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You are witnessing a partial seizure with complex symptoms and, in particular, psychomo-
tor symptoms which include automatic movements (walking) with one of the characteristic
actions, namely irrelevant speech. (BtL: “stereotyping of differences” if the teacher assumes
that the learner is merely displaying awkward behaviour to avoid writing the examination
paper.) His seizure was most likely brought on by the tension of the examination, although
there may also be other reasons. Perhaps he forgot to take his medication. This learner
ACTIVITY

should be examined on another (seizure-free) day. (BtL: “an inflexible curriculum” if the
learner has to write the examination after his seizure.) Before the rest of the class starts with
the examination, the event should be discussed and his behaviour explained on a level that
the learners can comprehend. (BtL: “inappropriate communication” if the teacher does not
communicate the event to the learners to address the consternation the learner’s behaviour
has caused.) The teacher must see to it that all the learners are calm before handing out the
papers and most probably the examination session will be extended to allow for lost time.
(BtL: “inadequately trained educator” if the teacher has no knowledge of epilepsy.)

13B.3.2.2 Partial seizures that become that genetic factors play a role. This means that
secondary generalised seizures epilepsy may also be linked to an inherited dispo-
Any of the above partial seizures may develop into sition. Such an increased tendency towards epilep-
generalised seizures; they are then called second- sy may be induced by a weakened natural ability of
ary generalised seizures. They follow the spread- the brain cells to successfully control electrical dis-
ing of the epileptic process from a confined brain charges. Epilepsy can thus be linked to a weak-
area to the central area of the brain (the centren- ened convulsive or seizure threshold which to all
cephalic areas) and are grand mal seizures which appearances is determined by heredity.
follow the full clonic-tonic seizure sequence.
13B.5 FACTORS THAT MAY CAUSE
13B.3.3 Unclassified epileptic seizures EPILEPSY
The international committee that compiled the It appears as if the possibility for the development
classification of epilepsy did not describe this cat- of epileptogenic injuries (injuries that “generate”
egory of epileptic seizures in detail. The incidence epilepsy) exists in all types of injury or damage to
of epileptic seizures in babies that do not yet fol- brain tissue. Different factors may contribute to
low a fixed seizure pattern may, for example, be brain damage and the resultant development of
regarded as “unclassified”. Researchers have epileptogenic injury. These factors include meta-
found that, in some types of seizure, epileptic dis- bolic disturbances, blood vessel abnormalities,
charges take place fairly low down in the central cerebral bleeding, biochemical disturbances,
nervous system. The resultant symptoms are char- blood vessel abnormalities, toxaemia, lack of oxy-
acteristic of the disruption in the connection gen to the brain, cerebral infections, brain
between the lower and higher centres of the cen- tumours, head injuries, etc. (Batshaw 1997: 555).
tral nervous system. Yet the seizures (according Although brain injuries of some type or other can,
to the symptoms) do not fit in with the previously in the majority of cases, indicate the cause of
mentioned types of seizure and they are included epilepsy, there are also cases where no specific
under the term “unclassified” seizures. cause or causes are evident, which indicates the
possibility of a genetic factor (Hauser & Hesdorf-
13B.4 SUSCEPTIBILITY OR INCLINATION TO fer 1990: 93–108).
EPILEPSY
Some persons are more susceptible to epilepsy 13B.6 IDENTIFICATION OF EPILEPSY
than others, especially in cases where the causes Identification does not mean to diagnose epilep-
are unknown, which strengthens the assumption sy. This is the task of the medical specialist, main-

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 EPILEPSY 13 B

ly the neurologist. Teachers, especially early child- • Dysdiadochokinesis (problems with rhythm)
hood practitioners and foundation phase teach- • Learning problems
ers, can make an important contribution to the
• Concentration problems
early identification of epilepsy. When the teacher
suspects that a learner may be suffering from • Fluctuation of achievements – apparently inex-
epilepsy, there are several signs that may indicate plicable disturbances of the memory, especially
that a referral to a neurologist is required. Apart an inconsistent memory. What the learner
from the obvious signs or manifestations of knows one day, he forgets the next, and the
seizures that are described above, the following day after he suddenly remembers it again; for
may also provide direction to the teacher’s identi- example, he cannot remember the names of his
fication, according to Krüger (1992): siblings. If he knows his surname he sometimes
cannot remember it. He forgets instructions or
• General motor clumsiness carries them out partially or incorrectly (keep in
• Sudden disturbed muscular control, awkward- mind, however, whether the instruction is with-
ness, clumsiness and a lack of coordination, in his ability and whether he usually remembers
which do not correlate with his usual actions. it and carries it out correctly).
He stumbles or bumps into things or drops • Signs of confusion without other symptoms
them. If the teacher suddenly talks to him, he is and without any reasonable cause. The learner
astounded. suddenly appears disorientated; it seems, for
• Involuntary flexing and shaking movements of example, as if the familiar environment of the
the hands class or playground is strange to him.
• Poor sense of direction • Sudden and unexpected temper tantrums and
• Signs that the learner inexplicably feels strange anger, without any evident cause or dispropor-
in an environment which should be familiar to tionate to the apparent cause
him; e.g. he cannot open a door which he is • Frequent fighting with friends
usually able to open (he turns the handle the
wrong way, or is unable to open the latch); he is • Distress when routine is changed
suddenly unable to climb down from a jungle • Destructive behaviour
gym; or he will appear at the tap with his pencil • Evading cuddling
and paper instead of with his little bucket. • Inappropriate emotions (social imperception)
• Slow speech and language development • Impulsive behaviour
• Specific visual and auditory perceptual defi-
• Clinging to one thought for a long period of
ciencies
time
• Disturbed laterality (left/right discrimination)
• Difficult to discipline
• Hypokinesis (underactivity)
• Crying for no obvious reason
• Hyperactivity
• Looking weary at times
• Inability to discriminate between simultaneous
tactual stimulations • Sudden emotional disturbances, also dispro-
portionate to the circumstances, e.g. a
• Inability to copy simple geometrical shapes
hypochondriac obsession with the way he feels;
• Untidy handwriting signs of anxiety and fear
• Nystagmus (involuntary turning of the eyeballs,
• Occasional “difficult” behaviour which a person
also known as eye dancing)
close to him is unaccustomed to, or which peri-
• Strabismus (squinting of the eyes) odically occurs while he is otherwise totally
• Tremors compliant
• Cross-dominance • Sudden onset of bedwetting and incontinence,
• Associated movements (movements carried out although these may have other causes besides
by limbs which are not involved in the action) epilepsy

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

The occurrence of these signs does not automati- problems with calculations are generally associat-
cally imply that the learner has epilepsy, but it ed with epilepsy.
should raise the teacher’s awareness that a refer- In the case of epilepsy, learning problems are
ral is required. In addition, it is well known that also mainly concentrated around the following
people may exhibit one or more of these signs aspects:
without impairment to their general functioning. • Intellectual functioning
In such cases the presence of these signs is not
• Type of seizure
significant. If the signs appear in a cluster, i.e.
• Relationship problems in school
many are present, it becomes significant. Some of
the signs are also significant • Behaviour and emotional problems
• The use of medication and its possible effects
• if there is a fairly regular repetition of the
behaviour and it does not occur only a few
13B.7.1 Epilepsy and intellectual
times
functioning
• if it occurs suddenly, unexpectedly and appar-
13B.7.1.1 Intellectual ability and epilepsy
ently without provocation
• if there is a degree of stereotyping, i.e. the Contrary to some beliefs, epilepsy in itself does
episodes always occur more or less in the same not automatically lower intellectual ability. People
manner with epilepsy have the same intellectual abilities
across the broad spectrum that ordinary people
• if it looks as if the learner loses contact with his
without epilepsy have (Hauser & Hesdorffer 1990:
environment during such an episode, or is not
260).
completely aware of what is happening around
him and his behaviour is also apparently out of
13B.7.1.2 Intellectual deterioration and
place under the circumstances i.e. it is evident epilepsy
that the child is not absent-minded or preoccu-
pied without reason. Epilepsy may lead to a deterioration of intellectu-
al functioning, particularly where the seizures are
frequent, severe and uncontrollable by medica-
What if you as a teacher identify possi- tion. Intellectual deterioration is attributed to a
ble epilepsy in a learner, and after you variety of factors, including the damaging or
have raised your concern to the parent, destruction of the nerve cells (Appleton et al.
the parent decides to take the learner 1992: 86) as a result of seizures that occur repeat-
to a traditional healer? edly, and are long lasting and intense.
The parent remains the legal
ACTIVITY

guardian of the child and, apart from

voicing your opinion to the parent, 13B.7.2 Types of seizure and learning
there is nothing you can do. It is, how- 13B.7.2.1 Non-convulsive general seizures
ever, essential to maintain a good rela- and learning
tionship with the parent and communi- The typical absence or petit mal seizure is accom-
cate the learner’s progress or lack
panied by short spells of unconsciousness, some-
thereof to the parent. The parent may
times just for a few seconds. Absences may be
perhaps later be persuaded to take the
child to a medical practitioner. sporadic in certain learners, while in others they
may occur as often as a hundred times a day.
Absences occur suddenly without any prior signal
or warning and immediately involve both sides of
13B.7 EPILEPSY AND LEARNING the brain. During the seizure the learner has an
A great many learners with epilepsy experience empty, glazed expression in his eyes, sometimes
learning problems. Many learners with epilepsy turning them upwards, and makes a sharp sound
do not achieve according to their learning poten- with his mouth. However, an absence may also
tial. Reading problems, spelling problems and occur without any motor symptoms, so that the

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 EPILEPSY 13 B

sudden disruption of the activity with which the all the following day – the phenomenon of fluctu-
learner is involved (reading, writing, speaking, ating achievements that were discussed as part of
etc.) is the only outwardly observable symptom of the identification of epilepsy above.
the seizure. Some learners with epilepsy experience a peri-
od of progressive build-up to the seizure. During
this period the learner’s behaviour is inexplicable
A learner in your class is daydreaming
excessively. Sometimes he stops in the and he is often irritable and aggressive, his atti-
middle of a sentence while speaking tude to learning is poor and he appears to be apa-
and continues talking after a while; thetic towards it.
other times he stops while writing and
his writing continues after he has drawn 13B.7.2.3 Subclinical seizures and learning
ACTIVITY

a straight line in a very small font and Epileptic discharges sometimes occur without the
then continues in his usual style. You learner showing the acknowledged symptoms of
ask him about this phenomenon, but he an epileptic seizure. Such a discharge in one of
is unable to explain it. How will you
the brain areas whose function is directly con-
explain this?
nected with the child’s learning activity can be
The learner is most probably suffer-
ing from a typical absence or petit mal just as detrimental as a total seizure. This is espe-
seizure that has not yet been diag- cially the case where the discharge occurs in the
nosed. temporal lobe.

13B.7.2.4 Partial seizures and learning

Absences disturb the child’s continuity of con- These are seizures caused by a focus in a certain
sciousness and thus disrupt his ability to attend area of the brain and which is always the result of
properly. In this way gaps in knowledge may an injury or a deviation in the functioning of the
occur, which makes conceptual thinking difficult. specific area. The manifestations of this type of
Refer to learning support that is discussed later in seizure will have a bearing on the normal func-
this chapter. tions of the specific area in the brain which is
The time which immediately precedes and fol- affected.
lows the absence is also disturbing to the child’s Focal epileptic conditions, whether they
learning. His thought processing may be slowed, become secondary generalised seizures or not,
distorted or tenuous. become involved with learning problems. Learn-
ing problems manifest themselves in the learner
13B.7.2.2 Convulsive general seizures and with focal epilepsy in the same way as in the
learning learner without epilepsy, i.e. in deviations of sen-
This refers to sudden seizures involving the entire sory integration, perception, conceptualisation,
brain and convulsions of the whole body. Convul- memory, control over attention, the development
sive general seizures, especially those of a clonic- and the use of spoken and written language, the
tonic nature, usually exhaust the learner to such understanding of numbers, and the control of
an extent that for some time after the seizure he motor functions (with deviations in coordination
finds it difficult to think clearly and logically. A and motor skills).
severe seizure may have different after-effects, The most common localisations for a focus
including confusion, headache, restlessness, dis- associated with learning problems are centred in
turbed speech, temporary paralysis, etc. the left and the right temporal lobes, as well as in
A characteristic phenomenon in some learners the left and the right frontal lobes of the brain.
with convulsive general seizures is the inconsis-
tency of their thoughts and their achievements. (a) Lesions in the frontal lobes
Things they know well and can do one day, they Seizures resulting from a focus in the frontal
cannot get right later or they may know nothing lobes also have a temporary effect on the learner’s
about something on one day only to remember it ability to think and work independently. If the

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focus is seated in the left temporal lobe, speech

problems may be expected. What are the implications of the above-
mentioned learning problems with

ACTIVITY
regard to learning support?
(b) Left temporal lobe focus
Try to make your own list of aspects
Speech and language disturbances may occur that require learning support before you
briefly owing to the seizure and its consequences, refer to the section of learning support
for instance during a period of recovery. How- that is discussed later in this chapter.
ever, there are language and speech disturbances
that are more chronic and that are the result of
left hemispheric disturbances, especially of the 13B.7.3 Relationship problems at
left temporal lobe. In the case of chronic language school and learning
and speech disturbances, there is a weakness in Teachers’ attitudes towards learners determine,
the smooth flow and clarity of speech. This is to a great extent, their attitude towards their
accompanied by word choice problems, poor schoolwork. The teachers’ educational approach
comprehension of word meaning, word order and may lead either to feelings of security or of inse-
pronunciation. The learner’s speech is often also curity, tension and anxiety in the learners.
slow and jerky, difficult to understand and fre- Through their attitudes and behaviour, teachers
quently full of unusual word choices which, can stimulate or inhibit learners’ learning initia-
although they almost convey the right meanings, tive.
are not quite correct. The relationship between the teacher and the
Language and speech problems eventually lead learner is also reflected in the educational rela-
to reading, spelling and even writing and mathe- tionship of authority. The balance between free-
matical problems. dom and authority creates order in the learner’s
mind as well as in the classroom, and this
(c) Right temporal lobe focus enhances learning. Both learner and teacher must
If epileptic seizures are the result of a focus in the become reciprocally involved with each other if
right temporal lobe, the learner will probably the learner is to accept the teacher’s authority.
experience problems with the following: This involvement serves as a basis for the identifi-
cation relationship between the teacher and the
• The recognition of form, form–spatial relation- learner. Identification is not possible without
ships and the attribution of meaning to general mutual acceptance. The learner who identifies
non-verbal spatial information with the teacher usually accepts the study matter
• The meaningful interpretation of people’s overt offered. Any relationship problems between
behaviour teacher and learner will therefore harm the child’s
• The recognition and synthesis of musical per- learning. In such a case the learner dissociates
ception and rhythmic activities himself not only from the teacher, but from the
study matter which is offered.
Perceptual problems such as these have a detri- All teachers are not familiar with epilepsy and
mental effect on the child’s learning. Among other the implications it has for learners and their learn-
things, the learner finds it difficult to distinguish ing. It is therefore imperative that the teacher
between shapes such as rectangles and squares, acquires the knowledge to note subtle epileptic
which makes mathematical operations difficult. manifestations (lapses of consciousness); associ-
The learner may also experience reading prob- ates poor school achievement with sub-clinical
lems because he perceives the form of letters discharges; becomes familiar with the possible
and/or figures, especially t, f, b and d, incorrectly. effects of medication on a learner; and knows
Such a learner may also find it difficult to copy that irritability and aggression may sometimes be
correctly from the chalkboard. An inability to dif- the forerunners of a seizure, and that this makes
ferentiate spontaneously between left and right it difficult for the learner to concentrate on his
can, for example, lead to the reversal of letters. schoolwork. He must also be sure of the demands

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 EPILEPSY 13 B

which he may place on the learner, etc. gradually begin to efface himself in class. As a
The learner with epilepsy can make high result such a learner often becomes lonely. By
demands on his teacher and it is understandable effacing himself, he also withdraws from his duty
that some teachers are not equal to the task and to learn. He may show a superficial willingness to
become irritated with the learner. In such a case learn and to achieve, and begins to develop learn-
the learner quickly becomes aware of it and may ing problems.

Sometimes teachers are confronted with huge classes and it is simply not possible to pay
individual attention to all the learners. How will you then ensure that the learner with epilep-
sy does not feel left out? What about your own reserves as a teacher? How will your atti-
tude towards this learner influence the rest of the class?
First of all, the importance of knowledge about epilepsy is already creating a better under-
standing of the learner and the learner ought to sense this. In a big class there are a variety
of things that a teacher can do to ensure that the learner with epilepsy does not feel left
behind. The teacher can touch the learner’s shoulder while walking through the class; the
learner can be seated close to the teacher so that behaviour changes can be noticed; a sim-
ACTIVITY

ple question from the teacher about how the learner is feeling on the day can work wonders;
the learner may perform special chores from time to time such as cleaning the chalkboard,
etc.
It is also important that the teacher has a support group when his reserves are running
low. The teacher must have colleagues or friends that are willing to serve as a sounding
board.
If the teacher has a negative attitude towards the learner, he will most probably convey
this attitude to the other learners (D’Alonzo et al. 1996: 309). The learner will thus remain
marginalised in spite of inclusive education, which is actually supposed to contribute to the
exact opposite. Apart from knowledge that is of utmost importance to change attitudes
from negative to positive, the teacher must also strive to discover, appreciate and acknow-
ledge the strong points of the learner and share them with the other learners in class.

The relationships between learners are important Within the social context, epileptic seizures
for successful learning. The learner’s feelings can also create problems for the learner. The typical
be hurt in many ways within the classroom. There absence temporarily but unexpectedly cuts him
is competition between learners, differences of off from his world and this arouses a feeling of
opinion, jealousy and labelling as “stupid” or even estrangement in both learner and bystander. After
“different”. Any of these factors may arouse emo- a tonic-clonic seizure the learner is often con-
tions that can be detrimental to the learner’s fused, partially paralysed, displays speech distur-
motivation to learn. bances and understands others with difficulty. He
sometimes wets and soils himself. In the
13B.7.4 Behaviour and emotional bystander it usually arouses fear and even repug-
problems and learning nance, while the learner himself is usually embar-
Behaviour and emotional problems are common rassed and feels hurt, inadequate, inferior and
among learners with epilepsy (Hauser & Hesdorf- even different from others. To such a learner his
fer 1990: 257). As a person who needs support, relationship with other people takes on a nega-
this learner is dependent on his educators (par- tive connotation.
ents and teachers) and their conduct and attitude Epileptic seizures fill the learner, particularly
towards him influence his personality develop- the young learner, with fear. He is often afraid
ment to a large extent. His growing up is also that he will die. The older learner regards seizures
influenced greatly by the attitude and behaviour more as an embarrassment and sometimes tries to
of friends and others in society with whom he has disguise his condition. He can conceal the use of
contact. medication, but not the seizures. This frustrates

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

the learner and he may portray the presence of his cines make the learner drowsy and may, to the
frustration and inability to control the situation unenlightened, create the impression that the
properly by cantankerousness, depression, rebel- child is “lazy” or even “stupid”. In other cases it
liousness, aloofness, etc. Epilepsy therefore may lead to restlessness, irritability, agitation and
affects the learner’s self-concept formation. even, although in the minority of cases, to totally
The condition of the learner with epilepsy per- deviant behaviour.
meates his whole existence. His life may revolve The use of medication, especially prolonged
around it. There are the numerous admonitions use, sometimes also affects the learner’s general
and prohibitions, the continual use of medication health. The learner who does not feel well is often
and visits to doctors, as well as the attitude of unmotivated in the teaching–learning situation, is
others in this regard. slow to compete and to achieve, and even offers
All this is not easy for the parent, and educa- resistance (Bennett 1992: 91).
tional errors such as overprotection, pampering
and rejection often occur with unique complica- 13B.8 LEARNING SUPPORT TO THE
tions for the development of the learner’s inde- LEARNER WITH EPILEPSY
pendence.
13B.8.1 General support to learners
In the case of focal epilepsy with learning prob- with epilepsy
lems as a result, behavioural manifestations such
as fluctuation of attention, hyperactivity, perse- Epilepsy makes a learner more vulnerable to frus-
veration (the inability to control a certain verbal trations and tension and he needs more purpose-
or motor impulse), aggressiveness, etc. that ful guidance to adjust to and accept his condition
impede successful learning, are manifested. in order to live in peace. His learning and progress
Learning is an all-encompassing event. The are in no uncertain measure influenced by his
learner as a whole is involved in his learning – teacher’s attitude towards him, and to see him
physically, emotionally and cognitively. A stable and reach him as an individual within the larger
emotional life is essential to successful learning. class context. This means that the teacher should
In everything a person undertakes there is always be on the lookout for the subtle and indirect man-
an underlying feeling evident. The learner dis- ifestations of epilepsy. Being mindful of the possi-
plays a certain attitude towards every learning ble detrimental effects that the use, or irregular
task he undertakes. He either likes it or not; he use, of prescribed medication may have, and
either shows interest or not; he has the self-confi- systematic yet unobtrusive observation of the
dence to work or he fears he cannot do it. Emo- learner is of particular importance. By carefully
tionality is therefore a matter which has a bearing observing not only this learner but all learners in
on the learner’s feeling of safety, self-confidence, the class, the teacher can also identify the learner
risk-taking, etc. Tension, anxiety, aggression, who tries to conceal his problems or is even
uncertainty, a feeling of inferiority, etc., are forms unaware of them. This requires a knowledge of
of experience that restrict the learner’s ability to epilepsy and its manifestations.
perceive, pay attention, think and learn. The regular use of medication is essential and
provision should be made for the learner to take
medication during school hours. Someone at
13B.7.5 The use of medication and its school should supervise the learner’s taking of
possible effects on the learner medication according to the doctor’s prescription
and learning and not at a time that suits the teacher the best.
The successful control of epileptic seizures The teacher should avoid granting the learner
requires the regular use of medication. In the with epilepsy a special position in the class. The
majority of cases medication has to be used for teacher should not be overprotective or too
life. It does not guarantee control of seizures lenient concerning scholastic expectations and
(Brett 1997: 395–396). Medication, however, discipline. It is essential that realistic expectations
sometimes has harmful side effects. Some medi- be set and good discipline maintained. Unneces-

284
 EPILEPSY 13 B

sary tension and frustration should, however, be participating in potentially high-risk or dangerous
avoided as far as possible, or be limited to a mini- activities (e.g. swimming without supervision),
mum. the teacher should do this with circumspection.
The learner with epilepsy should become Restrictions should be realistic and not simply
involved in school activities as much as possible. because the learner has epilepsy (Smith 1990:
Although limitations will have to be placed on his 187).

How will you deal with a tonic-clonic convulsive seizure in class? Before you proceed to the
answer, access the knowledge that you have gained thus far in this chapter and decide how
you will deal with this seizure. This will be a much more valuable learning experience than
simply reading the answer. And you may even come up with strategies that are mentioned
in the answer below!
Your answer must cover the following:
ACTIVITY

Remember to time the seizure; in the case of prolonged seizures, medical assistance is
required. What will you do with the rest of the class? What about desks and chairs close to
the learner? Say something about your observation of the symptoms of the learner so that
you can recount them in a short report to the neurologist. Are you going to suppress any of
the movements of the learner? What will you do with tight clothing or a belt? It is a good
idea to “talk” the other learners “through” the seizure and prevent them from standing too
close to the learner. How will you deal with the cleaning up of the learner? How must the
learner be turned in the coma phase? Open airways are extremely important. How will you
deal with the learner when the seizure is over? What will you do with other learners who are
upset? Remember to inform the learner’s parents.

It is usually also advisable for the teacher to lesson; the learner may appear to have recov-
inform classmates and other learners in the ered fully while in reality the brain is not yet
school regarding the problems of the learner with functioning sufficiently
epilepsy – but only with the consent of the learn- • Photocopying work if the learner falls behind or
er and/or his parents – as well as of the impor- is a slow worker
tance of unconditionally accepting such a learner • Appointing a buddy that can act as a mentor
as equal to his peers and to help him to reach his and confidant to the learner
potential.
• Assisting them with planning of their work;
13B.8.2 Specific learning support to breaking instructions down into simple tasks
learners with epilepsy • Structuring the learning environment according
Learners with epilepsy may require the following to a set routine
learning support: • Working from the concrete to the abstract
• Adjusting the curriculum • Linking previous work to current work
• Multi-sensory stimulation (involving as many • Revising frequently, in particular after a school
senses as possible) except when learners are holiday
overwhelmed by all the stimuli; guard against • Allowing extra time to finish work
overstimulating hyperactive learners • Reading work (tests or examination papers) to
• Restricting external influences that could them
absorb the attention of learners who find it dif- • Using typewriters or notebooks when hand-
ficult to focus their attention writing is very poor or slow
• Repeating the work, particularly after a seizure • Allowing tests or examination papers to be
• Taking the recuperative period, following a done through amanuensis – an independent
seizure, into account when continuing with a third party writing their answers down

285
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

• Using oral tests or examination papers • Reading work on a tape recorder for learners
• Ignoring serious spelling mistakes for test or with reading problems
examination purposes • Redoing the previous work if gaps occur in
their learning

13B.9 SAFETY MEASURES IN AND OUT OF CLASS

Let us start with the following activity. See if you can think of safety precautions in and
around your class that you will put in place when a learner in your class is suffering from
epilepsy. Once again, try to apply the knowledge that you have gained thus far, because the
answer below does not provide all the information.
Your answer must cover the following:
ACTIVITY

Why should they never be left alone? They must always be accompanied on errands.
How will you explain to them that they are not allowed to chew gum? Will you allow them to
lock the door of the toilet? What about their medication and dosages? A Medic Alert
bracelet is a good idea. Sometimes epilepsy is caused by the flickering of light and shadow,
the so-called photogenic epilepsy. Will you allow learners with this problem to work on a
computer or watch television? Limit excessive excitement because it may cause hyperventi-
lation that could bring on a seizure. Will you allow the learner to sit close to a window?
Think of the consequences if he falls against the window during a seizure.

Basic safety precautions will comprise the following:

• Learners with epilepsy may never be left be • Learners are not allowed to keep the medica-
alone, because they may have an epileptic tion. An overdose can be fatal. If teachers
seizure while alone with detrimental effects. administer the medication they must ensure
For the same reason, a buddy must always that the tablet is actually swallowed. Teachers
accompany them on errands. may never alter a dosage. If a learner displays
• They are not allowed to chew gum, because abnormal behaviour such as disorientation,
they might choke on it during a seizure. incoherence and motor problems, the possibil-
ity of toxicity should be kept in mind. A blood
• They may not lock any doors behind them in a test will confirm whether the level of medica-
general school setting because people will not tion has reached a toxic point, whereupon the
be able to render support in the event of a medical practitioner will alter the dosage.
seizure. They will most probably not be in any
position to unlock the door themselves. (They • Learners with photogenic or light sensitivity
may even fall against the unlocked door, in epilepsy (also known as “television epilepsy” –
which case the door must be gently pushed Brett 1997: 375) will not be allowed to work on
open in order to reach them.) When they are computers, or watch videos and DVDs, etc.
home, the front and back doors must be locked • Pay attention to potential dangers such as
to ensure their safety in our crime-ridden coun- woodwork machinery, windows and jungle
try. gyms that can pose a threat during a seizure.

What safety measures would you employ when taking a learner with epilepsy on a class or
ACTIVITY

sports tour or camping trip?

Your answer must cover the following:
You must have the learner’s medication and the exact dosages. Will you allow the learner
to keep all the medication in his possession? The learner must be attended to at all times.
What about open fires and the learner standing too close to the fire? Say something about
mountain climbing (precipices) and the learner with psychomotor seizures. The learner

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 EPILEPSY 13 B

should shower instead of taking a bath, because of the danger of drowning during a seizure.
(If there are no showers, the learner must be attended to while taking a bath.) How will you
monitor a learner with heavy seizures during night-time? Remember that the learner can
suffocate in a pillow. You will have to take colleagues along to assist you with supervision.
ACTIVITY

The teachers can take turns to monitor a learner with night seizures. A baby monitor that
can be switched on at certain times at night may also provide a solution, because any
grunts and groans will be heard on the monitor, provided that the teacher is a light sleeper.
(The other learners may, however, consider the baby monitor an intrusion on their late-night
private conversations.) What about the top bed of a bunk bed? Will you allow the learner to
swim and if you do, how will you supervise him? You must also see to it that learners with
epilepsy do not stand too close to the edge of a swimming pool.

13B.10 CONCLUSION ate himself from or deny his epilepsy, the teacher
Epilepsy is a sudden disturbance or change of can make an important contribution by making
brain function owing to extraordinary electrical the learner to feel at home.
activity in the brain cells. It is usually the result of
brain damage – although the cause of the lesion is Questions
not always known – while heredity may also play
a role. 1. Does the impact of partial and generalised
There are learners with epilepsy who experi- epileptic seizures on schoolwork differ? Moti-
ence problems with intellectual functioning and vate your answer.
behaviour disturbances and who are in need of 2. Why is the cortex important in the study of
extensive learning support. On the other hand, epilepsy?
there are also some learners whose epilepsy is of 3. Anti-convulsive or anti-epileptic medication
such a slight nature or severity, or is under con- may be beneficial to the learner but it may also
trol to such an extent that they can successfully be harmful or even detrimental. Discuss all
progress. Because the learner can never dissoci- three aspects.

Bibliography
Appleton, R., Baker, G., Chadwick, D. & Smith, D. 1992. Krüger, D., Burden, A., Bornman, G.M., Landsberg, E.,
Epilepsy, 2nd ed. London: Martin Dunitz. Dednam, A. & Burger, S. 2001. Spesiale onderwysbe-
Batshaw, M.L. (Ed.). 1997. Children with disabilities, 4th hoeftes (only study guide for OSN 431-S). Pretoria: Unisa.
ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Krüger, D., Burden, A., Dednam, A., Levitz, A. & Lands-
Bennett, T.H. (Ed.). 1992. The neuropsychology of epilep- berg, E. 2002. Leerders met spesiale onderwysbehoeftes
sy. New York: Plenum. (only study guide for FDESN3-T). Pretoria: Unisa.

Brett, E.M. (Ed.). 1997. Paediatric neurology, 3rd ed. New Niedermeyer, E. 1990. The epilepsies – diagnosis and
York: Churchill Livingstone. management. Baltimore: Urban & Schwarzenberg.

D’Alonzo, B.J., Giordano, G. & Cross, T.L. 1996. Improv- Oswald, M., Ackermann, C.J. & Engelbrecht, P. 2000.
ing teachers’ attitudes through teacher education toward Onderwysers in hoofstroomskole se houdings teenoor
the inclusion of students with disabilities into their class- inklusiewe onderwys. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe,
rooms. Teacher–Educator, 31(4): 304–312. 40(4): 306–317.

Hauser, W.A. & Hesdorffer, D.C. 1990. Epilepsy: frequen- Simpson, P.J. & Garrison, J. 1995. Teaching and moral
cy, causes, and consequences. Epilepsy Foundation of perception. Teachers College Record, 97(2): 252–278.
America, New York, NY: Demos. Smith, D.B. (Ed.). 1990. Epilepsy: current approaches to
Kapp, J.A. (Ed.). 2002. Children with problems – an diagnosis and treatment. New York: Raven Press.
orthopedagogical perspective. Pretoria: JL van Schaik. Wilkinson, I.M.S. 1993. Essential neurology, 2nd ed. Lon-
Krüger, D. 1992. Identifisering van sagte neurologiese uit- don: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
valle deur die opvoedkundige sielkundige. Unpublished Wyllie, E. (Ed.). 1993. The treatment of epilepsy: principles
MEd dissertation. Pretoria: Unisa. and practice. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.

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 CEREBRAL PALSY
13 C

Written by P A U L B O T H A
Revised by D E I R D R É K R Ü G E R

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdefine cerebral palsy and indicate causes
Πexplain the neurological levels of cerebral palsy
Πunderstand the classifications of cerebral palsy
Πdisplay insight regarding assessment of intelligence of learners with
cerebral palsy
Πcollaborate with the medical and paramedical teams
Πunderstand the importance of assistive devices
Πsupport learners with cerebral palsy in the classroom.

Key terms incidence of 2,2 per thousand births seems to be

more accurate. There is no geographical or ethic
cerebral palsy ♦ physical impairments that are gradient. Physical impairments that are neurolog-
neurologically related ♦ brain damage ♦ paralysis ♦ ically related indicate impairments resulting from
weakness ♦ incoordination ♦ functional deviation of the malfunction of some part of the central nerv-
the motor system ♦ lesion to or inadequate ous system.
development of a section of the brain ♦ neurological When looking at cerebral palsy, you may very
levels of cerebral palsy ♦ spasticity ♦ athetosis ♦ well think that we are reverting to the medical
ataxia ♦ dyskinesia ♦ hypotonia ♦ assistive devices deficit model. The medical terms that follow may
create the impression that we are concentrating
on disabilities instead of abilities.
13C.1 INTRODUCTION
On the other hand, if you are of the opinion
Cerebral palsy is one of the most common forms that learners with cerebral palsy belong in a spe-
of physical impairments that is neurologically cial school, then we should point out that you are
related and its incidence is about 1,5 to 3 births in fact reverting to the medical deficit model,
per thousand. Brett (1997: 291–292) is of the because learners with cerebral palsy can be
opinion that, until recently, the incidence was included in general education. Teachers, how-
decreasing in view of the improved perinatal care ever, need to be empowered to accommodate
in developed countries. According to Gupta cerebral palsy successfully in their classrooms or
(1999: 96) the increase nowadays is due to the learning sites. We are aware of the challenges that
improved survival of very low birth weight infants inclusive education poses to teachers and we
in industrialised countries. The prevalence of agree with Wolford et al. (2001: 161) who claim
cerebral palsy in these infants is very high, and the that “the inclusion movement has greatly

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 CEREBRAL PALSY 13 C

increased another important type of diversity in such as the first two or three years, are outdated,
the classroom – skill diversity”. The “skills diversi- since the complete clinical picture may manifest
ty” refers to the skills of teachers. Becoming only after the age of three years.
acquainted with the medical terms related to It has already become apparent that there is
cerebral palsy will enhance your repertoire of more than one definition but a suitable definition
skills, as better understanding will facilitate should comprise the following three core aspects:
accommodation of learners with cerebral palsy in
• A lesion to or inadequate development of a sec-
ordinary classrooms.
tion of the brain before the brain is fully grown
It is essential to acknowledge that the learn- • Perceptible signs of the motor system being
ers who are most vulnerable to barriers to affected owing to the lesion or to inadequate
learning and exclusion in South Africa are development
those who have historically been termed
• Varying degrees of severity (from mild to pro-
“learners with special educational needs”,
found) in the manifestation of the impairment
i.e. learners with disabilities and impair-
ments (Department of Education 2001: 18).
Since the brain is the centre of control, not only of
the motor system but of many other functions
13C.2 DEFINITION AND CAUSES OF such as intelligence, behaviour and personality,
CEREBRAL PALSY and since brain damage may also result in epilep-
According to Lewis and Doorlag (1995: 74, 388), sy, blindness, deafness, intellectual impairment
cerebral palsy is essentially a physical impairment. and learning impairment, one would expect to
It is caused by factors which affect the not yet find that multiple impairments are often associat-
fully grown brain prior to or during birth, or dur- ed with cerebral palsy. The learner who is primari-
ing the early postnatal period. The impairment ly cerebral palsied may have any number of sec-
comprises one or more of the following charac- ondary impairments, such as being hard of hear-
teristics: paralysis, weakness, incoordination and ing, blind, etc.
functional deviation of the motor system. Associ- Batshaw (1997: 499) indicates several factors
ated impairments – intellectual, convulsive, sen- causing cerebral palsy, such as genetic abnormali-
sory, perceptual and affective – are common. ties contributing to brain malformation in the
Cerebral palsy may occur on a continuum from early stages of embryonic development, intrauter-
mild to severe. Cerebral palsy is permanent and ine infections damaging the developing nervous
the respected author of 35 publications, Glees system of the foetus, pregnancy-related abnor-
(1988: 37), says that a spastic child (a form of cere- malities that may lead to preterm delivery and
bral palsy) with injuries suffered at birth will not related complications, adverse conditions during
regrow his cortico-spinal connections. In fact, the labour and delivery that deprive the vulnerable
Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation (a merger areas of the immature brain of oxygen and blood,
between the Christopher Reeve Foundation and as well as traumatic brain injury in a car accident.
the American Paralysis Association in 1999) is cur- Near-drownings that are common in South Africa
rently engaged in exciting ground-breaking due to our sunny climate and abundance of swim-
research that may change long-standing scientific ming pools and open dams also contribute to
findings. cerebral palsy.
The most workable definition (Brett 1997: 291) of One finds learners who have sustained brain
cerebral palsy is “a persistent, but not necessarily damage due to trauma such as a motor vehicle
unchanging, disorder of movement and posture accident or a viral infection of the brain such as
due to non-progressive disorder of the immature encephalitis or meningitis, who have been diag-
brain”. The motor function is not only delayed, it nosed as cerebral palsied. Some such learners
is also deviant and follows a pattern that is not may be past the stage of “the not-fully-grown
found among normally developing children. Defi- brain”; for instance some of them may already be
nitions attributing an age limit to cerebral palsy, ten years old or more when the brain is damaged

289
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

and they develop symptoms normally associated main types of cerebral palsy: spasticity, athetosis
with cerebral palsy. As is the case with most learn- and ataxia. These three levels are respectively the
ers who become impaired at a later stage (i.e. cortex (cerebral cortex), the basal ganglia and the
after having acquired language and the brain cerebellum. In spasticity the parts of the cortex
being fully grown), the pattern of problems in involved (the pyramidal system) are often associ-
these learners differs somewhat and the chances ated in particular with the various motor areas.
of recovery – especially in the first two years fol- Athetosis is shown as the result of injuries in the
lowing the trauma – are also much more extrapyramidal system, especially damage to the
favourable. They, however, will not be discussed basal ganglia and their connections; and ataxia as
as a separate group in this chapter. the result of injuries to the cerebellum.
Although the word “palsy” signifies some form It is incorrect to ascribe spasticity to injuries to
of paralysis, this is not, strictly speaking, true in the pyramidal system alone, for spasticity cannot
the case of children with cerebral palsy. The cause occur without involvement of the extrapyramidal
of cerebral palsy does not lie in spinal damage or system. In fact, it is the very involvement of the
in damage to a specific muscle group, but in a extrapyramidal system, together with cortical
lesion or mal-development of the motor control damage, that results in the typical symptoms of
system of the brain. spasticity. The above-named “levels” are thus
Additionally one finds manifestations of the highly simplified, but they serve a purpose in that
condition in areas which are not related to motor they help us to distinguish more easily between
activities, such as language development, percep- the three types of cerebral palsy.
tion, memory, thought and the emotions. These
manifestations are also caused by the dysfunction
13C.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CEREBRAL
of parts of the central nervous system.
PALSY
There are various classifications of the symptoms
Can you still remember which lobe of
of cerebral palsy, but only two will be discussed
the brain is involved with motor func-
tions? (Refer to Chapter 12 if you have here, namely the physiological (according to the
forgotten.) Are there other structures in motor symptoms that are present) and the topo-
the brain that are also involved with graphical (according to the parts of the body
motor functions? Can you name these motorially affected).
structures and their functions?
The frontal lobe is primarily involved
13C.4.1 The topographical classification
ACTIVITY

with motor functioning and one can

system
expect that damage to the cortex of the
frontal lobe may result in a form of Before the physiological classification is discussed
cerebral palsy. Other structures that are in more detail, a few remarks will be made on the
also involved with motor functioning topographical classification (according to the
comprise the basal ganglia and the parts affected). This is necessary as a combination
cerebellum. Although this is an over- of the two systems is often used in practice, e.g.
simplification of the various forms of
by referring to spastic hemiplegia.
cerebral palsy, you have already some
background knowledge for the follow- The following types are distinguished here:
ing section. • Monoplegia. One limb is affected – the left or
right arm or leg. Care must be taken to ascer-
tain whether it is not perhaps a hemiplegia
13C.3 THE NEUROLOGICAL LEVELS OF where the other limb concerned has only been
CEREBRAL PALSY slightly affected. A pure monoplegia is rare.
Figure 13C.1 represents, diagrammatically, the • Hemiplegia. The left or the right side of the
three functional levels of the brain that are fairly body (arm, leg and face) is affected. This usual-
generally accepted as being involved in the three ly occurs in spasticity, which we refer to as left-

290
 CEREBRAL PALSY 13 C

Thought

Se
t ns
en at
em io
n
ov
M

Different functions
of the cortex
Spasticity

Basal ganglia Athetosis

Cerebellum Ataxia

Figure 13C.1 Diagram showing the three functional levels of the brain and the types of
cerebral palsy caused by damage to each of these three levels
Source: Kapp 1994: 272

or right-sided hemiplegia. In such cases, the • Paraplegia. Both the lower limbs (legs) are
arm is usually affected more than the leg. affected, but not the upper limbs.
• Triplegia. Three limbs are affected – usually
Note: Some of the above forms of impairment are
both legs and one arm. This occurs mainly in
also found in people who are not cerebral palsied,
spasticity. It can be a combination of hemiple-
for instance those with injuries to the spinal cord
gia and “paraplegia”, or an incomplete quadri-
or neck. It is therefore better in the case of those
plegia. (It would have been more correct, how-
with cerebral palsy to refer instead to spastic
ever, to say a combination of diplegia and
paraplegics, spastic quadriplegics and so forth, to
hemiplegia.)
avoid confusion.
• Quadriplegia. All four limbs are affected (this is
also known as tetraplegia). In cases of severe
involvement, one often finds spasticity in the The Education White Paper 6 (Depart-
lower and athetosis in the upper limbs. ment of Education 2001: 18) indicates
ACTIVITY

that different learning needs arise from

• Diplegia. Usually all four limbs are affected,
a range of factors, including physical
with the worst involvement being in the lower impairments, of which cerebral palsy
limbs. This term is used quite often. A similar forms part. Other learning needs may
type is double or bilateral hemiplegia, which is also arise because of certain factors.
also a form of spasticity, but the upper limbs Simply by looking at the various
are worse than the lower. descriptions of cerebral palsy men-

291
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

tioned above, what factor can cause a Spasticity can be regarded as the main form of
barrier to learning? If you do not know cerebral palsy. It is the most common type and it
all the factors, just use your common usually assumes the form of hemiplegia, either
sense and formulate your answer. right-sided or left-sided, according to whether the
We think that the most obvious barri-
left or right side of the brain is affected. (The
ACTIVITY

er is buildings that are inaccessible and

motor manifestations are on the side of the body
unsafe. There are a variety of assistive
devices for learners whose movements opposite to the damaged side of the brain.)
are impaired that will be discussed later Voluntary muscle control, especially in the
in this chapter. A wheelchair will most more delicate and selective movements, is seri-
probably come to your mind. Stairs and ously impaired, and movements that can still be
a wheelchair, of course, do not go made are clumsy. The hyperactive stretch reflex
together. and reduced contraction speed impede coordinat-
ed movements. Some muscles show a tendency to
contract more than others, and because the
antagonistic muscles have often been weakened,
13C.4.2 The physiological classification
the spastic muscles (agonistic) are permanently
system
shortened, resulting in contractures. The result-
The physiological classification system is also ing physical defects are a typical flexive deformity,
referred to as the motoric classification. The fol- particularly involving the big joints.
lowing types are distinguished: Typical characteristics of a spastic person
include flexion in the wrist and elbow so that the
13C.4.2.1 Spasticity lower arm is bent up stiffly against the upper arm
Spasticity is a condition of disharmonic muscle (like a chicken wing); adduction (turning inward) of
activity caused by damage to the motor areas of the arm at the shoulder; adduction and flexion of
the brain – involving the pyramidal and extrapyra- the hip; flexion of the knee and equinus (raised
midal systems. The clinical picture is mainly one heel) in the foot. The limbs in which the muscles
of stiffness. This is the result of impairment of the are shortened are consequently shorter than the
normal muscle tone of the person who is spastic. others, e.g. in stretching the arms above the head,
Spasticity is a form of hyper tonus resulting from the arm of the affected side is found to be shorter
the exaggeration of the normal stretch reflex. This than the other. In the identification of a mild case
refers to exaggerated muscular contraction when of spasticity this can be used as a test. An arm
a muscle is stretched. Consequently an increased stiffly drawn up can be straightened if someone
resistance to passive movement – mainly to move- else pulls on it, but it returns to its flexed position
ment in one direction – is characteristic of spas- soon after it has been released. A very typical phe-
ticity. There is increased muscle tone in the spas- nomenon is the “cerebral thumb”: the thumb is
tic muscles, accompanied by weakness in the folded into the palm (i.e. “thumb in palm”) with
muscles that act in opposition to them. The the other fingers clasped over it (see Figure 13C.2).
hyperactive stretch reflex is particularly notice- Another typical symptom that may be found is the
able in the muscles working against the force of scissors gait owing to adduction of the hips and
gravity in maintaining normal body posture. flexion of the knees, particularly in diplegia.

Why would you say a spastic learner sometimes exhibits speech problems? What barrier to
learning according to the Education White Paper 6 will apply in this instance if the speech
ACTIVITY

problems are not accommodated?

Speech involves muscles that coordinate the articulation of sounds. (Chapter 9 on aug-
mentative and alternative communication provides information on speech problems.)
The barrier will be “inappropriate communication” if the learner is not accommodated by
means of augmentative and alternative communication.

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 CEREBRAL PALSY 13 C

(a) Walk on toes (b) Thumb in palm (c) Arm in “chicken wing” position

Figure 13C.2 Typical manifestations of spasticity

Source: Kapp 1994: 275

Primitive and pathological reflexes are very throat often impede speech, as do chewing and
common in spasticity. These deviant reflexes are swallowing movements, which make feeding diffi-
not discussed further. Their presence, however, is cult. Speech is usually impaired to some extent.
often a clear indication to the medical practition- The postural problems caused by the uncon-
er that a child has neural damage (Pellegrino in trolled movements in athetosis hamper sitting
Batshaw 1997: 504–508). and walking. During sleep, when there is com-
plete relaxation, the involuntary movements sub-
side and may even stop altogether. In contrast,
13C.4.2.2 Dyskinesia tension and emotional conditions aggravate the
Dyskinesia is marked by any of the following symptoms while the learner is awake.
abnormal movements: In pure athetosis the muscles themselves are
usually normal, with no spasticity or weakness.
Athetosis Pure athetosis is found very infrequently, how-
Athetosis is the form of dyskinesia most often ever. In most cases the muscles are continually
seen, hence the use of the term “athetoid CP” as extremely hypertonic. This is called tension
an alternative to the more general expression athetosis, which is often difficult to distinguish
“dyskinetic” (Brett 1997: 307). It is marked by from spasticity. Sometimes the tension is so bad
excessive involuntary movements following no that the person is completely incapable of move-
fixed pattern and described as irregular, arrhyth- ment. Athetosis is therefore divided into two
mic wriggling and writhing. These movements are broad categories: cases with and cases without
usually slow. As a rule the condition affects the muscle tension. Some writers classify it into two
movements of the body as a whole but is more types according to the nature of the movements:
pronounced at the extremities. The deliberate use tremor and rotatory athetosis. The latter exhibits
of the limbs, especially of the hands, is seriously turning movements and the former jerky or to-
impaired or even impossible because of the and-fro movements.
unceasing involuntary and uncontrollable move-
ments, which are further aggravated when the Choreiform movements
person tries to perform voluntary movements. Sudden jerking movements are most marked in
The muscles of the face are usually distorted. the proximal (closer to the body) parts of the
Involuntary movements of the face, tongue and limbs. (“Chorea” means a dance.)

293
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Dystonia learner when he plays or tries to do anything.

The term “dystonia” is sometimes used for slow Imbalance of the eye muscles which makes read-
movements with extension of the trunk and ing difficult often occurs and typically slurred
limbs, and sometimes for abnormal postures speech is possible. Intention tremor is also com-
which are maintained briefly (Brett 1997: 307). mon. His high-stepping gait is often compared to
This basal ganglia disorder is usually associated that of a drunken person.
with contorted body positioning. The condition of some learners with ataxia
improves spontaneously and some of them may
Choreo-athetosis later even be able to develop normal neuromus-
Athetosis (slow and purposeless movements cular functions. Fortunately severe cases of ataxia
mainly in the distal part – closer to the end – of are rare.
the limbs) is mixed with choreoid movements
(which are quicker and more jerky). In nearly all 13C.4.2.5 Mixed types
cases of choreo-athetosis the cause is to be found Certain learners with cerebral palsy display symp-
in hyperbilirubinemia1 (although the highest lev- toms of more than one type of this condition. The
els can nowadays usually be prevented – Brett term “mixed types” is used when more than one
1997: 306) or in anoxia at birth in which Rh- type of motor pattern is present and should be
incompatibility is the main feature. Athetosis used only when one pattern does not clearly pre-
resulting from this is usually accompanied by a dominate (Batshaw 1997: 503).
high-frequency hearing loss and a defect of
upward gaze. 13C.4.2.6 Summary of barriers arising from
cerebral palsy
13C.4.2.3 Hypotonia
Impeded motor function in the learners has
Hypotonia refers to a decrease in muscle tone and severe implications for their education: for writ-
is characterised by decreased resistance to pas- ing (hence for written communication) if the arms
sive movement. The joints offer decreased resist- and hand muscles are affected; for speech, if the
ance when they are flexed and abnormal move- mouth, chewing and swallowing muscles, and also
ments are possible. control of exhalation are affected; and for vision,
if affected eye muscles impede focusing or eye
13C.4.2.4 Ataxia movement. Affected facial muscles causing con-
Ataxia is characterised by poor coordination, usu- stant grimacing have severe implications for
ally attributed to disturbances of balance, body socialisation. When muscles are affected which
posture and kinaesthetic feedback processes. It is control posture, sitting and gait, the condition
accompanied by an inability to maintain balance, impedes effective performance of daily activities
associated with lack of gross and/or fine motor such as self-care, e.g. independent eating, wash-
coordination or clumsiness. The muscles of the ing, bathing, dressing and using the toilet. Per-
person with ataxia are normal, though the muscle sons who are clumsy, inept and untidy are unac-
tone may be lowered, but there is no spasticity or ceptable to others. As a result their self-concept
involuntary movements, and reflexes are normal. suffers and eventually this also affects their
This makes the disorder very difficult to diagnose acceptability both as an employee and by society
in a baby before he begins to walk (bears weight). in general. According to Brett (1997: 308) these
The main symptom, however, remains lack of implications culminate in the “stereotyped image
coordination. The coordinated smooth perform- which most members of the public have of the
ance of voluntary movements is dependent on the ‘spastic’ and retarded child. Thus feelings of
intact operation of the cerebellum. Thus in ataxia repugnance and rejection are generated in those
one may find all the signs of cerebellar distur- on whose tolerance and acceptance these very
bance: dysmetria, adiadochokinesis, etc. handicapped children depend in all aspects of liv-
Impaired coordination causes clumsiness in the ing.”

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 CEREBRAL PALSY 13 C

ening or replacing muscles, as the case may be);

Which barrier to learning according to supplying prosthetic aids (crutches, callipers, walk-
ACTIVITY

the Education White Paper 6 will apply ers, splints, built-up shoes, etc.); administering
to Brett’s remark?
sedatives or stimulants, anticonvulsive drugs, etc.
The barrier is “negative attitudes to
In addition, medical personnel carry out a detailed
and stereotyping of differences”.
diagnosis of the type of cerebral palsy involved,
examine the functioning of the nervous system
and investigate the presence or effect of any asso-
13C.5 CEREBRAL PALSY AND
ciated impairments or likely genetic factors.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
The teacher should become at least broadly
Although there is the common misconception that acquainted with the medical programmes of the
people who suffer from cerebral palsy automatical- learner/s under his care. Teachers play an indirect
ly have a lowered intellect, as pointed out above, part in that they prepare and support the learners
this is not true. Murphy et al. (1995: 1075–1084) who need to undergo operations, and visit them
indicate that about 40 per cent of the individuals in hospital or at home; they also observe the
who have cerebral palsy have typical intelligence learner’s behaviour after medication has been
just like people without cerebral palsy. administered or changed, etc.
Various authors have serious concerns about Teachers are not always directly involved in the
intelligence tests (or IQ tests) as a means of deter- paramedical (therapeutic) programme but here,
mining the intelligence of people with cerebral too, it is strongly recommended that they take a
palsy (Roberts 1995: 377–379; Brett 1997: 308; more active interest and cooperate more fully.
Culatta et al. 2003: 339). Problems with, inter alia, They could then implement the speech therapy
speech, coordination, speed and perception influ- programme in the classroom, encourage the
ence test results negatively. “Given these difficul- learner to use his affected limbs in a supportive
ties, it is not surprising that systematic neuropsy- role and to use hand splints to improve pencil
chological studies have generally not been done” control. They could see to the correct positioning
(Roberts 1995: 378). of the learner in the classroom; help the learner to
Therefore assessment in the classroom to use head pointers in painting or typing; ensure
determine the learner’s academic abilities by a regular use of prescribed prostheses in the class-
teacher who knows the learner may be of great room or on the playground; encourage relaxation
value both to him and to the teacher. of an arm in a state of flexion, etc. The committed
teacher will constantly be aware of the therapy
13C.6 MEDICAL AND PARAMEDICAL administered by the physiotherapist, speech ther-
TREATMENT apist and occupational therapist – not merely in
The medical programme in question includes sur- order to show his involvement in the learner’s
gical, paediatric and neurological treatment such welfare, but to ensure that the therapeutic pro-
as orthopaedic operations (for shortening, length- gramme is carried over into the classroom.

See if you can list all the assistive devices that are available for learners with cerebral palsy.
There are various aids available for the learner with cerebral palsy which, inter alia,
include
• walking frames (which today have wheels and brakes)
ACTIVITY

• crutches (which can also be specially adapted to meet the person’s needs)
• walking sticks
• wheelchairs – ordinary as well as motorised
• head pointers, particularly for quadriplegics, which can perform the function of hands
• splints and braces (day and night braces can differ) which support limbs and facilitate
functions (a wide variety of splints and braces can include thumb and wrist braces, as
well as knee-positioning splints and braces for back support)

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• adapted computer, mouse and keyboard

• voice- or eye-activated computer programs – technology has a lot more to offer
• diapers for incontinence
• boots (sometimes also worn at night) and other orthopaedic footwear
• specially designed crockery and cutlery
• a variety of specially designed pillows, e.g. an abduction pillow for hip abduction
• adapted toilets and bathrooms with enough space and levers or clips that are easy to
operate
ACTIVITY

• commodes
• working dogs (although not yet common in South Africa)
• communication boards (for those who cannot speak or who speak with difficulty) (Consult
Chapter 9 for an extensive discussion on augmentative and alternative communication
which applies to this section.)
• non-slippery floors, rails and ramps.
Take note that you can improvise various types of assistive devices, e.g. a piece of Velcro
to hold something, e.g. a book, in place.

How can you as a teacher help to make life easier for learners in wheelchairs?
• Make sure that the entrance to your classroom is wheelchair-friendly. If necessary, a
ramp should be built. The same applies to bathroom facilities and other places that learn-
ers use frequently, such as the school hall.
• Make sure there is enough room for the wheelchair to move in the area between desks.
Remind other learners to keep their bags out of the way.
• Position the learner at the front of the class (closest to the door) to save time.
• Provide washing facilities if the learner’s hands get dirty from the wheelchair wheels – a
container with water, soap and a towel if there is no basin.
• Appoint a buddy (or more than one) to help the learner, e.g. by carrying his schoolbag or
getting out books for class.
• Include the learner in activities. Use his strong points. If, for instance, the learner is a
good reader, he can read aloud in class.
• Make sure that the learner is comfortable in the wheelchair and if he has any orthopaedic
ACTIVITY

aids such as braces, he should also be comfortable with them. Pinching braces can
cause severe pain. The school desk should be the correct height, or perhaps you should
have a bookstand made. The technical design teacher could help with this.
• If the wheelchair is not in a good working order, discuss this with the parents or maybe
try to get help from the community.
• With the learner’s permission, explain to the class why he is in a wheelchair; this can be a
good learning exercise for you and the other learners, and can also help the learner to fit
in and be accepted in the classroom.
• See that the learner is assisted to and from his point of transport. This applies before and
after school.
• Since learners in wheelchairs often feel excluded and different, it is important to make
sure that they have a positive self-image. A sympathetic teacher can play a big role in
their socialisation.
It is impossible to include all requirements in one list, and you as the teacher will become
aware of the individual learner’s changing needs and provide for them accordingly (Krüger &
Groenewald 2004a: 10). Collaboration with the school-based support team and the district-
based support team as discussed in Chapter 4 may also be valuable.

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13C.7 CLASSROOM SUPPORT FOR • You can also help learners to relax the spastic
LEARNERS WITH CEREBRAL PALSY limb by teaching them to massage it. When you
Krüger and Groenewald (2004a: 13–14) suggest walk round the class, for example, you can rub
the following support: or stroke the learner’s spastic hand. (Male
teachers should use discretion with female ado-
• Firstly, it is essential to adjust the curriculum lescents.)
regarding the volume of work. If learners write
slowly they should not have to do all the writ- • Make sure that the learner can move around the
ten homework, as long as they can prove that class and reach his desk easily. If necessary he
they have mastered the work. can sit at the front of the class, near the door.
• Use alternative methods. If the learner writes • Plan the learner’s workstation so that it is func-
very untidily, a typewriter or, ideally, a note- tional. If possible, the learner should have a
book (computer) could be used. If there is no special table equipped for his needs. If the
way to avoid writing, the writer who is untidy learner does not have the luxury of a special
or makes a lot of mistakes could use a pencil so workstation, the other learners can help to set
that it can be erased. up the table quickly for that learner, for exam-
ple by unpacking books and pens and turning
• If the learner has difficulty moving the compu-
to the right place, as well as setting up any aids
ter mouse, a mouthpiece can be used for this
e.g. bookstands.
purpose. Nowadays a foot mouse or even a
head movement image-controlled computer • The other learners should also be taught to help
mouse is also available. these learners on the playground. If a learner
• If the learner has special aids such as hand has difficulty getting his food out of his lunch
braces (to improve fine motor coordination) or box or opening a can of cold drink, they should
head pointers (for typing), the teacher should help. At the same time they should also use dis-
also be familiar with them and comfortable cretion and not take away the learner’s autono-
with using them. If you have worn a brace after my. It could be embarrassing if they do things
an injury, you will know that, although it might that he could do quite easily without help.
look odd to others, it plays a very useful role. It • Try to help the learner to think practically and
is also important that the rest of the class to get things done as quickly as possible. For
should be informed about these aids and that example, show him short cuts to get to places
they understand what they are for. more quickly, or point out where there are
• If learners have occupational therapy, physio- handrails for support. You might, for instance,
therapy and/or speech therapy, you are wel- put a piece of rubber under a textbook so that
come to cooperate with these professionals it does not move around if the affected arm
and find out to what extent you can meet the cannot hold it properly.
learner’s needs in your classroom. Even for • There is a lot more support that you can pro-
something as simple as posture, the physio- vide to be found elsewhere in the other chap-
therapist or occupational therapist can give you ters, such as the use of a cassette tape or the
advice and guidance. allocation of extra time for written work.

How will you explain the concept of cerebral palsy to adolescent learners? This is an impor-
tant aspect of educating the rest of the learners to include their classmate with cerebral
ACTIVITY

palsy in their circle of friends. It is so much easier if they have the basic knowledge underly-
ing the condition.
Try to find something that relates to their world, such as the following:
When some people have had too much alcohol, they no longer walk normally. They lift
their feet too high. Others have difficulty talking properly – for example, they slur their words
and cannot pronounce things correctly. Sometimes they slam things down, because they

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have trouble judging distance – the table top, for instance, is closer than it seems, so they
put down the glass too heavily. These symptoms are temporary and disappear when that
person sobers up. If you think we’re going to talk about the abuse of alcohol, however,
you’re wrong. But we are going to talk about something that has to do with the brain. In the
same way that alcohol impairs the way our brain functions temporarily, so cerebral palsy
can permanently impair people’s brain functions. (The brain is also known as the cerebrum,
which is where we get the term cerebral.) Just as someone who has been drinking has trou-
ble keeping his balance, this is equally difficult for some people with cerebral palsy.
There are different kinds of cerebral palsy and you will recognise the forms when we dis-
cuss them. The first common kind is spasticity. Many people are either born with brain dam-
age which is associated with spasticity, or it can emerge after a car accident. One obvious
characteristic of spasticity is increased muscle tone (the muscles are taut), which is particu-
larly obvious at the elbow – the so-called chicken-wing arm. The thumb is also often folded
into the palm of the hand and the wrist bends towards the body. The heel muscles may also
be shortened and the person consequently walks on his toes. The knee could also be bent.
Spasticity is a very common form of cerebral palsy and it often occurs on one side of the
ACTIVITY

body only. This is known as hemiplegia. If the left side is affected, it is known as left hemi-
plegia and if the person’s right side is affected we refer to them as a right hemiplegic. The
degree of spasticity can also range from mild to severe.
We often make the mistake of thinking that people who are spastic are also less intelli-
gent. It all depends on the extent of the brain damage. It is important to remember that
someone’s appearance does not reflect his intelligence. A person who dresses in the latest
fashions and is very well groomed is not necessarily intelligent. Similarly, someone who
looks different physically is not necessarily unintelligent.
But we have not yet discussed the kind of cerebral palsy that corresponds to the tempo-
rary malfunctioning of the brain when someone has had too much to drink. A person who
drinks too much alcohol can show temporary symptoms that correspond to ataxia, a form
of cerebral palsy. Just as alcohol affects brain functions temporarily, so people who are
ataxic have problems with certain brain functions. They have most difficulty with balance,
poor coordination and clumsiness. They also have difficulty gauging the dimension of their
movements and experience problems with tasks of a rhythmic nature. Imbalance of the eye
muscles can make reading difficult and speech is often slurred. Sometimes they tremble,
especially when they are concentrating hard on a task. When they write this trembling will
be reflected in their writing (Krüger & Groenewald 2004b: 14–15).

How will you address learners to educate them to support their fellow learners with cerebral
palsy?
Now what can you do for someone with cerebral palsy? In the first place, you can be
sympathetic. If you want, you can help him with written work because such people usually
write more slowly and not always very neatly. For example, you could simply use carbon
ACTIVITY

paper in your book and share your class notes with him. Or you could take on responsibility
for at least one subject and see that all written work is copied. (Many schools have photo-
stat machines.) Otherwise you could carry his school bag or help to unpack books and
open them at the right place. Even turning pages can be difficult and time-consuming for
someone who has trouble with coordination. There are many ways to make life easier for
such a person. Even if you just help to open a can of cold drink or unwrap a chocolate. But
most important of all is that you accept the person. There is no greater gift that you can give
someone than to accept him for what he is. You would like to be accepted for who and
what you are. So would other people (Krüger & Groenewald 2004b: 15).

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13C.8 CONCLUSION mentals of special education – what every teacher needs

to know, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
The teacher forms part of a team which assists in Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6.
executing and applying a trans-disciplinary indi- Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education
vidualised educational programme. Owing to the and training system. Pretoria: Government Printer.
individualised and complex problems of some of Glees, P. 1988. The human brain. Cambridge: Cambridge
the learners with cerebral palsy, the teacher has University Press.
to rely on inputs from a wide range of other disci- Gupta, V.B. 1999. Manual of developmental and beha-
vioral problems in children. New York: Marcel Dekker.
plines. The expert contributions of such people
are indispensable to the teacher who intends to Kapp, J.A. (Ed.). 1994. Children with problems: an
orthopedagogical perspective. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik.
execute his task with any significance.
Krüger, D. & Groenewald, S. 2004a. A practical guide for
educators to accommodate diversities in inclusive educa-
tion – secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE
Questions Publishers.

1. Discuss the “neurological levels” of cerebral Krüger, D. & Groenewald, S. 2004b. A practical guide for
learners to accommodate diversities in inclusive education
palsy. You must also indicate the symptoms of – secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE Pub-
the various types of cerebral palsy that are lishers.
associated with each level. Lewis, R.B. & Doorlag, D.H. 1995. Teaching special stu-
dents in the mainstream, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
2. You receive a report from a local psychologist
Prentice Hall.
and she indicates the learner’s IQ score as low-
Murphy, K.P., Molnar, G.E. & Lankasky, K. 1995. Medical
average on an IQ test that is not adapted for and functional status of adults with cerebral palsy. Devel-
the needs of learners with cerebral palsy. What opmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 37: 1075–1084.
will your reaction be? Roberts, M.C. (Ed.). 1995. Handbook of pediatric psycho-
logy, 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press.
Wolford, P.L., Heward, W.L. & Alber, S.R. 2001. Teaching
Bibliography middle school students with learning disabilities to recruit
peer assistance during cooperative learning group activi-
Batshaw, M.L. (Ed.). 1997. Children with disabilities, 4th
ties. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16(3):
ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
161–173.
Brett, E.M. (Ed.). 1997. Paediatric neurology, 3rd ed. New
York: Churchill Livingstone.
Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation. Available at: Notes
[Link] (accssed on May 2003) 1 Hyperbilirubinemia: excess accumulation of bilirubin in
Culatta, R.A., Tompkins, J.R. & Werts, M.G. 2003. Funda- the blood

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 SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR 13 D
IMPAIRMENT

Written by R I E K I E S M I T H
Revised by D E I R D R É K R Ü G E R

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πrelate the impairments in this chapter to physical impairments of the
skeleton and muscles as opposed to physical impairments that are
neurologically related
Πaccommodate needs of learners with amputations
Πunderstand agenesis, deformed limbs and arthrogryposis
Œ know what the condition “osteogenesis imperfecta” comprises
Πdeal with the needs arising from burn lesions
Πknow that various illnesses may also cause physical impairment
Πsupport learners with physical impairment.

Key terms
Do you think that the learning support
amputations ♦ prostheses ♦ agenesis ♦ deformed for learners with physical impairments
limbs ♦ arthrogryposis ♦ osteogenesis imperfecta ♦ that affect the skeleton and muscles
burn lesions ♦ Marfan syndrome ♦ Perthe’s disease ♦ will differ from those with physical
impairments that are neurologically
Scheuermann’s disease
related? Keep the following sentence
from the introduction in mind: These
learners may experience problems in
13D.1 INTRODUCTION walking, standing, sitting or using their
ACTIVITY

hands. Motivate your answer.

Physical impairments of the skeleton and muscle Bear in mind that the various sub-
systems imply that the muscles and skeleton are chapters of Chapter 13, i.e. Chapters
affected. It is usually the limb or limbs, the spinal 13A to 13E, form a whole. Therefore
column or specific muscles which are damaged. one will find much overlapping with
Learners with a physical impairment of the skele- regard to general learning support
ton and muscular system may experience prob- which will not be repeated in this chap-
lems in walking, standing, sitting or using their ter. However, each particular physical
impairment and perhaps every learner
hands. The causes of physical impairment of the
with that particular impairment may
skeleton and muscle systems are divergent. They require adjustments to the general sup-
may be the result of genetic factors, developmen- port.
tal problems, illnesses or accidents.

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13D.2 AMPUTATIONS a pair of pliers. Thereafter, these movements are

The amputation or partial amputation of a limb is refined and only later will the learner get a pros-
brought about either by an accident, or by surgery thesis which resembles a hand. For most learners
necessitated by a serious illness such as cancer or it is disappointingly difficult to handle the pros-
an infectious condition. thesis. They may accept it with difficulty, especial-
The amputation causes serious physical prob- ly the one they practise with, and may even reject
lems. If the legs are amputated it holds implica- it. On the other hand, a person like the swimmer
tions for the learner’s mobility. If the arms are Natalie du Toit, who lost part of one leg when she
amputated, problems occur with activities invol- was involved in a scooter accident on the way to
ving hand skills. If the dominant arm is amputat- school, has overcome great obstacles.
ed, problems with the learner’s writing as well as Together with the technological knowledge
with other fine motor skills occur. explosion, prostheses have also improved. Bio-
medical prosthetic devices are artificial replace-
ments that are used in the human body to function
A toe or a finger is such a small part of
as original parts. Materials used for such prosthet-
the body. Do you think that the ampu-
tation of a big toe or a thumb can ic aids must be non-toxic, biologically and chemi-
cause serious problems? cally stable, and have sufficient mechanical integri-
Although they are small parts of the ty and strength to withstand physiological loads.
ACTIVITY

body, they fulfil most valuable func- The rehabilitation industry is moving towards
tions. The big toe is, inter alia, involved composite materials, as they are lighter in weight,
with balancing the body, and the thumb easier to work with and more durable. As a lighter
ensures the ability to hold things as it prosthesis requires less energy expenditure during
forms a vital part of the grip. Any walking, running and other activities, weight is
amputation may also have a serious extremely important in an artificial leg. A lighter
impact on the learner’s psychological
prosthesis also reduces the shear forces and pis-
functioning.
toning motion about the residual limb/stump. The
reduction of weight results in a more comfortably
These learners must often make use of prosthe- fitting prosthesis. In addition, the reduction of
ses. Prostheses are not immediately available weight eliminates the need for auxiliary suspen-
because they must be designed for a specific per- sion straps and waist belts. Over the past 20 years,
son. Exhausting fittings are often involved. The with the rapid development of new plastics and
stump onto which the prosthesis must fit also metal alloys such as copolymer, titanium etc.,
changes considerably due to shrinkage or the for- there have been significant efforts to make lighter
mation of connective tissue over the lesion. Con- and stronger products (Mittal et al. 2001).
sequently adjustments have constantly to be Amputations have serious psychosocial implica-
made to the prosthesis. A poorly fitting prosthesis tions for children. They must learn to live with
may cause severe pressure sores. Because chil- and accept the disfigurement of their bodies.
dren are still growing, the prostheses must often There are also many problems relating to the
be replaced or altered. A prosthesis is a particu- acceptance and use of a prosthesis which they
larly expensive apparatus. It is not easy to man- must deal with. Furthermore, they must realise
age and long training sessions are often required. that there are many things they can no longer do.
Especially with the upper limbs, learners must They also lose much of their independence (to a
first learn by practising with an apparatus which greater or lesser degree) and they have to adjust
resembles a hook and which opens and closes like to living with others as one who is impaired.

A learner with a hand injury – sustained after a mud wall collapsed, partly crushing her hand
– returns to your class. She wears an elaborate splint with small trellises to which rubber
bands are attached in order to stretch the remaining fingers (two fingers were amputated).
Your Grade 7 learners try to be polite and pretend that they do not notice it because the

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learner is self-conscious about the splint and wraps her school jersey around the contrap-
tion. How will you deal with it?
You can leave the learner for a day or two with the jersey wrapped around the splint, so
that she can orientate herself in her school environment. You have already taken care of her
needs on the first day, i.e. welcomed her back to the class, arranged for extra tuition time
so that she can catch up on her work, appointed her best friend as buddy to assist her (she
only has the use of one hand), ensured that she is comfortably seated so that she does not
bump the hand unnecessarily (hand injuries are extremely painful because of all the nerve
endings) and informed her that she may work at a pace suitable for her (she may tire easily
at first, and the use of only one hand may also slow her down) as well as devised a weight
to hold her book in place while she is writing. Although you have also encouraged her to
elevate the hand because it eases the pain, you notice that she does not follow your advice,
most probably for fear of drawing attention to it.
When you feel that the time is right, speak to the learner in private. Ask her how she is fit-
ting in in class after her return. Tell her that you have noticed the jersey around the splint
and ask if there is a particular reason for it. Ask her if you may discuss her injury in class
and if she will perhaps be willing to show the splint to the class. (She may cover it after-
wards again with the jersey.) Reassure her that you and the other learners in class think
ACTIVITY

highly of her, and that all of you feel awkward in a way because you want to make things
easier for her, but you do not really know how to deal with it. Perhaps she can share some
of her needs, either in person with the class or through you, if she consents. Mention that it
is also a learning experience for you and the class and that you want to make the most of it.
If she hesitates, grant her time to think about your suggestion. (Remember that she is in a
sensitive early adolescent phase.) Enquire about the extent of recovery to her hand, whether
it is still swollen (which will most probably be the case) or bruised. Acknowledge that it does
take time to get used to an altered limb and that you can imagine that she may have ques-
tions about her hand’s future functionality.
If she does not consent to sharing her injury with the class, you have to respect her wish-
es and continue to render support as usual. If she is cooperative and if she has uncertain-
ties, for instance about the mechanism of the splint – perhaps time was not taken to explain
that the stretching (extension) of the fingers is to avoid contractures – you can contact the
occupational therapist to find answers which you will then share with her. People in the
medical profession sometimes forget how important it is to keep their patients informed
about what is happening to their bodies, or sometimes they use medical terms which ordi-
nary members of the public cannot understand. (Remember that you must also keep your
explanation simple, because you are also now becoming familiar with medical terms. You
will, for instance, not use the word “contractures” but explain it as the shortening of muscle
fibres at the joints of her fingers that will decrease the mobility of the joints.)

13D.3 AGENESIS AND DEFORMED LIMBS

Children may also be born without a limb or a part from the elbow downwards or only the hand
of a limb. This is called agenesis or sometimes (there may, however, be a rudimentary finger or
congenital amputation. The part of a limb which is toe on the stump). In the other type, a midsection
present may also be deformed. It is assumed that of the limb may be missing. The hand, for exam-
the loss of the limb is the result of a problem ple, appears on the shoulder or the elbow. This
which originated during the first three months of type is also called “flippering” because it is remi-
pregnancy. niscent of the flippers of a seal.
Two types of agenesis occur. One type resem- These learners often require prostheses, espe-
bles a traumatic amputation where, for example, cially when the condition resembles a traumatic
the whole arm may be missing, or the section amputation. Where a prosthesis is necessary it is

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advisable to attach an appendage to the stump abnormalities, respiratory problems and hernias.
shortly after birth so that the child learns to live The learner’s movement at the joints is restrict-
with the weight on the limb and learns to accept ed and causes problems regarding mobility. Intel-
it as part of himself. This makes using and accept- ligence is, however, usually normal. The learner
ing the prosthesis so much easier. Sometimes it is will have difficulty in writing, but with sufficient
also necessary to amputate a malformed, useless motivation can progress academically and attain
part of a limb in order to put the child in a posi- independence. Surgery, plaster casts and braces
tion to work with a prosthesis. As in the case of are often required to improve the impairment.
traumatic amputations, there are many problems
regarding the use of a prosthesis. Sometimes the
13D.5 OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
children have learned to cope without it so well
that they use and accept it only with great diffi- Osteogenesis imperfecta is a dominant genetic ill-
culty. The older they get, however, the more they ness. Sometimes it appears with no prior family
are able to do if they use the prosthesis. history, apparently as the result of a mutation. Lit-
These learners experience many problems with erally, osteogenesis imperfecta means “incom-
mobility if the agenesis is in the lower limbs, and plete bone formation”. The collagen fibres of the
with manual skills and writing if the agenesis is in bone are defective. In various respects the bones
the upper limbs. Their intelligence is usually nor- are immature or incompletely formed and are
mal. Teaching and therapy are aimed at guiding comparable with the bones of a developing foe-
these learners to grow up as independently as tus. The bones of the body are weak and there is
possible and to take their place in society and in more elasticity of the surrounding tissue such as
the labour market. in the joints, ligaments and skin. The bones are
soft and fracture easily and thus the abnormality
is often known as “brittle bone”. There are two
13D.4 ARTHROGRYPOSIS
kinds of osteogenesis imperfecta, namely osteoge-
Arthrogryposis, also called congenital multiple nesis imperfecta congenita, which is present from
contractures, is an abnormality where a child is birth and the baby is born with fractures already
born with stiff joints and weak muscles. Typical of present; and osteogenesis imperfecta tarda where
the deformity is that the joints are curved. Arthro- fractures appear later. The latter is less severe
gryposis appears sporadically and the cause of the and the child develops numerous fractures in
impairment is unknown. It occurs early on in the his first few years of life, but these decrease
foetal stage, and stiffness and malformation of the later on.
joints are observable from birth (Batshaw 1997: Initially the skull is soft with the result that the
815). forehead is broad and the skull bulges at the tem-
The affected child often has the appearance of a ples. The face takes on a characteristic triangular
wooden marionette. The shoulders are curved form. The limbs are small and bowed and are
forward, the elbows are straight and the forearms often malformed due to many fractures. The chest
are turned with the palms of the hands facing is rounded and the breastbone is prominent. The
inwards. The wrists are curved and turned to the spinal column is curved and scoliosis often occurs.
inside. The hips curve upwards and turn out- The joints are slack and bend further than normal.
wards. Dislocation of the hip is common. The The learner is usually very short in stature. The
knees are either bent or straight, and the feet are whites of the eyes show a characteristic bluish
usually turned inwards and downwards. The colour, due to a large amount of collagen. The
spinal column is usually also curved and scoliosis skin also often appears transparent. Auditory
occurs. The limbs are thin and the joints become abnormalities often occur as a result of the bone
large with loss of movement. The skin over the deformities of the inner ear. Osteogenesis imper-
joints is usually wrinkled. fecta often stabilises later on, and fractures lessen
Various other congenital deformities appear after puberty.
together with arthrogryposis, such as heart Learners with osteogenesis imperfecta experi-

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ence mobility problems. Their limbs cannot easily neys, lungs, liver and the brain as a result of the
support their body mass and are short and bent. loss of tissue and tissue damage.
Learners must often use supports to move and Serious burns cause skin injuries which may
fractures often occur. A light blow may cause a result in deformities. Around the lesions the skin
fracture and it sometimes seems as if the fracture is inclined to contract. Contractures may develop,
occurs spontaneously. The fracture heals easily especially in the joints and also the neck. Defor-
and the bone does not break again in the same mation may occur around the mouth as a result of
place. The learners often experience pain with all the contraction of the skin and visual problems
these fractures and the plaster casts are uncom- may develop. Where there are serious burn
fortable and further restrict their movements. lesions, the learner may even appear monstrous.
Children who have osteogenesis imperfecta are Surgery has to be performed repeatedly in the
intellectually normal. They are usually verbally flu- form of skin grafts to lessen contractures.
ent, learn easily and are pleasant to have in the Burn lesions appear in various areas and may
class. affect learners in many ways. The following prob-
lems, however, are common:
13D.6 BURN LESIONS • A low tolerance for heat and gruelling exer-
The skin is the largest and one of the most impor- cise. The skin grafts and the lesions do not con-
tant organs of the human body. Heat and chemi- tain sweat glands and consequently the func-
cals may burn the skin and parts of the skin may tioning of the body’s cooling mechanism is
be destroyed. The majority of injuries due to restricted.
burning are caused by exposure to flames. Burns • Restricted mobility. The mobility of these
may be so severe that parts of the skin are learners is restricted by the burn lesions and
destroyed and the person becomes physically the resultant contractures. If the burn lesions
impaired. Learners experience continuous and are very extensive the learner may even have to
extremely intense pain from burns. The loss of use a wheelchair. Such learners require physio-
skin, coupled with the loss of fluids and the stress therapy to improve mobility, prevent contrac-
of the injury may actually affect every organ of the tures and constriction of the skin around the
body. Extensive burns cause damage to the kid- lesions, and stretch the skin.

A learner in your class sustained serious burn injuries after a fire spread through the squat-
ter camp where he lives. He is currently still in hospital, but he will soon be returning to your
class after many months in hospital. His face is deformed. How will you prepare your Grade
8 learners?
Hopefully you kept contact with the learner during all his months in hospital, not only for
the sake of his schoolwork, but also for his emotional recovery (of which your contact forms
an important part). Hopefully you have also encouraged contact between your other learn-
ers and this learner, even if it was only through short letters and cards. If you have kept your
ACTIVITY

learners informed about his recovery, they will most probably be aware of his facial deformi-
ty. Prior to his return to class you will have to discuss their reaction to his deformity in detail
in order to prepare them. If you are aware of the extent of the deformity, you can share it
with the class if you have not already done so. Tell them that people usually experience dis-
comfort when confronted for the first time with somebody’s disfiguration. That is normal,
but they must not avoid or ignore him because of their discomfort as he may experience it
as rejection. Rather overcome personal feelings and concentrate on this learner. Each learn-
er can choose how he or she will reach out to this learner. These learners also have another
responsibility and that is to explain to the other learners in the school that their classmate’s
face is deformed as a result of a fire, but the changes are only on the outside and as time
goes by they will notice it less and less.

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 SKELEDTAL AND MUSCULAR IMPAIRMENT 13 D

• Affective problems. These can prevail even mally long – especially the fingers and toes. The
long after the burn injuries have been sus- skull is also elongated and narrow and various eye
tained. defects may occur. Abnormalities of the vertebral
• Guilt feelings. Generally these learners feel column and the internal organs may also occur,
responsible for the accident. The circumstances most critical of which are typical heart problems
which led to it and the parents’ reaction to the which can lead to heart failure and death. Limited
accident may contribute to a learner’s guilt feel- physical exercise is usually indicated (Culatta et al.
ings. Many of these learners consider the suf- 2003: 218).
fering and injuries as punishment for previous A physical impairment which is temporary is
misdemeanours – this is especially evident in that of broken bones which result from an acci-
abused learners. The parents’ guilt feelings dent. The learners may be in plaster casts or
about the event may also increase the guilt feel- braces for long periods or have to use ortho-
ings of the learner. paedic aids.
Various illnesses may also cause physical
• Pain. After the injury these learners live through impairment. Chronic illnesses such as rheumatoid
very intense and persistent pain, and even high arthritis, Sheuermann’s disease and Perthe’s dis-
doses of painkillers do not totally alleviate it. ease cause physical impairments that may be of a
Movement and even simply eating causes the permanent nature. Perthe’s disease occurs
intensity of the pain to flare up. The learners between the ages of three and ten years and usu-
lose their trust in adults and often believe that ally affects boys. It is a type of arthritis of the hip.
they do not want to give them relief. The expe- The head and neck of the femur and the hip joint
rience of pain adds to the affective problems. are affected. There is a degeneration of the bone
As a result of pain, confusion, regression, and cartilage. The illness lasts two to four years
depression, aggression, withdrawal and general and the child remains in bed for months in trac-
negativism may occur, which add to the chal- tion or in plaster casts. The child usually recovers
lenge of supporting these learners. on his own but one of his legs may be shortened
• Deformity. The burn lesions may cause defor- and he walks with a limp. Scheuermann’s disease
mity. When they are on or near the face, learn- usually occurs in teenagers, and more often in
ers may appear monstrous. They experience boys. It attacks the vertebral column and causes
problems with socialisation because they find it curvature of the top part of the vertebral column,
difficult to mix with other learners and they resulting in bent shoulders. This is compensated
must often endure embarrassing questions and for by a hollow back, low down. The back and
ridicule from other learners (Roberts 1995: shoulders gradually become more bent. It may be
446–459). associated with pain. Such learners usually wear a
back brace during the day, and at night splints are
used. Recovery usually occurs later but the back
13D.7 OTHER PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENTS OF may remain curved and the learner may have a
THE SKELETON AND MUSCLE hunched back.
SYSTEMS
There are some other physical impairments of the 13D.8 SUPPORT TO LEARNERS WITH
skeleton and muscles which will not be discussed PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT
here in detail because their incidence is low, they
For support to learners with physical impairment,
are temporary, or they are the result of a chronic
consult the relevant sections in Chapter 13A, sec-
illness.
tion 13A.4, and Chapter 13C, section 13C.7.
Those which occur less often include dwarfism,
where the learners are particularly small. This may
appear on its own or coupled with other impair- 13D.9 CONCLUSION
ments or chronic illnesses. Another example is The four subchapters (13A–13D) deal with various
Marfan syndrome, where the limbs appear abnor- forms of physical impairment. Chapter 13A pro-

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

vides for physical impairments that are neurologi- class. What precautions will you put in place
cally related. Two such impairments, epilepsy and during breaks?
cerebral palsy, are dealt with separately and 3. There is one aspect of the abovementioned
extensively in Chapters 13B and 13C respectively. learner regarding a particular barrier that may
Chapter 13D deals with physical impairments that impede learning. What is it and how will you
relate to the skeleton and muscles. The discussion deal with it?
on physical impairment in the various subchapters
focuses on the causes and identification of the
Bibliography
conditions, as well as support to learners.
Batshaw, M.L. (Ed.). 1997. Children with disabilities, 4th
ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Questions Culatta, R.A., Tompkins, J.R. & Werts, M.G. 2003. Funda-
mentals of special education – what every teacher needs
1. How will you deal with a learner with serious to know, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
burn lesions on an exceptionally hot day in Mittal, A., Srikanth, G. & Biswas, S. 2001. Composite
your class? materials for orthopaedic aids. Available at: <[Link]
[Link]/news/[Link] (accessed on 16 April 2004)
2. You have a learner with osteogenesis imper- Roberts, M.C. (Ed.). 1995. Handbook of pediatric psychol-
fecta (brittle bone disease) in your Grade 3 ogy, 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press.

306
 AUTISM AND RELATED 13 E
DISORDERS (PDD)

CHRISTINE KOUDSTAAL

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the nature of autism as well as the reasons why most
learners with autistic spectrum disorder experience extraordinary
barriers to learning from early childhood onwards
Πidentify the subtle though fundamental differences between learners
with autism and those with Asperger syndrome
Πprovide the kind and level of support each group will need to access
learning programmes
Πdevelop appropriate skills and knowledge within an inclusive learning
environment
Πunderstand the role of the teacher, the principles of intervention
strategies and possible approaches to be followed in an attempt to
ameliorate the barriers this group of learners experiences.

Key terms autism, Asperger syndrome and pervasive devel-

opmental disorders not otherwise specified (PDD
autistic spectrum disorder ♦ Asperger syndrome ♦ nos). The intention of this chapter is to concen-
triad of impairments ♦ pervasive developmental trate mainly on autistic spectrum disorders (DSM-
disorders ♦ alternative communication systems ♦ IV-TR in APA 2000: 59–64).
TEACCH Autism and Asperger syndrome represent the
main impairments of pervasive developmental
disorders, and although indicated as separate
13E.1 INTRODUCTION: THE NATURE OF
from each other, they share most of the core char-
AUTISM
acteristics. Autism and Asperger syndrome as well
Autism is defined as a complex, variable, biologi- as other autistic-like conditions are presently
cally based, pervasive developmental disorder referred to as autistic spectrum disorders (ASD).
which influences both the development as well as The latter description offers a more encompass-
the functioning of the brain. Typically related ing account of autism and indicates that there is a
characteristics are present which support the broader conceptualisation of autism, and that typ-
identification of this impairment. ical features of autism may manifest differently in
The umbrella term “pervasive developmental different learners. Not to exclude any of these
disorders” (PDD), demonstrated in Figure 13E.1, impairments, we shall, when using the term
includes a variety of related impairments, namely “autism”, refer to autistic spectrum disorders
Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, (ASD), or learners with ASD (see Figure 13E.1).

307
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Pervasive developmental disorders

(PDD)

Rett’s syndrome PDD

(not otherwise specified)

Childhood
disintegrative Asperger’s
disorder Autism
syndrome

Triad
of
impairments

Figure 13E.1 Pervasive developmental disorders

The presence of a developmental disorder, rather be interpreted as a consequence of how

especially if it originates early in life (before three and what the learner experiences or understands
years of age), may cause severe barriers to learn- during class and teaching activities.
ing right from the beginning and onwards. Com-
pared to neuro-typical or ordinary learners, the
development of skills and abilities of learners with 13E.2 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
ASD is uneven, takes a different route, and does AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDER
not always develop spontaneously even when Descriptions of first accounts of autism by Leo
using models for the purpose of imitation. As Kanner in 1943 and Asperger syndrome by Hans
opposed to learners with Down syndrome, or Asperger in 1944 created a wealth of information
with physical or sensory impairments, there are on which our current understanding of autism is
no visible external features present which indi- still firmly based. Presently, international classifi-
cate ASD. The barriers to learning this group of cation systems such as the Diagnostic and Statisti-
learners experiences are mainly due to intrinsic cal Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psy-
factors, which usually manifest in characteristic chiatric Association, and the World Health Orga-
patterns of behaviour. Knowing that a learner has nization’s International Classification of Diseases and
autism will tell the teacher that the behaviour and Disorders are used to capture and identify the
other observed features are mainly due to a spe- essential features and characteristics of autism.
cific developmental and not because of a behav- For educational purposes we will discuss the fea-
ioural impairment. tures according to Lorna Wing’s “triad of impair-
Misinterpretations whereby learners are ments” (Jordan 1997: 10; 2000: 13–15).
described and assessed on only a behavioural
level – e.g. challenging, stubborn, undisciplined,
13E.2.1 The triad of impairments
unmotivated, emotionally impaired, severely or
intellectually impaired – is a particular pitfall. Lorna Wing identified a “triad of impairments”
Concentration on behaviour alone may often lead which refers to three important aspects or dimen-
to misinterpretations and subsequently to inap- sions common in all learners with autism and
propriate intervention strategies and support sys- Asperger syndrome (Figure 13E.2). The onset of
tems (Jordan 1997: 9). Although behaviour is autistic spectrum disorders is usually before 36
essential in our recognition of autism, it should months, but in extreme cases it may be later. The

308
 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

following difficulties in areas of development able time on specific activities. It is thus necessary
were identified and manifest as follows: to realise that the triad of impairments may mani-
• Impairment of reciprocal social interaction fest to different degrees, and also interact with
• Impairment of language and reciprocal commu- each other in different ways. When a learner expe-
nication riences difficulties with regard to the develop-
ment of appropriate social skills, it will be equally
• Impairment of imagination and social under-
difficult for the learner to initiate spontaneous
standing (flexible thinking)
interaction with his peers while playing in the
Communication sandpit. Furthermore, effective communication as
well as the development of flexible, creative imag-
inary thinking skills will be influenced by the limi-
tations of the learner’s social developmental lev-
els. Therefore, as can be seen in Figure 13E.3, the
dimensions of the triad should not be seen as sep-
arate developmental entities, but rather as having
continuous interaction with each other.
Some of the learners on the autistic spectrum
Social Thought seem to be more severely affected than those
interaction processes with Asperger syndrome. Here the difference lies
Figure 13E.2 Wing’s triad of impair-
in the variation of manifestations of each dimen-
ments sion of the triad; the degree and presence of sec-
ondary impairments, e.g. epilepsy; and degrees of
Teachers are often confused by the differences intellectual impairment. Asperger syndrome, on
they observe in learners with ASD, and the fact the other hand, seems to project no significant
that they do not succeed in obtaining planned language or developmental delays (Jordan & Pow-
outcomes after they have spent more than reason- ell 1995: 4–5).

Communication:
Syntax and speech well developed –
impaired social use

Thought processes:
Limited imagination. Unable
to distinguish between reality
and imagination
Social interaction:
Solitary and
withdrawn

Social interaction:
Seeks attention
but responds
Thought processes: Communication: inappropriately
Ritualistic and routine bound. Language and speech
Imaginative play delayed/absent severely impaired

Figure 13E.3 The interrelatedness and complexity of the different dimensions concern-
ing the triad of impairments

309
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Although the presence of the full triad of On the social continuum, as illustrated in Figure
impairments applies to both autism and Asperger 13E.4, the behaviour we observe in learners with
syndrome, it is probably easier to include the lat- autism may range from being withdrawn, aloof or
ter group in mainstream classes. This does not indifferent towards people, through responding
exclude the fact that both groups, compared to in a passive way when approached, to appearing
their neuro-typical peers, will need high levels of “active but odd”. Learners want to interact, want
consistent support, structure and an adapted cur- attention but do not understand how to initiate
riculum or programmes, to prevent and address or to respond appropriately in these situations.
learning breakdown. Young learners may at first be extremely with-
drawn, and in later years become “active but
13E.2.1.1 Impairment of social interaction odd”. Thus it is possible, as a result of develop-
Learners with autistic spectrum disorders experi- ment or teaching strategies, to move on this con-
ence difficulties relating to others or in initiating tinuum from one end towards the other (Jordan &
interaction in an ordinary and socially acceptable Powell 1995: 4–5).
way. When they respond to non-autistic people,
the timing or contents of their responses seem to
be inappropriate and odd. By studying Joe’s pro- With reference to your experience and
file below, the impact of difficulties on a social ACTIVITY knowledge of autism, can you mention
types of inappropriate behaviour in
level may be understood.
learners with ASD? Read the following
to find out whether you were on the
right track.

CASE STUDY
Aloof and indifferent behaviour
Although Joe knows the names of his peers and
is able to read them, he does not relate to them • At the severe end of the spectrum or continu-
at all and makes no attempt to interact with um, the learner appears to be indifferent to and
them. When friends interfere with his play he can unaware of others, especially peers. Some of
become quite aggressive by biting and pinching. them are often aware of their parents, siblings
He ignores staff and when approached will or primary caregiver and are able to form sim-
attempt to push them away. Yet he “uses” peo- ple egocentric attachments. The overall picture
ple to guide them by the hand if he needs some- is that of being solitary and withdrawn.
thing. He does not seek comfort when upset or
hurt, and seldom shows that he has enjoyed an • Many learners may regard and treat people as
activity. objects, will move around them as if they are
not present, move them physically out of their
Three typical manifestations of inappropriate way, climb on or over them without any pur-
social interaction were identified by Wing pose, e.g. when seeking physical contact, play-
(1995: 4): ing a game, etc.
• Aloof and indifferent behaviour • Learners are also inclined to use people in a
• Passive behaviour mechanical manner exclusively to meet their
• Active but odd behaviour own needs. They will take or pull a hand, pull

Continuum
Solitary Seeks attention
Passive
and but responds
response
withdrawn inappropriately

Figure 13E.4 The continuum of social interaction dimensions

310
 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

or push any person to the desired object or pre- • One of the reasons why learners with ASD
ferred environment. If they are self-sufficient interact differently on a social level is because
they will not seek help or permission, and will they experience severe problems in under-
help themselves to whatever they want or standing the mental states of others e.g. how
desire, e.g. finding another learner’s lunch box other people think and feel. By observing out-
and eating only the special snacks and not the ward appearances, non-autistic people are usu-
sandwiches. ally able to “read” others’ behaviour, which is
followed by predictions based on their own
Passive behaviour understanding and assumptions of what others
are thinking, feeling or planning. Frith coined
• These learners passively accept social contact,
the term “theory of mind” to explain this phe-
show some pleasure, but do not initiate spon-
nomenon (Frith 1989: 156–174). Thus learners
taneous approaches.
with autism may seem to be “mind blind” and
• They may attend to a wide range of activities “socially blind”, because their framework of
(not spontaneously), without showing resist- knowledge and understanding develops differ-
ance or complaining. ently. The failure to understand how others
• Some will participate in activities only when think and feel usually leads to the following:
assisted or cued to do so, and when the activi- – Having difficulty in predicting the behaviour
ty has stopped and the others have lost and intentions of others. Being able to inter-
interest, the learner with autistic spectrum dis- pret these intentions and being familiar with
order will seldom attempt to keep the activity the social context leads us to function more
going. successfully within ever-changing environ-
• These learners find it difficult to occupy them- ments. Because it is difficult for learners
selves meaningfully, and in extreme cases they with autism to predict behaviour, they
will remain passive most of the time especially become stressed, confused and anxious,
during unstructured times, or will become which may be observed in the particular
engaged in repetitive stereotyped behaviour, behaviour displayed.
e.g. spinning objects; rocking themselves; lin- – Finding it difficult to show empathy and to
ing up, tapping or throwing objects. express themselves emotionally, e.g. when
someone is crying because their pet has died
Active but odd behaviour or a friendship has ended, or laughing when
• Learners approach others spontaneously but in jokes are told.
an odd, one-sided, bizarre or repetitive way. – Not realising that they may affect how oth-
• Conversations are usually one-sided, and inap- ers think and feel. This is the reason why
propriate questions are asked repetitively while they are seldom motivated to please, do not
paying little attention or showing no interest in project communication intent, lack spon-
the reply of the listener. taneity in social interactions and do not
show a conscience.
• In its most subtle form, social difficulties are
manifested by an over-formal, stilted, mechani- – Experiencing difficulties to share attention
cal way of interacting. Social rules and over- in social contexts, leading to their own idio-
polite behaviour are usually learned by rote and syncratic references, such as preferred and
applied without regard to the situation or the narrow topics of high interest.
person involved (Wing 1991: 4). For example – Lacking an understanding of social rules
the president of the country and the person especially during conversations, which leads
delivering the daily newspaper will be to poor interaction, poor turn-taking and
addressed in the same stilted and over-formal topic maintenance (Frith 1989: 156–174; Jor-
manner. dan & Powell 1995: ix–xii).

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

13E2.1.2 Impairments of communication and guage and communication, namely to transfer

language messages from one person to another and to con-
As with social development, language and com- trol situations or experiences. Sometimes single
munication as well as the development of imagi- words are better understood than phrases or sen-
nation, thinking and behaviour can be observed tences, and when one is unable to transfer infor-
according to a continuum of needs. mation about one’s own beliefs, thoughts and
In addition to the difficulties they experience feelings, the best one can achieve is to repeat in a
on a social level, both the ability to understand stereotyped, repetitive manner statements, ques-
and use language to communicate intent is tions and whole conversations (Peeters & Gillberg
impaired and follows rather deviant developmen- 2003).
tal patterns. Joe’s profile indicates unusual com- The following aspects may be present in differ-
munication development. ent combinations and on different levels:
• At the severe end of the continuum, the ability
or desire to communicate may be absent.
CASE STUDY Understanding of language is usually severely
affected and the learner finds it difficult to
Joe’s eye contact is poor and fleeting. His ability understand or use any form of communication,
to express himself or indicate his needs is limit- including facial expressions, gestures, body
ed. Although he does not communicate in a
postures, pictures and words.
meaningful way, he is able to count to 20 and
sings the national anthem. Immediate and • On the next level, needs will be expressed by
delayed echolalia is present and sometimes he pulling the person to the desired object and the
repeats words appropriately and in context. He utterance of a few simple words. Most of the
talks to himself and sometimes sings on his own. time words will be echoed in a parrot-like fash-
He is able to follow simple verbal instructions,
ion (echolalia), while understanding of lan-
but shows resistance when faced with more for-
mal demands. He often ignores human and envi-
guage is equally limited. On both this and the
ronmental sounds when he is preoccupied with previous level, the learner will benefit if intro-
his own activities. Although he has limited duced to augmentative and alternative commu-
speech, he is able to read words in three different nication systems (AAC).
languages. Higher up on the continuum more words and
sentences are used, although in a one-sided
As indicated in Figure 13E.5, learners with autism and repetitive fashion. Speech may often be
experience – from an early age and in different echolalic, for example the immediate repetition
degrees – difficulties with all aspects of communi- of sentences or phrases they have heard, or
cation. Non-verbal, pre-verbal, and verbal commu- repetition of phrases that they have heard in
nication as well as aspects of comprehension are the past (delayed echolalia). Although the gen-
severely impaired. Many will have to be intro- eral impression is of being very expressive, the
duced to and taught to use alternative communi- understanding of language is remarkably limit-
cation systems. Features include a lack of joint ed.
attention, poor understanding of reciprocity, low Pronouns are often reversed, using “you” for
frequency of initiating communication and “I”, “she” for “he”, “we” for “you”. This is usual-
impaired ability to understand the meaning of lan- ly a function of echolalia and of phrases heard,

Continuum
Language and Syntax and speech
Language impaired
speech severely well developed –
limited speech
impaired impaired social use

Figure 13E.5 The continuum of language and communication

312
 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

e.g. the teacher asks: “Do you want a snack?” 13E.2.1.3 Impairments of imagination and
and the learner replies: “You want a snack, yes”. social understanding (flexible
Some show little interest in using their lan- thinking behaviour)
guage and communication skills until an event Like social and communication development,
takes place that affects them directly (“emer- imagination and thinking skills develop different-
gency action”). ly in that they manifest in an impaired way, as
Factual comments irrelevant to the situation indicated by Figure 13E.6 and Joe’s profile.
are often made in an attempt to initiate or par-
ticipate in a conversation. They often have
severe difficulty in selecting, initiating and CASE STUDY
maintaining contextually appropriate topics of
conversation. Joe seldom laughs or shows any pleasure. He
The establishment of eye contact, which rep- presents with some inappropriate emotional
responses – e.g. crying spells and aggression –
resents a form of non-verbal communication, is
for no apparent reason. Appropriate responses
also unusual. Characteristics of eye contact vary to heat, pain and cold are absent. No imaginative
along the continuum from being absent, fleet- play is present. His activities consist of self-stim-
ing or peripheral, and when eye contact is pres- ulating behaviour, e.g. spinning himself, stereo-
ent, it may be too intense or give the impres- typed hand movements, licking his hands, bang-
sion of looking past one. The ability to apply ing on walls with toys. He becomes mesmerised
this skill appropriately, for the purposes of with falling objects, e.g. he holds toys, cars or
either seeking attention or approval, is usually blocks in front of himself and then drops them. A
severely impaired. This can be ascribed to find- ritual of clapping his hands and pressing them
ing it difficult to pay attention to both “look- against each other follows this obsessive play-
ing” and “listening” at the same time. ing. He finds it difficult to focus on other mean-
ingful activities although he is able to play appro-
• At the upper end of the continuum would be priately when in a structured situation and sup-
those who use language in an over-formal, pre- ported. He is visually inclined and prefers activi-
cise and adult-like manner. The extensive ties involving shapes, colour sorting puzzles and
vocabulary and advanced grammatical struc- mechanical objects. He has severe “food fads”
and eats only oats porridge or scrambled egg,
tures used may seem too advanced and formal
and drinks water.
for the age. Understanding of language is usu-
ally of a very literal and concrete nature which
Impoverished, restricted imaginative and inflexi-
contributes to varying levels of confusion, mis-
ble thinking skills are demonstrated by their
understanding and anxiety, especially if expres-
resistance to accept changes in any context.
sions such as “shake a leg”, “it is raining cats
When changes happen unexpectedly, and they do
and dogs” and “wait a minute” are used. One-
not understand the reason, various degrees of
sided incessant talking, usually about their nar-
repetitive stereotyped activities and behaviour
row interests and regardless of the response of
are reflected, e.g. they become preoccupied with
others, often occurs. The impression is that
unusual rituals, objects or narrow interests.
they want to participate in conversations, they
Because changes are resisted, it is also difficult
want to share information, but fail to recognise
to anticipate future events. They perform poorly
the rules of reciprocity pertaining to social
when they need to plan something or to organise
conversations, e.g. first to listen and then to
themselves. For them there is only a here, now
respond appropriately to what has been said.
and immediate world. This leads to a rigid
• Vocal intonations may be odd and monoto- dependence on routines, because they prefer
nous, while inflections appear to be unrelated sameness, predictability and order with no or very
to the content of speech, and speech delivery few changes or deviations. Should changes occur
may be slow, fast or jerky (Peeters 2001: unexpectedly, they might revert to fearing what
47–70). might happen next. An impairment of “executive

313
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

control functions” (Jordan 2000: 97–101), might seldom understood and is therefore applied in an
shed some light on our understanding of the dif- inflexible fashion. They find it difficult either to
ferent and sometimes deviant ways in which obey or break the rules e.g. school closes at 13:30
learners with autism respond. Control of execu- daily but at 12:00 the day before a holiday, or
tive functions enables one to maintain and apply learners are supposed to be quiet in the dining
problem-solving strategies to attain future goals. room every day, but when social dances are held
It includes the ability to plan, control impulses, there, they are allowed to party with accompany-
inhibit incorrect responses, organise, search, and ing loud music!
apply flexible thinking and action strategies. The Some learners are able to memorise and copy
most important implication concerning a weak in an exact fashion what they see other people do.
control of executive functions is behaviour con- They are able to enact scenes of lengthy stories,
trol and management. This theory explains why films or advertisements repetitively, e.g. The Lion
learners find it difficult to control their own King, which will be copied perfectly, but not
behaviour, by being unable to inhibit inappropri- always with much understanding of what they are
ate responses which are triggered by the environ- doing or why they are doing it. Others are seldom
ment (Jordan 2000: 97–101). involved, unless they are prepared to accept the
Notwithstanding the fact that learners with learner with autism as the main “actor” as well as
autism may be able to perform rote memory tasks his rules or commands.
extremely well, they seem to be unaware or able Play behaviour is affected on all levels. Lack of
to remember that anything is happening to them. imaginative play may indicate difficulty in under-
They may be active participants in an activity but standing the symbolic value of toys. Imaginative
“detached from any sense of self” that they are and pretend play seldom develops spontaneously.
doing it (Powell & Jordan 2000: 6–8). Consequent- Therefore it is important to guide and teach them
ly they are unable to reflect on or recall what they to play. When they play the overall nature is
have learned or experienced. These aspects are restricted to repetitiveness and usually lacks the
important when we want learning to be a mean- development of more complex pretence levels.
ingful experience, recognising at the same time They prefer to play on their own and to be occu-
that understanding and success of future experi- pied with one or more stereotyped and restricted
ences are linked to past ones. Being unable to patterns of interest. This is usually inappropriate
recall personal involvement in events prevents with regard to the frequency, intensity and focus
them from applying their thinking skills and utilis- of the chosen activities. Some show a preoccupa-
ing their knowledge as a point of departure, not tion with unusual objects such as string, sticks,
only to solve similar though slightly different bottle tops and elastic bands, or when they play,
problems in the future, but also to generalise or objects will be arranged in exact lines, or accord-
transfer previously gained knowledge or skills to a ing to shapes, colours or sizes. In the case of learn-
variety of other situations. To develop a “sense of ers with Asperger syndrome, instead of playing
self”, the use of photographs, videos or verbal they are more able to memorise information per-
comments while learners are involved in activities taining to their special interests. At the lower end
may serve as evidence of their participation and of the continuum, learners with ASD prefer same-
successes (Powell & Jordan 2000: 6–8). ness and may adhere to non-threatening routines
Irrespective of the kind of rule or custom, it is or rituals – stereotyped and repetitive motor man-

Continuum
Ritualistic
Limited imagination
Reliance on routines Less ritualistic,
Difficulty in distinguishing
Display/absence of more flexibility
imagination from reality
imaginative play

Figure 13E.6 The continuum of imagination and understanding

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 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

nerisms, such as hand or finger flapping, or whole 13E.2.2.1 Sensorimotor development

body movements may be practised because it The ability of learners with ASD to integrate and
ensures predictability, order and security. process sensory, motor and perceptual experi-
In most cases learners over-select or focus ences is different from non-autistic learners. The
more on the details of objects than on the total way in which they register, modulate and inte-
object. They tend to be persistently preoccupied grate environmental stimuli by means of seeing,
with parts of objects. This may also be present hearing, smelling, tasting, moving around or
when talking about a topic of high interest (De touching may be affected. Some learners with
Clercq 2003: 37–60, Jordan 2000: 114–125; Jor- ASD have little control over the amount of envi-
dan & Powell 1995: 1–3; Wing 1991: 1–6). ronmental stimuli they absorb. This usually
Happé (in Richer & Coates 2001: 71–72) refers results in unexpected, negative behaviour. Many
to the normal tendency to process and integrate are either hyper- or hypo-sensitive to stimuli and
information as a whole as having a good “central will, for instance, close their ears and/or eyes with
coherence” ability. Because learners with autism their hands when certain frequencies are heard. In
display extreme difficulties, they may have a weak extreme cases they will either move away from
ability of “central coherence”. Another attempt to the source, resist participating or start crying.
explain the learner with ASD’s preoccupation with Over-sensitivity to sound is particularly common
details is, according to Peeters, caused by a ten- during early childhood. A girl at one school could
dency of “over- or under-selectivity” of informa- hear water running in recessed pipes in the wall
tion and “detailed thinking” processes (De Clercq once a tap was opened. This influenced her abili-
2003: 9–17). To them, concrete or literal details ty to focus on tasks at hand. Many learners also
are much more important than the general respond indifferently to pain, heat and cold. It is
impressions or meanings attached to concepts as also common that they give the impression of
a whole. Therefore when the details differ, the “acting as if deaf”. Speech may be perceived as
ability to transfer or generalise knowledge of pre- background noise or as fading away, e.g. words
vious perceptions from one situation to another and sentences are recognisable at first and then
becomes problematic (i.e. the inability to gener- become distorted for no apparent reason. On the
alise). Moreover, if the details are different, the other hand, information received verbally might
meaning also changes. Thus the search for be perceived as less significant because their pre-
detailed similarities outweighs their ability to ferred cultural style of learning is more visually
simultaneously attach meaning linked to function, orientated.
for example:
13E.2.2.2 Odd movements
• The word “dog” can only be understood by
selecting the differences between cats and Walking on tiptoe, flapping of limbs, jumping up
dogs. In the case of dogs, their noses are simi- and down, rocking and poor motor coordination
lar, different from cats. So if it is not a nose of a are often observed. Poor muscle tone usually
cat, it must be a dog. affects body posture negatively.

• “How do you know it is a bird?” I try to see if it 13E.2.2.3 Sleeping and eating disturbances
is a person or an animal. If it has four legs, it is
Disturbances of all kinds often occur. They may be
an animal, but if it has two legs it is a person. If
quite happy and content with only a few hours
it has two legs and is an animal, it is a bird (De
sleep. Extreme food fads restrict the diets of
Clercq 2003: 17, 33).
some, while others will compulsively eat anything
(food, Prestik, paper, play-dough, etc.).
13E.2.2 Commonly associated features
Many associated features are evident and seem to 13E.2.2.4 Mood
be extended manifestations of the main areas of Mood swings are common. This can be attributed
the triad. to over-excitement, anxiety, or unexpected

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changes to routines or schedules. Laughing and order and predictability. Problems with waiting
crying spells may occur often without any appar- also arise from these difficulties.
ent reason. During adolescence and early adult
life, episodes of depression as well as high levels 13E.2.2.7 Special skills
of agitation, anxiety or over-excitement may Many learners, especially those with Asperger syn-
become more pronounced. drome, may display extremely well-developed
skills which usually do not involve language prag-
13E.2.2.5 Attention and concentration matics but rather music, art, dismantling and
Learners with ASD find it difficult to attend to assembling of objects, and computer and visual-
more than one thing at a time, but are able to spatial skills. Exact information is sometimes
focus much longer than expected on their pre- memorised, e.g. first-time experiences, phrases,
ferred activities of high interest compared to whole conversations, lists, routes, visual patterns
other learning tasks. The presence of attention and numbers in an exact order (Wing 1991: 8–12).
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) will create
additional barriers to learning for learners with 13E.2.3 Autism and secondary
ASD. impairments
Autism seldom occurs on its own. The complexity
13E.2.2.6 Behaviour of autism increases when additional or secondary
Undesirable and challenging behaviour of learners impairments have been identified. It is possible
with ASD must be judged as a secondary conse- that autism may occur with any other diagnosable
quence rather than a feature of autism. Difficult physical, sensory or psychological impairment.
behaviour such as socially embarrassing actions, The most frequent impairments which are often
temper tantrums, aggression, destructiveness, associated with autism are intellectual impair-
screaming, running away and self-injury are often ments and epilepsy. While these conditions can
associated with autism. This is usually a result of be viewed as separate entities from autism, their
how the learner reacts to the environment. presence may aggravate the features characteris-
Epilepsy may cause irritability and confusion, tic of autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, by
while perceptual difficulties may result in overre- itself, does not cause either epilepsy or intellectu-
acting. Sensory deprivation or high levels of frus- al impairments.
tration may cause self-injurious behaviour. The
observed behaviour may be a result of unidentifi- 13E.2.3.1 Intellectual impairment
able pain. It is difficult to separate learners diagnosed with
In the majority of cases, challenging behaviour profound or severe intellectual impairment from
is a direct result of a lack of understanding. It is learners with severe forms of autism. Both groups
difficult for learners with ASD to make sense of will depend on high levels of support.
the world, or to understand other people’s inten- Learners with intellectual impairments usually
tions and a whole range of different social rules project general delays in most areas of develop-
pertaining to specific situations. ment. A typical autistic profile would reflect rela-
Their lack of effective language and communi- tively better developed motor skills as opposed to
cation skills will usually lead to undesirable poorly developed language and social abilities. In
behaviour. This inability to influence the world autism, the nature of overall development is not
and to make their needs known is restricting and so much delayed but different and uneven when
consequently causes frustration. Instead of compared with learners with an intellectual
labelling the behaviour, it should rather be impairment. In autism, it is not only the timing,
viewed as a desperate form of communication. rate and sequence of development that are affect-
Interference with their activities or routines is a ed, but also the qualitative aspects of develop-
potent cause of undesired behaviour. They resist ment which are also affected and impaired at the
changes because “sameness” provides security, same time. The majority of learners on the autis-

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tic spectrum display different degrees of intellec- conditions and autism, the underlying difficulties
tual impairments – 55 per cent are severely and are different (Mesibov & Howley 2003: 3).
25 per cent mildly affected, with only 20 per cent
falling within the normal range of ability. Learners 13E.2.4 Possible causal factors
with Asperger syndrome do not experience clini-
cally significant developmental delays. However, Despite ongoing research, uncertainty still
barriers to learning as a result of the triad of remains about the exact causes of autism. There
impairments may influence the learners’ level of seems to be no single cause, thus at present a
performance negatively. multifactorial aetiology should be considered.
Learners who are profoundly intellectually There may be several different biological causes
impaired on the triad of restricted social, commu- that all lead to autism by affecting the same area
nication and imaginative features are represented of brain functioning. Research for a biological,
on the lowest portion of the continuum (Peeters organic causative mechanism continues interna-
& Gillberg 2003: 41). The middle section of the tionally. The following possible causal factors are
continuum represents those with mild to moder- still being investigated:
ate degrees of intellectual impairment (Kanner’s • According to scientific evidence, complex neu-
variant of autism) and the upper section by learn- rological functions of the central nervous sys-
ers with Asperger syndrome (normal or even tem are affected by impaired neuro-develop-
superior intellectual functioning). ment which results in possible brain dysfunc-
tion. Lesions of the temporal lobes, frontal
13E.2.3.2 Epilepsy lobes, cerebellum and brainstem are suggested
Many people with autism also suffer from epilep- and continue to be investigated.
sy. Often the first seizure occurs in pre-adoles- • Although there is no conclusive evidence, envi-
cence or adolescence. By adulthood 30 to 40 per ronmental factors such as toxins and viral infec-
cent have had at least one seizure. The occur- tions, e.g. rubella (before birth), or postnatal
rence of epilepsy in somebody with autism is herpes encephalitis appears to put children at
aggravated by having to separate the symptoms risk for the development of autism.
of epilepsy from the characteristic features of
autism (Peeters & Gillberg 2003: 41). • Autism is frequently associated with other med-
ical conditions such as fragile-X syndrome,
tuberous sclerosis, Ito’s hypomelanosis, Angel-
man’s syndrome and metabolic disorders.
ACTIVITY

Please read Chapters 13B and 17 on Research done by Shattock and Whiteley (Shat-
epilepsy and intellectual impairment. tock & Whiteley s.a.) indicates possible food
metabolic disturbances or irregularities to be
indicative of autism, for example toxic respons-
es to specific proteins such as gluten in wheat
13E.2.3.3 Other overlapping conditions and casein in dairy products. Much higher-than-
High levels of anxiety are common. Affective dis- normal levels of peptides are sometimes pres-
orders like depression, especially during adoles- ent in the gastrointestinal tract (gut). If these
cence and adult life, may occur in association with peptides cross the blood brain barrier and
the triad of impairments and Asperger syndrome. enter the central nervous system, many aspects
Conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disor- of normal functioning and development are
der, semantic-pragmatic disorder, attention affected.
deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizoid personality • Genetic factors have a prominent role, although
disorder and non-verbal learning disability as well no “autism specific” genes or chromosomes
as Tourette syndrome are sometimes confused have yet been identified. However, autism is 50
with autistic spectrum disorders. In spite of the times more frequent in siblings of learners with
many similarities between the abovementioned autism. There is also an increase of other con-

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ditions in siblings, especially language and ability to compensate for the barriers they experi-
social difficulties. ence, as well as the availability and access to early
• Studies of brain chemicals and neurotransmit- autism-specific learning-supportive approaches
ters in autism have produced inconsistent will have an increasing role in determining the
results (Peeters & Gillberg 2003: 43–47; Jordan final outcomes of learners projecting high needs
2000: 50–57). of support.

• There is nothing linking autism to parental atti-

tudes or the manner in which they nurture their 13E.3 EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION
children (psychogenic theory), although this 13E.3.1 Principles of intervention
was the initial theory when the term “autism”
Education plays a major role in meeting the
was first coined by Kanner in 1943.
diverse needs of learners with autistic spectrum
disorder. It is well known that since educationally
13E.2.5 Prevalence of autism based intervention programmes were introduced,
There appears to be no difference concerning the learners and parents alike have benefited greatly.
prevalence of autism with regard to social classes It is important to realise that, in an educational
or different cultures. Unfortunately no official fig- setting, autism demands flexible solutions. A
ures are available for South Africa. Internationally range of provisions is necessary if we want to
the incidence of autistic spectrum disorders is 0,6 address the learners with ASD’s exceptional barri-
to 1 per cent of the general population of school- ers to learning. If possible, they need to receive
age learners (Peeters & Gillberg 2003: 39). education in close proximity to non-autistic learn-
A disparity between sexes indicates that males ers or peers. This will create a valuable opportu-
are affected far more than females. In autism it is nity to introduce reversed inclusion when learn-
4 : 1 while in Asperger syndrome it increases to ers are unable to access ordinary classes full-time.
9 : 1 (Waterhouse 2000: 19). In the past it was In addition, learners with ASD may benefit
believed that autistic spectrum disorder affected from exposure to a socially appropriate peer
only a minority. It seems to be now more com- group.
mon than previously estimated. The problem is,
however, that the identification and diagnosis of
learners under-presents the prevalence (Peeters & Think back to your teaching career.
ACTIVITY

Were there any learners who showed

Gillberg 2003: 40).
deviant behaviour that can be related to
autistic spectrum disorder in your
13E.2.6 Long-term outcomes classes? What did you do to support
them?
Autistic spectrum disorder is a lifelong impair-
ment. However, the severity and intensity of the
barriers to learning for learners may change over
When learners with ASD are accommodated at a
time.
school the following principles should be consid-
The overall outcome of learners with autistic
ered:
spectrum disorder is variable, ranging from poor
to excellent. While a third of the population with • The entire staff should have a sound knowledge
autism may be able to work in the open market and understanding of autism, firstly as a neuro-
and live independently, the rest will depend on developmental disorder, and secondly as a
lifelong support programmes according to their spectrum disorder which is reflected on a con-
needs. Some learners belonging to the Asperger tinuum of needs.
group achieve superior academic functioning, and • Parents should be seen as partners and includ-
although rare, may get married and have children ed to help the teacher understand the learner
of their own. The role and the effects of educa- better. In the case of younger learners the fol-
tion, combined with the learners’ personality, lowing questions may be asked:

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 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

with autistic spectrum disorder project their

• How does your child occupy him/herself at thinking and learning styles which should be
home? incorporated and addressed during teaching
• What type of activity does your child pre- and learning sessions.
fer and enjoy? • To ensure that learners with autism have access
• How does your child communicate with to the curriculum and learning programmes,
you and others at home? both the school and teacher will have to adapt
• What is the best way of helping your child these to reflect a more compensatory and con-
to understand what you want him to do? nective curriculum. The aim should be to accom-
• What appears to upset your child? modate the individual and exceptional needs of
• What is the best way to calm your child learners expressed by the triad of impairments
when he/she is upset? and interrelated, connected key areas of diffi-
• How do you motivate your child to do culties. These curriculum requirements will also
something you want him/her to do? change traditional teaching approaches.
• What kind of foods does he/she prefer/dis- • It should be understood that in some learners
like? with ASD the impairments occur in different
• To what extent is your child independent degrees of severity, complicated by varying lev-
and how do you want us to support els of cognitive and language ability. Thus, indi-
him/her? vidualised programmes are needed for each
• Do you need information on the school, on learner to accommodate their diverse needs.
autism or on Asperger syndrome? • Although autism cannot be “cured”, the teacher
• Is there anything else you want me or the plays an important role in ameliorating the con-
school to know? straints which will enable learners with autism
to reach their full potential. “Good teaching can
make a difference, and high expectations (as
• Teachers should be skilled in identifying and long as they accept the child’s difficulties) are
recognising not only the learner’s individual as important in the education of those with
and exceptional needs, but also possible autism as for any other group” (Powell & Jordan
emerging skills, areas of strength and special 2000: 2).
interests in particular contexts.
• Opportunities should be created to enhance Peeters and Gillberg (2003: 83–84) offer the fol-
the development of sound and objective obser- lowing guidelines:
vation skills which are needed on a daily basis The teacher of ASD learners should
to adapt and develop meaningful and optimal • be attracted to differences
learning environments in an attempt to pro- • have a vivid imagination
mote learning at all times. • be able to give without getting a “thank-you”
• If we accept the challenges of teaching, then • be able to adapt his natural style of communi-
learners with autism often require a rethinking cation and social interaction
of our own beliefs and attitudes. What is need- • have the courage to work in unknown territory
ed is a truly reflective model of teaching – one • never be satisfied with how much he or she
in which teachers engage in a process of reflec- knows
tion on their own learning and reactions as part • accept that each bit of progress brings new
of their analysis of what the learning situation problems
is like for the child, and subsequently what they • have extraordinary pedagogical and analytical
need to do to make that situation more effec- capacities
tive for the learner (Powell & Jordan 2000: 2). • be prepared to work in a team
• The teacher should respect, understand and • be humble
identify the different ways in which learners • be professional.

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13E.3.2 Support and intervention 13E.3.2.2 Baseline assessment

strategies Before compensatory learning programmes can
The learning style and graded levels of support be developed, it is advisable to determine the fol-
needed to ameliorate the difficulties learners with lowing:
autistic spectrum disorder experience will be • Emerging skills
determined by
• Individual strengths (e.g. visual-spatial, audito-
• the impact of the triad of impairments ry, numeracy, memory, motor and perceptual
• the presence of secondary impairments skills)
• the social environment (living, learning and • Special interests (e.g. computers, puzzles,
teaching) food, music, art, etc.)
• individual differences in the manifestation of
• Work habits (e.g. attention span, independ-
the features
ence, level of distractibility, motivation, perfec-
• the interrelatedness and interaction of the dis- tion, timing)
cussed dimensions on each other.
• Areas that need special attention
This will not only challenge our knowledge and
understanding of the condition (as being more 13E.3.2.3 A range of different approaches
than a set of features), but also our ability to As in the case of other impairments, a wide range
adapt our own teaching approaches to accommo- of intervention programmes has been developed
date the idiosyncratic neuro-developmental diffi- over the past decades.
culties and cognitive profiles. At present the following programmes or
approaches are best known and have gained inter-
13E.3.2.1 Aspects influencing learning styles
est and support from parents, especially in the UK
Reference is often made to the different manifes- and the USA. Some are included and practised in
tations of the learning and thinking styles of South Africa, either privately or at facilities cater-
learners with autistic spectrum disorder. The fol- ing for the needs of learners with autism. It is also
lowing aspects will influence learning and teach- possible to follow and implement a combination
ing: of approaches in an effort to address the specific
• The degree of social impairment present barriers to learning.
• The development of language and communica- • Interactive approaches
tion skills – singing, music and music therapy
• Flexibility of imagination and thinking skills
• Approaches to communication
• Intellectual and cognitive abilities, e.g. problem
solving – semantic-pragmatic approaches
• The presence of additional impairments e.g. – augmentative and alternative communica-
learning problems, epilepsy tion systems: (high and low, e.g. the Maka-
• The ability to process sensory stimuli and inte- ton multimodel communication system
grate skills (which includes gestures and signing), the
Picture Communication System (PICS) and
• The ability to copy and imitate
the Picture Exchange Communication Sys-
• Motivation and anxiety levels
tem (PECS)
• Difficulty with sequencing
– the Hahnen Programme
• Levels of independence
– Carol Gray’s Social Stories
• Abilities of organisation, attention and concen-
tration • Educational approaches
• General tolerance levels and the presence of – Treatment and Education of Autistic and
disruptive behaviour (Mesibov & Howley Communication Handicapped Children
2003: 6) (TEACCH)

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 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

– Higashi: Daily Life Therapy (which includes • Learning programmes of young learners should
physical exercises) be planned in collaboration with parents or
• Diet interventions and supplements other primary caregivers. These should include
their priorities of needs, practices and effective
• Behaviour approaches
styles of management of learners in the home
– Lovaas: Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)
environment.
through discrete trial methodology
• Sensory approaches When designing learning programmes, keep in
– neuro-sensory motor integration therapy mind that learners, especially young ones, may be
– movement therapy e.g. Sherborne develop- affected in the following ways:
ment movement, massage, yoga exercises, • Lack understanding of spoken language
rhythmic dancing and drama • Have the ability to understand some words but
– aromatherapy and reflexology not the complex meanings behind them
– auditory integration therapy (Berard) • May be frequently distracted from the purpose
– audio psychophonology (Tomatis) of the activity
• Art therapy • Have poor listening and attention skills
• The development of play • Are determined to do what they want to do and
not what they are asked to do
• The use of computers as a visual learning tool
• Find it difficult to share, wanting things their
• Medical interventions: medication may way
decrease some of the behaviour manifesta-
• Project an inability to play meaningfully or to
tions, e.g. confusion, anxiety, depression, lev-
understand the rules, or rules are followed
els of activity, etc.
rigidly
Although most programmes have merit, no single • Have excellent rote memory but do not under-
approach or strategy has been found to be the stand what has been learned
best. “Within child” factors need to be taken into • Have an erratic (or graded) awareness of others
account. and how they may be affected by their actions,
e.g. stepping on others’ things without notic-
ing, eating others’ food without asking, closing
Combine a few of these approaches
doors in others’ faces, intruding on others’
ACTIVITY

which you think would cater for the

total development of the learner. Then games
read further to make sure that these • Develop difficult behaviour because of anxiety
approaches cover all the key elements • Shout or call out during lessons for no apparent
for effective intervention. reason
• Have little or no concern for others, e.g. throw-
ing of sand, stones, toys
13E.3.2.4 Key elements of effective • Hold obsessive conversations with regard to
intervention
certain topics and talk at people rather than
The following key elements should be taken into with them
account when teaching learners with ASD: • Find it difficult to generalise skills they have
• Any activity should be appropriate to the level learned with regard to other situations
of understanding and development of the • Develop dependence on particular adults or
learners. routines
• Activities should be meaningful and functional. • Insist on sitting where they want and not where
• Teachers should focus on the development of they are supposed to sit
independent work skills, application and gener- • Show distress when an error is made by them-
alisation of skills learned. selves or someone else

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

• Have difficulty making choices based on visual presentation. The impact the triad
• Have difficulty talking about something that of impairments and additional barriers has on
has happened in the past, or putting them- facilitating teaching and learning and gaining
selves in an imaginary situation access to a broad-based curriculum is addressed
• Resist changes of routines, environments or by the TEACCH approach. Following this approach
activities benefits not only young learners, but can be
applied lifelong on different levels of intensity and
• Find it difficult to work or function in groups
in different settings. An important priority of this
• Find it difficult to understand cause and effect programme is to “enable learners with an autistic
• Run away easily and often, without realising spectrum disorder to function meaningfully, pro-
where they are going (Hannah 2001: 12) ductively and as independently as possible” (Mesi-
bov & Howley 2003: 6). This approach will also
It is a most challenging task for teachers to facili- benefit learners at home and in inclusive environ-
tate learning for those who face diverse barriers ments.
to learning. We have learned that the majority of TEACCH is a system which advocates organis-
learners on the autistic spectrum display high ing the learning environment and producing
needs of support. They are unable to learn or autism-friendly processes and styles. It accommo-
work independently. Being included in a group dates and utilises the learner’s strengths, abili-
will also not compensate for or stimulate learn- ties, interests and deficits. Visually clear instruc-
ing. Furthermore the traditional auditory model tions are provided according to the learner’s
of teaching seems to increase the learning barri- learning style, development of thinking and
ers and limits the learners’ learning potential. understanding. It has been proven that in con-
They need individualised autism-specific learning trast to receiving information verbally, visual
programmes and approaches. These are not information provides more meaning and clarity of
always available to learners or teachers. Like the what the outcome of an activity is meant to be,
learners, teachers become disempowered or de- and at the same time learning and working more
skilled when essential support materials and independently is enhanced. This approach also
mechanisms are not in place, or their needs are addresses management of difficult behaviour by
not attended to. This may in turn cause barriers considering the cognitive skills, needs and inter-
to teaching! To overcome this, teachers will need ests of the learner, and adjusting or adapting the
additional human resources in the classroom, in environment. By providing a predictable routine,
the same way that they would require assistive anxiety levels may be reduced.
devices to help learners with other types of The four components of structured teaching
impairment. To accommodate the needs of both can be incorporated into any learning and teach-
learner and teacher as far as sound models of ing programme and consist of the following:
education are concerned, the following teaching
• Physical structure. Environments are adapted
and learning approach may be applied.
to suit learning needs and style.
• Daily schedules. General and personalised
13E.3.2.5 The TEACCH approach schedules are developed according to the
One of the best-researched educational approach- learner’s level of understanding to provide clar-
es to address the specific barriers to learning that ity, order, predictability and “what is happen-
learners with autism experience is the TEACCH ing when”. Provision must be made to provide
approach. This was developed by the Division: information on different levels of understand-
Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related ing. Schedules may be presented in an object, a
Communications Handicapped Children (TEACCH) photo, picture, symbol or written format (see
of the University of North Carolina. This approach Figure 13E.7).
has been implemented in schools worldwide as • Work systems. These help learners to organise
well as in South Africa. The TEACCH approach is each specific activity, to learn and work

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 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

Figure 13E.7 Examples of individualised and visually clear daily schedules

independently, and also to work in pairs and • Most of the time a reward will be added, linked
small groups. Individualised work systems pro- to the learner’s special interest. The opportuni-
vide four aspects of visually clear information ty is used to instil a form of motivation. The
to learners, namely learner will eventually have to do three tasks in
– what work they are supposed to do sequence – indicated by a circle, triangle and
– how much work (how many tasks) they will rectangle – but these can be introduced gradu-
have to complete in a specific time ally. After the completion of tasks, the learner
– how they know they are making progress is rewarded with his special interest (e.g. listen-
and when they have finished ing to music) indicated by an object – in this
– what happens after the work is completed. case, earphones (see Figure 13E.8).

Figure 13E.8 Example of a simplified visually clear work system

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

• Visual structure and information. Each task or • The different manifestations of behaviour we
activity should be visually organised and struc- observe in learners with autistic spectrum dis-
tured to minimise anxiety and possible failure. order are not part of the disorder but rather a
Clarity, understanding and the interest level of response or reaction to how they experience
the task are maximised by providing and understand the world. It should be remem-
– visual clarity bered that they only have a limited range of
skills available to make others aware of their
– visual organisation of the learning materials
needs, frustrations and wishes, or to control
– visual instructions of what is required to other people.
complete the task, e.g. provide either a jig, a
visual representation (e.g. a photograph) or • Education programmes at schools should sup-
written instructions of how a task is to be port and facilitate positive learning experiences,
carried out (see Figure 13E.9). (Mesibov & and not only normal developmental or non-
Howley 2003: 1–13E5; Peeters & Gillberg functional skills-based training programmes.
2003: 59–116). The final outcome of the activity should lead to
functional skills which can be applied to daily
life experiences, for example sorting of socks
13E.3.3 Placement of learners instead of blocks. It should be about education
The following are important aspects to keep in and not containment of a learner.
mind for the placement of the learners: • Currently most learners with Asperger syn-
• The majority of learners will need to be placed drome attend either ordinary public or private
at a facility which is able to develop and pro- schools, or special schools for learners with
vide compensatory learning programmes. The learning impairment (disability). Although
“ideal” placement for a particular learner may, receiving education full-time in a mainstream
however, change over time. setting, their ability to function is influenced by

Figure 13E.9 Visual organisation of the learning materials and how a task is to be carried
out

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 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

the triad of impairments. The difference lies in

that the degree of severity – some are able to Autism is something I cannot see. It stops me
compensate in a cognitive way for their con- from finding and using my own words when I
straints by being intellectually more able to want to. Or makes me use all the words and
cope with the learning matter and contents. silly things I do not want to say.
They are able to apply their strengths, well- Autism makes me feel everything at once
developed language ability and areas of special without knowing what I am feeling. Or it cuts
interest more appropriately. me off from feeling anything at all.
Autism makes me hear other people’s
• Although the difficulties of learners with
words but be unable to know what the words
Asperger syndrome might be more subtle in
mean. Or autism lets me speak my own
nature, such learners may also experience addi-
words without knowing what I am saying or
tional learning difficulties (e.g. dyslexia, seman-
even thinking.
tic-pragmatic disorder). The key areas which
Autism cuts me off from thoughts and
need to be addressed at school level are the
curiosity, and so I believe I think nothing or
development of social skills – especially the
am interested in nothing. Or autism makes
development of friendships – predictability of
my mind almost explode with the need to
situations concerning any form of change, the
reach out and say what I think or show what
influence of sensory information pertaining to
I am interested in ... but nothing comes out
the environment, and transition to adolescence
... not even on my face, in my eyes, or from
and adult life.
my words.
Autism cuts me off from my own body, and
13E.4 CONCLUSION so I feel nothing. Autism also can make me so
Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger have changed the aware of what I feel that it is painful.
history of autism from being defined as a psychi- Autism makes me feel sometimes that I
atric condition to a pervasive developmental dis- have no self at all, and I feel so overwhelmed
order. Currently standardised international classi- by the presence of other people that I cannot
fication systems are used to identify and diagnose find myself. Autism can also make me so
autism. Lorna Wing’s formulation of the core cri- totally aware of myself that it is like the
teria, known as the triad of impairments, is whole world around me becomes irrelevant
perhaps the best suited and most well-known and disappears.
approach for educational purposes. The terms Autism is like a seesaw. When it is up or
“autistic spectrum disorder” and “autistic contin- down I cannot see a whole life. When it is
uum” are both derived from her extensive passing through in the middle I get to see a
research in the field. glimpse of the life I would have if I were not
The core criteria of both autism and Asperger autistic.
syndrome indicate similarities, but at the same The most important thing I have learned is
time subtle differences. The real nature of autism that AUTISM IS NOT ME.
should be fully understood – especially the Autism is just an information-processing
differences in the ability to learn, think and problem that controls who I appear to be.
understand – when intervention strategies are Autism tries to stop me from being free to be
planned. myself. Autism tries to rob me of a life, of
Information contained in this chapter deals friendship, of caring, of sharing, of showing
with the basic, general manifestations of the con- interest, of using my intelligence, of being
dition as well as intervention strategies, learning, affected ... it tries to bury me alive.
teaching and team approaches, and the impor- The second most important thing I have
tance of a close partnership with parents. learned is I CAN FIGHT AUTISM ... I WILL
To conclude, a few words from Donna Williams, CONTROL IT ... IT WILL NOT CONTROL ME.
an adult with autism (Williams 1994: 223–224).

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Questions • He enjoys talking about himself and his inter-

ests, but his ability to think imaginatively is
1. The principal of your school informs you that
impaired, leading to problems with creative
an eight-year-old learner with ASD will be
writing.
admitted to your class. He previously attended
a special school and made fairly good • He is quite skilled at reading – he can decode
progress. The parents therefore requested that any word but does not fully understand the
he attend a mainstream school. Discuss the rel- meaning of what he has read.
evant principles and support strategies a • He has an obsession with looking at and draw-
teacher needs to consider to ensure a learner ing maps.
with autism is included in a mainstream school • He has tremendous ability in mathematics and
and the broader community (e.g. educational was able to calculate three-figure multiplication
visits to other places). in his head at the age of nine. However, when
2. Teachers doing playtime duties complain his teacher gave the class a test involving dif-
about Joe’s observed unusual behaviour. His ferent presentations of sums (e.g. word prob-
one-sided interactions, incessant talking about lems), John became angry and anxious, crying,
chess or binoculars, and insistence that the “You didn’t teach me these, I can’t do them”.
rules of any game are followed according to • He finds problem solving difficult because he
his level of understanding is irritating the cannot detect what strategy to apply.
other learners. Most of the time he wants to
play chess, and although he is one of the best • His body language is gauche: his gestures lack
chess players, he always threatens not to spontaneity and his range of facial expressions
appear for competitions if they take place at is limited.
another school. Learners start to avoid him
while others tease him. He seems to be Questions
unaware of these issues. Discuss the possible (a) Identify the different features and interpret
underlying reasons for this behaviour, and how them according to the triad of impairments,
it could be rectified. and additional impairments where appropri-
ate.
3. Study the following two learner profiles and
answer the questions. (b) Develop intervention and support strategies
to address the barriers this learner experi-
LEARNER PROFILE ONE ences.
John is in a special school for learners with speech
and language difficulties. LEARNER PROFILE TWO
• The unwritten rules are a closed book to John. Jonathan is a three-year-old boy. He was born at
He would call to his teacher across the class- full term with no pre- or postnatal difficulties. His
room, “She’s got no idea” – referring to a peer. Apgar scores were 9/10 and 10/10.
• In group activities, he ignores his partner’s Physical milestones were reached at the appro-
attempts to work with him, sometimes pushing priate ages and no feeding problems were report-
him away. ed. The parents describe him as having been a
placid, quiet baby who was content to be left on
• He is very sensitive to name-calling, and is seen
his own. The mother stayed at home with him and
as eccentric by the other boys who have made
planned to return to work after two years.
up a nickname from his surname.
Between 18 and 20 months Jonathan started to
• He has language difficulties, especially with use a few words. “Mama”, “Dada” and “bye-bye”.
comprehension, and he questions and inter- When Jonathan was 24 months old, his mother
rupts inappropriately. started to work full-time and he was enrolled in
• He speaks in a monotonous voice. an early childhood development (ECD) centre.

326
 AUTISM AND RELATED DISORDERS 13 E

Jonathan was admitted to a class of 20 with tod- DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
dlers ranging from 18 to 24 months. Mental Disorders
Around this time, his parents noticed that ICD International Classification of
Jonathan stopped using his previously acquired Diseases
words, but ascribed this to the fact that he was PDD Pervasive Developmental Disorders
adapting to the new environment. However, after
PDD (nos) Pervasive Developmental Disorders –
two weeks in the ECD centre, the principal con-
not otherwise specified
tacted Jonathan’s parents and scheduled an
urgent meeting. The ECD practitioner reported PECS Picture Exchange Communication
that Jonathan was prone to temper tantrums System
when confronted with formal requests. He isolat- TEACCH Treatment and Education of Autistic
ed himself from the group and insisted on holding and Communication Handicapped
two red blocks in his hands at all times. Children
On the positive side, Jonathan enjoyed puzzles
and seemed quite adept at building a specific 30-
piece puzzle. Although his parents still hoped that Acknowledgements
Jonathan was only struggling to adapt to his new Thanks must go to the staff of Unica School for
school, they started to observe some other dis- their support and assistance.
concerting behaviour at home. Jonathan used few
words and would pull his parents by the hand to
make his needs known. He repeated some words Bibliography
used by his parents in a parrot-like manner. He
American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2000. Diagnostic
refrained from playing with any of his toys with and statistical manual of mental disorders: Text revision
the exception of two red blocks and a specific 30- (DSM-IV-TR), 4th ed. Washington, DC: APA.
piece puzzle, exactly like the one at school. Attwood, T. 2001. Asperger syndrome: a guide for parents
Eye contact was fleeting and Jonathan would and professionals. London: Jessica Kingsley.
allow physical contact only on his terms. One day Beyer, J. & Grammeltoft, L. 2002. Autism and play. Lon-
his parents saw that Jonathan would sit and stare don: Jessica Kingsley.

at the tumble-drier going round and round for De Clercq, H. 2003. Mum, is that a human being or an ani-
mal? A book on autism. Bristol: Lucky Duck.
hours on end.
Frith, U. 1989. Autism: explaining the enigma. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Questions Frith, U. 1992. Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cam-
(a) Compare and discuss the differences between bridge: Cambridge University Press.
learner profiles one and two in respect of the Gillberg, C. 2003. A guide to Asperger syndrome. Cam-
displayed behaviour. bridge: The Press Syndicate.
Grandin, T. 1995. Thinking in pictures. New York: Double-
(b) Discuss different placement opportunities for day.
both learners, as well as why and how learn- Grové, T. 1988. Barnaby Rudge: a case study in autism.
ing programmes and assessment standards Communication, 22(1).
would be adapted to ensure the learners’ Hannah, L. 2001. Teaching young children with autistic
access to learning material and activities. spectrum disorders to learn: a practical guide for parents
and staff in mainstream schools and nurseries. London:
The National Autistic Society.
Abbreviations Jordan, R.R. & Powell, S.D. 1995. Understanding and
teaching children with autism. Chichester: Wiley.
AAC Augmentative and alternative Jordan, R.R. 1997. Education of children and young peo-
communication systems ple with autism: Guides for special education no. 10.
Paris: Unesco.
ABA Applied Behaviour Analysis
Jordan, R.R. 2000. Autistic spectrum disorder: an intro-
ASD Autistic Spectrum Disorder ductory handbook for practitioners. London: David Fulton.

327
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Jordan, R.R. & Jones, G. 1999. Meeting the needs of chil- Ross, E. & Deverell, A. 2004. Psychosocial approaches to
dren with autistic spectrum disorders. London: David Ful- health, illness and disability. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
ton.
Shattock, P. & Whiteley, P. (s.a.) Dietary intervention for
Mesibov, B., Shea, V. & Adams, W. 2001. Understanding the treatment of autism and related syndromes. Johan-
Asperger syndrome and high functioning autism. New nesburg: Autism Society Brochure.
York: Plenum.
Vermeulen, P. 2001. Autistic thinking: this is the title. Lon-
Mesibov, G. & Howley, M. 2003. Accessing the curriculum don: Jessica Kingsley.
for people with autistic spectrum disorders: using the
Waterhouse, S. 2000. A positive approach to autism. Lon-
TEACCH programme. London: David Fulton.
don: Jessica Kingsley.
Peeters, T. & Gillberg, C. 2003. Autism: medical and edu-
cational aspects, 2nd ed. London: Whurr. Williams, D. 1994. Somebody nowhere. London:
Transworld.
Peeters, T. 2001. Autism: from theoretical understanding
to educational intervention. London: Whurr. Wing, L. 1991. Diagnosis of disorders in the autistic con-
tinuum. Based on a paper presented at Skive, Denmark.
Powell, S.D. & Jordan, R.R. 2000. Autism and learning: a
guide to good practice. London: David Fulton Wing, L. 1995. Autistic spectrum disorders. London: The
National Autistic Society.
Quill, K.A. 1995. Teaching children with autism: strategies
to enhance communication and socialization. New York: Wing, L. 1996. The autistic spectrum: a guide for parents
Delmar. and professionals. London: Constable.
Richer, J. & Coates, S. 2001. Autism: the search for World Health Organization. 1992. The ICD-10 Classifica-
coherence. London: Jessica Kingsley. tion of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Geneva: WHO.

328
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14
EMMERENTIA LANDSBERG

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the barriers to learning arising from visual impairments
Πsupport learners with visual impairments in your classroom by using
appropriate teaching strategies and assistive devices.

Key terms CASE STUDY

visual impairment ♦ eye conditions ♦ Braille ♦ Tony is a 12-year-old boy and in Grade 6. He is
barriers to learning ♦ learning support strategies ♦ conspicuous because of his white skin and tinted
classroom management ♦ assessment ♦ glasses. He finds it difficult to play outside in
communication ♦ teaching and learning devices ♦ bright sunlight with his classmates as he cannot
orientation ♦ mobility ♦ eye testing ♦ manifestations see a ball coming from a distance. He cannot dis-
tinguish between his friends without recognising
their voices. He also finds it difficult to copy the
teacher’s written work from the chalkboard
14.1 INTRODUCTION although he can read from his textbooks if he
Learners who experience visual impairments are a keeps them close to his eyes. He does not like to
sit close to the window especially when the sun is
heterogeneous group ranging from those who are
shining. If he takes off his glasses you will notice
totally blind to those with slight visual impair- that his eyes move rapidly from side to side. His
ment. Despite the fact that many persons with classmates tease him and call him “Whitey”,
visual impairments are employed in the open which makes him so angry that he is regularly
labour market and can independently find their involved in fights with them.
way around in towns and cities, there is still a Tony suffers from albinism. He is conspicuous
stigma attached. Sighted people seem to think because of his white hair and skin, but an even
that those with visual impairments are overly bigger problem is that, although he can see, he
dependent on others, that they cannot cope on may experience difficulties to see at a distance,
their own and that they need much help from including reading from the chalkboard.
sighted people. These attitudes can be changed
only if the family, the school and the community There are many learners like Tony in our schools.
(including health services) collaborate and work There are also many other forms of visual impair-
together to support learners with visual impair- ment, not only albinism. We distinguish between
ments so that they can be included in and become learners who are blind and learners who are par-
appreciated members of society. tially sighted because their needs differ.

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14.2 BARRIERS TO LEARNING THAT know what causes a visual impairment and the
LEARNERS WITH A VISUAL influence it has on the normal development of a
IMPAIRMENT MAY EXPERIENCE learner.
According to the Education White Paper 6, (Depart-
[Link] Structure of the eye
ment of Education 2001: 17–18), different learn-
ing needs may arise not only from the visual The following diagram of the eye shows its differ-
impairment itself – which may hamper the normal ent parts to enable you to understand the eye
development of the child from birth – but also conditions and diseases that are described in sec-
from, inter alia, negative attitudes and stereotyp- tion 14.3.
ing of differences, an inflexible curriculum, inap- The form of the eye is approximately spherical
propriate communication, inaccessible environ- and about 25 mm in diameter from the front to the
ments, inappropriate and inadequate support back. It is directly connected to the brain by the
services, non-involvement of parents and inade- optic nerve. The area in the brain which enables a
quately trained educators. person to see is at the back in the occipital lobe. If
the optic nerve or one of the other nerves which is
connected to the visual area is damaged or does
14.2.1 Barriers to learning arising from not work properly, the visual acuity of the person
a visual impairment
is negatively affected and low vision or even blind-
To understand and fulfil the needs of a learner ness (cortical blindness) could result (Vaughan
with visual impairment, the educator should 1995: 38–39; Vaughan et al. 1999: 4–5).

Sclera

Choroid

Posterior
chamber Retina

Iris

Cornea Macula and fovea

centralis
Line of vision
Pupil

Aqueous Dura mater

humour
Anterior
chamber

Suspensory
ligaments
Optic nerve

Ciliary body Papilla of optic

nerve (blind spot)
Lens

Vitreous humour
Tendon of
rectus lateralis
Figure 14.1 The structure of the eye
Source: Pauw 1999: 358

330
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

The aqueous humour is a clear watery fluid

Please read Chapter 12.5 where the which fills the anterior chamber – the space
visual pathways are discussed. Blind- between the cornea and the iris – and the poste-
ACTIVITY

ness can also be caused by injury to

rior chamber, the space between the iris and the
the occipital lobes and/or to the visual
pathways. This type of blindness is
lens. The aqueous humour is continually pro-
called cortical blindness – “cortical” duced by the ciliary body. Normally the aqueous
referring to the cortex of the brain. humour flows from one chamber to the other
through the channel of Schlem to keep the pres-
sure in the eye at a constant level. The iris (the
The sclera – the tough outer layer of the eye – coloured part of the eye) is a circular membrane
protects the two inside layers, the choroid and which regulates the size of the pupil (opening in
the retina. The white of the eye is part of the scle- the centre of the iris) so that more or less light
ra. The choroid – the middle layer of the eye – is may enter the eye. In bright light the iris decreas-
attached to the ciliary body. It is rich in blood ves- es the size of the pupil so that less light enters the
sels and provides blood to the retina. eye, and in dull light the iris allows the pupil to
The retina, the most important of the three enlarge so that more light enters the eye. The iris
outer layers of the eye, covers approximately two rests lightly on the lens, allowing the aqueous
thirds of the circumference of the eye. It is a very humour to flow freely between them. The lens
thin membrane consisting of ten minuscule lay- lies behind the iris and is completely transparent.
ers. It is composed chiefly of nerve cells, the rods Ligaments on either side of it hold it in position
and cones, which contain pigments that absorb by attaching it to the ciliary body. By being tight-
light and convert it into electrical impulses. The ened or relaxed, these ligaments change the
latter are then conveyed to the brain via the optic shape of the lens for near and far vision (accom-
nerve where the interpretation of what is seen modation of the lens), so that the lens always
takes place. The cones are spread around and focuses the image seen to a point on the macula.
throughout the macula. The macula with the yel- The vitreous humour is a thick, jelly-like fluid
low spot on it is the point of sharpest vision, which fills the inside of the eye, keeping all the
where the lens focuses images. The line of vision parts in place. If the vitreous humour leaks out or
runs through the middle of the pupil to the macu- is lost for any reason, the whole eye collapses.
la. The cones function in bright light and are The vitreous humour can be surgicaly replaced
responsible for our ability to distinguish colour. with a jelly-like substance so that the eye can
The rods are located chiefly towards the front in keep its shape.
the curve of the retina. They function at dawn or
dusk and at night and are responsible for periph-
What would you regard as the most
eral vision. important part of the eye and why?
Six eye muscles on the outside of the eye coor-
ACTIVITY

The answer would be the retina

dinate the movements of each eye so that the because it converts the visual images
eyes can look up, down or sideways and focus to electrical impulses and conveys
together on objects so that the brain receives only them via the optic nerve to the brain
one message. where the images that are seen are
The cornea, the outer circular part of the eye, is interpreted.
also called the window of the eye because it is
completely transparent and contains no blood
vessels. The cornea and the lens act as converging [Link] Causes of visual impairment
lenses and focus optical images onto the retina at Lack of prenatal, perinatal and postnatal care, lack
the back of the eye. The cornea contains very sen- of genetic counselling, accidents, trauma and
sitive nerves which react immediately to close the poor socio-economic conditions may cause cer-
eye when an object is suddenly about to enter the tain eye conditions which in turn may cause visu-
eye. al impairment in learners. Lack of parental and

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

societal involvement may cause the impairment to • Farsightedness or hyperopia. Light rays fall on
become a disability and, therefore, a barrier to a point behind the macula instead of on the
learning. macula. The cause is an abbreviated eyeball or a
weakness in the refractive power of the refrac-
Please study Chapters 2, 12 and 13 tion media (e.g. the cornea or the eyeball may
where these issues are discussed. See be too flat). Learners suffering from hyperopia
ACTIVITY

whether you can establish which of the can see well at a distance but their close vision
following factors may cause visual is poor. Hyperopia can be corrected with spec-
impairment: tacles with concave lenses.
• factors from the environment
• intrinsic factors • Astigmatism. This eye condition is often asso-
ciated with myopia or hyperopia and is caused
by an uneven cornea. Light rays do not fall on
It is important that educators know about the eye the macula but behind and in front of it. Learn-
conditions (eye problems that impair normal ers with this eye condition find it difficult to
vision) of learners with visual impairments and distinguish between round letters such as B and
the effects of such conditions on learners’ visual D, or G and D, or R and S, etc. It is difficult to
functioning and learning ability, because this will correct astigmatism, especially if it occurs
enable them to adapt the teaching environment simultaneously with myopia or hyperopia. The
for a specific learner, such as choosing the correct lens is usually of a cylindrical shape.
teaching strategies, seating position in class and
assistive devices for such learners’ specific eye (b) Cataracts
conditions. A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye.
Normally the lens is transparent to allow light rays
(a) Refraction errors
to fall on the retina to provide a clear image. The
The most common eye problems are refraction lens, however, can become cloudy or opaque
errors. The eye has three refraction media, name- because of an injury to the eye (e.g. a blunt object
ly the cornea, the lens and the aqueous humour. penetrating the eye and damaging the lens) or a
The curve of the cornea is constant, but the curve congenital defect (e.g. due to rubella the mother
of the lens may change depending on the dis- may have contracted during the first three
tance of the object from the eye. In a healthy eye, months of pregnancy). One or both lenses may be
light rays from an object outside the eye pass removed if they become too cloudy and the learn-
through the cornea, the aqueous humour and the er has to wear spectacles with thick lenses to
lens and are bent by these media to focus on the focus clearly on objects. Learners whose eyeballs
macula. are fully grown (at approximately 11 to 12 years
The three main refraction errors are as follows: of age) may receive an artificial lens by means of a
• Nearsightedness or myopia. Light rays do not transplant, but will still have to wear spectacles
focus on the macula but in front of it. This may but with thinner lenses.
be caused by an abnormally long eyeball or by
an increase in the refractive power of the (c) Strabismus (squint)
refractive media (e.g. the cornea is too round- When some of the eye muscles do not function
ed). This means that learners can see objects together, both eyes may not focus simultaneously
close to them perfectly well but cannot per- on an object. The affected eye is then pulled to
ceive those at a distance clearly. Myopia can be one side and does not look straight at objects.
corrected by spectacles with convex lenses. If Double vision occurs because each eye sees sepa-
the cornea is too rounded, it can be flattened rately. The brain receives two images but sup-
by means of laser therapy. However, it is diffi- presses the weaker one of the squint eye. The
cult to correct high-grade myopia to normal weaker eye may become lazy and may lose its
vision. function because it is not used. However, if the

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 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

healthy eye is covered, the lazy eye can be forced creams to be rubbed on the delicate skin of the
to work. face, neck and eyelids.
Spectacles can also help the eye muscles to Albinism is a recessive genetic condition. If
learn to work together. In more severe cases, the both parents carry an albinism gene there is 25
eye muscles may be corrected in an operation. per cent chance that an offspring may have
This must be done before the age of seven to albinism. (Sacks & Silberman 1998: 25). Genetic
eight for the development of proper binocular counselling for parents and an affected teenager
vision (i.e. looking with both eyes) (Vaughan et al. is, therefore, desirable.
1999: 219).
(f) Trachoma
(d) Nystagmus Trachoma is caused by a micro-organism and is
This is an involuntary oscillation (to-and-fro move- very infectious. The disease is carried by flies from
ment) of the eye, especially when the child con- the tears of contaminated eyes. It begins with
centrates on near-vision activities. Reading is dif- inflammation of the conjunctiva (the inner part of
ficult because the learner finds it especially diffi- the eyelid) and goes through various stages until
cult to fix the eyes on a spot or word. This move- the victim is totally blind. Scars and blisters are
ment can be jerky or rhythmical. It is usually formed on the cornea, which can permanently
accompanied by refraction errors and albinism. It damage the cornea. The child becomes sensitive
cannot be corrected and impedes the correction to light. In the final stage the infection clears up
of refraction errors. Learners sometimes move but damage has already been done to the cornea.
their heads to and fro or hold a book at an angle Retention of vision is only possible if trachoma is
to compensate for the movement of the eyes. treated in its early stages. The eyes should not be
rubbed with dirty hands; therefore, hands should
(e) Albinism be washed frequently with clean water to keep
As already mentioned, a learner with albinism is the flies away and to prevent trachoma (Pauw
conspicuous because of a white skin, white hair 1992: 23).
and even white eyebrows and eyelashes. The eyes Trachoma is still common in hot climates such
and the pupils are reddish. This is caused by a lack as the rural areas of Limpopo province and
of pigmentation throughout the body and it is Mpumalanga and may be caused by poor socio-
observable from birth. It does not, however, economic conditions such as a lack of clean run-
become worse over time. The child’s eyes and ning water and poor hygienic conditions.
skin are extremely sensitive to light and the child
is severely photophobic. The maculas of both eyes (g) Conjunctivitis
are incompletely formed (hypoplastic) and sharp This is an infection of the conjunctiva, the mem-
vision is therefore affected (Holbrook 1996: 32). brane covering the surface of the eye. This infec-
Albinism is usually accompanied by refraction tion may be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites,
errors and nystagmus. Children with albinism allergic reactions or chemical irritations. The
should wear spectacles with tinted lenses to cor- infection irritates the conjunctiva so that it itches
rect the refraction errors and to keep the sharpest or burns, and the eyes become red and irritated.
sunlight out of their eyes. Learners with albinism The eyelashes sometimes stick together because
usually seek out the darkest parts in the class- of an excessive secretion of pus. Bacterial con-
room because sunlight hurts their eyes. They also junctivitis usually reacts favourably and quickly to
find it difficult to be outside in the sun. These treatment with antibiotic eye drops and will heal
learners have to wear long sleeves, long trousers within 10 to 14 days, but sometimes it may take
– made of cotton material instead of nylon – and longer. The worst discomfort and visible symp-
hats with wide brims when in sunlight to prevent toms will disappear within three days. This form
sunburn. They are very susceptible to skin dis- of conjunctivitis is usually not dangerous to sight,
eases and even skin cancer because of lack of pig- but abscesses on the cornea can leave small
mentation. A doctor can prescribe medicinal skin opaque scars which interfere with the transmis-

333
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

sion of light. In exceptional cases such abscesses and learners is necessary. Recent research has
can damage the cornea to such an extent that bac- identified the DNA responsible for retinitis pig-
teria enter the eye itself and this can lead to blind- mentosa, which means that retinitis pigmentosa
ness (Pauw 1992: 22–23). could eventually die out.

(h) Glaucoma (k) Retinal detachment

Congenital glaucoma can be present at birth or Vaughan et al. (1999: 187) define retinal detach-
can develop at any time up to the age of three ment as the separation of the sensory retina (rods
years. It happens when too much aqueous and cones) and inner tissue layers from the under-
humour is produced in the front chamber of the lying retinal pigment epithelium, breaking con-
eye and the outflow is in some way or other nections between the rods and cones and the pig-
restricted or blocked. Painless pressure builds up ment layer, most often the result of a hole or a
in the eye and damages the optic nerve, causing tear in the retina. The vitreous humour now seeps
loss of vision. When the cornea bulges to the into the retina and between the retina and the
front, loss of vision has already occurred. It then choroid, causing further detachment of the retina.
has a bluish-grey colour. Eye drops can be pre- Because the section of the retina that has become
scribed or an operation can be done, but loss of detached is no longer being nourished by the
vision cannot be restored (Vaughan 1995: 41). choroid, it atrophies, giving rise to a blind spot in
the visual field. Thus total detachment of the reti-
(i) Macular degeneration na leads to blindness. Retinal detachment may be
caused by trauma, ocular conditions such as high-
The macula progressively degenerates which grade myopia or general physical debility, thus it
means that the sharp central vision in the central is not hereditary. If a learner has a predisposition
part of the retina is gradually destroyed so that towards retinal detachment, a blow to the head,
the person has only side or peripheral vision, with lifting a heavy weight, diving into a swimming
a blank area in the middle of the field of vision pool or sudden shaking of a child could precipi-
(scotoma). The person usually has to turn his head tate or aggravate it.
to the side to see from the corners of the eye.
Macular degeneration is usually accompanied by a [Link] The influence of a visual impairment
sensitivity to light (Vaughan 1995: 40). Because on the child’s normal development
macular degeneration in children is usually hered- Vision is the most dominant sense human beings
itary, genetic counselling is necessary. use in their daily living. It is estimated that of all
the information reaching our brain via the senses,
(j) Retinitis pigmentosa more than 80 per cent comes from the eyes. Loss
With retinitis pigmentosa there is too much pig- of vision or impaired vision may, therefore,
ment or colouring matter in the retina of the eye. restrict a child’s normal development if the child
This causes a gradual deterioration of sight from does not receive appropriate support from the
the outside inwards so that more and more parents, the school and the community (especial-
peripheral vision is lost until only central vision is ly health services) from birth. Although these
left. It is accompanied by night blindness, as the developmental aspects are discussed separately
function of the rods in the retina is more severely for better understanding, they develop concur-
affected (Vaughan et al. 1999: 190). The condition rently and should be seen as a unit.
appears first in children when they are about six
years old, and they can lose most of their sight by (a) Physical and motor development
the time they are 15 or older. In other cases, the Every child is unique and experiences his world in
deterioration of vision is much slower and they his own way according to his genetic potential,
may remain partially sighted until adulthood education and cultural background. This implies
(Vaughan 1995: 40). Retinitis pigmentosa is hered- that children’s physical and motor skills do not
itary, therefore genetic counselling for parents develop at the same rate, although every child

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goes through the same stages of physical and (b) Perceptual development
motor development whether there are impair- Perception takes place in the brain. It is the inter-
ments or not. Children with visual impairments, pretation and categorisation of incoming stimuli
especially those who are blind, have to rely on from the senses. These senses function as a unit.
their other senses for developing motor skills. According to Shaffer (1995: 229) both innate and
Unfortunately this happens later in their lives as acquired abilities contribute to the development
auditory perception develops later than visual of perception. Young children develop their per-
perception. As a result of this, babies who are ceptual abilities by means of play. For example,
blind will be behind sighted babies in their physi- they learn to observe objects, to locate the direc-
cal and motor development if they do not receive tion and source of sound, to identify objects by
support timeously. Because blind babies are not means of touch and kinaesthesis, and to judge
visually stimulated to move their body parts, they distances. Their sensory discoveries of the world
do not develop adequate control over their head, around them lead to the formation of concepts on
neck and trunk muscles. As a result, they need which they base their knowledge of the abstract
more time to gain control over their sitting, crawl- world. Concepts develop from the perceptual
ing, standing and walking. Many children who are process and are enhanced as the child’s language
blind skip the crawling stage or start walking is developing.
before they crawl (Stone 1997: 89). They also walk Children who are blind are unable to develop
with their legs apart for a longer time to balance visual perception because they cannot see. How-
themselves. Because of a lack of vision, children ever, children who are partially sighted and blind
who are blind find it difficult to establish laterali- children with residual vision that they are not able
ty and directionality as they are dependent on to use functionally may experience problems with
sounds from the environment to locate the spontaneous visual stimulation and consequently
objects that make the sounds. They lack visual also with visual perception because they are
feedback to establish the object that makes the unable to interpret and organise what they see
sound. This also applies to gross and fine motor accurately. The type of eye condition may also
coordination, as they are not visually stimulated contribute to problems with visual perception.
to run and climb and to manipulate small objects For example, children with cataracts, hyperopia
in their hands. Their gross and fine motor muscles and macular degeneration may find it difficult to
may therefore be underdeveloped, which may distinguish between foreground and background.
inhibit later learning and development such as Children who are blind rely mainly on hearing
carrying a Braille machine, using the Braille to explore their world. It is a common misconcep-
machine or typing. tion that people who are blind automatically
The tempo at which physical and motor devel- develop a better sense of hearing to compensate
opment takes place in children who are partially for their loss of sight (Arter 1997: 143). Listening
sighted depends largely on the degree of residual skills do not develop naturally but must be taught
vision, on the particular eye condition and the purposefully and deliberately. Auditory percep-
quality of support they have received since birth tion is also important for children who are partial-
(Landsberg 1997: 69). For example, young chil- ly sighted as they rely on hearing to confirm their
dren with myopia and cataracts are not stimulated distorted visual perception.
to run towards objects as they cannot see these Children who are blind may also experience
objects at a distance. Likewise, children with problems with time and spatial awareness
albinism will not enjoy playing outside because of because these may be abstract concepts to them
their severe photophobia and possible myopia. which they cannot discover through hearing and
Children with macular degeneration will not take touch.
part in close vision activities, therefore their fine
motor movement may be inhibited as they will (c) Language and cognitive development
not manipulate small objects incidentally. This Everybody has the innate cognitive ability to learn
may hamper their writing activities. a language but the actual learning of a language is

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done by means of teaching, and imitating and lis- movement and limited physical activity (Harrison
tening to others. & Crow 1993: 238). This may cause sighted learn-
Because vision plays an important part in cog- ers to fear them, and parents and teachers to label
nitive as well as language development, it stands them as developmentally delayed, autistic or emo-
to reason that children who are visually impaired tionally disturbed (Scholl 1986: 349).
will be behind other children of the same age in Learners who are blind may appear to show lit-
their cognitive and language development. tle respect for the rights of others in a group by
According to Swallow (in Van Heerden 1989: 55) a calling the teacher while he is busy with other
child who is blind or partially sighted is at a seri- learners, as they are hampered in their ability to
ous disadvantage in experiencing things and situ- realise exactly what a group is and how many
ations in their totality, and in abstracting the other learners also need to share the teacher’s
physical and logical knowledge necessary for cog- time and attention.
nitive and language development. This lack of Learners with strabismus may be teased
experience may lead to verbalism i.e. using words because of their squint, and learners with
of which people who are blind do not have a clear cataracts may be called names because of the
understanding (Bishop 1996: 53). thick spectacle lenses they have to wear. This
behaviour on the part of peers may cause low-
(d) Social and emotional development vision learners to withdraw from them and subse-
Although a child’s inherent characteristics play a quently become loners.
part in his socio-emotional development, cultural Because their impairment is often inconspicu-
influences as well as the type of guidance and care ous, some learners with low vision may have addi-
provided by educators also influence the child’s tional problems with social interaction. Friends,
personality and interpersonal relationships. for instance, may sometimes be amazed that
Helen Keller once said that it is not blindness myopic learners cannot see a friend waving to
but the attitude of sighted people towards people them at a distance or what is happening on the
who are blind that is the hardest to bear (Mac- other side of a street. Subconsciously this can
Donagh 1996: 25). That means that it is the atti- make these learners try to hide their impairment
tude of the educators of learners who are visually by thinking up excuses for their “inexplicable”
impaired that has a greater inhibiting influence on behaviour. Such behaviour could cause tremen-
their emotional and social development than their dous tension for learners who are partially
impairment as such. However, a visual impair- sighted.
ment may cause children to have limited visual
contact with their parents and others – they can-
not observe the facial expressions of others,
14.2.2 Extrinsic barriers to learning
which makes it difficult to interpret other peo-
experienced by learners with
ple’s emotions. They have difficulty in establish-
visual impairments
ing social contact with others because they can-
not initiate contact. This is especially true in play Extrinsic barriers that may hamper the learning
situations where they are unable to initiate or imi- and development of learners who are visually
tate play. They are then easily ignored by their impaired are, inter alia, negative attitudes and
sighted peers. stereotyping of differences, an inflexible curricu-
Some learners who are blind may exhibit social- lum, inappropriate communication, inaccessible
ly annoying mannerisms such as rocking their environments, inappropriate and inadequate sup-
bodies to and fro, twisting their fists into their port services, non-involvement of parents and
eye sockets, waving their hands in front of their inadequately trained educators. These barriers,
eyes (especially when they can distinguish light however, will not be discussed separately, but
from dark), or twisting their heads around contin- will feature in the discussion on support to learn-
uously. These mannerisms have been attributed ers with visual impairments to address these
to lack of adequate sensory stimulation, restricted needs.

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 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

14.3 SUPPORT TO LEARNERS WITH VISUAL Appearance

IMPAIRMENTS The learner has
14.3.1 Support regarding the visual • crossed eyes (squint)
impairment itself • red-rimmed, encrusted or swollen eyelids
It is very important that learners with visual • inflamed or watery eyes
impairments be identified as early as possible. It • recurring sties
is easy to identify a child who is blind as early as • whitish skin, white eyelashes
at birth, but this is not the case with children who • a white pupil (so-called “pearl in the eye”)
have impaired vision but are not blind.
• pupils of uneven size
[Link] Manifestations and identification of
• drooping eyelids
learners who are partially sighted • one eye higher or lower in relation to the other
It is sometimes not possible to identify learners • eyes that move excessively to and fro.
who are partially sighted from the appearance of
Complaints
their eyes because their eyes look normal. Their
behaviour and their complaints about what they The learner complains of
can and cannot see should also be taken into con- • an itching, burning or scratchy feeling in the
sideration. The following manifestations may be eyes
helpful in identifying a learner who may be par- • the inability to see well
tially sighted (Lewis & Doorlag 1995; Landsberg • dizziness, headaches or nausea following close
2001; Hallahan & Kauffman 1997). work
• blurred or double vision
Behaviour
• an inability to see in bright light.
The learner usually
• rubs his/her eyes excessively See whether you can match some of
• shuts or covers one eye, tilts head or thrusts it the manifestations above to the eye
ACTIVITY

forward conditions discussed in section

• finds it difficult to read or do other work [Link]. For example, which manifes-
requiring close vision tations can be related to trachoma,
• blinks more than usual or is irritable when nystagmus and cataracts?
doing close work
• is unable to see distant objects clearly
[Link] Eye testing
• squints or frowns
If any learners frequently exhibit any of the prob-
• is clumsy in movements, drags feet and appears
lems mentioned above over a period of time, they
to “feel” with his/her feet, and steps too high or
should be referred to an optometrist or ophthal-
too low when walking in the shade or climbing
mologist to determine their distance visual acuity
stairs
(sharpness of vision) by means of the Snellen
• refuses to participate in ball games
chart. A Snellen chart contains letters which are
• moves his/her head when looking at pictures or arranged in rows, from large print on the top row
when reading to small print on the bottom row. Persons being
• loses his/her place when reading tested stand six metres away from the chart and
• confuses letters or numbers of similar shape, read the letters, starting from the top, until they
such as B and D; R and P; 3 and 8; 5 and 6 reach the line where they can no longer read the
• holds reading material unusually close to or far letters with certainty. For learners who cannot
away from the eyes read, the Snellen E-chart is used. On this chart the
• displays poor spacing when writing – words are letter E is printed in different sizes from large to
too far apart or too close together. small (just like the letters on the Snellen chart)

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

with the prongs of the E pointing in different 14.3.2 Educational support to learners
directions. The learners are required to say or with visual impairments
show which way the E points (Landsberg 2001: Support to learners with visual impairments in an
182–183). inclusive education system should include all the
Learners are generally regarded as partially environmental systems (as discussed in Chapter
sighted when they have a visual acuity of between 1). However, in the next discussion the focus will
6/24 and 6/60 with the best optical correction. be on the meso- and exosystems which include
They need spectacles and other optical devices to the family, the school (and the education district)
utilise their residual vision fully. A person with a and the immediate environment such as health
visual acuity of 6/24 can see at a distance of six services.
metres what a person with normal vision can see
at a distance of 24 metres. A person with a visual
acuity of 6/60 can see at a distance of six metres Please make sure that you understand

ACTIVITY
what a person with normal vision can see at a dis- Bronfenbrenner’s systems model and
the application thereof for learners with
tance of 60 metres. 6/6 is regarded as normal
visual impairments. Also read Chapter
vision. 11 where parental support and collabo-
Learners are regarded as blind when they have ration are discussed.
a visual acuity of less than 6/60 with the best opti-
cal correction. It also depends on the field of vision
and on the type of eye condition the learner has. Support to learners with visual impairments can-
When people with normal sight gaze straight not be provided without a sound knowledge of
ahead, they see objects within a range of 180 these learners and their condition. Only then can
degrees. Some people have certain eye conditions the environment be adapted to cater for their
such as macular degeneration that allow them to needs. Learners with visual impairments can be
see well only in the peripheral part of their visual accommodated in special schools as resource cen-
fields, others see well centrally (retinitis pigmen- tres, in full-service schools as well as in ordinary
tosa) but not peripherally. Whether the field loss schools, depending on their needs (read Chapter
is central or peripheral, if the person is restricted 4 regarding support). A distinction should be
to an area of 20 degrees or less of the normal 180- made between support to learners who are blind
degree field, he can be classified as blind. A per- and to those who are partially sighted as educa-
son is therefore regarded as blind if he does not tional support differs. Learners who are blind are
possess any residual vision or cannot utilise his taught through their remaining senses, while
residual vision even with the aid of optical learners who are partially sighted are mainly
devices. taught through their visual sense even though
Near vision acuity is needed for reading and vision may be distorted and of poor quality, which
other close vision work. It can be detected by depends on the type of eye condition.
means of a near vision test consisting of different
unrelated paragraphs written in different sizes of [Link] Support to enhance the
print. The size of the different print has standard- development of learners who are
ised numbers. The learner holds the chart at a visually impaired
comfortable distance from his eyes in good read- Children with visual impairments need purposeful
ing light. If the person can read at 25 cm the let- and planned support from birth to prevent their
ters that are numbered as 14, his near vision is impairment from becoming a disability. Parents
indicated as N14 at 25 cm (Mason 1997: 58–59). therefore need to be empowered to support such
Knowing learners’ visual ability (with and with- a child. This could be provided by health services;
out the best optical corrections) is necessary in special schools as resource centres; non-govern-
supporting learners with visual impairment to mental organisations pertaining to visual impair-
learn optimally because this will help to deter- ments, such as the South Africa National Council
mine the needs of these learners. for the Blind and its affiliates; as well as parent

338
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

organisations for parents of children who are visu- toys to stimulate both residual vision, touch and
ally impaired. hearing.
Although the developmental aspects will be dis- Activities that could be used to teach young
cussed separately, support should be holistic – i.e. learners who are blind and partially sighted gross
all the developmental aspects should be cultivat- and fine motor skills are as follows:
ed from birth and continued into the school years.
• Use colourful pegboards for fine motor skills to
Therefore collaboration between parents, educa-
strengthen their fingers as well as to develop
tors at school and all the other available support
directionality (e.g. putting the first peg in the
services is of the utmost importance.
left-hand corner and the next one in the right-
hand corner).
(a) Support in physical and motor
development • Have big, brightly coloured balls with bells
From birth, parents should motivate children who inside or wrapped in a plastic bag (so blind
are blind through all their remaining senses to learners can hear the ball coming). Blind learn-
move by placing toys that make noises just ers can sit on the floor (opposite each other)
beyond their reach. By constantly talking to them, with their legs apart and roll the ball towards
parents make children who are blind aware of each other.
their presence so that they will reach out to them. • Encourage the learners to run towards a person
The legs and arms of children who are blind or a sound, holding a sighted person’s hand.
should be moved (touch and kinaesthesis), and
• When the child is walking on a gym bench, fas-
when they are strong enough, they should be put
ten a toy or a bell that emits a steady sound at
on their stomachs and, with appropriate sounds,
the end of the bench slightly above the child’s
movement and encouragement, taught to crawl.
head. This will encourage lifting of the head
By being bounced up and down in their parents’
when walking, thus improving the child’s pos-
arms and being helped to stand up against
ture.
objects, children who are blind are made aware
of the vertical position and of walking. To keep • Use ropes to make forms on the floor that chil-
their balance they will walk with their legs apart dren can walk and crawl around. They can feel
longer than sighted children do. They should be the forms with their feet and hands.
taught to use furniture as landmarks to move • Use push-toys, such as wheelbarrows, to act as
around in a room. When outside they need safety barriers as well.
encouragement to walk and run towards a voice
that they trust.
In general, children who are blind are not afraid (b) Support in perceptual development
of heights. They must be encouraged to climb up Blind learners’ senses of hearing, touch, smell and
and down (e.g. on a jungle gym) to exercise their taste, the kinaesthetic (touch and movement) and
shoulder and leg muscles. haptic (kinaesthesis, temperature and pain) sens-
Laterality and directionality are acquired skills es should be stimulated from early childhood.
and should be taught purposefully by means of These senses are not inherently stronger in blind
tactile and auditory clues. Learners who are people than in others, but they are more pur-
blind or partially sighted should always use their posefully employed and thus they usually gain in
own bodies as a point of departure to understand effectiveness. Development and cultivation of the
laterality and directionality such as jumping on senses should be done together with other activi-
one foot at a time (unilateral hops), with both ties such as physical and language activities across
feet together (bilateral hops) and alternative a blind person’s whole life, not only when he is at
hops (first on the one foot and then on the school. A holistic approach towards support is
other). therefore essential.
Young children with any residual vision should Both blind and partially sighted learners’ hear-
be motivated with colourful and noise-making ing should be developed and sharpened. The abil-

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

ity to listen, and especially the ability to localise The development of touch and kinaesthesis is
and distinguish between various environmental also of the utmost importance for Braille reading
sounds and to estimate the distance between and writing. Learners who are blind read Braille
themselves and these sounds, should be with their fingertips. They need fine tactile dis-
improved, since such abilities play a crucial role in crimination and fine motor coordination to move
a learner’s orientation to surroundings and move- their fingers in a straight line over the Braille dots
ment towards a certain familiar sound. and to interpret the different combinations of
Learners who are blind must be taught to prac- dots as different letters and/or words.
tise and make optimal use of auditory memory, Educators of older blind learners need to
since they need to rely on it to a far greater extent remember that these learners constantly need
than sighted learners do, particularly with regard exercises for finger dexterity because they are not
to remembering numbers (such as ID numbers) visually stimulated to use their hands.
and dates. The following listening and memory Learners who are blind do not spontaneously
exercises are vital. learn to discover new objects because there is no
• Let all learners (visually impaired and sighted) visual stimulus. Moreover, they cannot watch oth-
in your class sit still and listen to the sounds ers and imitate them. If a boy who is blind does
around them. Let them indicate the direction not know about a tractor or that there is a tractor
from which specific sounds are coming, and near him (if someone does not indicate where it is
what causes these sounds. and show him how to play with it), he will not
know what to do with it. We should, however,
• When at a street corner, let them show you the
guard against depriving learners who are blind
direction from which vehicles and other noises
entirely of their own initiative. For example, when
are coming, and whether these noises come
a boy who is blind has been shown how to play
from cars, lorries or motorbikes, etc.
with the tractor, he should be allowed to decide
• Use a tape recorder to play different sounds what he wishes to do with it. He can then be
which all learners can identify. taken to a real tractor to explore the size and
• Practise their auditory memory by asking ques- shape of it in comparison with the toy tractor.
tions about their environment; what they have This is also applicable to older learners who are
heard, seen, important telephone numbers, blind.
their ID numbers, their addresses, etc. However, the sense of touch also has its limita-
tions. Learners who are blind can never really
Learners who are blind have to rely on their sens- form an idea of objects outside their tactile reach
es of touch (tactile) and movement (kinaesthetic) (e.g. big buildings, the heavenly bodies), objects
to detect shape, line and texture, and to orientate which move (a rolling wheel), objects too small
themselves in a limited space (e.g. within a room). and delicate to touch (bubbles, ants) and
Blind learners’ fingers must learn to be dexterous ephemeral objects (e.g. flames). Models may be
and the sensitivity of their fingertips should be used but they are not always adequate for proper
improved. They must practise their sense of fine formation of the concept involved, because they
tactile discrimination to be able to identify tend to rely on visual cues and are in some cases
objects by their shape and form, since this is a much smaller (e.g. big buildings) or much bigger
better indication of the nature of an object than (e.g. ants) than the original.
its texture. For instance, a plate can be made of Similarly blind learners’ sense of smell and taste
porcelain or enamel but it is its circular shape that should be stimulated and reinforced. The sense of
informs us what it is. However, the identification smell in particular could play an important role in
of various textures – such as hard, soft, rough or orientation and mobility. The smell of soap indi-
smooth – is also important. When an unfamiliar cates the way to the bathroom; the smell of cer-
object is put into the learner’s hand, its distinctive tain flowers or specific shops such as pharmacies,
characteristics (shape and texture) should be vegetable shops or takeaways along the route to
pointed out to the learner. the school indicates the way to the school. The

340
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

sense of taste should be cultivated by introducing language that describes the experience. This will
learners who are blind or partially sighted to dif- prevent verbalism.
ferent tastes while the object of taste is described Stories can be read to them, but care should be
to them (e.g. chips are salty). taken that the story does not depend too much
on illustrations. Listening to the radio and “watch-
(c) Support in language and cognitive ing” television will also contribute to developing
development cognition and language. Occurrences and events
The cognitive and language development of chil- should be described to them so that they can
dren who are blind or partially sighted takes place understand cause and effect. For example, if you
in the same sequence as that of sighted children, do not eat your food now, you will become hun-
but they need much more support from parents gry later on when at school, where you are not
and caregivers not to lag behind. They need sup- allowed to eat in class.
port to acquire concrete experience of the words Learners who are partially sighted also need
they hear. Therefore objects should be placed in concrete experience because they may not be able
their hands and explained to them in detail. to learn incidentally. For example, learners who
Events and strange noises in their near vicinity have macular degeneration will not be able to
should be interpreted for them. However, it observe objects in their direct field of vision. They
remains a challenging task to explain abstract have to turn their heads to look with their periph-
concepts such as in and out, above and below, in eral vision. They should be taken to objects and
front and behind, to learners who are visually these objects should also be described to them
impaired. while they are manipulating them in their hands.
Although learners who are blind cannot detect
colour, they should be made aware of colour (e.g.
How would you explain to a learner the sky is blue, blood is red, grass is green). They
who is blind that he is walking under- can attach their own meaning to it, such as their
neath a big tree?
experience when they feel and taste blood or
Here you have to combine motor,
grass. Care should be taken that they do not put
perceptual as well as cognitive and lan-
guage skills. The learner should be everything into their mouths.
made aware of his surroundings when
walking underneath the tree. What (d) Support in social and emotional
ACTIVITY

does he hear? The wind blowing and development

the noise the leaves make? Is the sun Parents and teachers should support learners who
shining? When walking underneath a are visually impaired and help them to accept
tree, does he feel the sun on his skin? their problems. Their good points (strengths)
When stretching his hands above his should be pointed out to their friends so that they
head, can he touch the branches? If
learn to appreciate them despite their impair-
not, he should be lifted up or put on a
ment.
stepladder until he reaches the lowest
branches. Let him surround the trunk Blind learners ought to have the experience of
with his arms to get the impression of playing and interacting with other learners. There
the how big the tree is. will be activities that they cannot do but there are
more that they can do.

It is not possible to separate cognitive and lan-

Sacks et al. (1992: 100) recommend
guage development from motor and perceptual
ACTIVITY

that visual impairment itself should be a

development. Learners who are blind should use topic in both formal and informal dis-
as many of their senses as possible to understand cussions in class. Everybody in class
new words and to communicate meaningfully should have an adequate knowledge of
with others. They must have a solid base of con- the implications as well as the nature of
crete experience before they can understand the visual impairment.

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

What is your view on this and how tions of learners’ eye conditions. It may be that
ACTIVITY

would you go about planning such a vision in, say, the right eye is better than in the
discussion? Could it be a life skills other. The learner should then sit in front to the
theme? What outcomes would you set left side to use the right eye to maximum effect.
for this theme?

ACTIVITY
If there are learners in your class wear-
Educators should pay attention to the manner-
ing spectacles, first find out what their
isms young learners who are blind may exhibit.
eye conditions are and then determine
They could distract the learners’ attention from the best seats for them in class.
themselves with activities such as placing a toy in
their hands to manipulate instead of pressing the
eyes. Physical exercises such as running, jumping
and walking are important to develop gross mus- Learners with myopia and cataracts should sit in
cle coordination. All that is needed is to grasp front near the chalkboard. They should be
their hand. In the case of teenagers, educators allowed to come closer to the board to see better.
could explain the peculiarities of their manner- A smaller chalkboard on wheels which can be
isms to them and remind them not to repeat moved towards the learner with visual impair-
them. However, it is best to try to stop these man- ment will also improve that learner’s reading. It
nerisms as early as possible. Sacks et al. (1992: will also help learners to check their own written
168–169) suggest a discussion on these manner- work by repeating what is written on the chalk-
isms and the negative effect thereof on social board. Learners with hyperopia would prefer to
interaction with sighted learners in class. sit at the back of the class. They enjoy outside
play but may not be interested in schoolwork.
Learners who are blind should be taught about
Learners suffering from albinism should sit in a
appropriate dressing for certain occasions, which
darker place in the classroom, away from the win-
colours match and about the latest fashion so that
dows. Curtains in front of the windows can regu-
they are acceptably dressed for appropriate occa-
late the incoming light. To avoid glare, learners
sions. They should be taught how to distinguish
should work facing away from a window if no cur-
between certain garments by means of shape (e.g.
tains are available.
whether the garment has a collar or not) and tex-
Doors should be kept either open or closed
ture.
because doors that are ajar can be a potential
safety hazard to visually impaired learners who
[Link] Classroom support
can bump into them and hurt themselves. Pas-
Classroom support includes classroom manage- sages between desks should be clear to prevent
ment, effective teaching strategies and the learners with visual impairments from stumbling
employment of appropriate communication, over stray objects.
teaching and learning devices for learners who are Teachers should be flexible in their seating
visually impaired. The previous discussion on sup- arrangements in the classroom to allow learners
port in the development of learners who are visu- to be close to different classroom activities or to
ally impaired should always be taken into account adjust the amount of light available as needed.
as support should be continued in school. For example, a learner might move to another
place to obtain a better view of the teacher, the
(a) Classroom management chalkboard or the screen for the overhead projec-
The classroom should be managed according to tor, or to obtain a greater amount of light for a
the needs of learners with visual impairments. particular activity (Lewis & Doorlag 1995: 428).
They need specific support in the classroom The correct lighting is essential for learners
regarding the best seating places, lighting and who are partially sighted. Best (1992: 52) distin-
sound. Arter (1999: 20) maintains that it is essen- guishes between environmental lighting and task
tial that educators understand the full implica- lighting. The first refers to clearly lit classrooms,

342
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

corridors and stairs. Where corridors and stairs physical and emotional conditions, different eye
are not sufficiently lit, white or yellow stripes can conditions and other health conditions also play a
be painted on the floor and on the stairs to role. Blind learners learn mainly through their
increase visibility. Schoolbags and other objects sense of hearing in a group situation. To gain con-
should not be lying around in corridors where crete experience they sometimes need more indi-
learners with visual impairments may stumble vidual attention and additional support than
over them. There must be enough environmental sighted learners. Teachers need to take on the
light in the classroom (shining through the win- role of the learners’ eyes and provide learners
dows or provided artificially) to prevent harsh with information, take them to objects they can
shadows from forming. touch, place their hands on parts of the object
Task lighting refers to the lighting necessary for and, at the same time, explain them to the learn-
the execution of a specific task, such as concen- ers, elicit more questions from the learners and
trated light on a book which is being read. Learn- make sure that they understand. Teachers need to
ers with myopia, glaucoma, strabismus and other be creative, innovative and “teach from the living
macular problems will need extra table lamps. moment”. This also applies to learners that are
The best way to position the lamp on a table with partially sighted who, because of certain eye con-
a slanted surface is to have the light shining over ditions (myopia, macular degeneration, cataracts,
the learner’s left shoulder for the right-handed etc.), have a similar dependence on explanations
person and vice versa for the left-handed person. and experiences. In larger classes teachers should
When learners with visual impairments are work- use group work and cooperative teaching to facil-
ing at a table with a flat surface, the light should itate the support of learners who are visually
be placed at an angle directly in front of them. impaired. The class can be divided into smaller
The sound environment is important for learn- groups which should not contain more than one
ers who are blind. It helps them to understand learner who is visually impaired.
what is happening around them and to orient Knowledge of objects, sounds, smells, tastes,
themselves in the environment. Learners who are etc., which seeing learners take for granted
blind must be taught to distinguish between dif- should be purposefully taught to learners who are
ferent sounds, to listen selectively and to concen- visually impaired by means of excursions, every-
trate only on important sounds. Distracting noises day apparatus, models, etc. The use of concrete
from outside can be muffled by curtains. A parti- materials in formal teaching (blocks, rods, mod-
tioned place in the classroom can help the learner els, stuffed animals, embossed maps, sorting
who is blind to listen to tape recordings without games, etc.) is of the utmost importance. A stor-
disturbing others and to muffle unwelcome ing place for these materials should be available
sounds which may distract his attention. for later use and for lending to fellow teachers, or
they could be exhibited in the library, because
(b) Learning support strategies sighted learners will also benefit from this.
In the new education dispensation the teacher is Another problem that learners who are visually
regarded as a facilitator and the curriculum is impaired experience is the fact that they “see” as
regarded as a guideline which permits teachers to far as they can stretch their hands, i.e. as far as
develop innovative and creative programmes. The the object they can touch. That means that they
teacher should encourage critical thinking, argu- almost never get a total impression of an object.
ment, reflection and action on the part of learners They should be taught to move from the smaller
in the learning situation. Learning should be rele- part to the greater whole and from the known to
vant and related to real life. This is even more the unknown. As many senses as possible should
important for learners with visual impairments. be harnessed for use: hearing, because environ-
Teachers should remember that learners with mental sounds and echoes in particular establish
visual impairments are a larger heterogeneous the range and size of rooms; the sense of touch
group than sighted learners, because besides dif- for differences in texture, forms and temperature;
ferences in intellectual capacity, personality and and the sense of smell in order to identify the dif-

343
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

ferent smells in the environment. Models can be stylus. The latter is nowadays mainly used for tak-
used effectively to enhance full impressions. ing notes, while the Braille machine is regularly
used by people who are blind.
Braille is a code based on six dots. Each of these
How would you explain to a blind learn- dots has a number and a place in the cell.
er and a low-vision learner with a
restricted field of vision and/or
cataracts the size of an aeroplane by
ACTIVITY

means of a model of an aeroplane?

Models are scale examples of the
real object. To explain scale it is neces-
sary to use the learner’s own body and
a model of a person as a frame of refer-
ence. This can then be applied to a
model of an aeroplane and a real aero-
plane.
a b c d e

Because learners with visual impairments are less

mobile than sighted learners, their life-world
remains more limited if they do not move about
f g h i j
in the environment and become actively involved
with other people and objects. They therefore
need deliberate support to make discoveries To increase the speed of reading Braille, contrac-
themselves. Blind learners should not be overpro- tions have been introduced for combinations. Pre-
tected and in this way prevented from becoming fixes, suffixes, pronouns and prepositions are usu-
independent. Educators should not yield to the ally contracted. Braille is read with the sense of
temptation to do things for learners with visual touch, chiefly with the cushion of the forefinger.
impairments in order to save time. The use of computer technology by people who
Not one of the teachers’ strategies for teaching are blind has opened up many opportunities,
learners will be of any use if learners are not moti- including vocationally. The following devices can
vated to learn and to accept responsibility for be used by persons who are blind (Hutchinson et
their learning. Learners with visual impairment al. 1998: 162–171):
sometimes find it more difficult to become moti-
• Scanners can scan printed material and send it
vated to learn because the learning material fails
to the computer from which the person who is
to stimulate them visually. They are also “over-
blind can retrieve the information.
looked” more easily if they have not completed an
assignment, the result being a decrease in the • Refreshable Braille displays are electronic
level of their motivation. They therefore need devices that must be used in conjunction with a
constant motivation and praise to complete tasks. computer. They provide immediate feedback
on information entered into or displayed by a
(c) Communication, teaching and learning computer.
devices • Notetakers such as Braille-’n-Speak, Braille Lite
Braille is still the basic and unique reading and and BrailleNote are portable, lightweight elec-
written medium of communication and learning tronic devices that can be used to take notes in
for persons who are blind. Therefore they must meetings, to write down telephone numbers
learn to read and write Braille at the same time as and to execute ordinary and scientific calcula-
sighted learners begin to read and write. Braille tions, even for later retrieval. However, their
must be taught by a trained person. Braille is writ- memory is not very big and information has to
ten by means of a Braille machine and/or slate and be downloaded to a computer for later use.

344
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

Persons must have a sound knowledge of note-taking skills so that they may derive the best
Braille to use these devices. advantages from the tape recorder. When using it
• Computers can be equipped with screen-access for study purposes, many learners who are blind
software which allows persons who are blind to use the tape recorder in conjunction with Braille
navigate the screen, generate and read docu- reading. While they are reading the text in Braille
ments and surf the Internet. Everything that is they can simultaneously listen to the same text on
displayed on the screen for the sighted user is tape. This method can also benefit learners who
converted into voice-output for persons who are partially sighted and sighted learners with
are blind. reading problems.
Learners with visual impairments should be
The main drawback of electronic devices is that taught to type at an earlier age than the other
they are extremely expensive, and most persons learners (usually from Grade 6 when their hands
who are blind cannot afford them. Availability and are big enough to reach all the keys on the key-
training in their use are restricted to the main board). It makes written communication with the
centres of the country, which means additional teacher easier for them. Learners who are partial-
costs for persons who are blind living in other ly sighted find it easier to read typed work than
parts of the country. their own handwriting.
For learners who are partially sighted a magni-
fying glass can be used if large print books are not (d) Orientation and mobility
available. Instead of using ordinary classwork According to Stone (1997b: 159–161), the quality
books with dull lines, parallel lines can be drawn of the lives of people with visual impairments is,
on blank A4 paper with a black pen (a marker pen to a large extent, dependent on their ability to
or koki). This will be more visible for the learners care for themselves and to travel independently.
especially if they find it difficult to write between It is through moving in our environment that our
the lines. The space between the lines may vary world expands and that we are exposed to a wide
according to the residual vision of the learner, but range of real experiences. Independent move-
the lines can be further apart than those in the ment also facilitates social interaction and meet-
classwork books. Computer software which ing new friends. To move and travel independent-
zooms in on texts on the screen is also available ly, two abilities, namely orientation and mobility,
for learners with low vision. Closed circuit televi- are required. Orientation refers to the awareness
sion can be used in class where the teacher does of space and the position of the body in space.
demonstrations underneath a camera while the Mobility is the safe movement of the person from
learner who is partially sighted follows the one point to the other.
demonstration on a television screen near his To develop sound orientation and mobility
desk (Hutchinson et al. 1998: 172–179). skills, the laterality and directionality of persons
Printed material should be clear, attractive and who are visually impaired should be well estab-
meaningful. Reading materials that display the lished. In other words, learners who are visually
greatest contrast between the print and the paper impaired should be purposefully taught the left
such as black print on white paper with fairly and right sides of their bodies, from which direc-
large letters and good spacing are the easiest to tion sounds are coming (localising the sounds)
see. When duplicated copies are handed out to and their relation to objects in their environment
learners, make sure that the learner who is visual- (directionality). Teachers should therefore make
ly impaired receives the darkest, clearest copies. them aware of sounds, smells, textures and tem-
Textbooks can be read onto tape for learners perature differences so that they can identify cer-
who are blind or partially sighted. Tape recorders tain places in their environment.
could also be used as a medium for study, for Blind learners and certain of those who are par-
leisure, for personal correspondence and for tially sighted need formal training in mobility –
occupational purposes. Learners who are visually such as moving with the white cane or a guide-
impaired should be taught good listening and dog – by a trained mobility instructor.

345
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

14.5 CONCLUSION
How would you go about teaching a
boy with macular degeneration his way Learners with visual impairments need ongoing
to his desk when he sits in the third support from their early days. Loss of or restricted
row, second from the back? vision influences the language, motor and socio-
Learners with macular degeneration emotional development of the learner. Whereas
rely on their peripheral vision, auditory blind learners can experience a personal life-
and tactile clues to acquire directionali- world only by means of their remaining senses,
ACTIVITY

ty. You will, for example, let this learner partially sighted learners have the use of all their
count the rows of desks in the class by senses, even though their vision is imperfect.
letting him touch each row as he passes
Learners who are blind should therefore be
and then tell him to turn into the third
passage until he reaches the back wall. taught to make better use of their remaining sens-
Then let him turn back to find the sec- es, while learners who are partially sighted should
ond last desk. Learners with macular be taught to use vision together with the other
degeneration find it difficult to distin- senses. Special attention should also be paid to
guish colours, so marking the desks language acquisition, to the development of
with bright colours would not assist him. socio-emotional skills and to orientation and
mobility. If this is not done from an early age,
learners with visual impairments will lag behind in
14.4 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNERS WITH their total development.
VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS
The teacher should be able to make appropriate
Questions
use of different assessment practices, with particu-
lar emphasis on competence-based assessment 1. Why is it important that teachers should know
and the formative use of assessment, in particular about the eye conditions of learners who are
the continuous and diagnostic forms of assess- visually impaired?
ment (Department of Education 1998: 69). The 2. How would you use an occurrence such as a
teacher should understand the assumptions that motor accident on a street corner near the
underlie a range of assessment approaches, and school to teach the learners in your class
their particular strengths and weaknesses in rela- (including visually impaired learners) the learn-
tion to the age of the learner, the barriers the ing areas of literacy, mathematics, economics
learner may experience in his learning such as a and natural sciences?
visual impairment, and the learning area being
assessed. Teachers should, therefore, keep in
mind that learners with visual impairments need Bibliography
more time to complete tasks, tests and examina-
Arter, C. 1997. Listening skills. In Mason, H. & McCall, S.
tions. Braille reading is, for instance, much slower
(Eds), Visual impairment: access to education for children
than sighted reading. Usually, learners who are and young people. London: Fulton, 143–148.
visually impaired should for every hour allocated Arter, C. 1999. Environmental issues. In Arter, C., Mason,
to a test or examination get between a quarter and H., McCall, S., McLinden, M. & Stone, J. (Eds), Children
half an hour of extra time to complete their work. with visual impairment in mainstream settings. London:
Tests or examination papers can also be done Fulton, 19–28.
through an amanuensis (an independent third Best, A. 1992. Teaching children with visual impairments.
Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
party who writes down their answers) or can be
done orally. Learners also need more space around Bishop, V. 1996. Teaching visually impaired children.
Springfield, IL: Thomas.
them as Braille books, a Braille machine and other
Department of Education. 1998. Norms and standards for
devices take up more space than books and pens.
educators. Technical committee on the revision of norms
Examination and test papers should be in Braille or and standards for educators. Pretoria: Department of
large print according to the needs of each learner. Education.

346
 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 14

Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6: Pauw, T. 1992. Physiological-medical aspects of visual
Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education handicaps (only study guide for PHYVO0-6). Pretoria:
and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education. Unisa.
Hallahan, D.P. & Kauffman, J.M. 1997. Exceptional learn- Pauw, T. 1999. The visually handicapped. In Kapp, J.A.
ers: introduction to special education, 7th ed. Boston: (Ed.), Children with problems: an orthopedagogical per-
Allyn & Bacon. spective. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 352–376.
Harrison, F. & Crow, M. 1993. Living and learning with Sacks, S.Z. & Silberman, R.K. 1998. Educating students
blind children: a guide for parents and teachers of visually who have visual impairments with other disabilities. Balti-
impaired children. Toronto: University of Toronto. more, OH: Paul H. Brookes.
Holbrook, M.C. (Ed.). 1996. Children with visual impair- Sacks, S.Z., Kekelis, L.S. & Gaylord-Ross, R.J. 1992. The
ments: the special needs collection. Bethesda, MD: Wood- development of social skills by blind and visually impaired
bine House. students. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Hutchinson, J.O., Atkinson, K. & Orpwood, J. 1998. Break- Scholl, G. 1986. Foundations of education for blind and
ing down barriers: access to further and higher education visually handicapped children and youth: theory and prac-
for visually impaired students. London: Stanley Thornes. tice. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Landsberg, E.I. 1997. Learners with special educational Shaffer, D.R. 1995. Developmental psychology: childhood
needs II (visual disability) (only study guide for FDESEV-W). and adolescence, 5th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Pretoria: Unisa. Stone, J. 1997a. The pre-school child. In Mason, H. &
Landsberg, E.I. 1998. Teaching practice (visual disability) McCall, S. (Eds), Visual impairment: access to education
(only study guide for FDEVPR-U). Pretoria: Unisa. for children and young people. London: Fulton, 87–96.
Landsberg, E.I. 2001. Learners with visual impairment. In Stone, J. 1997b. Mobility and independence skills. In
Krüger, D. (Ed.), Special educational needs (only study Mason, H. & McCall, S. (Eds), Visual impairment: access
guide for OSN431-S). Pretoria: Unisa, 171–200. to education for children and young people. London: Ful-
Lewis, R.B. & Doorlag, D.H. 1995. Teaching special stu- ton, 159–168.
dents in the mainstream, 3rd ed. Columbus: Merrill. Van Heerden, E.I. 1989. ‘n Ondersoek na die selfkonsep
MacDonagh, G. 1996. Pre-school problems facing young van ‘n groep blinde adolessente meisies. MEd-verhandel-
visually impaired children and their families: abnormal ing. Pretoria: Unisa.
visual development begets abnormal child development. Vaughan, D., Asbury, T. & Riordan-Eva, P. 1999. General
The British Journal of Visual Impairment 14(1): 29–31. ophthalmology, 15th ed. Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.
Mason, H. 1997. Assessment of vision. In Mason, H. & Vaughan, V. 1995. The partially sighted adolescent: transi-
McCall, S. (Eds), Visual impairment: access to education tion to adulthood. Pretoria: SA National Council for the
for children and young people. London: Fulton, 51–62. Blind.

347
 EDUCATING THE DEAF
AND HARD-OF-HEARING 15
LEARNER
CLAUDINE STORBECK1

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πdefine deafness
Πdemonstrate an understanding of the mechanics of the ear
Πdiscuss the types, causes and various levels of hearing loss and
deafness
Πdemonstrate a basic understanding of the identification process and
working with an audiogram to understand the learner’s hearing loss
Πidentify the characteristics evident in learners with hearing loss and
the subsequent impact of deafness on the learner’s development
Πdemonstrate an understanding of the current debates in deafness and
Deaf education, including an understanding that sign language is a
real language
Πidentify the central barriers experienced by learners who are deaf and
hard of hearing
Πdemonstrate how to intervene effectively and provide the necessary
educational support to the child and his family.

Key terms ers in order to fully achieve the ideal of the inclu-
sive philosophy: equal access to equal education.
deaf ♦ hard-of-hearing ♦ Deaf education ♦ sign Before we continue, stop for a few minutes and
language consider the following question. Make a note of
your comments and thoughts, as we will be com-
ing back to what you have written down a few
15.1 INTRODUCTION
times in the course of the chapter.
Deafness is one of the largest categories of
impairments in South Africa and encompasses the
Make a note of everything you know
full spectrum of hearing loss – from mild to total
and think about deafness and deaf
ACTIVITY

deafness – yet as an invisible impairment it is people. This may be based on things

often misunderstood or even underestimated in you have heard, read or seen on televi-
the severity of its impact upon both the child and sion, or just know or assume. Write
his family. This chapter will provide an overview down as many things as you can in two
of the complexity of deafness along with the nec- minutes.
essary strategies required by teachers and learn-

348
 EDUCATING THE DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING LEARNER 15

Let us consider briefly how you may have learner in terms of development and the subse-
described deafness and deaf people: Deafness is quent audiological, communicative, educational
usually described as the physical impairment of and social interventions available to you as a prac-
not being able to hear, and usually brings to mind titioner when working with the d/Deaf learner and
the need for hearing aids, speech therapy and the his family.
use of signing and gestures as a means of commu- Let us begin the next part of the discussion
nication. Additionally deafness is often synony- with a question:
mous with terms such as “deaf and dumb”, “hear-
ing impaired”, “concrete-bound”, “learning dis- How would you define deafness if

ACTIVITY
abled” and “intellectually disabled”. Disablist asked to do so by a new edition of the
labels such as these have been around for cen- Oxford English Dictionary? Spend a
turies and despite the fact that they are often few minutes writing down your defini-
based on nothing more than rumours and tion/s.
assumptions, they are hard to get rid of and fre-
quently impact on the way we as hearing people
When defining deafness there are generally two
interact with deaf and hard-of-hearing people.
opposing schools of thought: the first defines
Because of the human rights movement (and deafness audiologically, where deaf people are
subsequently the drive towards inclusive educa- seen to lack hearing and subsequently are seen to
tion), researchers and practitioners worldwide are be deficient in, inter alia, their communication
moving away from the disability labelling which ability; the second defines Deaf people and their
includes terms such as “hearing loss”, “hearing deafness as a linguistic minority group with a
impairment” and “hearing disorder”. Rather, strong Deaf identity and culture. These two defi-
researchers are choosing to use the more generic nitions broadly represent the medical model and
term “deafness” to refer broadly to all levels of the social model, where the majority of hearing
hearing loss, making the distinction between deaf people follow the former and the majority of Deaf
and hard-of-hearing only when it is necessary to people the latter when defining themselves.
do so (Marschark et al. 2002; Schirmer 2001; More recently there has been a move away
Marschark 1997; Moores 1996). This chapter will from the polarisation of these two models to a
follow this convention and where necessary will bio-ecological approach (see Chapter 1) where the
differentiate between “deaf learners” and “Deaf person within the system is central, and the onto-
learners”, where the former refers to the audio- logical model (Shakespeare & Watson 2002;
logical aspect of having a hearing loss and the lat- Wrigley 1996) where each person is viewed and
ter to the linguistic and cultural minority group accepted as a whole: physically, culturally and
where “Deaf” is subsequently spelled with a capi- spiritually, etc. This chapter thus aims to present
tal “D” (Padden & Humphries 1988). a truly inclusive model where these abovemen-
In addition to the labels referred to above, the tioned models converge. Thus, in order to fully
area of deafness is rife with contentious debates understand the socio-cultural issues of deafness
and choices regarding communication and educa- and how they impact on both the individual and
tion. Due to the many inaccurate assumptions society, one needs to understand the complexity
about deaf and hard-of-hearing people and the of deafness and all that it implies. The discussion
contentious debates that abound, practitioners will begin with an overview of the mechanics of
working in this field require a certain amount of the ear and aetiology of deafness.
specialised knowledge, understanding and
insight. Subsequently, this chapter aims to pro-
vide you with an overview of the holistic view on 15.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
deafness: how to define deafness and hearing The ear is divided into three sections – the outer
loss, the mechanics and aetiology of deafness, ear, middle ear and inner ear – and each of these
how to identify deafness in a learner, as well as parts has a specific role to play in the process of
understanding the impact of deafness on the translating sound (measured in hertz and deci-

349
 SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

bels) into sound waves and ultimately into the 15.3 DEFINING AND DESCRIBING HEARING
electrical impulses interpreted by the brain. LOSS
The outer ear gathers the sound and channels it When defining the physical audiological compo-
down the auditory canal where this sound comes nent of deafness, there are four categories of
into contact with the eardrum, causing it to information to consider:
vibrate. The sound has thus now been trans-
formed into a mechanical vibration and is in the • The level of hearing loss
middle ear. The vibrations of the eardrum set the • The age of onset
ossicles (the hammer, anvil and stirrup) vibrating, • The type of hearing loss
which then set fluids in the cochlea vibrating, • The cause or aetiology of the hearing loss
causing shearing of the hair cells. The hair cells
cause excitation of the nerve endings, which Knowing and understanding each of these
transform vibrations into electric impulses which categories is essential in understanding your
travel along the auditory nerve to be interpreted learners and the specific challenges and barriers
by the brain. they face.

Auricle
Cartilage Cochlear nerve
Upper SC
Cochlea
Lateral SC Auditory
Vestibular
Posterior nerve nerve
semicircular
canal (SC)

Auditory canal

Malleus Stirrup
(hammer)
Incus Oval window
(anvil)
Tympanic Eustachian
membrane tube

The ear consists of three parts: Round window

A The external ear A B C
B The middle ear
C The inner ear

Figure 15.1 Diagram of the ear

Source: Kapp 1999: 321

350
 EDUCATING THE DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING LEARNER 15

15.3.1 Levels of hearing loss zontal axis represents frequency, which relates to
If you suspect a learner has a hearing loss, the first the pitch of the sound (high or low) and is meas-
step is for the child’s hearing to be tested by an ured in hertz (Hz).
audiologist, either privately or at a hospital or Figure 15.2 shows familiar sounds (speech,
clinic. After the test, the audiologist will help fit dogs barking and traffic sounds) and where they
the child with the correct hearing aid (based on are situated on an audiogram in terms of loudness
the audiological profile), as well as refer the child and pitch, giving you an idea of the sounds that
for auditory training and speech therapy if neces- deaf children miss.
sary. Based on this audiological assessment the child
Babies should be tested as early as possible, is then identified as hard of hearing or deaf. The
preferably soon after birth before the mother and levels of hearing loss can be categorised as shown
baby leave the hospital. This initial hearing in Table 15.1.
screening with oto-acoustic emissions (OAEs) is a Once the hearing loss (and level of loss) is iden-
quick and painless process and should pick up any tified, the audiologist will identify the type of
discrepancies and reasons for concern. A second, hearing loss, as this has an impact on the support
more accurate screening is through the auditory and interventions offered to the child.
brainstem response (ABR) test,
where the auditory nerve’s
response to sound is measured
with sensors placed on the ears
and on the head. A third and
more behavioural test is often
done by the paediatrician at
the six-week check-up: a rattle
or bell is shaken behind the
baby and the baby’s response is
noted. This final test is less reli-
able as the visual cues and
body language of the doctor
can be distracting.
Older children and adults are
tested using pure-tone audio-
metric tests where sounds (of
various frequencies and inten-
sities) are emitted through ear-
phones into the ears (either left
or right) at different intervals.
The child is expected to press a
button or raise a hand (left or
right) depending on the side
the sound is perceived. The
audiologist then records the
child’s threshold (when the
sound is so soft that it is only
detected half the time) and
plots it on an audiogram. The
intensity (loudness, measured Figure 15.2
in decibels (dB)) is plotted on Audiogram of familiar sounds
the vertical axis, and the hori- Source: Used with the permission of the American Academy of Audiology

351
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Table 15.1 Levels of hearing loss caused by, inter alia, head injuries or damage to
the central auditory nervous system and the sub-
Hearing person 0–25dB
sequent inability to interpret sound effectively.
Hard of Mild hearing loss 26–40dB This form of deafness is thus not audiological but
hearing Moderate hearing loss 41–55dB neurological in nature. Hearing loss can be either
Modeately severe hearing loss 56–70dB unilateral (in one ear) or bilateral (in both ears).
Deaf Severe hearing loss 71–90dB Once the level and type of hearing loss are iden-
tified, the age of onset and cause need to be
Profound hearing loss 91dB+
established as these usually have an impact on,
Source: Adapted from Marschark et al. 2002; Schirmer inter alia, the linguistic and cognitive development
2001
of the child as well as on the family relations. Such
knowledge is central to understanding the unique
needs of the learners and subsequently to devel-
15.3.2 Types of hearing loss oping appropriate support and intervention
There are generally two types of hearing loss – strategies in the educational context.
conductive and sensorineural – and each of these
results in different kinds of hearing difficulty 15.3.3 Age of onset and aetiology of
impacting differently on the child’s life. hearing loss
Conductive hearing loss refers to a problem Children may be either born deaf (congenital deaf-
that occurs in the actual process of conducting ness) or develop/acquire deafness later. A more
the sound waves in either the outer or the middle useful classification in terms of how deafness will
ear. This can be because of blockages in the ear impact on the child’s development is in terms of
canal (such as wax build-up), fluid build-up behind whether it was developed pre-lingually (before
the eardrums which can get infected (exacerbated language is developed – usually before two years
by colds and flu leading to otitis media, for exam- of age) or post-lingually (after language develop-
ple), perforated ear drums, or damaged ossicles. ment). Deafness developing before or after the
In general conductive hearing losses affect the acquisition of language impacts totally differently
volume of the sounds heard and can be improved on the child and thus requires different forms of
through medication, surgery or amplification. interventions. We will discuss the issue of lan-
A hearing loss caused by problems in the inner guage development and intervention later.
ear or in the auditory nerve is called a sen- Pre-lingual deafness (which is either congenital
sorineural hearing loss. In this case, even if the or acquired before language is developed) can
outer and middle ear are in perfect working con- have the following causes:
dition, if the inner ear can no longer convert the
sound vibrations into the electrical signals • Maternal illness such as German measles/rubel-
required by the auditory nerve, the brain will not la contracted by the mother, especially during
be able to interpret the sounds. Amplification can the first trimester of her pregnancy, can cause
sometimes aid sensorineural losses, although deafness as the virus attacks the foetus. A sec-
often such a loss also includes some form of audi- ond maternal illness known to cause deafness
tory distortion, which cannot be corrected is cytomegalovirus (CMV), a herpes virus that
despite the necessary amplification. A combina- can be transferred to the child by the infected
tion of both conductive and sensorineural losses mother through the placenta, through cervical
is called a mixed hearing loss. secretions during birth and through breast milk
A final type of hearing loss that you as a practi- after birth. At present there is no known pre-
tioner may come across is the auditory process- vention or treatment, but it can be detected
ing disorder (or central hearing loss) where the through amniocentesis (Moaven et al. 1995 in
child does not technically suffer from hearing Schirmer 2001; Moores 1996).
loss, but where the brain is unable to interpret • Genetic deafness means that there is deafness
the sound that it receives. Central hearing loss is or hearing loss in the family and is thus heredi-

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 EDUCATING THE DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING LEARNER 15

tary in nature. Between 150 and 175 types of gual deafness (where the child has not had access
genetic deafness have been identified (Bess & to any spoken language) usually means that par-
Humes 1995 in Schirmer 2001). ents select the signed language route (in this case,
• Birth complications and/or premature birth South African Sign Language – SASL) and may
(defined as birth before 37 weeks) is also choose to have the child educated in a school for
known to cause hearing loss in some infants. the Deaf. Conversely, post-lingually deafened
learners may be educated in schools for the Deaf
and pre-lingually deafened children may be edu-
cated orally (either in oral schools for the deaf or
ACTIVITY

Please read Chapter 12 on pre- and in the mainstream). In South Africa we have exam-
postnatal causes of brain injury that ples of all of these options, and each will be dis-
may also cause deafness.
cussed briefly.

15.4 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

Post-lingual deafness is caused primarily through CHOICES
ear infections (otitis media) and meningitis. Other
less prevalent causes are accidents and blows to The biggest decision that parents of deaf children
the head, high fevers, mumps, measles as well as will need to make is the decision regarding com-
side effects from certain medications. munication and the related educational method.
These options are hugely debated (often referred
• Meningitis is an infection (viral or bacterial) of to in Deaf circles as the “great modality debate”).
the central nervous system, specifically the cov- This can cause immense frustration and stress to
ering of the brain, which could extend into the parents and learners alike and, due to the impact
brain and ears, thus causing deafness. Children on their lives, should be an informed decision.
who become deafened due to meningitis are The two approaches (which are on opposing sides
usually profoundly deaf, the majority of whom of the communication continuum) are the oral
do not benefit from hearing aids. approach and the sign language approach to com-
• Otitis media (middle ear infection) occurs when munication and education.
the Eustachian tube becomes blocked and fluid The oral approach to communicating with and
in the middle ear builds up. Antibiotics usually educating deaf learners advocates the auditory-
clear up the infection, although grommets oral approach to communication. This approach
(drainage tubes) may be necessary in more includes auditory training (use of residual hear-
severe cases. Chronic otitis media (in areas of ing), speech and lip-reading and prohibits signing
poverty where treatment is scarce) can lead to or gesturing of any sort. Oralist methods vary,
permanent hearing loss (Marschark et al. 2002). with some systems placing the emphasis on audi-
Young children most vulnerable to continuous tion and the use of residual hearing, while others
ear infections (such as Aids babies) should be combine audition with visual cueing, using such
closely monitored in this regard. systems as Cued Speech.2
In oralism the primary goal is the “normalisa-
One of the reasons that the categorisation of pre- tion” of deaf children to fit better into a hearing
and post-lingual deafness is important is that this world by making them oral: speaking and lip-read-
is usually a defining category when considering ing as well as possibly using their residual hearing
education options for learners who are deaf. Post- to its fullest with the aid of assistive devices, such
lingual deafness (especially in later childhood) as visual, tactile and auditory aids. Oralists believe
means that the child has an English (or any other that by acquiring spoken language through an
spoken language) language base for learning and intensive focus on listening, comprehensive iden-
communicating, and this means that the child may tification and vigorous audiological support, the
possibly continue in his present school with addi- deaf child will be fully integrated into the hearing
tional support strategies put into place. Pre-lin- world which is the majority culture (and the

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majority family culture, as 90 per cent of deaf chil- to sign language from as early an age as possible,
dren are born into hearing families). thus recognising the importance of a critical peri-
Orally educated children are said to develop od in language acquisition (Fischer 1995). In order
better spoken language than those who are edu- for natural sign language development to occur
cated manually, but to date the findings in the lit- (with the same stages of language development as
erature appear to be inconsistent (Musselman et spoken languages), parents need to sign to their
al. 1988; Marschark 2001). Those who support the deaf child from as early an age as possible, and
oral method stress the importance of early educa- contact with Deaf adult role models is recom-
tion and the involvement of parents for the mended (Petitto 2000; Brennan 1992; Johnson
method to be successful. Not only parents but 1992; Johnson et al. 1989; Kyle & Woll 1985).
also teachers and the children themselves must be The main objective of the manual paradigm is a
highly motivated to persevere with speech devel- well-developed deaf child who shows normal lan-
opment and ultimate inclusion in mainstream guage development, normal cognitive skills, a
classrooms. strong cultural identity, social and emotional sta-
The oralist approach falls within the medical bility, and second language literacy. This
model since it implies that the deaf child is defi- approach falls within the social model on disabili-
cient and needs remediation and normalisation. ty, and the majority of the Deaf community sup-
Oralism is a philosophy (and practice) usually sup- port the manual approach. Research into the
ported by hearing people without the input of development of deaf children of deaf parents
Deaf people themselves. The effort to make deaf (DCDP) validates the method empirically as DCDP
children speak “normally” is arduous, and accord- are found to be superior in terms of English lan-
ing to manualists (people who support sign lan- guage development and educational achievement
guage), could be disadvantageous to the deaf compared to deaf children of hearing parents
learner’s educational development and psycho- (DCHP) (Johnson et al. 1989; Paul & Quigley 1994).
logical health, due to the constant belief that they Research also shows that the receptive language
are “not good enough” and thus not fully accept- of children educated manually is higher than that
able as they are. Furthermore, through the oral of orally educated children (Musselman et al.
approach the deaf learner’s social environment is 1988). This area of research – comparing DCDP
often restricted and emotional frustration often and DCHP – has, however, also been found to be
results. inconsistent (Marschark 1993, 2000) and further
A benefit of the oral approach can be attributed investigation is required.
to the fact that parents and teachers do not need The effective application of manualism is hin-
to learn a new language and can thus rely on the dered for the majority of learners since few hear-
spoken language of the community (Sesotho or ing parents or teachers of the Deaf are sufficient-
English for example). An additional benefit is that ly fluent in sign language to allow for the full
these learners are said to fit into the hearing com- development of sign language as a first language.
munity (by being able to speak and lip-read) with- Without a strong first language base, teaching
out the community having to adapt to their and learning become complicated and the learn-
unique needs which is, however, in contradiction ing of a second language is much more difficult.
to the inclusive approach to education. Consequently manualists believe that the best
The sign language approach (also known as the teachers of the Deaf are deaf people themselves.
manual approach) argues that sign language3 – The Draft guidelines for implementation of inclusive
the natural, barrier-free language of the Deaf – is education (October 2002a: 139) supports the man-
the first language of the deaf learner, and that the ual approach to communication and education of
language of the hearing majority (spoken lan- deaf learners as it recognises that language barri-
guage) is the second language of the deaf learner ers can be “particularly destructive” and that
(World Federation of the Deaf 1993; Brennan “Sign Language as the medium of teaching and
1992; Johnson et al. 1989). Consequently the man- learning enables these learners to develop bi- and
ual method encourages the use of and exposure multilingualism through Sign Language”. Despite

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 EDUCATING THE DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING LEARNER 15

the clear benefits of being educated in sign lan- communication channels, singly or in combina-
guage, parents and educators who support oral tion, in order to achieve the best results in edu-
approaches claim that if deaf children are not cating the deaf learner. This approach recognises
exposed to speech from an early age, auditory the varying degrees of deafness – from the hard of
and oral development are delayed and hindered hearing to the profoundly deaf – and the different
in their future development. Although many feel impact each degree of deafness has on language
that there is justification for this claim, there must development. The aim of Total Communication is
be a clear distinction made between “language” and noble: to reach the learner through any means or
“speech”. method necessary, be it through oral or manual
Consider the following question: modes. However in practice it has come to mean
simultaneous communication (Woodward 1982) or
Have you ever found yourself judging a Sign Supported English (Conrad 1979; Johnson et
deaf learner who speaks fluently as al. 1989; Johnson 1992; Brien 1992).
ACTIVITY

better or more intelligent than those Sign Supported English4 means that signs are
with less fluent speech? Why might used simultaneously with English speech where
children with “better” speech appear to the message follows the structure of the spoken
hearing people to be more intelligent? language and the sporadic signs merely assist
Is there a difference between speech
with the spoken message. As it relies mainly on
and language?
the spoken word in a similar way to that of the
oral method of communication, Johnson (1992: 7)
The tendency of hearing people to equate clearly refers to Total Communication as “crypto-oral-
articulated speech with intelligence and linguistic ism”. Since Total Communication follows the oral
competence is a temptation many hearing teach- expression of a message, Deaf people experience
ers and parents, not to mention the wider society, difficulties, primarily because sign language and
have fallen victim to. Consequently deaf people spoken English have different grammatical struc-
have paid the price of such misconception, and in tures.
order to overcome it one needs to be aware that For a hearing person, signing and speaking at
speech and language are not synonymous. the same time is likely to be both physically and
Another criticism that oralists have of manual psychologically exhausting. Given that the lexicon
systems is that they tend to socially isolate Deaf and the grammatical structure of the two lan-
people from the hearing world in which most of guages are different, simultaneous communica-
them need to operate and live. The manualist tion leads to both the signed and the spoken part
argument in contrast says that to prevent a deaf of the message being flawed. It is thus suggested
child from using sign language isolates him from that this flawed or telegraphic mode of communi-
the Deaf community. Thus the social isolation that cation is inadequate as a language of education
an orally educated deaf person can suffer comes and becomes a barrier to the learning process
from not feeling comfortable or fully capable in itself. There is also increasing evidence that deaf
either the Deaf or the hearing community. children cannot simultaneously process signs,
In the search for a successful middle ground speech and lip-reading (Luterman 1986: 125).
approach, the advantages of both the oral and Despite the fact that this approach combines both
manual paradigms have been combined into what manual and oral components, neither manualists
is referred to as “Total Communication”. nor oralists fully support Total Communication.
Total Communication as an educational Even though Total Communication seems to
approach is seen by its supporters as one that improve general communication between Deaf
tries to use whatever means are available to teach and hearing people, research indicates that it
the individual learner – thus the expression does not significantly improve the language skills
“approach” rather than “method” of education of the Deaf (Moores 1996; Johnson et al. 1989).
(WheiPing Lou 1994). Total Communication Despite the weaknesses in the Total Communica-
emerged in the 1970s in a drive to include all the tion approach, it has played an important role in

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the evolution of Deaf education. The acknowl- tural (sign language) and the other is written, with
edgement that signed languages are as important the aural-oral component (spoken version of the
as spoken/written languages initiated the move written language) as an option. An important
away from education solely through the audito- point to remember when adopting a bilingual
ry/oral mode, and can thus be seen as a break- approach in Deaf education is that the two lan-
through in Deaf education. guages are equal but not the same, and so should
Despite the fact that these approaches (oral and be kept separate in use and in the curriculum.
manual) are clearly at opposite ends of the com- Rather than viewing Deaf Education as educa-
munication continuum, they both have strengths tion through bilingualism only, it should be viewed
and weaknesses. A strategic combination of these as education for bilingualism, with the goal of pro-
strengths and weaknesses has made way for a ducing learners who are bilingually competent
new approach to communicating with and edu- both in sign language and in accessible (usually
cating deaf learners. This new opportunity is not written) forms of English (or the language of the
disability focused and is clearly supported by the community). Additionally it should include a
Deaf community and thus in line with the inclu- knowledge of both hearing and Deaf cultures
sive philosophy of education. This approach is (Storbeck 1998; Storbeck & Henning 1998; Stor-
known as the Bilingual-Bicultural approach to beck & Magongwa in press).
Deaf education. Bilingual education for the Deaf has been
Bilingualism works from the premise that first described in detail in Mahshie’s work (1994) enti-
language competency is necessary in order to tled Educating deaf children bilingually, in which she
develop normal cognitive processes and for sec- looks at the bilingual programmes in Sweden and
ond language development (Cummins 1984; Denmark. She describes bilingualism as having
1991). Bilingualism encompasses the use of two three basic goals:
languages and has as its aim a high level of com- • Grade level academic achievement equivalent
petency in both languages, and it further empha- with hearing peers
sises the equality of the two cultures (Deaf and • Full participation in society
hearing), which explains the full title of this
• Fluency in both the language of the majority
approach: Bilingual-Bicultural.
and that of the Deaf community (as well as the
Bilingualism as an approach in Deaf education
language of the home – if different from above)
acknowledges that the Deaf child’s first language
is sign language and his second language is the In order for the goals of Bilingual-Bicultural edu-
language of the hearing family into which he is cation to be achieved, it needs to be implemented
born. In addition, bilingualism acknowledges that effectively in the classroom, as well as in the
the majority of deaf children (90 per cent) grow school as a whole. This requires the following:
up in a hearing community without natural access
to their first language, i.e. sign language, or the • Teachers who are fluent in signing skills and
natural capacity to acquire the spoken language who understand the relevant theories and the
of their families. Consequently, the majority of implications for practice
deaf children do not naturally acquire a first lan- • Institutional support in the way of policy and
guage. This impedes both their academic devel- resource availability
opment and their acquisition of a second lan- • Collegial support
guage, in this case the spoken language of the • Continual training and assessment
hearing culture. Bilingual approaches to educa- • Parental involvement and support
tion aim to address this problem by recognising • Involvement of Deaf people in key areas (edu-
both first and second languages. cators, role models, tutors)
A crucial distinction between the standard form
of the bilingual education model and bilingual Parents (and teachers) need to make informed
education for the Deaf is the additional issue of decisions, and thus should read and learn as much
bimodality, where the one language is visual-ges- as they can about the options available to them as

356
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well as know as much as they can about their indi- that with “symptoms” such as these he probably
vidual child (hence the preceding discussion on has AD/HD and likely to be needing medication
deafness and aetiology). Effectively meeting the soon.
needs of the child (as opposed to “fixing the Consider how you would begin to profile this
learner. Do you have any similar learners in your
child” or getting involved in political struggles
class? Before you write the child off as one who
and debates) should be the central focus of the
is naughty or who just cannot concentrate, let us
decision. consider how to identify hearing loss in a main-
Whatever the decision, deaf learners will need stream class.
additional and specialised support within the edu-
cational context to meet their unique needs. The (a) Identifying deafness and hearing losses in
inclusive education philosophy focuses on accom- the class
modating these diverse needs of the learners, as As an educator within an inclusive environment
opposed to fixing or remediating the learners’ you need to be observant and vigilant in getting
experiencing barriers to learning (in this case, to know your individual learners, as only then can
deafness). This does, however, not mean that all you truly meet their unique needs. The following
deaf learners will be accommodated in regular behaviours and characteristics are some of the
schools, as inclusive education empowers and manifestations of deafness and some form of
respects the right of learners and communities to hearing loss in the class:
make decisions regarding their own future. There • Children who appear to be dreamers and lack
are thus two broad educational options available concentration are usually labelled ADD or
to parents based on their choice of communica- AD/HD; however, this may be due to some form
tion and language: the regular mainstream school of hearing loss as the inability to hear discus-
setting or the specialised school setting. sions or activities effectively can cause atten-
tion to wane.
15.5 EDUCATIONAL OPTIONS FOR THE • A child who is hearing impaired may come
DEAF LEARNER across as the talkative/disruptive child, as he
15.5.1 The deaf learner in the may be asking his friends what he has just
mainstream school setting missed, or may be compensating for not under-
The following section will discuss working within standing by copying the work or answer from a
the mainstream setting, where firstly you as the friend.
teacher need to know how to detect hearing loss • A so-called “learning disabled” child may be
and secondly how to cope with the identified deaf missing out on information and thus display
or hard-of-hearing learner in your class. gaps in his learning (e.g. giving poor or incom-
We will begin this section with a brief sce- plete answers). These gaps may also be reflec-
nario. tive of the information gaps experienced due to
the hearing loss (e.g. when the teacher turns to
CASE STUDY write something on the board, all that is said is
lost).
Mrs Malau feels frustrated as she once again • The child who is frequently in fights or displays
looks across the class to see Pedro chatting to a aggressive behaviour may be reflecting the
friend. Lately he seems to be chatting to (and dis- frustration he feels at not understanding what
tracting) his friends more and more, especially at
is going on inside or outside the class. Addi-
crucial points in her class teaching. He is often
tionally, if a deaf or hard-of-hearing child sees
caught staring out the window dreaming, and this
lack of concentration is evident in the poor quali- children laughing, very often he may feel as
ty of his work lately. Pedro is a popular boy, but though everyone is laughing at him. These chil-
despite this Mrs Malau frequently finds him in dren often complain to the teacher that their
fights with other boys accusing them of laughing peers are picking on them or teasing them, to
at and picking on him. She sighs as she realises the dismay of their friends.

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• The fidgeting child may be overcompensating learner is unique and thus has a set of unique edu-
for not understanding ... even when he does cational needs; however, the following suggested
concentrate. support strategies (Mangiardi 1993) could be used
• Sometimes the deaf child may become depend- as the core strategies with which to begin devel-
ent, thus fearful to do anything without the oping an individualised support programme:
teacher’s blessing or advice.
(i) Vocabulary
• Speech impairments may also be an indicator Owing to the fact that deafness prevents the inci-
that the child is not hearing everything. Often dental learning of language (unless continually
this may come across as a lisping or mumbling, surrounded by Deaf signers), the deaf learner fre-
or a refusal to speak in class (which may even quently has a limited vocabulary with gaps where
be interpreted as an extremely introverted or they are least expected. A basic rule shared by a
rebellious personality). mainstream support programme is to never assume
anything. Vocabulary-building strategies will
Reread the scenario above and see if you would include, inter alia, extensive preparation of class
change your profile from your initial frustration at work and class notes before they are taught, seek-
the overactive boy in the class. This is just one ing out potentially problematic or missing vocab-
example of how a deaf child (usually one that is ulary. This then needs to be pre-taught or caught
within the “hard-of-hearing” bracket) can conceal up.
himself in a mainstream class. In the lower grades
and foundation phase a hearing loss can be iden- (ii) Reading comprehension
tified by recognising delays in terms of language One of the key challenges for deaf learners inter-
and communicative development. If a child is lan- nationally is the issue of reading comprehension
guage-delayed in any way (no matter how young it (which is often influenced by poor vocabulary), as
is identified – e.g. the child who is 18–24 months it is a pivotal part of the educational process: each
old and does not say any words, or an 8-year-old learning area textbook, worksheet, examination
who still uses many everyday words inappropri- or assignment relies heavily on reading compre-
ately), a hearing test should be recommended and hension.
an intervention plan organised and implemented
immediately. (iii) Following instructions
Once the deafness/hearing loss has been identi- A common problem experienced by the majority
fied, the teacher needs to know how to deal with of deaf learners is the inability to understand and
it in the class ... thus effectively accommodating follow instructions, which once again is closely
the learner’s unique needs (Mangiardi 1993). related to vocabulary and reading comprehen-
sion. Once instruction vocabulary has been tar-
(b) Supporting the deaf or hard-of-hearing geted, learners should be exposed to instructions
learner in the mainstream class in terms of their aim, their structure and their
A key aspect of the proposed inclusive education intended outcomes. Once learners are provided
implementation strategy is the team approach to with the “map” to understanding instructions
meeting the needs of learners experiencing barri- they will also acquire the confidence required to
ers to learning. Teachers within the mainstream do the activities.
should readily make use of resource centres and
district support teams; however, they must still (iv) Teaching strategies
take the lead and initiative in developing and Firstly, the teacher needs to know all the basic
implementing the learning support strategy. communication strategies: ensuring there is suffi-
In order to put together a strategy for the cient lighting in the class and that the learner can
learner, the teacher is encouraged to learn as see the teacher’s face and mouth clearly, thus the
much as possible about the deaf learner in terms teacher should stop talking when writing on the
of his full profile. It is acknowledged that each chalkboard or when showing a transparency or a

358
 EDUCATING THE DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING LEARNER 15

slide. Additionally, all auditory disruptions should where learning and assessment are closely linked
be minimised (e.g. air-conditioning, lawnmowers, and never separated into compartments. Thus
etc.), and auditory support maximised (FM sys- once learners have learned something and have
tems, hearing aids, etc.). been assessed, the assessment is used as a tool to
Due to the fact that the deaf learner – even if re-teach and then reassess, thus empowering the
aided – is a visual learner, teachers should make learners through their own learning process.
use of visual cues and visual pedagogy. This will
require making use of visual aids and concrete All of these strategies within the mainstream set-
objects as well as effective use of gestures and ting can be provided in either the oral or manual
space when teaching. modality, depending on the needs and wishes of
the learner. Orally, the teacher needs to be aware
(v) Preparing for learning new concepts of auditory strategies (which we have mentioned)
The teacher is encouraged to prepare well in and manually the learner should have access an
advance, providing the learner with an outline of educational sign language interpreter, thus pro-
this plan. This will also allow the learner to pre- viding immediate simultaneous access to all learn-
pare ahead of time for the lesson, including learn- ing experiences through sign language.
ing the vocabulary and academic language
required. Additionally, because a deaf learner can- 15.5.2 Supporting the deaf or hard-of-
not make notes in the class as he needs to watch hearing learner in the sign
the speaker all the time, notes should be pre- language environment
pared ahead of time for him to take home to
The second educational option is the sign lan-
reread and revise.
guage environment. The key to creating this envi-
ronment is to ensure that it is totally accessible
(vi) Group work (cooperative learning) and
through sign language, and in this case South
class discussions
African Sign Language (SASL). This means that
Within outcomes-based education (OBE) educa- teachers need to be skilled users of SASL and
tors are making more and more use of group trained teachers of the Deaf (with the necessary
work and class discussions. Although these are theoretical and practical educational knowledge),
highly beneficial for social construction of knowl- and to provide equal access to equal education
edge, the learner who is battling to access the dis- (and not just watered-down versions of the cur-
cussions (through the visual or auditory modality) riculum).
will not learn anything as he will not be able to This will require that the teachers are highly
participate. knowledgeable about Deaf culture and are thus
In addition to meeting strategies (i)–(v), other able to present the content in SASL in a visual and
strategies that would assist in the success of culturally appropriate manner. Applying and
group discussions would be ensuring that the adapting content for this purpose requires expert
learner is sitting in a visually accessible spot (able knowledge of the language, culture and learning
to see all the participants and the teacher), point- styles of the Deaf learner, as this does not entail
ing to speakers (or getting speakers to identify simplification or merely teaching half a curricu-
themselves before they give their input), making lum. Additionally, teachers of the Deaf should
use of the board and/or rephrasing to capture key beware of the fallacy that all deaf learners should
aspects of the discussion, and regularly including be given vocational skills, as this becomes oppres-
the learner in the discussion by asking him ques- sive in nature.
tions. When teaching through sign language, very
often the assumption is that nothing else is
(vii) Dynamic teaching and assessing required. This is untrue, as despite the fact that
A final strategy which should be implemented the language is accessible, much incidental learn-
would be the dynamic approach to teaching, ing is missed (often due to late identification and

359
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

communication by parents). Consequently the Additional adaptations in terms of curriculum and

teacher of the Deaf within the sign language envi- assessment for all deaf learners (no matter what
ronment (or otherwise known as the specialised communication route they follow) will also need
school for the Deaf) needs to be adequately to be made. The following are a few examples:
trained for the job. The seven strategies in section replacing listening exercises and oral tests and
15.5.1 should also form part of the education examinations with more appropriate alternatives
strategy. in visual format (for example, rather than listening
to a piece of music or a discusson, allow the learn-
er to study the written dialogue or explore a pic-
15.6 ISSUES IN ASSESSMENT ture); as well as changing content related to music
The implementation of the Education White Paper 6 and rhythm, for example, drama and poetry to a
and thus the philosophy of inclusion has meant visual format (however, some Deaf people show
that education is learner paced and based, and an intense interest in music, so teachers can be
that all learners receive the necessary support in flexible). In addition, the first language of the
schools that are responsible for creating condi- Deaf learner (SASL) should be taught as a first lan-
tions for learners to succeed (Department of Edu- guage and Deaf culture should be an additional
cation 2002b: 4). part of the curriculum. In general, however, cur-
The following adaptive methods of assessment riculum and education approaches (such as OBE,
have been recommended by the national Depart- which includes cooperative learning groups, peer
ment of Education (2002b: 12–13) for Deaf candi- assessment, etc.) are the same for hearing and
dates choosing sign language as the language of deaf learners, and the teaching strategies and
instruction (LoLT): visual pedagogy that ensure effective and success-
ful education experiences for deaf and hard-of-
• Sign language interpreter. The interpreter con- hearing learners are part of the training of the
veys the question in SASL and either writes adequately qualified teacher of the Deaf. Such a
down the signed answer or voices over (if an qualification, although not currently required in
oral examination is given). South Africa, is a formal requirement for the
• Video recording. Questions are captured on majority of Deaf education communities interna-
video through sign language and learners tionally.
answer in sign language, which is video taped
and transcribed.
15.7 CONCLUSION
• Additional time. All Deaf candidates receive
additional time, up to a maximum allocation of This chapter gives a brief overview of how educa-
30 minutes for every hour if necessary. tors of the Deaf, in particular mainstream educa-
tors, can identify and accommodate deafness in
the class. The chapter should be seen as an intro-
For learners who are in the mainstream, choosing
ductory text only and not as exhaustive, and
to follow the oral route, the following alternative
should therefore be regarded as the beginning of
methods of assessment are suggested:
your journey as a lifelong learner in this specialist
• When giving instructions the teacher should field of meeting the needs of the Deaf and hard-
ensure that these are also provided in writing, of-hearing learner.
that the teacher faces the learner when asking
the question (speaking clearly to allow lip-read-
ing), and that the environment has an FM sys- Endnote3
tem or induction loop. South African Sign Language (SASL) is a language
• When giving the answer, learners should be in its own right, with all the characteristics (fol-
allowed extra time and should be allowed a dic- lowing linguistic features) of any spoken lan-
tionary or thesaurus, or a computer with a guage. Rules for sign phrases differ from those for
grammar check on it. spoken languages as follows: in English, the linear

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 EDUCATING THE DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING LEARNER 15

order of words is central in understanding the Conrad, R. 1979. The deaf schoolchild: language and
cognitive function. London: Harper & Row.
meaning; for example “the girl hits the boy” is
written in a particular order SVO (subject-verb- Cummins, J. 1984. Bilingualism and special education:
issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilin-
object) in order to understand who is doing the gual Matters.
hitting – the girl hits the boy (S-V-O). If we change Cummins, J. 1991. Interdependence of first and second
the order (linearity) of the nouns, the meaning of language proficiency in bilingual children. In Bialystok, E.
the sentence changes – the boy hits the girl (S-V-O). (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children. Cam-
In sign language, however, it is not linearity that bridge: Cambridge University Press.

changes this kind of meaning, but the placement Deaf Federation of South Africa. 1997. Higher education
and the needs of the Deaf Community: discussions with
(the position of the sign in space) and direction of the University of South Africa (Unisa). Johannesburg:
the verb. So “The girl hits the boy” is signed as DEAFSA.
follows in SASL: Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6.
Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education
and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education. 2002a. Draft guidelines for the
implementation of inclusive education, 2nd draft. Pretoria:
Department of Education.
Department of Education. 2002b. Curriculum 2005:
assessment guidelines for inclusion. Pretoria: Department
of Education.
Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2002. Educational
Girl Boy Hits psychology in social context, 2nd ed. Cape Town: Oxford
South Africa.
Figure 15.3 The girl hits the boy Fischer, S.D. 1995. Critical periods for language acquisi-
tion: consequences for Deaf Education. Paper presented
If we want to change the meaning, the subject at the 18th International Congress on Education of the
and object change positions by means of the Deaf, Tel Aviv, Israel.

directionality of the verb and not linearly as in Johnson, R.E. 1992. Possible influences on bilingualism in
early ASL acquisition. Paper presented to the 4th Interna-
spoken English. tional Conference on Theoretical Issues in Sign Language
Research. San Diego, CA, August.
Questions Johnson, R.E., Liddel, S.K. & Erting, C.J. (Eds). 1989.
Unlocking the curriculum: principles for achieving access
1. What are some of the signals that a child in in Deaf Education. Working Paper 89-3. Washington, DC:
your class may have hearing loss (or a tempo- Department of Linguistics and Interpreting at the Gal-
laudet Research Institute.
rary ear infection)?
Kapp, J.A. 1999. The aurally handicapped. In Kapp, J.A.
2. Both Total Communication and Bilingual edu- (Ed.), Children with problems: an orthopedagogical per-
cation make use of sign language and the spo- spective. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
ken language of the community. What are the Klima, E.S & Bellugi, U. 1979. The signs of language.
key differences between these two approaches Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
to communication? Kyle, J G. & Woll, B. 1985. Sign Language: the study of
deaf people and their language. Cambridge, MA: Cam-
3. As a teacher working with a deaf or hard-of- bridge University Press.
hearing child in the class, list some examples Lazarus, S., Daniels, B. & Engelbrecht, L. 1999. The inclu-
of the knowledge, skills and attitudes you sive school. In Engelbrecht, P., Green, L., Naicker, S. &
need to have. Engelbrecht, L. (Eds), Inclusive education in action in
South Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 45–68.
Luterman, D.M, 1986. Deafness in perspective. San
Bibliography Diego, CA: College-Hill Press, Inc.
Brennan, M. 1992. The visual world of British Sign Lan- Mahshie, S. 1995. Educating deaf children bilingually.
guage: an introduction. In Brien, D. (Ed.), Dictionary of Washington, DC: Pre-College Programs.
British Sign Language. London: Faber & Faber, 1–133. Mangiardi, A.J. 1993. A child with a hearing loss in your
Brien, D. (Ed.). Dictionary of British Sign Language. Lon- classroom? Don’t panic. Washington, DC: Alexander Gra-
don: Faber & Faber. ham Bell Association for the Deaf.

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Marschark, M. 1993. Psychological development of deaf lished PhD dissertation. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans
children. New York: Oxford University Press. University.
Marschark, M. 2000. Development and education of deaf Storbeck, C. 2000. Bilingual Education for the Deaf in
children. International Congress of Educators of the Deaf. South Africa: can it work? South African Journal of Com-
Sydney, Australia, July. munication Disorders, special edition, 47: 51–59.
Marschark, M. 2001. Language development in children Storbeck, C. & Henning, E. 1998. Experiences and per-
who are deaf: a research synthesis. (ERIC Document no. ceptions in a South African Sign Language class. In
ED455620). Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Weisel, A. (Ed.), Issues unresolved: new perspectives on
Directors of Special Education. language and Deaf education. Washington, DC: Gallaudet
Marschark, M., Lang, H.G. & Albertini, J.A. 2002. Educat- University Press, 53–64.
ing deaf students: from research to practice. New York: Storbeck, C. & Morgans, H. 2000. Making tertiary educa-
Oxford University Press. tion accessible to the Deaf learner. In Proceedings of the
Moores, D.F. 1996. Educating the deaf: psychology, prin- southern African conference for the formulation of tertiary
ciples and practices, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. education policy and practice for people with disabilities.
Johannesburg, South Africa, October.
Morgans, H. 1999. Metaphors in South African Sign Lan-
guage. Paper presented at the World Federation for the Storbeck, C. & Morgans, H. 2002. Communicating:
Deaf. Brisbane, Australia, July. choosing Sign Language. In Storbeck, C. & Morgans, H.
(Eds), Challenges and choices: an aid for parents of chil-
Musselman, C.R., Lindsay, P.H. & Wilson, A.K. 1988: The
dren with a hearing loss. Pretoria: Van Schaik Content
effects of mothers’ communication mode on language
Solutions, 35–43.
development in preschool deaf children. Applied Psy-
cholinguistics, 9(2):185–204. WheiPing Lou, M. 1994. The history of language use in
the education of the Deaf in the United States. In Strong,
Padden, C. & Humphries, T. 1988. Deaf in America: voices
M. (Ed.), 1994. Language learning and deafness. Ham-
from a culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
burg: Signum, 75–98.
Paul, P. 1998. Literacy and deafness. Boston: Allyn &
Woodward, J. 1982. How you gonna get to heaven if you
Bacon
can’t talk to Jesus? On depathologizing deafness. Silver
Paul, P.V. & Quigley, S.P. 1994: Language and deafness. Spring, MD: TJ Publishers.
San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Company.
World Federation of the Deaf. 1993: Report on the status
Petitto, L.A. 1999. The acquisition of natural signed lan- of Sign Language. Helsinki: World Federation of the Deaf.
guages. In Chamberlain, C., Morford, J. & Mayberry, R.
Wrigley, O. 1996. The politics of deafness. Washington,
(Eds), Language acquisition by eye. Mahwah, NJ:
DC: Gallaudet University Press.
Lawrence Erlbaum, 41–50.
Petitto, L.A. 2000. On the biological foundations of human
language. In Emmorey, K. & Lane, H. (Eds), The signs of Notes
language revisited: an anthology in honor of Ursula Bellugi
and Edward Klima. Mahwah, NJ: LEA, 447–471. 1 The author wishes to thank Mr Lucas Magongwa (Deaf
Ross, E., Storbeck C. & Wemmer K. 2004. Pre-lingual Education at the University of the Witwatersrand) and
deafness. In Ross, E. & Deverell, A. Psychosocial Ms Kathleen Wemmer (Speech Pathology and Audiolo-
approaches to health, illness and disability: a reader for gy Department at the University of the Witwatersrand)
health professionals. Pretoria: Van Schaik. for reading and commenting on earlier versions of this
chapter.
Schirmer, B.R. 2001. Psychological, social and education-
al dimensions of deafness. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 2 Cued Speech is a sound-based, visual communication
system.
Shakespeare, T. & Watson, N. 2002. The social model of
disability: an outdated ideology. Research in Social Sci- 3 The aim of this text is not to give an in-depth discus-
ence, 2: 22–28. sion of sign language as a language, but to act as an
introductory text to teachers and practitioners. For
Storbeck, C. & Magongwa, L. In press. more on sign language (and in particular SASL) as a
Storbeck, C. 1994. A case study of Bilingual Education in real language there are various texts to read, for exam-
a school for the Deaf. Unpublished Master’s dissertation. ple Petitto 1999; Storbeck & Morgans 2002; Klima &
Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University. Bellugi 1979.
Storbeck, C. 1998. A professional development pro- 4 Any other spoken language can be substituted for Eng-
gramme for teachers of the Deaf in South Africa. Unpub- lish e.g. Sign Supported Afrikaans.

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 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT 16
ANNATJIE DEDNAM

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πidentify learners experiencing learning difficulties owing to intrinsic
learning impairment
Πidentify underlying barriers causing learning impairment
Πmanage your classroom in such a way that you can accommodate
learners with learning impairment that causes attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorders (AD/HD)
Πsupport learners with learning impairment to improve their behaviour
and to overcome their problems with schoolwork.

Key terms aware of the fact that these learners should be

able to do better. Although they reach the out-
learning impairment ♦ barriers to learning ♦
comes set for a learning area, their achievement is
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD)
not according to their potential. Other learners
experience difficulties in only some learning areas
16.1 INTRODUCTION or some aspects of the learning areas. The work
of a number of these learners improves when
Have you ever come across learners teachers give more qualitative attention to the
who find it difficult to read and to spell
learners and to their work. The causes of their
in spite of hours of extra support in the
afternoons? They, for example, reverse
learning problems are mostly extrinsic in nature.
ACTIVITY

letters (b and d) and do not know They experience learning difficulties only, while the
whether to use the v or the f sound in other group who needs extra intensive support
spelling. In reading they omit words or and encouragement are learners with learning
a syllable in a word, they exchange one impairment. These learners experience difficulties
word for another and they reverse let- in spite of the good teaching and positive attitude
ters (was for saw). Jot down the errors of their teachers, as well as stable home circum-
they make regularly. stances and a stimulating environment. Their
problems are of an intrinsic nature and the
In almost all classes there are learners experienc- impairment cannot be alleviated. There is, how-
ing learning difficulties. Some learners’ difficulties ever, a group of learners whose difficulties are of
are so severe that they are not able to cope with such a nature that it is virtually impossible to
any learning area at school. Some problems are determine whether they experience learning diffi-
less conspicuous and teachers are only vaguely culties or learning impairment. Many learners

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experiencing learning difficulties often exhibit • a neurological dysfunction

“learned helplessness”, that is, according to Halla- • the uneven growth pattern of the two hemi-
han and Kauffman (2000: 547), “[a] motivational spheres of the brain
term referring to a condition wherein a person • difficulties in learning tasks
believes that no matter how hard he or she tries, • discrepancy between potential and perform-
failure will result”. ance
Adelman and Taylor (1993: 35) place the origin • exclusion of other causes.
of learning problems on a continuum which rep-
resents them as follows: For some researchers the causes of learning
impairment are still a mystery (Smith et al. 2001:
learning transitional learning
96). Smith (1998: 123) estimates that more than
difficulties group impairment
50 per cent of learners who experience learning
difficulties are learning impaired. The percentage
caused by caused by intrinsic of learners with learning impairment differs from
extrinsic factors (genetic, community to community as it seems that the
factors teratogenics and occurrence of learning impairment and associated
medical) learning difficulties is higher in disadvantaged
communities. According to Hallahan and Cruick-
In this chapter only learning difficulties caused by shank (in Hallahan & Kauffman 1991: 129), it is not
neurological impairment will be discussed. Chap- always clear whether the difficulties learners
ter 2 covers the causes of learning difficulties experience in these communities are due to limit-
caused by extrinsic factors. ed learning opportunities or to learning impair-
ment. Poor nutrition in a child’s first few years
may cause learning impairment. As there are a
16.2 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT large number of disadvantaged families in South
Previously the term “learning disabilities” was Africa, it is possible that the incidence of learning
used in South Africa, and most of the American impairment is quite high.
sources still use it. However, with the publication Learning impairment is primarily caused by cen-
of the Integrated National Disability Strategy (1997) tral nervous system (CNS) dysfunction, although it
where disability is seen resulting from factors in may also occur concurrently with environmental
the social environment, a person with a disability disadvantages, intellectual impairment and emo-
is seen as a person with a physical impairment tional disturbances. There are learners whose
and who is restricted by society from full and learning impairment cannot be pinpointed
equal participation in society. although they manifest clear signs of learning
A learning impairment can thus be described as impairment. Others who display characteristics of
a general term which refers to a heterogeneous learning impairment do not experience any learn-
group of neurological disorders in the basic psy- ing difficulties. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors may
chological processes of the brain and which man- also be intertwined to such an extent that it is
ifest in difficulties with language (speaking, read- almost impossible to determine whether the caus-
ing and writing) and/or mathematical calculations. es of learning impairment may be intrinsic or
Such disorders include conditions such as percep- extrinsic of nature.
tual problems, dyslexia, developmental aphasia Gearheart et al. (1996: 338) wrote that many
and slight brain injury. This excludes learners who adults with learning impairment have a continu-
experience learning problems as a result of hear- ous struggle when learning and applying knowl-
ing, visual, motor, intellectual impairments, emo- edge. There are adults with learning impairment
tional disturbances or environmental, cultural or who succeed in proceeding to the highest ranks
economic disadvantages (Lerner 1993: 8–9). The of academic and other career successes, but that
main elements necessary to identify such a learn- is with full effort and hard work right throughout
er are their lives.

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16.2.1 The term “learning impairment” 16.2.2 Intrinsic barriers causing

As a discussion of the development of terms and learning impairment
definitions for learning impairment (disabilities) is
What do you think are the causes of
not applicable for this chapter, the term “learning

ACTIVITY
learning impairment? Has a mother
impairment” as well as the basic characteristics of
ever told you, for example, that her son
this condition will briefly be discussed, as these cannot read because his father also
characteristics influence the learners’ outcomes in had a reading problem at school and
their school work and behaviour. never reads at home?
Samuel Kirk was the first person to use the
term “learning disabilities” early in the 1960s
As already mentioned, learning impairment is a
(Hallahan & Kauffman 2000: 160). For more or less
condition mainly situated in the central nervous
five decades this term has been used to describe
system, and external problems such as a disad-
learners experiencing serious difficulties in one or
vantaged environment are aggravating causes to
more of their basic learning areas, which include
learners’ inability to cope with their schoolwork.
reading, spelling, writing and mathematics. The
Hallahan and Kauffman (2000: 168–169) name
definition of this condition varies and is still sub-
three categories of causes and divide them into
ject to research, discussion and change. Some
the following:
researchers like Finlan (1994: 10, 33) and West-
man (1990: 37–38) criticise the term “learning dis- • Genetic. It is often said that “learning disabili-
ability” because according to them it labels the ties (impairment) run in the family”. Between
learners on the basis of their failure to carry out 35 and 45 per cent of parents and their siblings
academic tasks. This ignores the fact that the experience problems in the same field, e.g.
learner may excel in areas other than school work, reading and speech and language disorders.
or that the learner’s style of learning could differ • Teratogenics. These are agents such as foetal
from the style of learning that is taught to him at alcohol syndrome and lead poisoning that
school (Westman 1990: 59–60). Other objections often cause “malformation and defects in the
of Finlan (1994: 10) are that the different disci- developing foetus” (Hallahan & Kauffman
plines have their own interpretation for the term (2000: 170).
without giving any indication as to how to help • Medical factors. Hallahan and Kauffman (2000:
these learners, and that it does not give an indica- 170) name premature birth as a possible cause
tion of the differences between the learning- of learning impairment. Anoxia – a shortage of
impaired learners’ actual potential and their level oxygen during birth – may also be involved.
of functioning. There is a focus on the learners’
deficits and their disabilities, but their actual abil- Please read Chapter 13A on the causes of brain
ities and potential are ignored. damage.
Nowadays in many countries the term has been The following factors are generally named as
changed to “children with learning impairment” as causes of learning impairment.
this refers only to the inabilities within the learner
and not to the learner as a disabled person. [Link] Organic and ecological factors
Biochemical and metabolic factors such as an
Note imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain may
cause attention deficits and also learning impair-
Not all learners show all the manifestations of
ment. The inability to metabolise certain nutri-
learning impairment – only some of them in a
ents such as proteins and vitamins may cause
variety of combinations and intensities that
hyper- or hypo-activity. The excessive discharge
vary from learner to learner. They also do not
of some hormones such as thyroxin may also
benefit by the same methods of support,
cause hyperactivity as it enhances the metabolic
although they may exhibit the same manifes-
tempo of the body which may be a contributing
tations with the same intensity.
factor to hyperactivity and learning impairment.

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[Link] Environmental factors (1997: 12) and Smith et al. (2001: 97–101) are
Environmental factors are extrinsic barriers but grouped together and summarised.
their effect may cause intrinsic barriers that can- • There is a significant discrepancy between
not be alleviated. Environmental disadvantages these learners’ potential and academic achieve-
often cause nutritional shortages, and a deficiency ment, and there are substantial delays in their
of proteins and other nutrients in the brain may academic achievement.
cause anatomical and biochemical changes that
• They may have a history of late language devel-
affect the brain’s normal development at an early
opment.
age. It is, however, difficult to determine if these
learners’ learning difficulties are caused by a lack • They find it difficult to remember new words
of the necessary nutrients resulting in brain dys- and their vocabulary is limited. They apply
function, or are due to a lack of environmental grammatical rules incorrectly and their sen-
stimulation. tences are immature for their age.
• They may experience pronunciation and articu-
[Link] Deterioration and damage of the lation problems that affect their ability to com-
central nervous system municate fluently with others.
These are also extrinsic barriers causing perma- • They have problems using cognitive strategies
nent intrinsic impairment in the brain, i.e. dam- when learning. They also experience problems
age to the brain after birth due to head injuries during active learning as their metacognitive
caused by accidents and child abuse, etc. or by ill- functions and learning styles are not imprinted.
nesses such as encephalitis, prolonged high fever They are unable to solve problems.
and poisoning.
• They over-rely on their teacher and peers for
class assignments.
16.2.3 The characteristics of learners
• They experience problems in classifying objects
with learning impairment
according to corresponding characteristics.
Generally, learning impairment refers to a hetero-
• They find it hard to make associations such as
genic group of deviations that manifest in signifi-
identifying corresponding components in
cant problems in acquiring and using listening,
words, e.g. day and may.
reasoning and verbal skills, and in reading and
writing. Furthermore, these learners experience • They are easily distracted or are not able to pay
difficulties in regulating their own behaviour with attention and concentrate for as long as their
regard to social perception and interaction, and peers do.
often exhibit behaviour problems like attention • Their memory is poor, especially when they
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). have to remember more than one instruction.
• They are disorganised, especially when they
[Link] General characteristics of learners have to execute an instruction in a specific
with learning impairment
order.
The characteristics of learners with learning • Their poor motivation causes them to have lit-
impairment discussed by Lerner (1993: 13), Ros- tle active involvement in learning tasks.
ner (1993: 15–17), Smith (1998: 139), Westwood
• Their gross and fine motor coordination are
poor. They are clumsy and sometimes seem to
Note be helpless when they have to execute a task.
All learners with learning impairment do not • Their poor motor coordination and spatial rela-
manifest all these characteristics. Some learn- tion skills cause their paperwork and handwrit-
ers manifest more than others and the inten- ing to be untidy and often nearly illegible.
sity of the manifestation of the characteris-
tics differs from learner to learner. • Their work pace is slow and they find it hard to
complete their work on time.

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• They are disorganised in their approach to • Their integration of sensory information is

learning. They lose their place when they read poor and they experience problems with
or when they have to copy information from letter–sound associations.
another book or the chalkboard. • They overreact to noises. They will, for exam-
• They have laterality problems, their eye–hand ple, press their fingers into their ears to cut out
preference is not established and they confuse noises.
direction. They also experience directional • Due to emotional problems caused by failure
problems in reading, writing and mathematics. and poor social perception, their motivation
• The order of the letters in the words they write and attention is poor. This further aggravates
or read is incorrect. their failure in their schoolwork.
• They avoid activities that expect them to give
lengthy visual or auditory attention. They do Please go back to the first page of this
not like, for instance, to listen to stories and chapter and compare your answers

ACTIVITY
they avoid doing puzzles. about manifestations of learning impair-
ment you have come across to the
• They have visual perceptual problems and
ones mentioned here. If you have any
make errors in letters, words and numbers. manifestations on your list that are not
They also confuse letters. mentioned here, you may supplement
• They experience auditory perceptual problems this list.
and find it hard to identify letter sounds in the
words they hear.
16.2.4 Attention deficit/hyperactivity
Smith (1998: 147) summarised the character- disorder (AD/HD)
istics of the social impairment of these learn- As more than 50 per cent of learners with learning
ers as follows: impairment experience AD/HD, special attention
• They display unacceptable social behav- will be given to this disorder. According to Halla-
iour. han and Kauffman (2000: 177) this is “[a] condi-
• They cannot predict the consequences of tion characterized by severe problems of inatten-
their behaviour. tion, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity, often
• They misinterpret social and non-verbal found in persons with learning impairment”. Bley
cues. and Thornton (2001: 18–19) also describe these
• They make poor decisions. learners as easy distractible by external stimuli
which are ignored by most other people, or inter-
• They cannot solve social problems.
nal stimuli of which others are unaware. Both
• They use social conventions improperly.
these distractibilities manifest in most of these
• They adapt incorrectly to the characteris- learners. Sensorial hyperactivity is more of an atten-
tics of the person with whom they are tion problem as these learners cannot concen-
interacting. trate on one thing for a long time as everything
• They do not pay close attention during attracts their attention. They seem to be unin-
classroom assignments. volved in the work the teachers are presenting
• They are shy, withdrawn, distractible or and some of them tend to fidget while listening,
hyperactive. such as playing with a pencil, drawing, tapping on
• They are socially naïve – do not know the table, and swinging or shuffling their feet. On
when others are sincere, deceptive or sar- the other hand, motor hyperactivity occurs in learn-
castic. ers who restlessly move around. They react physi-
• They are lonely – rejected by peers. cally to each sense stimulus and are fidgety, dis-
• They are often victimised by others. turbing their own activities as well as those of the
other learners in the class.

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Diagnostic criteria for AD/HD – avoid, dislike, or are reluctant to engage in

tasks that require sustained mental effort
The DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Associa-
(such as schoolwork or homework)
tion 2000) uses the following criteria to
describe the characteristics of AD/HD. (Knowl- – lose things necessary for tasks or activities
edge about the identification is essential in (e.g. toys, school assignments, pencils,
order to accommodate these learners so that books, or tools)
they can realise their full potential.) – are easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
This condition should persist for at least six – are forgetful in daily activities.
months. Learners’ behaviour should be mal-
adaptive and inconsistent. It should also Hyperactivity/impulsivity
include six or more of the following symp- They often
toms: – fidget with hands or feet or squirm in seat
– leave their seats in the classroom or in
Inattention
other situations in which remaining seated
They often is expected
– fail to give close attention to details or – run about or climb excessively in situations
make careless mistakes in schoolwork, in which it is inappropriate (in adolescents
work, or other activities or adults it may be limited to subjective
– have difficulty sustaining attention in tasks feelings of restlessness)
or play activities – have difficulty playing or engaging in
– do not seem to listen when spoken to leisure activities quietly
directly – are “on the go” or often act as if “driven by
– do not follow through on instructions and a motor”
fail to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties – talk excessively
in the workplace (not due to oppositional – blurt out answers before questions have
behavior or failure to understand instruc- been completed
tions) – have difficulty awaiting their turn
– have difficulty organising tasks and activi- – interrupt or intrude on others (e.g. butt
ties into conversations or games)

Bley and Thornton (2001: 18–19) also mention the characteristic of learners with learning impair-
following as possible manifestations of AD/HD. ment.
• These learners are slow processors. • Hyperactive behaviour. This causes interrela-
• They lose their place without being aware that tionship problems between AD/HD learners and
they have lost it. their teachers and their peers, and often also
• They have to be told to stop doing other things between such learners and their parents and
to help them to pay attention to the actual siblings.
work they should be doing.
• Disinhibition and impulsivity. This is a condi-
tion closely related to hyperactivity and is just
16.2.5 The consequences of challeng- as destructive. According to Bley and Thornton
ing behaviour caused by AD/HD (2001: 20), these learners find it difficult to
Besides AD/HD, Bley and Thornton (2001: 20) make transitions from one topic to another,
mention challenging behaviour as an important such as turning the page of a book to begin a

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new topic. They give quick responses to ques- In language they may persist in writing the same
tions that are often irrelevant. They tend to type of sentence:
guess wildly as their thoughts are often trig- I am very tired. My dog is big.
gered by something they hear that is irrelevant John is very sick. My cat is fat.
to the topic. They find it difficult to refocus
Mary is very pretty. My dad is big.
their attention. Disinhibition and impulsivity
The cat is very hungry. My dress is long.
may also cause interrelationship problems as
these learners do not have insight into the con-
Remember that even gifted learners may have
sequences of their behaviour. They react to
AD/HD.
every stimulus whether relevant or not, and
this often causes them to be involved in school
quarrels with other learners and leaders. They 16.2.6 Inadequate prerequisite skills
are unpopular with teachers and other learners causing difficulties in learning
at school with the result that they become areas
labelled as “naughty” or “disobedient”. They
are known to all learners at the school as well
Note
as the teachers and are often blamed for most
of the things that go wrong in and around the The prerequisite skills – discussed in this sec-
school. tion – that are involved in learners’ inability
to achieve adequately in certain learning
• Perseveration. For Bley and Thornton (2001: areas at school are not taught formally after
20), perseveration is starting with formal schoolwork in Grade 1.
the repetition of an activity even though a By accommodating perceptual exercises
change is required. ... [Learners] may per- while supporting learners in their formal
form the same operation throughout a page schoolwork such as language, reading, writ-
because they do not notice the signs have ing and mathematics, it is possible for the
changed. Or they may continue doing what- learners to overcome these difficulties.
ever was required in the first problem. Such It is also important to remember that some
behavior patterns may be compulsive, not of the following prerequisite skills may be so
merely careless. closely related that it is very difficult to deter-
mine the specific one involved in the reading,
spelling and writing process or in mathemat-
They often find it difficult to change to another
ics. These are only a few examples:
activity even if they are aware of the fact that the
activity they are busy with is senseless. They are
often accused of everlasting nagging about the Sensorimotor skills are the learner’s reaction to
same thing. They may also (e.g. in mathematics) sensory stimuli.
persist in using the same operation for different
• Difficulty in balance and rhythm may affect a
mathematical combinations:
learner’s spoken language, counting activities
12 + 10 = 22 in mathematics and handwriting, as rhythmic
14 – 6 = 20 motoric activities are prerequisites for these
4 2=6 skills.
24 ÷ 4 = 28 • Spatial orientation and directionality is a per-
or they may repeat the same answer, especially son’s ability to relate different directions
when the combinations are below each other: around him to himself, such as left and right,
above, in front and beneath. Difficulties here
4 + 6 = 10 cause rotations and reversals in reading and
8 + 7 = 10 writing, and affect the learner’s ability to start a
5 + 6 = 10 mathematical problem at the right place.

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• Difficulties in speed reaction and movement problems with word syllabification as they
affect a learner’s movement and may cause do not always know the rules that help them
writing problems, a slow work speed and even analyse words into their syllables, or to syn-
reading problems. thesise them into a word. Word analysis:
• Difficulties in tactual skills may cause hand- Develop becomes Deve-lop instead of De-ve-
writing problems as learners tend to press very lop.
hard with the pencil on the paper. These learn- – Visual sequence is the ability to identify the
ers’ writing pace is very slow and there is often letters in words in the correct sequence.
jerkiness in the line quality of the written let- Problems here cause errors such as reading
ters and numbers. beard instead of bread.

Perception is the ability to give meaning to infor- – Spatial orientation is the ability to deter-
mation gathered by the senses. The most crucial mine the direction of objects in space as well
perceptions to enable learners to perform ade- as their relation to each other. It is also an
quately in their schoolwork are visual, auditory important skill to be able to read in the cor-
and tactual-kinaesthetic perceptions. rect direction and to find the new reading
line. Problems in this aspect cause reversals
• Visual perception is the ability to identify a and rotation of letters such as b, d and p in
visual stimulus, and organise and interpret it. words such as broad and board, and drop and
About 80 per cent of information is gathered prod in writing and reading, and of numbers
through the visual sense. The most important
such as 6 and 9. They may even start adding
visual perceptions that enable a learner to mas-
or subtracting two-digit (or more) numbers
ter schoolwork are:
from left to right instead of from right to left
– Visual discrimination enables a learner to (e.g. 48 + 16 = 514 instead of 48 + 16 =
differentiate between symbols and words 64).
that almost look alike: o and a; 3 and 8; not
and hot. – Visual figure ground perception enables
readers to read at a specific place in a book
– Form consistency is the ability to identify an without losing the place. When reading,
object on the basis of its form. This enables readers are aware of letters and words sur-
learners to identify words on sight without rounding the lines and words they are read-
confusing those that look similar: where and ing but they do not give specific attention to
were; with, which and wish. People often write them. Learners with difficulty in visual figure
down a word in order to identify the correct ground perception tend to lose their place in
form if they cannot remember the exact
the text, as they are unable to isolate the let-
spelling thereof.
ters and words they are supposed to attend
– Visual closure is the ability to identify a to from those in the surrounding text.
word even if the person cannot see the
– Visual memory is the ability to remember
whole word. This enhances reading speed as
the learners anticipate a word instead of visual stimuli. Attention is also involved in
looking at every letter detail in the word. A this skill. If learners do not attend to stimuli
learner, for example, is able to identify the they will not be able to remember them. Dif-
word aeroplane as soon as he has read the ficulties with visual memory cause learners
first two syllables ae-ro and has seen the p or not to remember letters and words on sight
pl of plane. as well as the numbers and combination
signs.
– Visual analysis and synthesis enables a per-
son to analyse words into their letter sounds • Auditory perception is the ability to interpret
and to synthesise the sounds into intelligible and organise the stimuli perceived by the audi-
words. These learners often experience tory sense.

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 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT 16

– Auditory discrimination is the ability to dis- • Tactual-kinaesthetic perception is the ability

tinguish between perceived sounds. Learn- to determine the different forms and textures
ers with this difficulty find it hard to distin- of objects and the movements made when
guish between the sounds d and b; m and n; drawing shapes. Learners who experience diffi-
and words like brown and drown; and num- culties here would not always be aware that
bers such as fifteen and fifty. they are forming letters, numbers and words
incorrectly while writing. (People often write a
– Auditory analysis and synthesis is the ability
word if they are not sure of the spelling in
to analyse spoken words into sounds and to
order to check the correct movements of the
synthesise them into words again. This skill
is especially important when learners have written letter, number or word by “feeling” it.)
to write words which they cannot remember
how to spell. Learners experiencing this 16.3 ACCOMMODATION OF LEARNERS
problem tend to leave out letters in words EXPERIENCING LEARNING
when reading or writing. They may read: The DIFFICULTIES IN THE CLASSROOM
bird sits in the tea (tree), or write seed instead
As a large number of learners with learning
of speed.
impairment experience AD/HD and most of the
– Auditory memory and order is the ability to others without hyperactivity experience attention
remember the sounds of letters in the cor- deficits, the management of the classroom should
rect order when reading or spelling. Learn- be planned and executed carefully.
ers experiencing these difficulties find it
hard to repeat the order of sounds they have 16.3.1 Inclusive education for learners
heard. They may be able to analyse a word in with learning impairment
its correct order but cannot remember the
sounds: a word like preach may become Until the early 1990s in South Africa, some learn-
peach. They also find it difficult to remember ers with learning impairment received specialised
information they have heard, such as con- support in special schools and classes, and teach-
cepts, rules and steps to follow to solve a ers in these schools and classes were trained to
mathematical problem. teach them. However, insufficient facilities and
support were available for learners who were
– Auditory figure ground identification is the learning impaired, especially in the rural areas.
ability to give attention to, for instance, a These learners were also labelled by their peers,
specific conversation while other people are teachers and community as being “stupid” or
involved in other conversations in the same “dumb”. With the acceptance of the policy of
room. Learners who are not able to ignore inclusive education, most of these learners are
other incoming auditory stimuli have prob- now taught in mainstream schools. Vaughn and
lems hearing what others say. These learners Schumm (1995: 267) warn, however, that inclusive
also experience attention deficits as they education should be implemented with responsi-
listen, for instance, to people talking out- bility and not just for the sake of convenience,
side or to a bird singing in a tree while the because the latter is no more than mainstream
teacher is explaining concepts to the class. dumping.
– Auditory closure relies strongly on the learn- As teachers have to accommodate learners
er’s knowledge of language structures and experiencing learning impairments in the class-
vocabulary. Learners with better language rooms, they should be motivated to support them
abilities find fewer problems with auditory by acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills
closure. If a learner with dificulties of audi- about them and how to support them. They
tory closure does not hear the whole sen- should also purposefully change their attitude
tence or every word in a conversation, he is towards them, as it is not always easy to accom-
unable to understand what has been said. modate their behaviour and other difficulties, and

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

to teach them adequately. (Consult Chapter 1 for

more information on inclusive education.) Why should teachers wear clothes of
soft colours and preferably unpatterned

ACTIVITY
material?
16.3.2 Classroom management Learners with AD/HD may focus on
the patterns on the teachers’ clothes
When teaching learners experiencing learning instead of on their faces and what they
impairment, a number of crucial adjustment need are saying.
to be made in order to accommodate them in the
classroom and avoid disturbances and labelling.
Orderly classroom management is especially
valuable for hyperactive learners and those 16.3.3 Accommodation of challenging
with attention deficits. It is based on three princi- behaviour and AD/HD
ples: Moss (1995: 249) recommends the following
strategies for these learners:
[Link] Structuring and reduction of stimuli • Minimise the class rules and apply them consis-
The learning material should be structured thor- tently. Explain the concept of “rules” to the
oughly beforehand and the content taught sys- learners. Start with one rule and when the
tematically to the learners. All material to be used learners comply with it, introduce the following
should be ready and available when commencing one.
the lesson. If books and learning aids are handed • Reward the learners when they comply with a
out during the session, these learners mostly rule, but do not be too strict with the younger
become restless or may lose interest and atten- learners by waiting too long to give them the
tion. reward. Divide the day’s periods into shorter
sessions, and reward young learners for com-
[Link] Reducing environmental stimuli in plying with the rule over this shorter length of
and outside the classroom time.
Avoid bright colours and other stimuli such as • Keep goals simple initially and acknowledge
unnecessary noise. These disturbances distract every attempt a learner makes to improve his
the learners’ attention because they find it diffi- behaviour.
cult to block out irrelevant stimuli in the learning • Be consistent – do not warn a learner whose
environment. behaviour is unacceptable and then neglect
to act on the warning if the learner does not
heed it.
[Link] Enhancement of the intensity of
relevant materials • The punishment should be appropriate to the
transgression. The intensity of the punishment
Although the teaching material should be limited,
is of less value than the consistency of it.
the intensity thereof should be enhanced in
order to focus the learners’ attention optimally on • Divert the learner’s attention from his poor
it. behaviour by removing him from the centre of
the trouble.
The kind of impairment of each learner should
also be taken in consideration when deciding on • Ignoring poor behaviour has more value than
their placement in the classroom. Hyperactive focusing attention on it and thus strengthening
learners and those with attention deficits should the learner’s behaviour manifestation.
sit on their own in the front of the classroom • The manner in which a teacher should behave
away from windows and bright wall decorations. towards a learner who manifests poor behav-
Learners who tend to perseverate should not sit iour is as follows:
in a place in the classroom where they could – Determine the reason for the poor behav-
count objects or compare them with each other. iour and decide how to react. Explain to a

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 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT 16

learner the reason for your reaction and up long sessions of instructions into short
stick to your plan. simple steps.
– Stay positive and calm during the provoca- – See that the learner/s understand your
tion and focus on the unacceptable behav- instructions before they begin the work.
iour rather than on the learner. – Frequently touch the learner’s shoulder
– Discuss the problem with the learner to spontaneously, or make eye contact. If the
make him aware of the reason for his behav- learner shrinks away from your touch, as
iour. might occur in the case of touch defensive-
• Teachers should not use the session to get rid ness (the person avoids direct contact), you
of their own frustration and aggression as this should develop another signal by, for exam-
may cause rebelliousness in the learners. ple, touching your lower eyelid while look-
• Explain to the learners what is expected of ing the learner directly in the eyes. (See
them in class and in school and how they can below.)
comply. Learners should understand that the – You can develop a signal between yourself
teacher intends to help them comply with the and the learner that reminds him or her to
rules and be “winners”. pay attention. (Adolescents might be highly
sensitive to verbal correction and feel that
In addition to the accommodation of learners they are being humiliated in front of the
with AD/HD mentioned above, Krüger and Groe- whole class.)
newald (2004a: 4–5) give the following accommo- – Praise the learner immediately and repeat-
dations: edly for any success.
– “Help the learner with organization [of his – Encourage the learner to take notes to help
homework, for example]. Parents should focus his or her attention.
preferably be involved and help him with – Help the learner to develop self-control by
organizing his daily routine, e.g. a checklist using metacognitive strategies. For example,
for his schoolbag (what must go in the bag learners can wear an elastic band round the
to school every day) and the learner must co- arm to snap when they find they are losing
operate. concentration. (As the teacher, you may not
– Let the learner/s sit near you – they should snap the elastic band, only the learner.)
preferably sit with their backs to the other – If the learner is on medication (Ritalin or
learners to avoid being distracted. Obviously Ritafen are the most common), make sure
this is not always possible. that the learner takes it or subtly remind him
– Do not let them sit near air-conditioners, or her to take it. For instance, you might
fans, heaters, windows and doors. keep a glass or flask of water in your class-
– Encourage peer tutoring – stronger learners room for this purpose, out of sight of the
can help this learner. other learners. Remember that you may not
– Try not to make too many changes in your give an opinion on any medication unless
classroom routine – this learner does not you are a medical doctor. For instance, you
handle change well. This includes, for may not tell the learner that you disagree
instance, changes in seating or teachers, and with the use of medication or that you have
even outings or sports fixtures. read or heard that a specific medication is
– Your lessons should have structured presen- suspect.
tation because the learner needs structure. – Encourage the learner to work accurately
– See that they write down their homework or rather than quickly.
delegate this chore to one of the other learn- – You can allow extra time so that the learner
ers (a peer tutor), also known as a buddy. can complete the work.
– Make sure that they follow directions. Break – Work can also be reduced.

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– Repeat assignments and do not get impa- Expression of elaborations

tient if the learner asks questions. Most • Understand and communicate others’ feelings,
learners with AD/HD do not like to ask ques- opinions and experiences through, inter alia,
tions. role-play. (Role-play is to change roles – one
– Seeing that depression is not uncommon for learner plays the role of the learner who mani-
these learners, you should be sensitive to fests the negative social skills while another
the learner’s mood. learner plays the role of the teacher.)
– Do not compare this learner with the other • Learn persuasion skills and how to negotiate
learners in your class, for example, by saying and compromise.
‘All the others paid attention and therefore • Use non-verval expressions and intonations.
they can do the work. So why can’t you pay
attention?’ Conversation skills
– Support the parents by, for example, refer- • Practise listening skills to pay attention.
ring them to a neurologist if the learner has
not yet consulted one. You may also refer
A few skills to support learners with
them to a support group if you know of such
learning impairment have been dis-
groups.” cussed. Can you give examples of how
you would implement these skills? For
ACTIVITY

16.3.4 Accommodation of social example, how would you respond

problems appropriately to aggression? With
aggression? That would only elicit more
Skills that are important for assertiveness and the aggression from the learner. It some-
improvement of social skills are, according to times works to lower your voice and
Wehmeyer et al. (1998: 222), the following: speak softly with an angry learner who
yells at you.
Expression of rights
• Identify and articulate rights, responsibilities,
beliefs and values, and differences between 16.3.5 Cooperative learning
assertive, non-assertive and aggressive behav-
iour. Consult Chapter 4 for more information on coop-
erative learning.
• Discriminate between the rights of individuals
The advantages of cooperative learning for
and of groups.
learners experiencing learning difficulties are as
Verbal assertion skills
follows:
• Briefly express rights in a concise and direct • Intrinsic motivation. The learners’ interests,
manner. attention, skills and knowledge of content
• Communicate rights in the first person, and improve.
opinions and beliefs appropriately. • Social development. A feeling of solidarity
• Use appropriate tone of voice, and intonation develops.
and timing effectively. • Ego integration. The learners learn to acknowl-
• Respond appropriately to aggression and per- edge and appreciate others’ contributions.
sist in assertion. • Awareness of own abilities. They develop self-
confidence and awareness of their own abilities
Non-verbal assertion skills and skills.
• Use and understand body language, gestures, • Development of a feeling of solidarity. Mutual
facial expressions. respect develops.
• Make appropriate eye contact and use appro- • Active participation. Each member of the
priate posture and body positioning. group is involved.

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 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT 16

• Peer tutoring. Learners help each other. ties, assessment should be done of their situation,
• Individual support by the teacher. The teacher attitudes, behaviour and achievement in school-
has the time to support individuals in the work as well as of their social skills.
group.

The criteria teachers should keep in mind when How would you assess a learner who
experiences learning impairment? Why
including these learners in groups are the learning
is it necessary to interview the parents?
content, the skills the learners should master and Please read Chapter 3. Parents need

ACTIVITY
the purpose of the exercise. The learners’ lan- to be interviewed because they can
guage ability and motor skills, their experiences, provide information about the pre-
interests, working speed, motivation, behaviour, school life of the learner as well as pre-
personal characteristics, age (to a lesser extent) vious kinds of support. The learner may
and gender (for older learners) are also important have received occupational therapy
aspects when compiling a cooperative learning while attending an early childhood
group that includes learners experiencing learn- development centre.
ing impairment.

[Link] Outcomes-based education

What aspects should you keep in mind
when arranging a group including a According to Hallahan and Kauffman (2000: 486)
learner experiencing a learning impair- outcomes-based education and learning “empha-
ment? sizes products”, and according to Gearheart et al.
The following aspects should be (1996: 100), “outcomes are minimum require-
taken into consideration: ments that the students are expected to achieve”
• Hyperactive, noisy and dominant in each of the learning areas for the various grade
learners should not be in the same levels. The year plan for each grade provides the
group. outcomes that average achievers in a specific
• Never include a quiet, withdrawn grade should reach in order to be ready to pro-
learner in a group of chatty and dom- ceed to the next grade. These outcomes are not
ACTIVITY

ineering learners.
rigid or prescriptive to the specific information
• Do not include an older learner in a
learners should have mastered by the end of each
group of younger ones or vice versa.
school year. Some learners, such as gifted ones,
• A learner experiencing serious learn-
proceed quickly through the information and
ing impairment should not be includ-
ed in a group with bright learners processes mentioned in the year plan and there-
who are all doing well at school. fore the outcomes for these learners may be at a
• Do not include one girl in a group of higher level than for the rest of the class. Out-
boys in the higher classes and vice comes for learners with learning impairment may
versa. be at a lower level and less information is expect-
• Very good friends should not be ed from them than from average learners in the
together in a group as they may form class. The crux of the outcomes is to teach these
a clique against the rest of learners in learners with learning impairment to acquire the
the group. basic information and processes required for the
specific grade. As they are not intellectually
impaired and are able to reach the supposed out-
16.4 SUPPORT TO LEARNERS EXPERIENC- comes or even a higher level of outcomes than
ING LEARNING DIFFICULTIES described in the year plan, the methods and
strategies used to accommodate them should be
16.4.1 General support adapted in such a way that they achieve the high-
Before starting with either individual or group est outcomes level possible. In order to support
support to learners experiencing learning difficul- them to acquire the necessary skills and know-

375
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

ledge, the information and text may be simplified Content

or even decreased, and the methods and strate- • Decrease the number of answers to be given.
gies should be applied according to the learners’ Stick to only one or two of a certain type of
abilities. question and answer, instead of four or five of a
kind.
[Link] Accommodations in administering
• Reduce the content in general by excluding
assessment material
information that is not important to explain the
In order to determine whether a learner with concept.
learning impairment has mastered the different
learning areas, certain accommodations should be Language
made to the assessment procedures and material, • Shorten and simplify the sentences and words
namely the format, content and language. without losing important information.
• Change names and objects to make the infor-
Procedures
mation easier to read, e.g. change the sentence
As many of these learners find reading difficult, Andrew has 20 marbles to Ed has 20 sweets.
the questions should be read together with the
learner if the assessment is not about reading per [Link] Support learners to experience
se. However, some of the work has to be read success and to accommodate them
by the learner himself and this reading mate- through their strengths
rial should be adapted to enable the learner to To experience success is one of the main motiva-
read it. tions for learners to try harder and achieve opti-
• Decide on the work that the learner should mally within their abilities. Concentrating on
read himself. learners’ strengths instead of what they cannot do
• Allow enough time for the learner to complete will increase their chances of success. The feeling
the work. of success will enhance their attention span and
improve their attitude towards school and specif-
• Repeat questions if necessary, but do not give
ic learning areas.
any indications of the answer to the question
Very few of the learners with learning impair-
or the procedure to solve the problem.
ment experience problems in all learning areas or
• As these learners experience attention deficit underlying skills (sensorimotor skills, perception –
problems, allow for breaks when it seems that visual and auditory – and tactual-kinaesthetic skills). It
they have become tired and are no longer giv- is therefore important to know their difficulties
ing optimal attention. and strengths. This knowledge will enable the
teacher to concentrate on learners’ abilities in
Format order to try to improve or overcome their inabili-
• Owing to attention problems, avoid pictures ties. When teachers concentrate on the learners’
that are too small or too big with unnecessary strengths when supporting them, they should
lines and detail. never ignore the difficulties they experience.
• The size of the font should be suitable for the Rather try to strengthen these difficulties than to
learner. circumvent them totally.
If a learner who experiences difficulty with visu-
• Avoid too much information on a page.
al memory finds it hard to remember the spelling
• Space the text and pictures in such a way that of high-frequency sight words, it is possible to
the pictures do not attract the learner’s atten- accommodate the problem by using cognitive
tion away from the written text. strategies such as discussing the visual patterns of
• To ensure that the learner concentrates on the the words. Such learners may even use other
relevant information, keep the space between intact modalities such as auditory skills by apply-
the information clean. ing mnemonics, for example:

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 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT 16

• Cognitive strategy. In the word quite, the letter • Use demonstrations when explaining informa-
q is always followed by a u. tion.
• Mnemonics (techniques that help people • Guide the learners by means of visual and audi-
remember information). Mnemonics in the form tory stimuli.
of rhymes, songs or picture images, depending • Use simple language when giving instructions.
on the learner’s difficulties and strengths, can
be invented to help the learner to remember • Choose topics that would interest the learners
words, formulae and other information. and which are within their learning context.

Cognitive support
How would you teach the learners to
ACTIVITY

spell difficulty by means of mnemonic The main outcome of cognitive support is to

techniques? enable the learners to give meaning to stimuli in
We can sing it out as follows: Mr D, their surroundings. This is done by supporting
Mr I, Mr F-F-I, Mr C, Mr U, Mr L-T-Y. them to actively attend to and perceive stimuli
received through their senses and to build up
experiences through self-activities – accentuating
[Link] General support in connection with their own initiative and actively involving them in
problems in schoolwork the learning situation. Learners should also be pro-
When working with learners experiencing learn- vided with learning strategies such as grammatical
ing impairment, the following guidelines could be and spelling rules and problem-solving strategies
taken into consideration: when they come across written language and
• Do not assume that the learners have already mathematics. Also, provide impulsive learners and
acquired the skills and pre-knowledge to those with attention deficits with learning tech-
accommodate the new concepts to be taught. niques such as study methods and mnemonics.
• Explanations when teaching new concepts
should be specific, purposeful, direct and clear. [Link] Accommodating reading problems
that learners may experience
• Establish dialogue with the learners and be sen-
sitive to non-verbal behaviour signs of stress, There is a wide range of special concessions that
aggression, fear, etc. and react sensitively apply to reading problems. (Notice 2432 of 1998
towards them. describes subsection 3(4)(i) of the South African
• Give the learner time to think before answering Schools Act of 1996 – Act 84 of 1996 – and con-
questions. tains information on, inter alia, learners experi-
• Repeat instructions. encing barriers to learning. Interpretation of this
subsection has resulted in several special conces-
• Avoid rigidity and vary the teaching methods.
sions.) The learner should be assessed to deter-
• Do not presume that all learners will benefit by mine the extent of the reading problem. Depend-
the same methods, even if these methods are ing on the school’s infrastructure and cooperation
successful with most other learners. with the district office, the following concessions
• Instead of exercising prerequisite perceptual can be implemented:
skills, only accommodate these skills while
teaching academic work such as language, • Oral assessment, also known as amanuensis,
reading, spelling, writing and arithmetic. when an independent person records the learn-
er’s answer verbatim
• Let the learners experience success by assess-
ing their work on an ongoing basis in order for • Reading aloud to the learner (e.g. question
them to be aware of their progress. papers)
• Divide the tasks into small steps which the • Extra time, which usually varies from five to 15
learners understand and are able to accommo- minutes per hour. In some cases work can be
date. rephrased.

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

It remains important that any of these con- istic, namely difficulties in mastering academic
cessions is implemented as unobtrusively as work, especially reading. Previously the term
possible, since learners can be highly sensitive to “learning disabilities” was used to classify these
any form of labelling (Krüger & Groenewald learners in one or other group of impairments.
2004a: 12). There are still some countries that use the term
Learners experiencing reading problems also “disabilities”. Learning impairments may be
often experience difficulties with learning, espe- caused by organic, ecological and environmental
cially if they have to read the work. Tape aid, i.e. factors, and deterioration of and damage to the
work recorded on audiocassette, is recommended central nervous system. Besides learning difficul-
in such cases. When reading aloud on tape, it is ties, these learners often experience emotional
advisable to condense the work – to demarcate it, and social problems, and there are a number with
in other words. Learners then listen to the tape attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders (AD/HD)
and follow the work in the manual when they which cause disinhibition and problems with
learn. Technology can also be very useful for this interrelationships. Often they are unpopular and
option. A special computer program makes it pos- cause frustration to peers and teachers alike.
sible to record a voice and save it as a file. This file Learners with learning impairment also experi-
can also be emailed (if the reading takes place at a ence difficulties with sensorimotor skills, balance
central point) and the recipient can open it and and rhythm, and visual and auditory perception
listen to it. This form of technology holds great skills.
promise for the future, because it will obviate To accommodate these learners, teachers
individual recordings (by parents or friends). One should make special adaptations in their manage-
condition is that the recipient must have access to ment of the classroom in order to support them in
the essential electronic equipment. If the learner their learning and other difficulties. They should
cannot afford a tape recorder, another person, also make special arrangements within the inclu-
such as a parent or sibling, could read the work sive classroom situation to ensure that all learners
aloud. This last option requires much dedication benefit from the teaching and support.
from the reader and is time-consuming.
CASE STUDY 1
[Link] Humour and learners with learning
impairments Identify a learner experiencing learning difficulty
in the classroom and determine the systemic fac-
Humour is important to relieve anxiety in these
tors causing the learner’s problem.
learners which is caused by their inability to actu-
alise their full potential. However, Gearheart et al.
(1996: 391) warn that humorous comments must CASE STUDY 2
never be used at the expense of the learner. Identify a learner with learning impairment in the
According to them “teachers who are self-confi- classroom.
dent are able to use humorous comments at their • Determine the cause of the learner’s impair-
own expense” as it is important for these learners ment by means of an interview with the par-
to experience laughter as a relief of stress and a ents.
means of togetherness. • Determine the manifestations of impairment of
the learner through interviews with the learner
16.5 CONCLUSION and parents.
• Determine the learner’s difficulties in spoken
Almost all classes in the mainstream include learn- language, reading, spelling and/or written work
ers experiencing learning difficulties. Most of as well as mathematics through thorough
these learners’ work improves with quality atten- assessments.
tion and support by teachers and parents. • Determine the other characteristics of the
Learners with learning impairment belong to a learner’s learning impairment and give a full
heterogeneous group with a common character- explanation of these characteristics.

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 LEARNING IMPAIRMENT 16

• Make recommendations for classroom man- Hallahan, D.P. & Kauffman J.M. 1991. Exceptional learn-
agement to accommodate the learner. ers: introduction to special education, 5th ed. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
• Describe the kind of support and strategies
Hallahan, D.P. & Kauffman, J.M. 2000. Exceptional learn-
that may help the learner to accommodate his
ers: introduction to special education, 8th ed. Boston:
difficulties in general (behaviour, etc.) and in Allyn & Bacon.
schoolwork.
Krüger, D. & Groenewald, S. 2004a. A practical guide for
educators to accommodate diversities in inclusive educa-
tion – secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE
Questions Publishers
1. Discuss the main characteristics of learners Lerner, J.W. 1993. Learning disabilities: theories, diagno-
sis and teaching strategies, 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mif-
with learning impairment. flin.
2. Indicate how you would support a learner with Moss, G. 1995. Developing positive behaviour. In Moss,
AD/HD to pay attention in the classroom and G. (Ed.), The basics of special needs: a Routledge/special
give his optimal attention during a lesson. children survival guide for the classroom teacher. London:
Routledge, 239–253.
3. Describe briefly how you would accommodate
Rosner, J. 1993. Helping children overcome learning diffi-
a learner’s assessment material to enable you culties, 3rd ed. New York: Walker & Company.
to determine the learner’s actual knowledge. Smith, D.D. 1998. Introduction to special education:
teaching in an age of challenge, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Bibliography
Smith, T.E.C., Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R. & Dowdy, C.A.
Adelman, H.S. & Taylor, L. 1993. Learning problems and 2001. Teaching students with special needs in inclusion
learning disabilities. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. setting, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2000. Diagnostic Vaughn, S. & Schumm, J.S. 1995. Responsible inclusion
and statistical manual of mental disorders. Text revision for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning
(DSM-IV-TR), 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychi- Disabilities, 28(5), May: 264–270.
atric Association. Wehmeyer, M.L., Agran, M. & Hughes, C. 1998. Teaching
Bley, N.S. & Thornton. C.A. 2001. Teaching mathematics self-determination to students with disabilities: basic skills
to students with learning disabilities, 4th ed. Austin, TX: for successful transition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Pro-Ed. Westman, J.C. 1990. Handbook of learning disabilities: a
Finlan, T.G. 1994. Learning disability: the imaginary dis- multisystem approach. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
ease. London: Bergin & Carver. Bacon.
Gearheart, B.R., Weishahn, M.W. & Gearheart, C.J. 1996. Westwood, P. 1997. Commonsense methods for children
The exceptional student in the regular classroom, 6th ed. with special needs: strategies for the regular classroom,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.

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 INTELLECTUAL 17
IMPAIRMENT

CECILE JOOSTE & MARTIN JOOSTE

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the concept of intellectual impairment
Πunderstand the different causes of intellectual impairment in learners
and how it influences their level of intellectual functioning
Πunderstand the consequences of intellectual impairment for learners
Πidentify cognitive difficulties experienced by a learner with an
intellectual impairment, using the suggested systems model
Πformulate suitable support strategies and interventions for the
cognitive difficulties of learners with an intellectual impairment
Πunderstand and implement your role as mediator
Πevaluate any lesson or interaction with learners to ensure mediated
learning experiences for all the learners in your class.

Key terms tally handicapped” were used at different times

during the course of history, some as early as
intellectual impairment ♦ mental handicap ♦ mental
1489 in late Middle English literature (Sinason
retardation ♦ mental disability ♦ cybernetic model
1993: 43–47). Many of these terms became unac-
for teaching practice ♦ cognitive development ♦
ceptable to professionals as well as to parents
mediated learning experience ♦ teaching learners
because of the negative meaning that they all
with intellectual impairment
developed over time. Unacceptable terms were
then replaced with new terms, which appeared to
17.1 INTRODUCTION be more positive and acceptable. However, the
Intellectual impairment has been a topic of dis- same cycle repeated itself when the “new” terms
cussion for more than 2 300 years. Greek philoso- also acquired a negative connotation and were
phers such as Plato and Aristotle gave us some of replaced yet again (Fraser & Green 1991: 1). This
the earliest descriptions of the differences continuous change in terminology is perceived as
between gifted and less-gifted persons. It was, a clear indication of a desperate struggle to
however, only during the last two centuries that describe and understand this very complex human
intellectual impairment as a phenomenon was condition (Sinason 1993: 43–46).
more clearly defined (Lea & Foster 1990: 4). In recent South African publications, for exam-
In describing the condition of intellectual ple the Education White Paper 6, the terms “mental
impairment, different terms like “idiot”, “imbe- disability” and “intellectual impairment” are used
cile”, “retarded”, “mentally disabled” and “men- (Department of Education 2001: 14, 25). In this

380
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

chapter we will refer mainly to “intellectual and safety, functional academics, leisure and
impairment”. However “mental retardation” and work. Mental retardation manifests before
“mental disability” are used extensively in inter- age 18 (Culatta & Tompkins 1999: 71).
national research publications.
Regardless of the terminology used, many This definition makes provision for both the sig-
teachers in South African schools are confronted nificantly lower intellectual functioning of learners
daily by the educational needs of learners experi- experiencing an intellectual barrier to learning and
encing intellectual impairment. Intellectual for their problems in adjusting to the convention-
impairment is actually more widespread than any al social norms of society. Because this condition
of the other impairments described in this book. manifests during the early childhood or school-
It is therefore important that all teachers equip going developmental period, it affects education.
themselves to support these learners and to facil- In education there is a need for a more compre-
itate optimum cognitive development. Intellectu- hensive approach than the definition proposed by
al impairment is a very complex phenomenon and the AAMD. We also need to become aware of the
teachers would be strongly advised to read more prevalence of intellectual impairment and under-
extensively than the offering of one chapter in a stand the causes as well as its effects on the level
textbook. of intellectual functioning of the individual. In
In the first half of this chapter the emphasis will addition, understanding the consequences of an
be on recognising the learners with an intellectu- intellectual impairment for the learner is also
al impairment. In the second half a model will be required. Teachers should be able to identify these
discussed that could be used to identify and learners and understand the barriers to learning
understand some of the barriers to learning that that they experience. They should be capable of
these learners experience. Finally, various sug- providing the required level of educational sup-
gested support and intervention strategies will be port to them whether in an ordinary school, a full-
provided to overcome or at least minimise the service school or in a special school as a resource
effects of these barriers to learning in the educa- centre (Department of Education 2002).
tional context.
17.3 PREVALENCE OF INTELLECTUAL
17.2 DEFINITION OF INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT
IMPAIRMENT
Establishing the real prevalence of intellectual
Defining a phenomenon such as intellectual impairment is difficult because factors such as the
impairment has interested many academics and identification system used, the level of technolog-
researchers from different disciplines for many ical development of the community and the socio-
years. Their attempts have not always been suc- economic level of the particular group should all
cessful and could even have created some confu- be taken into account (Archer & Green 1996:
sion, because educationists tend to define the phe- 123–129; Jooste 1997: 7–8).
nomenon differently from the way physicians, psy- In general, some local experts estimate that
chologists, sociologists or legal professionals do. approximately 3 per cent of the South African
The latest definition of the American Association population experience an intellectual impairment
on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) reads as follows: (Du Toit 1991: 303; Grover 1990: 165).
Mental retardation refers to substantial limi- Other local authors maintain that when abject
tation in present functioning. It is character- poverty occurs, the prevalence may even be dou-
ized by significantly sub-average intellectual ble the expected figure (Donald 1993; Grover
functioning, existing concurrently with relat- 1990: 164; Skuy & Partington 1990: 152). Even if
ed limitations in two or more of the follow- only 3 per cent of the school population is
ing applicable adaptable skills areas: com- involved as described in the Education White Paper
munication, self care, home living, social 6 (Department of Education 2001: 15), more than
skills, community use, self direction, health 300 000 learners in South African schools can

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

be expected to have an intellectual impairment. cognitive development (Mwamwenda 1995:

This is an important reason for every teacher to 437–439; Stoneman 1998: 670).
learn more about this type of barrier to learning. • Poverty. The poverty level of a particular house-
The question now arises: what are the causes hold or community will negatively affect the
of intellectual impairment and how does it affect intellectual development of its children
the level of cognitive functioning of the indi- because the basic living conditions for intellec-
vidual? tual development are lacking (Stoneman 1998:
678–680). Children under these conditions very
17.4 CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL often encounter inadequate housing and med-
IMPAIRMENT ical care, sterile learning environments, restric-
The causes of intellectual impairment can be tions in their movement and freedom, and a
rather complex (Department of Education 2002: poor diet. Their home environment is frequent-
131–141). It can be caused by: (a) extrinsic factors ly disorganised and unpredictable, and parents
(contextual factors) within (i) the centre of learn- often spend little time interacting with their
ing (school), (ii) the educational system or (iii) the children (Owens 1993; Department of Educa-
broader social, economic and political context, tion 2002).
and/or (b) intrinsic factors within the learner • Linguistic deprivation. These families often
(genetic, biological, physical and/or psychological have a very basic and concrete style of commu-
factors). Different combinations of these factors nication, which includes short sentences and
manifest in different individuals and will affect simple vocabulary (Du Toit 1991: 361). Children
their level of functioning in a unique way. who are exposed only to a poor language
The current understanding of intellectual abili- model also find it difficult to understand new
ties and the nature of intelligent behaviour concepts or to manage large quantities of
emphasises a complex reciprocal interaction learning material when they go to school. This
between intrinsic and extrinsic factors (American becomes worse when their home language dif-
Psychiatric Association 2000; Horowitz & Haritos fers from the language of teaching and learning
1998; Nevid et al. 2003). The individual con- at school (Department of Education 2002:
tributes actively towards these influences, as the 139–140).
final outcome is also shaped by the extent of • Low literacy level of parents. This influences
the vulnerability or resilience of the particular their ability to guide and assist their children in
individual. their schoolwork. Where these parents are not
recognised and empowered as primary educa-
17.4.1 Extrinsic factors causing tors, learning breakdown occurs (Department
intellectual impairment of Education 2002: 139–140).
Even though Chapter 2 deals with many of the • Unsuccessful child-rearing practices. Research
environmental factors affecting learners, there are has found that poor families often manifest
specific factors precipitating intellectual impair- child-rearing practices that are not conducive
ment. to cognitive development. Parents often
explain less and act more; they expect obedi-
ence without explaining the reasons for it; they
ACTIVITY

After reading Chapter 2, write down the are more likely to use physical punishment;
extrinsic factors that may contribute to they often act impulsively based on their feel-
intellectual impairment and why. ings rather than logical reasoning; and they
usually do not encourage their children to think
and to motivate their own choices, or to make
Where mainly extrinsic causes exist, learners decisions for themselves (Owens 1993: 568;
more often show only mild or moderate levels of McLoyd 1990: 322; Bjorklund & Bjorklund
intellectual impairment and slow but normative 1992: 343–344).

382
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

• Lack of motivation. When the basic living stimulation (Department of Education 2002:
needs are not met, parents have to spend all 134–135).
their energy finding essentials like shelter and
• Harmful and negative attitudes. The negative
food, leaving little or no time or energy for
and harmful attitudes towards social diversity
interaction with their children. The parents in
that may be expressed in our society in general,
families living in poverty are also inclined to
and by some educators in particular, have seri-
focus only on short-term problem solving as
ous implications for learners experiencing intel-
they do not necessarily believe that they can
lectual barriers to learning. This often mani-
make any long-term difference to their circum-
fests itself in the negative labelling of learners
stances – a model that their children will prob-
as “slow learners”, “repeaters” or, even worse,
ably also follow.
“uneducable” (Archer & Green 1996: 125–127;
• Lack of schooling. Children living in poverty, Jupp 2002: 10–14; Department of Education
whether in a rural or urban environment, often 2002: 136–137). Educators who believe these
do not have access to schools. They will then labels neglect these learners and their educa-
not develop the kind of cognitive skills required tional needs, as they expect them to fail in any
in a technologically sophisticated society. case.
• Poor nutrition. This will affect the pregnant
mother as well as the child. It is especially dur- 17.4.2 Intrinsic factors causing
ing the later stages of the pregnancy that intellectual impairment
maternal malnutrition affects the child, espe- There are some identifiable organic and personal
cially in terms of brain growth (Bjorklund & factors affecting the level of intellectual function-
Bjorklund 1992: 10, 11, 87). After birth these ing in a particular individual. Intrinsic factors can
so-called “foetally malnourished babies” are often eventuate in more severe forms of intellec-
even more at risk if they live in an impoverished tual impairment and atypical cognitive processes
environment. Research has indicated that a (Stoneman 1998). These intrinsic factors often
prolonged protein deficiency in any child could appear in combination with extrinsic ones. In-
lead to intellectual impairment (Grantham- depth information can be obtained from the orig-
McGregor et al. 1994). inal sources: MacGillivray (1991); Thaper et al.
• Environmental toxins. Ingesting chips of lead- (1994); Werner (1988); Whalström (1990); and
based paints may cause brain damage and intel- Whinship (2003).
lectual impairment (Nevid et al. 2003: 451).
[Link] Chromosomal anomalies
Drug and alcohol abuse may also cause foetal
damage and foetal alcohol syndrome with con- Human beings have 23 sets of chromosomes
current intellectual impairment. divided into two major groups, namely the auto-
somes (the name for chromosome pairs 1 to 22)
• Poor medical care. Primary as well as second- and the sex chromosomes (the name for pair 23).
ary medical care is often lacking or inaccessi- The sex chromosomes consist of an X and a Y
ble, in which case poor pre-, peri- and postnatal chromosome which determine the sex of the indi-
medical care may cause intellectual impair- vidual (XX – female and XY – male). Chromosomal
ment. abnormalities of a structural or numerical kind
• Diseases such as HIV/Aids. One of the present could occur before or during fertilisation and will
social problems often encountered by teachers affect the development of the foetus to such an
is young children becoming the head of a fami- extent that certain characteristics are noticeable
ly and having to raise their siblings. This slows at birth.
down their own cognitive development, as
they cannot attend school regularly. The impli- Abnormalities of the autosomes
cation in these child-headed families is that The most common autosomal abnormality to
siblings are deprived of adequate cognitive cause intellectual impairment is Down syndrome

383
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

(previously known as Down’s syndrome) (Nevid et between the first and the second toe; hypotonia
al. 2003: 448). John Langdon Down diagnosed this (low muscle tone); a rather monotonous voice;
condition in 1860 but it was only in 1959 that disproportionately short arms and legs in relation
geneticists discovered the associated autosomal to the body, and a short stocky stature. Such
abnormality. There are three identifiable types, individuals are also more prone to congenital
namely: heart defects, respiratory infections and
• Trisomy 21 is a numerical abnormality where leukaemia.
there are 47 chromosomes instead of 46. This
applies to 95 per cent of all individuals with Sex chromosome anomalies
Down syndrome. Numerical errors may also occur in the sex chro-
• Mosaic Down syndrome occurs when there is a mosome (chromosome number 23). The intellec-
numerical error during the second or subse- tual ability of these individuals is often only mild-
quent cell divisions, producing one cell with 47 ly or moderately affected (Simonoff et al. 1998:
chromosomes while other cells have the nor- 43). Examples are as follow:
mal 46 chromosomes. These individuals have a • Turner syndrome. This syndrome, only affect-
mixture of the normal and the deviant types of ing females, was identified by Henry Turner in
cells in their bodies and the relationship 1938. Females with Turner syndrome are mild-
between these two groups of cells determines ly intellectually impaired, often with visual-spa-
how prominent the Down syndrome symptoms tial disorders (Bjorklund & Bjorklund 1992:
will be. Only 5 per cent of all people with Down 71–72; Simonoff et al. 1998: 57).
syndrome fall into this category.
• Klinefelter syndrome. This only affects males,
• Translocation Down syndrome is a structural who are often only mildly intellectually
abnormality where extra chromosome 21 mate- impaired with some learning disabilities, as
rial is available and it manifests as Down syn- well as some speech and language disorders
drome. In cases where the parents or ancestors (Owens 1993: 131). They fall in the mild intel-
had this kind of structural error, they can be a lectually impaired group and often have learn-
carrier of the condition and their children may ing disabilities, especially speech and language
inherit it. disorders.
• Fragile X syndrome. This is the second most
The characteristics of persons with Down syn-
common form of intellectual impairment after
drome vary from individual to individual. There is,
Down syndrome. It affects males more severely
however, a resemblance between individuals
than females and they often experience cogni-
almost similar to the characteristics that are
tive as well as language impairments (Hager-
found among family members. Depending on the
man 1996; Nevid et al. 2003; Owens 1993;
individual, the effect of Down syndrome on intel-
Simonoff et al. 1998).
lectual functioning may vary from mild to severe.
There are, however, other distinctive features: a
round face; a protruding tongue due to a small [Link] Single gene anomalies
oral cavity – often manifesting a deep groove; a Single gene anomalies can occur in any one of the
broad skull; a short wide neck; a downward-slop- thousands of genes located on the chromosomes.
ing fold of skin (the epicanthic fold) at the inside Gene pairs, one received from the father and one
corners of the eyes, which gives the impression of from the mother, carry important genetic infor-
slanted eyes; a short flat nose caused by the mation that determine, for example, eye and hair
underdevelopment of the nasal bone; a flattened colour. Single gene disorders are mostly rare, are
head anteriorly (in front) and posteriorly (back); associated with severe intellectual impairment
squarish hands with short fingers, often with only and have a concomitant metabolic condition.
one horizontal line across the hand (the Simeon Examples are neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclero-
crease); a curved fifth finger; a wide space sis, Sturge-Weber syndrome, Tay-Sachs disease,

384
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

phenylketonuria, galactosaemia, Hunter-Hurler • Macrocephaly. In this case the brain itself is

syndrome, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, Schilder’s dis- abnormally enlarged. The individual has a large
ease, Laurence-Moon-Biedl syndrome and Smith- head and is severely intellectually impaired.
Lemli-Opitz syndrome (MacGillivray 1991;
• Craniostenosis. The premature closure of the
Simonoff et al. 1998).
soft spots or fontanels in a baby’s skull may
cause the brain to press against an immovable
[Link] Endocrine anomalies skull, causing damage. These individuals will
The endocrine system in the body produces hor- show serious signs of brain damage and visual
mones, which can also affect intelligence. The thy- problems as well as intellectual impairment
roid gland produces thyroxin, a hormone which (Bjorklund & Bjorklund 1992: 117; MacGillivray
influences brain development and causes a defi- 1991: 372).
ciency condition known as cretinism or hypothy-
roidism. The main features if untreated are severe [Link] Multiple disabilities and intellectual
intellectual impairment, dwarfed stature, bowed impairment
small legs, and stumpy hands and feet. Treatment
within the first 7 to 10 days after birth can pre- Multiple disabilities are often found in individuals
vent or reduce the abnormalities, as well as who have severe intellectual impairment (see
improve intellectual development (MacGillivray Chapter 18). There are different degrees and dif-
1991: 371). ferent combinations of multiple disabilities, but
when an individual has additional disabilities, it
makes learning and life in general much more dif-
[Link] Brain, skull and spinal cord
ficult. The following are some of the other condi-
problems
tions that are to be found in conjunction with
Before birth the brain, skull and spinal cord devel- intellectual impairment:
op according to a complicated pattern (see Chap-
ters 12 and 13). If normal development is in any • Epilepsy (see Chapter 13B) often increases with
way disturbed, it may result in an abnormality the severity of the intellectual impairment
with resultant intellectual impairment. The fol- (Fischbacher 1991: 123).
lowing are examples: • Cerebral palsy (see Chapter 13C) is a persistent,
• Microcephaly. When development is complete, but not necessarily unchanging, disorder affect-
the cranium of a person with microcephaly is ing movement and posture, which is often
less than 42,5 cm in circumference, which found together with intellectual impairment,
means it is reduced in size. These individuals indicating the same cerebral lesion. Persons
fall within the severe-to-moderate range of with spastic hemiplegia or paraplegia frequent-
intellectual impairment and about 50 per cent ly have normal intelligence and a good progno-
sis for social independence, but persons with
also have epilepsy (MacGillivray 1991: 375).
spastic quadriplegia and mixed forms are often
• Hydrocephaly. Hydrocephaly (water on the associated with an intellectual impairment
brain) refers to an increased volume of cere- (MacGillivray 1991: 382).
brospinal fluid within the skull causing pressure
on the brain and eventually brain damage, • Sensory impairments (see Chapters 14 and 15)
which usually leads to intellectual impairment. are often also found in individuals with an intel-
lectual impairment, but may be difficult to iden-
Symptoms such as headaches, perceptual and
tify it as a primary or secondary cause.
motor problems, as well as other signs of brain
damage may occur. The pressure can be • Autism (see Chapter 13E): It is suggested that
relieved surgically by inserting a ventriculo- two-thirds to three-quarters of individuals with
peritoneal shunt (MacGillivray 1991: 374). This autism also experience an intellectual impair-
condition often forms part of spina bifida (see ment, often of a severe nature (Pennington &
Chapter 13A). Bennetto 1998: 95).

385
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

[Link] Intellectual impairment and involved in learning activities for fear of failure
medication and also tend not to set meaningful goals for
Considering the many intrinsic medical problems themselves. It therefore becomes a self-fulfilling
that such children often have, it is understandable prophecy.
that they need various types of medication. It is Learners with an intellectual impairment often
important for teachers to consider the side effects do not trust their own abilities and depend heavi-
of such medication, which may be detrimental to ly on others to give direct instructions and to help
the learning process. Some of the common ones solve problems for them. They rely on external
are listlessness, tiredness, inability to concen- sources rather than on their own cognitive
trate, dizziness, nausea, headaches, restlessness, resources. This is called an outerdirected style of
irritability and tension (Du Toit 1991: 312). problem solving that appears to be rather inflexi-
ble in the case of persons with an intellectual
impairment (Bybee & Zigler 1998; Iarocci &
17.5 CONSEQUENCES OF INTELLECTUAL
Burack 1998; Jooste 1997: 25–26).
IMPAIRMENT FOR LEARNERS
Having discussed all the various causes of intellec- Moral aspects
tual impairment, it follows that the cognitive The ability to evaluate moral matters involves the
(intellectual) impairment experienced should also ability to apply certain ethical and moral stan-
affect other aspects of learners’ lives. dards to the evaluation, thus establishing right
and wrong or good and bad. Moral judgement
Physical aspects develops more slowly in learners with intellectual
Children with an intellectual impairment reach impairment than in other learners because it is
their physical milestones, like sitting, crawling linked to the level of cognitive development of
and walking later than other children (Lefrancois these learners. They find it difficult to predict the
1991: 273). Some experts even maintain that outcome of actions and therefore often fail to
there is a positive correlation between motor avoid negative ones. They also find it especially
impairment (both fine and gross) and the degree difficult to distinguish between the outcome of an
of intellectual impairment. action and the intention behind it (Robinson &
Robinson 1976: 257).
Conative aspects
The term “conative” implies the personal will to Affective aspects
consciously and intentionally do something, “Affect” is a term referring to feelings, emotions
which is a driving force or motivation in a per- and mood. There is also a connection between
son’s life. Human beings are capable of formulat- the person’s level of cognitive development and
ing a personal goal, which is a cognitive exercise, affective experiences. In young children as well as
but they also have a moment when they decide or in persons with an intellectual impairment, we
choose actively to follow this goal, which is a often notice affective lability that stabilises as
conative or motivational exercise. they become older. Feelings in learners with an
The connection between the cognitive and intellectual impairment are often simplistic in
conative aspects in the lives of persons with an nature, short in duration and difficult to control.
intellectual impairment has been well researched Many experience crippling unhappiness, anxiety,
over a long period of time. From research done by hostility, rejection and feelings of unworthiness
Zigler and his co-workers (e.g. Hodapp et al. 1998; (Robinson & Robinson 1976: 179). They also tend
Merighi et al. 1990; Zigler & Balla 1982: 15–20; to use a variety of self-defeating techniques to
Zigler 1982: 180–181), it can be concluded that manage these feelings and their confusion about
the conative (motivational) aspects of their lives the world around them. Many authors also main-
have been adversely affected by their continuous tain that affective problems occur more often in
experiences of failure. In the end they start to persons with intellectual impairment (Glick 1990:
expect failure. They often do not want to become 563).

386
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

Self-concept istics of learners experiencing an intellectual

There is a direct connection between the quality impairment are well-researched topics, especially
of cognitive functioning and the quality of the self- by Zigler and his co-workers. Zigler identified sev-
concept. Learners with an intellectual impairment eral different personality attributes of these learn-
often do not reason accurately and logically, ers, which are often found in other poor school
which distorts their self-description and could performers especially those from low socio-eco-
eventuate in unhappiness and self-defeating nomic status groups (Hodapp et al. 1998: 8–9;
behaviours. They often experience feelings of Bybee & Zigler 1998: 434–461). These personality
intellectual inadequacy and incompetence when traits are
compared to other learners. Prolonged stigmatisa- • overdependence on adults in the immediate
tion also triggers an expectancy of failure, an atti- environment
tude of helplessness and an outerdirectedness. All • wariness during initial interactions with adults
this becomes a vicious circle that reinforces a neg- (including teachers)
ative self-image and poor cognitive functioning • a lowered expectancy of success
(Evans 1998: 463–470; Jooste 1997: 27; Widaman • an outerdirected style of problem solving (see
et al. 1992). conative aspects)
• diminished pleasure in solving challenging
Social aspects
problems
A person’s intellectual approach to and evaluation • preference for tangible as opposed to intangi-
of social situations influences his behaviour. If this ble rewards
judgement is impaired because of a lack of certain
• less differentiated self-concept linked with
cognitive skills, it will result in inappropriate
lower ideal self-image.
actions. Social cognition involves complex cogni-
tive processes and cognitive skills that often cre-
Independence
ate problems for persons with an intellectual
impairment (Jooste 1997). Examples of complex Any improvement in cognitive functioning implies
social cognitive skills are as follows: better social adjustment and a greater degree of
independence. Adequate cognition is a prerequi-
• Putting oneself in somebody else’s position
site for independence in even the most insignifi-
(role taking)
cant self-care task (Jooste 1997: 30).
• Perceiving and interpreting the characteristics Keeping in mind all the consequences of intel-
of other persons accurately lectual impairment described above, we need to
• Interpreting other people’s motives and feel- look in the next section of this chapter at the
ings correctly skills required from teachers, some general teach-
• Understanding social role expectations ing strategies that teachers can use in an inclusive
• Understanding the rules that govern social rela- situation and specific strategies and interventions
tions that can be used to minimise or overcome certain
• Establishing and maintaining friendships cognitive barriers that are experienced by learn-
• Appropriately judging matters on a moral basis ers with an intellectual impairment.
• Listening and understanding what other people
are saying, as well as being able to communi- 17.6 SKILLS REQUIRED FROM TEACHERS
cate one’s own ideas effectively in response to OF LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL
them IMPAIRMENT
• Being sensitive to the finer nuances of social The most important skills required from teachers
and emotional interaction are the roles of team players and mediators.
Teachers often have to interact with several other
Personality aspects people in different teams to serve the interests of
Personality and motivational (conative) character- the learners. Teachers however also have to cre-

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

ate mediated learning experiences for learners, (Feuerstein et al. 1980, 1991; Fry 1992; Skuy
and especially those learners with an intellectual 1991a). A special kind of interaction is required,
barrier to learning. which Feuerstein calls the “mediated learning
experience” (MLE) where the mediator (teacher or
17.6.1 Teachers as members of a team parent) intentionally enriches the interaction
between the child and the environment by inter-
Especially in the case of learners with an intellec- preting stimuli, guiding the interaction and giving
tual impairment, teachers have to be part of dif- meaning to experiences (Feuerstein & Feuerstein
ferent teams in order to effectively support these 1991).
learners.
• In the inclusive class, teachers may well have
teaching assistants (or para-educators as Example of a teacher/mother as mediator
described in the American literature). Assis- Consider the example of a child walking
tants may be appointed by the school or by the through a garden, smelling the flowers, see-
parents. This class support team consists of a ing their bright colours and even feeling their
teacher, teaching assistant and parents. texture. Some incidental learning is taking
• Teachers may be required to be part of a place through this direct exposure. However,
school-based support team consisting of differ- if the mother is present and intentionally
ent educators such as class teachers, the princi- focuses the child’s attention on specific
pal and heads of department as well as parents, aspects, for example pointing out similar and
all working in the best interests of the learner. different colours and textures, she mediates
• Teachers may also be expected to be part of a more meaning to the child’s experiences and
district-based support team consisting of edu- in an informal way assists the child in devel-
cators, psychologists, speech and hearing ther- oping an important cognitive skill, namely
apists, occupational therapists, physiothera- comparison. The child, on the other hand,
pists, medical professionals, local representa- excitedly responds and notices even more
tives of government departments and other similarities and differences in other objects
stakeholders (Department of Education 2001: in the garden (Skuy 1991a).
28–30; 2002: 97–105).

Functioning effectively in these diverse teams When learners with an intellectual impairment are
requires special skills, such as the ability to share not very successful in their learning, teachers
information objectively and openly in the inter- often develop what Feuerstein calls “the stiff fin-
ests of learners experiencing barriers to learning; ger”, where the index finger is pointing only in
effective communication; the ability to substanti- the direction of the child, blaming only the child
ate one’s ideas; respect for different opinions; the for this failure to learn (Skuy 1991a: ii) without
ability to look holistically at learners or learning; considering the educational responsibility and
and a more flexible definition of one’s role as a role of the teacher. If, however, the teacher is
teacher. involved as a mediator, the learning process is
interactive and involves both parties, and prob-
lems can be overcome only by the joint efforts of
17.6.2 Teachers as mediators learner and teacher.
Learners with an intellectual impairment do not Feuerstein et al. (1980: 42–82) have to date pro-
necessarily benefit from direct exposure to stim- vided ten criteria for mediation. The first three –
uli from the environment, even in the school envi- namely intentionality and reciprocity, meaning
ronment. They may accidentally learn something, and transcendence – are the most important ones
which is important and necessary. But according in defining an interaction as a mediation interven-
to various experts, incidental learning is not suffi- tion. The other seven, however, may function at
cient to ensure that effective learning takes place different times where appropriate. They serve to

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 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

balance and reinforce learning. These other crite- the significance and purpose of an activity”.
ria are: competence, self-regulation and control of The mediator shows interest and emotional
behaviour, sharing behaviour, individuation, goal involvement, discusses the importance of the
planning, challenge and self-change. The initial activity with the mediatee and elicits an under-
three are applied to any mediated learning expe- standing of why the activity should be done.
rience in any information-processing phase, while This does not only charge the activity or object
the remaining seven occur only in certain situa- with energy and value but also communicates
tions. ethical and social values. See also Jooste (1995;
The following are the three most important 1997: 220). Referring to the previous example
criteria defining mediation that teachers may use of the teacher/mother as mediator in the gar-
to establish whether a particular interaction was a den scene, mediating meaning by pointing out
successful mediated learning experience for the the similarities and differences between
learner or not: colours and textures in the garden adds new
• The mediation of intentionality happens, meaning to the child’s experiences.
according to Skuy (1991a: 1), when “the media-
tor (teacher or parent) deliberately guides the When a lesson is planned or evaluated, teachers
interaction in a chosen direction by selecting, should ask themselves whether intentionality and
framing and interpreting specific stimuli. Medi- reciprocity, meaning and transcendence were an
ation is a purposeful intentioned act, where the integral part of the lesson or not.
mediator actively works to focus attention on
stimuli.” Reciprocity occurs when “there is 17.7 GENERAL TEACHING SUPPORT
responsivity from the mediatee (learner) and an REQUIRED FOR LEARNERS WITH
indication of being receptive to, and involved INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT
in the learning process”.
The most effective general teaching methods
• The mediation of transcendence occurs, used to teach learners with an intellectual impair-
according to Skuy (1991a: 11), “when an inter- ment include, inter alia, the following: approach-
action goes beyond the immediate and direct ing the learner holistically; individual tuition;
need, thereby enlarging and diversifying the small-group tuition; hands-on activities; moving
need system of the mediatee. The goal in medi- from concrete content to more abstract content;
ating transcendence is to promote the acquisi- connecting learning to real-life situations; allocat-
tion of principles, concepts, or strategies, ing enough time for tasks; appreciating and using
which can be generalized to issues beyond the their abilities to minimise and overcome barriers
presenting problem.” By linking activities and to learning; motivating learners continuously; reg-
ideas to other situations which are not part of ulating the quantity, novelty and difficulty levels
the immediate situation, teachers enlarge the of the learning material according to the needs of
world of learners; they develop the need to the learner; analysing tasks carefully to ensure
understand, to think reflectively and to form that the steps are logical and small enough to
relationships between objects or concepts. comprehend; emphasising what is really impor-
Referring to the previous example of the tant; verbalising carefully while explaining learn-
teacher/mother as mediator in the garden ing material; and using computers for practising
scene, the child has acquired a new cognitive and reinforcing certain important cognitive skills,
strategy (comparison), which can be gener- as well as for overcoming fine-motor difficulties
alised to new situations, for example in the (Ellis et al. 1991; Ezell et al. 1999; Jooste 1997;
classroom where the child is required to sort Wolpert 2001).
papers by colour into different groupings. See The most recent research indicates both on a
also Jooste (1997: 220). theoretical and practical level that the use of gen-
• The mediation of meaning, according to Skuy eral teaching methods is insufficient for address-
(1991a: 6), occurs when “the mediator conveys ing intellectual barriers to learning. It is also vital-

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ly important for teachers to use more specific 17.8 COGNITIVE BARRIERS EXPERIENCED
educational support methods associated with par- BY LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL
ticular cognitive barriers as experienced by learn- IMPAIRMENT AND THE RELEVANT
ers with that type of impairment. More specific EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT REQUIRED
educational support methods are essential for In order to effectively improve the cognitive func-
stimulating further cognitive development and tioning of learners experiencing intellectual barri-
usually result in further improvement of general ers to learning, the different cognitive processes
personal functioning. These specific educational must be understood and developed by the
methods will be addressed in the next section. teacher. For example, perception, attention,
The following real-life example encountered by a thinking, memory and communication (language)
teacher explains the importance of specific edu- are some of the cognitive processes central to the
cational support for these learners: education of these learners.

17.8.1 A systems model of cognition

The school organised a school dance for and information processing
senior learners. The general educational
support made Thabo aware of his ability to When children learn, they progress through dif-
dance and that he loved doing it. He could ferent phases of cognition. In the input phase
understand what the nature of a school they perceive and attend to information from the
dance was, as well as the date, time and external or from the internal environment (their
venue where it was to take place and his own physical and psychological processes). In the
keenly felt interest to attend it. The specific elaboration phase this information is processed,
educational support developed the necessary as new meanings are constructed and stored for
cognitive skills that enabled Thabo to system- later use. In the output phase the outcomes of
atically reflect and plan how to attend the processing from previous phases are expressed
dance. He focused on the practical consider- through communication (language) or other
ations for implementing his decision. He actions. Individuals may also personally reflect on,
then became aware of a problem with trans- evaluate, monitor and control to what extent
port that made it impossible for him to their actions are successful in terms of their own
attend the dance. Thabo was now capable of expectations or those of others. They may even
using his previous experiences (long-term mem- return to previous processing phases if necessary.
ory information) effectively to independently The different phases should not be seen in isola-
generate new solutions to personal problems. He tion from each other, but as part of a comprehen-
could now understand that if he still wanted sive and interlinking series of processes, as
to attend the school dance, then he had to explained in the schematic model in Figure 17.1
solve the problem that no taxi transport (Feuerstein et al. 1980; Jooste 1997; Skuy 1991b;
would be available that night. He could con- Skuy 1997; Winkler et al. 1998).
sider various options and could communicate Teachers may use the model in Figure 17.1 as a
effectively to different staff members in order basis for identifying and understanding the cogni-
to solve the problem by personally arranging to tive barriers that learners with an intellectual
stay over with one of them, after obtaining impairment face. By means of careful observation
permission (a conventional rule) from his par- a learning barrier can be identified and located in
ents. He planned and implemented the preferred the most probable phase of information process-
solution effectively and remembered to thank (a ing. The kind and level of educational support can
social skill) the people who helped him the be established by using the suggested learning
morning after the dance. He also reflected on support strategies for that particular phase. If the
the effectiveness of the outcome of his plan for chosen support strategies are not successful, the
future purposes. whole observation and support process can be
repeated. New observations arising from the

390
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

Internal INPUT PHASE ELABORATION PHASE OUTPUT PHASE

and external
environmental perception thinking and memory communication
information and and other
attention actions

Monitoring and control functions

reflection, evaluation and self-regulation

Figure 17.1 A systems model of cognition and information processing

Source: Jooste 1997: 23

unsuccessful teaching attempts may serve as posi- following perceptual barriers to learning and
tive information in formulating new teaching development:
strategies and interventions. The principles dis-
cussed in this section can be applied to most, if Tactile and kinaesthetic barriers (Jooste 1997)
not all, learners and not only to those who expe- These refer to the awareness that people experi-
rience an intellectual impairment. Finally, it is ence when they touch something warm or cold,
important to note that the following barriers that or are being touched; when physical pressure is
will be described do not always manifest in every exerted on them; or when they resist an outside
learner. force. It includes awareness of own movement
and their personal position in space when mov-
17.8.2 The input phase of information ing.
processing There are certain organic barriers experienced
Individuals process all the information that they by learners with an intellectual impairment that
perceive by means of their senses in such a way cannot be rectified, for example a brain with a
that they may understand, remember and use it as small cerebellum or hypotonia of the muscles
often as required. Individuals with an intellectual (especially in learners with Down syndrome).
impairment, however, may experience various Teachers have to keep in mind that these learners
problems related to the processes of perceiving may often be unsuccessful in differentiating
and attending. between different types of tactile or kinaesthetic
information. They may tend to be insensitive to
[Link] Barriers experienced during heat or cold, appear clumsy and find it difficult to
perceiving coordinate fine as well as gross motor move-
Perceptual barriers to learning may manifest in ments. Cognitive processing barriers may mani-
any of the sensory modalities, for example in the fest in learners finding it difficult to discriminate
visual, auditory, tactile or kinaesthetic processing perceptually. They are often unable to distinguish
modality (Jooste 2003a). These barriers can be between differences or to recognise similarities
caused by organic dysfunctions of the sensory when objects are touched, or when body move-
organs, or by dysfunctional cognitive processing ments are executed.
in the case where the learner assigns wrong or
dysfunctional meanings to sensory information Visual barriers (Jooste 1997)
(Jooste 1997: 121–161). Whether the problems Eye problems include cataracts; atrophy of the
are of an organic or cognitive nature, teachers optic nerves at the point of leaving the retina;
have to keep the consequences in mind when myopia (near-sightedness); strabismus (squinting)
planning their educational support and interven- and nystagmus (involuntary movement of the
tion in the educational setting. Learners with eyes). Other important organic barriers that affect
an intellectual impairment may experience the learning and development include inefficient

391
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

peripheral vision. This implies that these learners Learners with Down syndrome often have a func-
see only what is straight ahead of them and often tional hearing loss due to fluid build-up in the
ignore important information that lies on the middle ear, which may hamper their language
edges of their visual field. They may also have visu- development.
al acuity problems, making it difficult to discrimi- The cognitive processing of auditory informa-
nate between adjacent items in the visual field. tion is often difficult for learners with an intellec-
Medication as well as the child’s physical condi- tual impairment. Unsuccessful spatial localising of
tion may also affect visual acuity. Uncoordinated auditory stimuli may cause inappropriate reactions,
eye movements stem from an organic condition at for example an inability to hear when called.
midbrain level that regulates eye coordination These learners may also find it difficult to block
reflexively. out unimportant auditory stimuli or any noise
Cognitive processing barriers occur when overwhelming them, which may cause oversensi-
uncoordinated eye movements result in a slow and tivity and emotional withdrawal. As in the case of
inefficient visual scanning process – especially when visual stimuli, they may not discriminate properly
a planned and systematic search for information is between different auditory stimuli and therefore may
required and the learner has to distinguish easily attribute wrong or distorted meanings to
between relevant and irrelevant information. This complicated auditory stimuli, for example, speech
again depends on the cognitive ability to consider and language. They may also find it difficult to
two or more things simultaneously, which is only recognise similarities or differences in auditory stim-
possible for a child with a mental age of at least uli. All these auditory differentiation difficulties
five to seven years. Uncoordinated eye move- affect concept formation, language acquisition,
ments also lead to unsuccessful visual fixation, thought, learning, school achievement and even-
resulting in an inability to see important informa- tually, social adaptation.
tion. This in turn eventuates in unsuccessful visual
differentiation (discrimination), when similarities General perceptual problems (Jooste 1997)
and differences are not recognised during visual Many experts believe that persons with an intel-
perception. The person may be aware only of lectual impairment prefer visual to auditory infor-
superficial visual stimuli, may register only obvi- mation. They also tend to experience perceptual
ous visual information, may see only the most integration problems – finding it difficult to inte-
outstanding characteristics of a particular visual grate perceptual information from different sen-
stimulus and may be insensitive to smaller and sory modalities. These barriers have implications
subtler forms of visual information. All these diffi- for activities such as reading, copying and writing,
culties are intensified by an external locus of control which require intermodal integration of visual,
mindset, when the learner looks around helplessly auditory and tactile information, as well as ade-
instead of focusing on the task (“off-task glancing quate eye, ear and hand functions. Perceptual
behaviour”) attempting to find external help to integration is complex in nature. Writing prob-
solve the problems for him (see section 17.5 – lems, for example, may be caused by defective
conative). Persons with an intellectual impairment visual or tactile perception, defective motor
may also have difficulties with visual-motor pro- abilities or unsuccessful cognitive integration
gramming when they have to transfer processed of the perceptual information, which in turn
visual information into appropriate action, for would require different educational support
example when copying from the chalkboard. strategies.
Learners with an intellectual impairment are
Auditory barriers (Jooste 1997) often unsuccessful in data gathering because they
Learners with an intellectual impairment may do not analyse and organise perceptual informa-
experience hearing problems, for example func- tion spontaneously and are often not selective in
tional hearing loss, which means that certain their use of information. They may find it difficult
sounds are not heard. There can also be a daily to distinguish between foreground and background
variation in the different sound frequencies heard. information (figure-ground differentiation) in both

392
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

visual and auditory modalities. They may also cy with which information is processed and
experience difficulty in moving from concrete decisions are made. Learners manifest a slower
observations to more abstract thought processes. information-processing speed that often leads
In addition, they may be unable to move from one to the loss of important information in working
sensory stimulus to the next (perseveration). These memory before it can be processed and before
fixations and unnecessary repetitive behaviours appropriate decisions can be made.
obstruct them from ending a particular activity
• Impulsive processing style. This cognitive style
and starting a totally new one.
can often be observed to hamper cognitive effi-
ciency in working memory. A more reflective
[Link] Barriers experienced during style is preferable for problem solving and will
attending
improve cognitive efficiency.
Before this section is discussed, the following
types of attention can be identified from a neu- • Metacognitive barriers. These occur because
ropsychological point of view (Jooste 2003a: 92): these learners may not be aware of or do not
understand their own ability to monitor and
• Non-focused attention. This is a general pas- regulate their own attention and concentration
sive scanning of information in an unsystematic functions. They often have difficulty in deciding
(random) manner. how to attend to a task and how much atten-
• Focused attention. This refers to an active tion should be given to that task, or how to
focus on some information while still being oscillate their attention between two tasks in
aware of other information. such a way that both tasks can be carried out
• Concentration. This includes a process that effectively. They tend not to allocate enough
combines (i) the selection of information and time to the initial encoding or evaluation of
active attending to it with (ii) the blocking out information before they move into action. They
of all irrelevant information. From an informa- may experience difficulty in reflecting and dif-
tion-processing point of view, focused atten- ferentiating between appropriate and inappro-
tion and concentration are crucial for the effec- priate information and actions. Information is
tive functioning of working memory (process- often not linked selectively with or compared
ing during short-term memory). to or integrated with other appropriate infor-
mation in order for it to make sense. They
Learners with an intellectual impairment tend to often find it difficult to choose an appropriate
experience the following types of problems with cognitive strategy for the task or to transfer
focused attention and concentration (Jooste 1997: and generalise familiar strategies to new situa-
141–158): tions. They also find it difficult to design new
strategies or test their effectiveness.
• A limited capacity for focused attention and
concentration. This decreases the effectiveness • Motivational problems. Various problems with
of working memory (short-term memory) and outerdirectedness in attention are experienced
implies that these learners find it difficult to which negatively affect attention (see section
keep information active in working memory 17.5). They also tend to become dependent on
while comparing it with new sensory informa- external attention cues, namely the intensity of
tion or with existing information stored in information (e.g. loud sounds), or contrasts in
long-term memory. The limited capacity is also information (e.g. red vs green contrasts, loud vs
overloaded when material in need of attention soft sounds, sweet vs bitter tastes).
is not selected carefully. Cognitive strategies to
• Cognitive rigidity. This is often encountered in
overcome these problems tend not to be used
these learners, and implies problems in chang-
spontaneously or effectively.
ing certain cognitive and behaviour patterns. It
• Perceptual and conceptual processing speed may manifest in the following ways: persever-
problems. These refer to the speed and accura- ing with certain actions, an uncritical imitation

393
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

of the behaviour of others, oversensitivity to in Jooste 1997; Perold 1995; Skuy 1997 and Win-
external influences, echolalia (automatic and kler et al. 1998: 8–11.
meaningless copying of other people’s words
or sentences), and distractibility instead of Tshipa finds it difficult to focus atten-
focused attention. tion as well as to concentrate when
learning new skills or memorising

ACTIVITY
[Link] Learning support for the input (working memory) (see section
phase of information processing [Link]).
What strategies are you going to use
The suggestions offered in the tables below are
to support him? (See Table 17.2: Learn-
by no means exhaustive. Additions can be made ing support for improving attention –
through own experience as well as through addi- avoid working memory overload)
tional reading. More information can be obtained

Table 17.1 Learning support for improving perception

Visual Auditory General

• Keep all visual information • Speak slowly and articulate • Obtain exercises from occupational thera-
clear and uncluttered. very clearly while facing the pists to improve hypotonia of the muscles.
• Ensure enough contrast learner. • Remember that general exercises could
between background and • Give simple and direct improve coordination.
foreground information. instructions – avoid long • Do discrimination exercises using different
• Seat learners in the best and complicated sen- textures.
position for optimal visual tences. • Remember that learners with intellectual
input. • Be prepared to repeat or impairment prefer visual over auditory
• Present information to explain something in a dif- information – verbal instruction/lectures
learners in the centre of ferent way when neces- alone will not be as effective as visual
their visual field and not on sary. demonstrations or a combination of both.
the periphery. • Seat learners in the best • Use a combination of different senses in
• Encourage learners to possible position in the the learning process.
describe what they per- class to facilitate proper • Encourage learners to compare by recog-
ceive – this helps the hearing.
nising differences and similarities.
teacher to evaluate the per- • Keep the noise levels in the • Draw attention to relevant information
ceptual quality of inputs. classroom down.
compared to irrelevant information.
• Reinforce the importance • Make a special effort to
• Encourage learners to spend enough time
of self-monitoring through help the child to learn to
and energy on a task.
slowing down, working differentiate between differ-
more accurately and self- ent sounds on a tape, CD, • Encourage learners to first observe/listen
checking (see Skuy 1991b: video or DVD. carefully before starting to analyse.
6). • Ensure that interaction • Analyse and organise visual and auditory
• Boost learners’ confidence between the learner and data before attempting a task.
and encourage independ- the teacher is a mediated • Overcome foreground/background (figure-
ent work. learning experience (see ground) problems through clear, unclut-
• Refer possible medical section 17.6.2). tered visual information and reducing
problems to medical pro- background noises.
fessionals. • Gently stop perseveration. Guide towards
• Be mindful that medication the next activity and explain why that is
or the learner’s present important.
medical condition can also • Create an atmosphere of tolerance and
affect vision. acceptance where all learners are free to
• Ensure that interaction explore, make mistakes and learn from
between the learner and them.
the teacher is a mediated • Ensure that interaction between the learn-
learning experience (see er and the teacher is a mediated learning
17.6.2). experience (see section 17.6.2).

394
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

Table 17.2 Learning support for improving attention

• Minimise interruptions through careful class man- • Remember personal motivational factors such as
agement. previous successes, personal interests, etc.
• Minimise continuous shifting from one task to the • Emphasise own ability to control attention appro-
next “off task-glancing behaviour” (helplessness) priately.
through clear instructions, initial support when • Plan own work in a realistic, appropriate, system-
starting a task and through continuous encourage- atic and goal-directed way.
ment of own learning.
• Model cognitive strategies through own work,
• Avoid repetitive, boring activities through positive while explaining why it is successful.
modelling and by generating enthusiasm for learn-
• Be aware if learners are nervous, anxious,
ing.
stressed or tense, or fear criticism or teasing in the
• Ensure the necessary information is available for classroom situation.
the completion of the task.
• Be aware of poor health, types of chronic medica-
• Avoid working memory overload tion used, possible side-effects of these medica-
• – through dividing tasks into smaller steps tions, etc.
• – by first processing and then memorising • Show patience and understanding.
• – by choosing which task to do first (prioritising) • Be aware that learners with a low level of arousal
• – by deciding whether speed or accuracy is of the central nervous system require more intense
required for successful completion stimuli to overcome the initial barrier to action.
• – by evaluating individual topics first before com- • Be aware of learners’ personal attitudes – continu-
paring their characteristics. ous failure leads to negative attitudes and help-
• Discourage impulsivity by lessness.
• – reflecting on a task before starting • Consider the unique personality of individual learn-
ers – even of those with an intellectual impairment
• – avoiding speed trials that encourage only a trial- (see section 17.5).
and-error approach to problem solving
• Ensure an emotionally secure learning environ-
• – drawing attention to not-so-obvious important ment where learners can learn from their mistakes
information when making decisions as well as their successes.
• – planning for success by using realistic steps to • Encourage learners to actively use their “brains”.
progress – continuous failure encourages impul-
sivity • Do not take over tasks from learners because it is
easier to do it for them. Also discourage other
• – encouraging the judging of own level of success learners from doing the same – learners with an
in each task.
intellectual impairment have to be assisted step by
• Discourage trial-and-error by step to learn new skills themselves.
• – choosing appropriate strategies to solve a prob- • Assist and allow them to make their own choices
lem by systematically increasing the difficulty level until
• – learning why this strategy is more effective than they can make complex choices appropriately.
others • Ensure that interaction between the learner and
• – explaining where, when and how to use this the teacher is a mediated learning experience (see
strategy in different situations. section 17.6.2).

17.8.3 The elaboration phase of appropriate one, planning, hypothesising, and

information processing working through problems logically. All this
The elaboration phase of the systems model is an enables us to understand the world around us, to
important and complex phase during which our solve the problems that we encounter, to create a
minds work on the information that we have gath- personal knowledge base needed for future refer-
ered in the previous phase. This may involve, for ence and to adapt to our physical as well as social
example, defining a task or problem, generating environment. Owing to the space limitations of
alternative solutions to a problem, comparing and this chapter, the following discussion will only be
integrating relevant sources of information, evalu- done under two headings, namely thinking, and
ating different alternatives and choosing the most memorising for long-term memory.

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SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

[Link] Barriers experienced during tences, to articulate clearly, and often because
thinking they misjudge signs such as body language, voice
Learners with an intellectual impairment may find pitch and facial expressions.
it difficult to effectively use, in the terms of Piaget,
assimilation and accommodation to process new (b) Unsuccessfully directed and undirected
forms of thinking
information (Jooste 1997: 162–194). They often
experience problems such as the following: They often experience difficulty with problem
solving, reasoning, decision making and creative
(a) Ineffective symbolic representation thinking.
Poor problem solving may occur because of
When thinking takes place, symbolic representa-
impulsivity; inaccurate encoding of memory infor-
tions of concrete objects as well as abstract
mation; a slow processing speed; limited working
matters are manipulated “inside our heads”.
memory capacity that makes it difficult to keep
These symbols are images, concepts and lan-
information active long enough to compare, or to
guage, and learners with an intellectual impair-
judge the alternatives and make future projec-
ment may experience problems with all three
tions; a limited processing capacity that does not
kinds of symbols. allow for an extensive and systematic search in
Problems with images are especially obvious the long-term memory for alternatives; and prob-
when images are spatially rotated as in certain lems with divergent thinking when more than one
board games, for example chess. In board games solution is possible. Learners with an intellectual
one can only act after one has visualised the impairment are also quite often unaware that a
impact of several moves on their new positions. problem even exists.
On an abstract level these learners often experi- Ineffective reasoning leading to incorrect
ence problems understanding conditional propo- deductions occurs because they are often unable
sitions like “if … then …”. They tend to have dif- to understand, memorise and apply certain logical
ficulty anticipating problems and planning to rules. Problems with reasoning occur when, for
avoid them. It is often also difficult for them to example, they have to make transitive deductions.
understand cause and effect (causality), which is In this case they have to understand that when A
why they do not always understand the conse- is smaller than B and B is smaller than C, then A is
quences of their actions. also smaller than C. This explains why they find it
Clear concepts are often not formed in addition to difficult to understand the consequences of their
ineffective perceptual differentiation because of actions or to make future projections.
impulsive actions and lack of reflection, as well as Poor decision-making skills often exist because
fleeting, diffuse and superficial attention given to of their difficulty in prioritising between complex
information by these learners (see section 17.8.2). alternatives after an evaluation of the different
Problems with classification and organisation of options. In this case these learners often apply a
information are further stumbling blocks in the trial-and-error approach. Their problems with
formation of concepts that are frequently encoun- divergent thinking, as explained previously, also
tered in these learners. apply to decision making.
Individuals with an intellectual impairment also A problem with creative thinking ability is
experience problems with receptive as well as expres- often found when learners with an intellectual
sive language. Problems with receptive language impairment find it difficult to think of original
are often caused by defective language process- ways to solve problems. However, many examples
ing, poor knowledge of language construction of creative thought and even creative language
rules, or emotional factors such as feelings of expressions have also been found in these learn-
helplessness and powerlessness. Expressive lan- ers in a classroom setting. Humour is also part of
guage problems, on the other hand, are often creative thinking and is not only observable in
aggravated by the inability to understand what abled learners. Persons with an intellectual
other people are saying, to formulate own sen- impairment can also enjoy humour, provided that

396
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

they are able to understand ambiguous meanings new cognitive skills or information is learned, it
and puns. The kind of humour that they can becomes automatic (routinised) in explicit
appreciate depends on their level of cognitive memory when used, often without needing any
development (Bjorklund & Bjorklund 1992). attention.
Humour can also be used effectively in teaching • Implicit memory refers to various procedural
these learners to overcome various thinking prob- skills that have been learned. These memories
lems. function pre-consciously but can be expressed
in observable actions, for example action mem-
(c) Lacking a useful knowledge base (long-
ories used in walking, talking, writing, playing a
term memory)
violin, etc.
A sound knowledge base is needed when infor-
mation is manipulated mentally and if important Learners with an intellectual impairment often
information is lacking, new information cannot experience one or more of the following prob-
easily be assimilated into long-term memory. lems with long-term memory:
(d) Metacognitive problems • They tend to process information more slowly
and make more mistakes, which implies that
These occur when higher-order cognitive control
incorrect information is consequently stored in
processes needed for planning and decision mak-
long-term semantic memory.
ing are not effective. The following problems are
often experienced by learners with an intellectual • They are inclined to store less information in
impairment: (i) they may find it difficult to decide long-term semantic memory, which affects the
what the nature of the problem is that needs to quality of their knowledge base and the even-
be solved; (ii) they may take less time searching tual effectiveness of their actions.
for information, or planning how to approach a • They often find retrieval of information from
task. The search is often done impulsively – semantic memory more difficult because they
unplanned and unsystematic. On the other hand, often lack adequate language proficiency,
they often spend more time in the actual execu- which seems to be an important factor in
tion of the task because it is done on a trial-and- remembering and retrieving information suc-
error basis; (iii) they are often unsuccessful in cessfully (Bebko & Luhaorg 1998: 397).
choosing suitable cognitive strategies for a partic-
ular situation; and (iv) they do not always monitor • These learners find explicit memory tasks diffi-
or evaluate their own progress. cult when controlled effortful processing is
required during the acquisition of information,
[Link] Barriers experienced during or when a choice of effective strategies for a
memorising new situation is required (Bebko & Luhaorg
1998: 397).
For the purposes of this chapter, this section will
focus only on the long-term memory barriers that • They tend to experience problems with episod-
learners with an intellectual impairment may ic memory because they often have problems
experience. Long-term memory consists of two integrating information into a meaningful and
types, namely explicit and implicit memory (Watts comprehensive whole (Tulving 1985: 388).
& Lazarus 2003).
• Explicit memory consists of two subtypes, [Link] Learning support for the elaboration
namely (i) semantic memory – generalised phase of information processing
knowledge and meanings of the world as well The suggestions offered in Tables 17.3 and 17.4
as facts; and (ii) episodic memory – specific are by no means exhaustive. Additional strategies
episodes or events in our personal lives and to improve thinking and memory can be obtained
their meanings, connected with specific dates through own experience, as well as through addi-
or situations (Watts & Lazarus 2003: 362). After tional reading and workshops. In-depth informa-

397
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Table 17.3 Learning support for improving thinking

Definition of the problem Comparison Developing inferential-hypothet-

• Create an atmosphere that • Explain how comparisons are ical thinking
encourages learners to ask made by referring to similarities • Show learners how to arrive at
questions therefore taking as well as to differences. new conclusions through consid-
responsibility for the clarification • Provide enough exercises for ering existing information, e.g. if
of information. comparing various familiar this round shape is a circle, then
• Ensure that the input phase data objects. those round shapes should also
gathering was accurate – return • Explain the criteria to be used in be circles (Skuy 1991b: 46).
to this phase if necessary. comparison, e.g. a colour like
red/green and size like Playing an active role in infor-
• Ask questions to arouse curiosi-
large/small (Skuy 1991b: 34). mation processing
ty in passive learners and
encourage thinking. • Encourage learners to become
Grouping (categorising) active, because learners with an
• Encourage learners to define
intellectual impairment as well
problems clearly by helping • Give exercises that involve the
as learners from a deprived
them to analyse information sys- sorting of different objects
background often see them-
tematically and to think logically according to certain criteria.
selves as passive receivers of
and by breaking problems down information and not as genera-
into smaller units (Skuy 1991b: Internalising events
tors of ideas and solutions to
30). • Gradually move from concrete problems.
• Ensure that learners have the aids to abstraction, e.g. by using • Give all learners the opportunity
necessary vocabulary to under- counters when doing sums and to voice their opinions and
stand concepts focused on by attempting a similar sum without express their ideas, regardless
the teacher. This will facilitate them. of their intellectual ability.
the learning process in learners • Encourage visualisation by
from different cultures, as well allowing learners to “see, feel General aspects
as those with different cognitive and move objects around in their
• Talk throughout the process of
styles. imagination” (Skuy 1991b: 44).
solving a problem in order to
• Help learners to understand model problem-solving process-
concepts like opposite, similar, Understanding space and time es to learners (Skuy 1991b: 8).
different, as they are tools for • Effective spatial/time orientation • Give learners a plan or model
thinking. This will also promote is a precondition for effective that specifies the steps to apply
the communication of insights, thinking. Concepts like left and to problem-solving tasks. Also
ideas, answers or solutions. right; in front of and behind; on demonstrate the value of using
• Develop object constancy: pro- top of and underneath are all rel- this model in different problem-
mote understanding of the char- evant and must be understood solving situations (Skuy 1991b:
acteristics of an object even clearly. 8).
when it changes its physical ori- • Encourage understanding of • Allow learners to evaluate their
entation or abstract characteris- relationships between objects, own efforts and to correct their
tics. people and events regarding own errors.
• Teach learners how to gener- sequence, distance, closeness,
• Give immediate feedback
alise but also how to discrimi- importance, etc.
regarding incorrect as well as
nate (distinguish between char- • Learners with an intellectual correct responses and explain
acteristics when that is appropri- impairment can easily see the reasons why they are correct
ate). objects or events discretely with- or incorrect (Skuy 1991b: 8).
out any connection to other
• Show learners how to plan
Selecting relevant cues objects or events and also with-
ahead and evaluate their plans
out any relation to anything in
• Encourage “purposeful percep- in terms of ability and time (Skuy
the past or future. This leads to
tion” – to observe items with the 1991b: 50).
a passive attitude towards own
specific aim of discriminating experiences. These will not be • Also applicable here are support
(distinguishing) between them in organised or compared to any activities to improve attention
order to discard irrelevant items previous experiences and will (see Table 17.2).
(Skuy 1991b: 32). eventually not be placed in a • Ensure that interaction between
• Teach learners how to search meaningful context or improved the learner and the teacher is a
for and discover relationships upon (reduced ability to learn mediated learning experience
between bits of information. from previous mistakes). (see section 17.6.2).

398
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

Table 17.4 Learning support for improv-

ing memory Nomsa finds it difficult to remember
what she has learned the previous day.

ACTIVITY
• Ensure that interaction between the learner and What kind of strategies are you going to
the teacher is a mediated learning experience suggest for improving explicit long-term
(see section 17.6.2). memory? (See [Link] and Table 17.4:
• Ensure that proper learning support is given to Learning support for improving
learners with regard to paying attention (working memory.)
memory) (see [Link]). This will help them to
establish a reliable knowledge base (long-term
memory) from which they can withdraw informa-
tion when needed. 17.8.4 The output phase of information
• Develop a language proficiency level that is processing
needed to enhance memory function.
When information processing in previous phases
• Develop strategies like grouping, organisation,
association, elaboration and spontaneous verbal
has been successfully achieved, the answers given
rehearsal. or tasks completed will be correct and make
• Alternative communication strategies, e.g. picture sense, unless learners experience problems
symbols, can be used to strengthen memory expressing themselves or putting thoughts into
functions. Symbols can more easily be trans- action.
ferred to long-term memory by various sensory
channel rehearsal strategies than words can
(Bowler 1991). [Link] Barriers experienced during
• Motivate learners by showing them that they are communicating (language) and other
capable of remembering and that by using suit- actions
able memory strategies they have an even better
chance of remembering. The problems often experienced by learners with
• Encourage learners to play memory games, e.g. an intellectual impairment are well researched
show them a variety of pictures and ask them to (Fowler 1998; Tager-Flushberg & Sullivan 1998). It
recall them after a certain time lapse, or ask has been found that both receptive and expres-
them to recall what happened to them during the
school holidays.
sive language are often impaired in these learn-
ers, resulting in faulty cognition. On the other
hand, an inadequate knowledge base (long-term
memory) and poor cognitive processing have a
tion can be obtained from the original sources: detrimental impact on language development,
Bendixen (2002), Feuerstein et al. (1980: 74–103),
creating a vicious circle (Abbeduto & Nuccio 1991:
Jooste (1997: 121–214), Perold (1995), Skuy
143–149).
(1991a), Skuy (1997), Watts and Lazarus (2003:
All the sentences that learners hear are new or
365–371) and Winkler et al. (1998: 8–11).
unfamiliar in some way to them, which implies
that the meaning will have to be worked out anew
Geraldine could not sort pictures of by them. In order to understand verbal communi-
fruit and vegetables into their respec- cation, the listener often has to guess or predict
tive categories. Why is this difficult for the meaning. Owing to the many cognitive prob-
her? Has she formed a clear concept of lems already explained, learners with an intellec-
what fruit and vegetables are? (See tual impairment often find attributing meaning to
ACTIVITY

[Link](a)) How would you help her (i) sentences, instructions and discussions a chal-
to select relevant cues, to make com- lenging task.
parisons and to group into one catego-
They, however, do understand many of the
ry those pictures of objects that belong
events around them, even though they are unable
together, and (ii) remember how to do
it? (See learning support for improving to talk about them. Sinason (1993: 3) argues that
(i) thinking (Table 17.3) and (ii) memory persons with an intellectual impairment are too
(Table 17.4).) often regarded as people that do not have valu-
able ideas of their own and therefore they “give

399
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

up the exhausting and unequal struggle for com-

munication and keep their thoughts locked up in Both Tshipa and Nomsa find it difficult

ACTIVITY
their heads forever”. This explains why people to express themselves in the language
with an intellectual impairment appear to be slow used in the classroom because it is their
at using expressive language. These researchers second language. How can you support
them? (See Table 17.5: Learning sup-
also strongly emphasise that language develop-
port for improving communication.)
ment programmes should rather focus on lan-
guage processing and not only on enlarging the
child’s vocabulary.
17.9 CONCLUSION
[Link] Learning support for the output Learners with an intellectual impairment repre-
phase of information processing sent the largest group of learners experiencing
The suggestions offered in Table 17.5 are by no intrinsic barriers to learning. In a country where
means exhaustive. Additional ideas and strategies abject poverty occurs, the prevalence of this
can be obtained through own experience, as well group is even higher than the available interna-
as through further reading and workshops. In- tional figures. These learners face very difficult
depth information can be obtained from the circumstances. Many disabling factors can, how-
original sources: Fenn (1977), Feuerstein et al. ever, be counteracted if teachers equip them-
(1980: 74–103), Jooste (1997: 121–124), Skuy selves with appropriate knowledge and mediation
(1991b), Skuy (1995), Skuy (1997), Watts and skills to support these learners, and reflect seri-
Lazarus (2003: 355–380) and Winkler et al. (1998: ously on their attitudes towards them and on
8–11). their teaching methods.

Table 17.5 Learning support for improving communication

• Ensure that interaction between learner and teacher is a mediated learning experience (see 17.6.2)
• Encourage learners to express their thoughts and ideas without the teacher being judgemental about their
expressions.
• Encourage discussions on a variety of topics in order to build their confidence.
• Determine their competence in the language of instruction. Also accommodate their home language in com-
munication (see Chapters 7 & 8).
• After the learner has demonstrated some progress in communication, use language that is on a slightly high-
er level than that of the learner in order to encourage language development when addressing a particular
learner.
• State the same idea in different ways.
• Reduce the length and complexity of material by making it simpler and shorter.
• Provide concrete material, e.g. illustrations, charts, drama, etc., to explain, reinforce and elaborate on verbal
information in discussions.
• Give accurate labels to concepts and use them regularly to reinforce their accurate use. Expect learners to
use these concepts as well.
• Relate concepts to the everyday experiences of the particular learner.
• Encourage active discussion and questions during the presentation of information and material.
• Relate unknown words to learners’ own vocabulary and encourage them to think and discuss their meanings
in different contexts.
• Ensure that all information is age and culture appropriate and present it in a meaningful context related to lan-
guage proficiency level.
• Encourage learners to listen for meaning by asking questions and ensuring that they understand the meaning
intended by the speaker, or ask for clarification to determine the perceptual accuracy of the meaning.
• Develop language comprehension by explaining what the nature of categories, analogies and ambiguities
are.
• Focus more on language processing and not only on enlarging the learner’s vocabulary.

400
 INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT 17

Questions – What may have possibly gone wrong in the

elaboration phase?
1. Decide if the following statements are true or
– What may have possibly gone wrong in the
false: output phase?
(a) If a learner finds understanding the teacher
in the usual classroom setting a difficult Based on your previous decisions, what
task, the problem lies mostly within the learning support can be offered in every
learner. True/False phase?
(b) My knowledge and understanding of learn- 3. Design a learner support plan for Johhy and
ers with an intellectual impairment will Tshipa. Keep in mind that there can be vari-
have a crucial impact on my functioning as ous acceptable support plans for a learner.
a teacher for them. True/False Think carefully before deciding on the best
(c) The way I define my role as a teacher has possible lesson plan for Tshipa and Johnny,
relatively little impact on the way I teach based on the principles that you have learned.
learners with an intellectual impairment. Discuss your ideas with other students in your
True/False study group and evaluate each other’s lesson
(d) Learners with intellectual impairment are plans.
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and strategies in the classroom: a teacher’s workshop Tulving, E. 1985. How many memory systems are there?
manual. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, American Psychologist, 40(4): 385–398.
Division of Specialised Education. Wahlström, J. 1990. Gene map of mental retardation.
Robinson, N.M. & Robinson, H.B. 1976. The mentally Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 34: 11–27.
retarded child, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Watts, A.D. & Lazarus, T. 2003. Cognitive processes:
Simeonsson, R. J. 1983. Developmental processes. In memory, thinking and language. In Nicholas, L. (Ed.),
Matson, J.L. & Mulick J.A. (Eds), Handbook of mental Introduction to psychology. Lansdowne: UCT Press,
retardation. New York: Pergamon Press. 355–384.
Simeonsson, R.J., Monson, L.B. & Blacher, J. 1984. Werner, D. 1988. Disabled village children: a guide for
Social understanding in mental retardation. In Brooks, community health workers, rehabilitation workers, and
P.H., Sperber, R. & McCauley, C. (Eds), Learning and cog- families. Palo Alto, CA: The Hesperian Foundation.
nition in the mentally retarded. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Widaman, K.F., Macmillan, D.L., Hemsley, R.E., Little,
Simonoff, E., Bolton, P. & Rutter, M. 1998. Genetic per- T.D. & Balow, I.H. 1992. Differences in adolescents’ self-
spectives on mental retardation. In Burack, R.J., Hodapp, concept as a function of academic level, ethnicity, and
R.M. & Zigler, E. (Eds), Handbook of mental retardation gender. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96(4):
and development. New York: Cambridge University Press. 387–404.
Sinason, V. 1993. Mental handicap and the human condi- Winkler, G., Modise, M. & Dawber, A. 1998. All children
tion: new approaches from the Tavistock. London: Free can learn: a South African handbook on teaching children
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Skuy, M. & Partington, H. 1990. Special education in Winship, W.S. 2003. Handbook of genetic and congenital
South Africa. International Journal of Disability, Develop- syndromes. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
ment and Education, 37(2): 149–157. Wolpert, G. 2001. What general educators have to say
Skuy, M. (Ed.). 1991b. Volume 1: Mediated learning expe- about successfully including students with Down syn-
rience: working manual. Johannesburg: University of the drome in their classes. Journal of Research in Childhood
Witwatersrand, Division of Specialised Education. Education, 16(1): 28–38.

403
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Zigler, E. 1982. Developmental versus difference theories. Answers to questions

In Zigler, E. & Balla, D. (Eds), Mental retardation: the
developmental-difference controversy. Hillsdale, NJ: Erl- 1.(a) False
baum.
(b) True
Zigler, E. & Balla, D. (Eds). 1982. Mental retardation: the
developmental-difference controversy. Hillsdale, NJ: Erl-
(c) False
baum. (d) True

404
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE 18
DISABILITIES

KITTY UYS

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πidentify the incidence of severe and/or multiple disabilities in South
Africa
Πdefine severe and multiple disabilities, know the differences and
similarities between the two population groups, and know the two
major classification systems for disability
Πidentify and describe the characteristics of learners with severe and/or
multiple disabilities
Πdiscuss how active participation of all learners could be facilitated in
the classroom
Πdiscuss how different learning styles and teaching strategies can
support active participation of all learners in the classroom.

Key terms became worried as he did not follow the same

developmental stages as his siblings. She was
severe disability ♦ multiple disabilities ♦ teaching eventually encouraged to put Kagiso into a spe-
strategies ♦ adaptation cial school as he was totally dependent but indi-
cated a willingness to learn.
Kagiso started off in a special school for the
CASE STUDY 1 first year of school, where he obtained a wheel-
chair for the first time; however, Kagiso had
Kagiso already developed contractures in his lower and
Kagiso is an 8-year-old boy with cerebral palsy, upper limbs. As his mother did not learn how to
visual impairments and epilepsy which is not handle him better from the school as it was too
under control. He presents with high muscle tone far away, she decided to place him in the neigh-
and cannot move into different positions. He is in bourhood school. Kagiso’s siblings attend the
a wheelchair, but does not have the ability to pro- same school and they take him to school and
pel himself forward. back.
He was born at a teaching hospital by Cae- The mother hears from Kagiso’s siblings that
sarean section because of foetal distress. The he spends his days sitting in his wheelchair at the
medical staff told the mother that her son would back of the classroom and that little or no atten-
be “slow”. This did not make sense to her as she tion is given to him. Two classmates push him
thought her child would get better with time. out to the playgrounds during break, but do not
However, as Kagiso grew older, his mother play with him because he cannot join in their

405
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

activities, like playing soccer. Kagiso’s mother needed more individual attention, a teacher
says he is getting depressed in this school as he assistant was employed, not only for Mike but
is becoming more withdrawn. At a school meet- also to assist the other learners while the teacher
ing, Kagiso’s teacher explains that she does not was busy teaching Mike individually. Because his
know how to help Kagiso to participate as he peers accepted him, they also accepted this new
cannot write and she does not understand him setback and helped Mike by occasionally read-
when he speaks. The teacher is becoming anx- ing the learning material to him when he became
ious and frustrated about the situation. tired.

CASE STUDY 2 18.1 INTRODUCTION

Mike At the dawn of the new millennium, it was esti-
Mike was born with Usher syndrome. Immediate-
mated that 80 per cent of all individuals with dis-
ly after birth, the doctor diagnosed a sensory abilities live either in Africa or Asia (Iwakuma &
neural hearing loss. He was fitted with hearing Nussbaum 2000). Although this figure is distress-
aids after six weeks. He received all the interven- ing, it is unfortunate that statements such as this
tion needed to develop as a normal child. As his are made while there is still so much controversy
residual hearing was enough to learn to speak, about exactly what severe and/or multiple disabil-
his parents insisted on auditory training and ities really are. Not unexpectedly, defining disabil-
amplification. By school-going age he could ity is not an easy task and many different defini-
communicate with other people. After long con- tions highlighting different aspects associated
versations with the district-based support team, with disability (e.g. medical, social, political, etc.)
his parents decided to put him in a newly estab-
have been used in the past.
lished full-service school in their neighbourhood.
Although he initially struggled to socialise with
In earlier times a medical model was proposed
the other learners and to recognise that he is not which defined health as the absence of disease
the sole receiver of the teacher’s attention, he (Slajmer-Japeli 1995) and disability as a perma-
quickly learned his responsibilities towards par- nent biological impairment, which put individuals
ticipation in classroom activities. with disabilities in a less favourable position than
When Mike was nine years old, his parents and those who could recover from illness; therefore
teachers realised that his vision was also deteri- the problem to be addressed is situated within
orating. Although he was sitting in the front of the the individual. As expected, the medical model of
classroom, he could not see the writing on the disability did not bode well for those who were
chalkboard or the images on the overhead pro-
permanently disabled with conditions that cannot
jector screen any more. The ophthalmologist
be modified or changed (e.g. those with severe
diagnosed deteriorating retinitis pigmentosa and
recommended that Mike should be taught Braille intellectual impairment).
immediately to open up new modes of communi- This made way for the social model of disabili-
cation. Mike and his parents found it very difficult ty, which defines health as a human condition
to accept this new obstacle that could prevent which is the result of social, economic and politi-
him from accessing the learning material. cal development (Thomas 1999), and disability is
The district-based support team recommend- seen as an internal condition which is not neces-
ed transfer to the nearest special school where sarily undesirable or in need of remediation. This
all the facilities and expertise for learners with model sees the incapacity to function as related
multiple disabilities are available. However, Mike to a disability-hostile environment in which barri-
and his parents were not ready for this move. In
ers clash with personal choice. Rather than
collaboration with the district-based support
attempting to change or “fix” the individual with
team, the Braille specialist from the special
school was transferred to the full-service school the disability, a social model of disability aims to
until Mike could cope on his own with Braille. remove societal or environmental barriers in
Speech reading also became increasingly diffi- order to facilitate the full development of the
cult, so finger and hand spelling became the individual’s social, physical, vocational and belief
mode for receptive communication. As Mike systems.

406
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

18.2 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF on the other hand, refers to concomitant impair-
SEVERE AND/OR MULTIPLE ments, the combination of which causes such
DISABILITIES severe educational problems that they cannot be
Individuals with severe and/or multiple disabilities accommodated in special programmes solely for
have also been commonly referred to as “severely one of the impairments. From these definitions it
disabled”. The following definition of severe becomes clear that while there are differences
and/or multiple disabilities is provided by Orelove between severe and multiple disabilities, there
and Sobsey (1996: 1): are also so many similarities that, in discussing
Children with multiple disabilities are individu- the education of these learners, both forms can
als with be accommodated.
The World Health Organization’s classification
1. “mental retardation requiring extensive or per-
system, the International Classification of Func-
vasive supports, and
tioning, Disability and Health (ICF), is also an
2. one or more significant motor or sensory attempt to highlight the barriers these children
impairments and/or special health care needs”. experience to participating in activities presented
on a daily basis. Another definition provided by
Such a definition makes it clear that this popula- TASH (The Association for Persons with Severe
tion has a combination of physical, psychological, Handicaps) emphasises the amount of support
medical, educational and social-emotional needs. required by these individuals. The ICF and TASH
According to Orelove and Sobsey (1996) and attempt to define disabilities respectively accord-
Westling and Fox (2000), individuals with multiple ing to levels of functioning and necessary support
disabilities have intellectual impairment (severe needed. These two systems of defining and classi-
to profound), as well as one or more significant fying disability will now be discussed.
motor and/or sensory impairments or special
health needs. It is documented that two out of
every five children with severe and/or multiple 18.2.1 International Classification of
Functioning, Disability and
disabilities will have a sensory impairment (Sob-
Health (ICF)
sey & Wolf-Schein 1991). The term “severe dis-
abilities” is defined somewhat differently by dif- The World Health Organization made an effort to
ferent people. An individual with a severe disabil- standardise internationally used terminology to
ity is often challenged by learning, personal and classify individuals with disabilities. The ICF,
social skills, and/or sensory and physical develop- which was endorsed in May 2001 (WHO 1999),
ment (Westling & Fox 2000). The individual’s conceptualises disability as occurring at three lev-
health condition impacts on his ability to be inde- els of functioning. This functional outcome is a
pendent in activities of daily living (i.e. eating, result of interaction between the individual with a
dressing, grooming, mobility, bathing and com- health condition and the environment. “Health
munication). condition” is an umbrella term for a disease, dis-
From the above it is evident that defining these order, injury or trauma that can be temporary,
terms is no easy task. However, it becomes clear permanent, intermittent, progressive or merely
that the term “severe” refers to the extent of the perceived to be present, including physical and/or
impairment. This is presented in Figure 18.1 mental problems, which is not coded in the ICF.
where disability can range from minimal to pro- The WHO’s International Classification of Dis-
found. eases (ICD-10) is used for this purpose.
Severe disability can thus refer to single or mul- The WHO uses “functioning” as the encompass-
tiple problems. The term “multiple disabilities”, ing term to indicate positive aspects at three lev-
els of functioning, i.e. body functioning and struc-
Minimal Profound ture, activity and participation. The term “disabil-
involvement involvement ity” is the term for the problems experienced at
all three levels (WHO 2003). Disability is thus seen
Figure 18.1 Severity scale

407
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

as a multidimensional phenomenon resulting individuals of all ages who require extensive

from the impaired interaction between the indi- ongoing support in more than one major life
vidual and the environment (Bornman 2004). A activity in order to participate in integrated
graphic presentation of the ICF is given in Figure community settings and enjoy a quality of
18.2. life that is available to citizens with fewer or
no disabilities. Support may be required for
Health condition
(disorder or disease)
life activities such as mobility, communica-
tion, self-care, and learning as necessary for
independent living, employment and self-
sufficiency (Meyer et al. 1991: 19).

Body function Activity Participation The severely disabled population is heteroge-

and structure neous and therefore the levels of support
required to meet the needs vary. Instead of using
the traditional classification system for intellectu-
al impairment (mild, moderate, severe and pro-
Environmental Personal
found), TASH rather defines four levels of support
factors factors
necessary for the integration of the person into
the community, i.e. intermittent, limited, exten-
Figure 18.2 Graphic presentation of the
sive and pervasive. Although the type of support
ICF Model
varies across individuals, it also varies across the
Source: WHO 2003. Reprinted with the permission of the
World Health Organization (WHO). All rights reserved. different skills areas impacting on independent
living, such as communication skills and self-help
Figure 18.2 indicates the interaction between skills. Support should be seen as ongoing in
the health condition and the environmental and nature and the level of support may change over
personal factors, which results in functioning or the individual’s lifespan.
disability at one or more of the three levels. The ICF and TASH respectively focus on individ-
Environmental factors refer to the physical, uals’ levels of functioning and levels of support in
social and attitudinal environments in which peo- order to maximise their potential. These two con-
ple live and conduct their lives. These are struc- cepts are closely related and educators should
tured from the immediate environment (e.g. a acquire sensitivity for learners with severe disabil-
wheelchair) to the general environment (e.g. ities’ level of functioning so that the necessary
national policies on inclusive education) (Born- support can be provided in the classroom context
man 2004). Personal factors, on the other hand, in order for these learners to function optimally.
refer to the features of the individual that may Different ways of adapting the external environ-
have an impact on the experience of disability, ment to maximise the learner’s potential will be
and include gender, age, other health conditions, discussed later in this chapter.
fitness, lifestyle, habits, coping styles, social back-
ground, education, past and current experience, 18.3 INCIDENCE
overall behaviour patterns, individual psychologi-
Referring to Iwakuma and Nussbaum’s (2000)
cal assets and other characteristics.
statement quoted earlier that 80 per cent of all
individuals with disabilities live in either Africa or
18.2.2 The Association for Persons with Asia, it is necessary to identify and differentiate
Severe Handicaps (TASH) persons with multiple disabilities to be found in
The Association for Persons with Severe Handi- South Africa. Figure 18.3 presents the percent-
caps (TASH) defines severe disability by focusing ages of disability according to the population cen-
on the necessary support needed by an individual sus of 2001 (Statistics South Africa 2004).
in more than one major life activity. According to Respondents classified 5 per cent of the popu-
TASH, persons with severe disabilities include lation as having a serious disability, preventing

408
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

5
5

4
Percentage

2
1.3 1.2
1 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5
0.2
0
g
ht

al

le

al

al
a

r in

tio
ic

tip

tu

t
g

To
io
Si

ys

ea

a
ul
ot

lle

ic
Ph

M
H

un
Em

te
In

m
om
Type of disability

C
Figure 18.3 Prevalence of disability in South Africa
Source: Statistics South Africa 2004

full participation in life activities, for example, in the classroom context so that learners with
the educational, work and social spheres. The severe and/or multiple disabilities can learn at
population of individuals with multiple disabilities their own rate in the classroom.
comprise 0,6 per cent of the total population of
all people with disabilities in South Africa. It is
18.4 CAUSES
well documented that there is an increase of
severe and/or multiple disabilities (Mulligan-Ault It is not always possible to determine the aetiolo-
et al. 1988; Thompson & Guess 1989). The reason gy of developmental disabilities. We can, how-
may be two-fold. With the improvement of med- ever, assign causes of developmental disabilities
ical technology and care, there is a decrease in the into two categories, i.e. physiological and envi-
mortality rate at birth, which means that more ronmental. The physiological causes of the condi-
learners at risk survive, increasing the prevalence tions interact with the child’s environment to
of subsequent disabilities. The second reason is aggravate, correct or compensate for the prob-
the total increase in the population worldwide, lem. Therefore, we should always view a child
resulting in a proportionate increase of individu- with a disability holistically, as the environmental
als with disabilities. factors can also contribute to the outcome of the
This growing population of learners with severe condition. Table 18.1 gives an overview of the
and/or multiple disabilities presents an immense most common conditions that educators may
challenge to professionals who are responsible come across in schools.
for their education. As already mentioned, these Although it is important to recognise a specific
learners often are involved in various therapeutic disability a child might have (e.g. cerebral palsy),
interventions (e.g. occupational therapy, speech it is more important to understand the effect the
therapy, physiotherapy) but in the educational disability has on his ability to learn and adapt. In
system it becomes important that the role of ther- the framework of the social model the emphasis
apy should be to facilitate and not to replace edu- now falls on recognising and developing strengths
cation. The Integrated National Disability Strategy and capabilities in a child and not only focusing
(INDS) (2004) states that all learners have the right on the inabilities, challenges and areas of weak-
to education. The challenge lies in how to adapt ness.

409
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Table 18.1 Description of most common conditions

Condition Involvement Effect

A. Genetic factors
(i) Chromosomal errors

Down syndrome Extra chromosome 21 Cognitive impairment (mild to severe), defective

material heart structure, nystagmus (involuntary movement
of the eyes), facial dysmorphism (Bellenir 1996)

Fragile X syndrome “Fragile” site on the X Cognitive impairment (moderate to profound),

chromosome (less severe autistic behaviour, deficits in visual-spatial
in females) perception, speech and language deficits, poor
attention and short-term memory, facial
dysmorphism (Bellenir 1996)

Prader-Willi syndrome Genetic abnormality of Hypotonia (reduced tone in skeletal muscles),

chromosome 15 cognitive impairment, obsession with food and
eating, hypogonadism (diminished sexual
development) (Bellenir 1996)

Angelman syndrome Genetic abnormality of Severe cognitive impairments, ataxia

chromosome 15, (uncoordinated muscular activity), little or no
neurogenetic disorder functional speech, seizures, inappropriate laughter

(ii) Other genetic factors

Hearing loss and progressive loss of vision from

Usher syndrome
retinitis pigmentosa (RP), balance problems

De Toni-Fanconi Impairment in the Growth failure, decreased and abnormal bone

syndrome proximal tubular function mineralisation (osteomalacia), dehydration
of the kidneys, causing
certain compounds to be
excreted in the urine
instead of being absorbed

CHARGE syndrome C - Coloboma A cleft or keyhole-shaped defect occurring in one or

(Brown 1996; Moss s.a.) more areas of the eye including the iris, retina or
lens.
H – Heart defects Including defects of the cardiac arteries and
ventricles
A – Atresia of the Closure of the passages from the back of the nose to
choanae the throat which allow breathing through the nose
R – Retarded growth Usually manifests when the child is older; growth is
usually retarded by one third
G – Genital anomalies Incomplete or underdevelopment of male sexual
organs; in girls the labia may be small or even
absent
E – Ear malformations May occur in the outer ear, the middle ear
(misshapen ossicles) and the inner ear; conductive
or sensory hearing loss, or both (mixed hearing loss)
may occur

Rett syndrome Neurodegenerative

Cognitive impairment; growth retardation – apparent
disorder (exclusively in
normal development until age 6–18 months, after
females)
which motor skills, social integration and speech and
language stagnate, and autistic behaviour, seizures
and curvature of the spine develop (Bellenir 1996)
@

410
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

Table 18.1 Continued

Condition Involvement Effect

(iii) Metabolic errors

Sickle-cell anaemia Abnormal red blood cells Poor delivery of oxygen to the tissues and
which clog blood vessels organs; abnormal red blood cells are easily
destroyed and this results in chronic pain in
joints; can cause organ damage or a stroke,
visual problems (Bellenir 1996)

Galacrosemia Galactose (sugar) increase in Cognitive impairment, cataracts, liver disease

the blood (Bellenir 1996)

Phenylketonuria (PKU) Abnormal metabolism, too If not treated soon after birth – cognitive
much phenylalanine impairment, seizures, excessive restlessness,
irritable behaviour, musty body odour (Bellenir
1996)

B. Other factors (pre-, peri- and postnatal)

Rubella (German When the mother is infected Deafness is most common; eye defects, i.e.
measles) with the rubella virus before cataracts, glaucoma; cardiac defects
20 weeks of gestation, the
baby’s vital organs can be
affected.

When the mother’s Rh factor Antibodies attack the baby’s blood, causing
Rhesus (Rh) factor
is negative and the father’s breakdown of red blood cells. Anaemia will
incompatibility
Rh factor is positive, the develop which can cause brain damage,
baby’s Rh factor would be resulting in neurological impairments.
positive. When blood of the
baby enters the mother’s
system, she creates
antibodies against the Rh
positive factor.

Low energy levels, impact on growth

Weight loss due to limited
Malnutrition development, psychological problems, e.g.
intake of proteins
irritability, poor concentration

HIV (Human Virus responsible for the In South Africa 40% of HIV-infected infants have
immunodeficiency virus) gradual deterioration and developmental delays (Potterton & Eales 2001);
Aids (Acquired immune disintegration of the cellular psychological and neurological impairments
deficiency syndrome) immune system (Cusack et al. develop later
1990)

Cerebral hypoxia A decrease of oxygen supply Brain cells die within five minutes without
to the brain even though there oxygen, which may result in seizures,
is adequate blood flow. This psychological and/or neurological impairments
occurs due to drowning, (Bellenir 1996)
strangulation, choking,
suffocation, head trauma, etc.

Foetal alcohol syndrome Damage to a developing May present with developing disabilities, e.g.
foetus due to the consumption intellectual impairment, learning and physical
of alcohol (or drugs) by the disabilities, attention deficits and impulsivity
mother (Burgess & Streissguth 1992)

Traumatic brain injury Damage to the brain by an Impairment of cognitive abilities or physical
(TBI) external force (not of functioning, leading to functional disabilities
degenerative or congenital and/or psychosocial maladjustment (National
nature) Head Injury Foundation 1985)

411
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Educators should be aware of the advantages cantly more difficulty learning than their typically
and disadvantages of using diagnostic categories developing peers (Westling & Fox 2000).
for learners in their classrooms. The advantage of According to the definition of severe and/or
a diagnosis according to the medical model is that multiple disabilities, these learners will have two
the appropriate medical treatment for the condi- or more of the following characteristics.
tion can be implemented. The advantage of diag-
nosing according to the social model becomes 18.5.1 Ability to learn
clear in the classroom context as such a diagnosis
These learners tend to learn new skills and
will enable the teacher to view the functioning
acquire new information much more slowly than
child as a holistic being in a social context. How-
the average learner. Their intellectual functioning
ever, a diagnosis can easily lead to labelling learn-
usually keeps pace with physical growth as learn-
ers with disabilities where the focus then falls on
ing and experience go hand in hand (Steenkamp &
the generic disability and not on individuals with
Steenkamp 1992). General development therefore
their own strengths and weaknesses. Labels often
is much slower and more limited and would
produce negative attitudes and this might not
impact on the time required in the classroom to
only cause the educator to overlook the hidden
learn new skills. These learners learn best by imi-
potential of the learner, but also to expect too lit-
tation, demonstrations, continual practice of
tle from the learner during classroom activities.
skills and unambiguous feedback (Uys 2003) but
Traditionally there are a few conditions that
not so much from observations and incidental
have been associated with severe and/or multiple
learning (Westling & Fox 2000). They need con-
disabilities. A brief description of some of the
siderably more time to practise skills before they
most commonly found ones are presented in the
become habitual, and without constant stimula-
next section.
tion they tend to forget newly learnt behaviours,
i.e. after school holidays it seems as if these learn-
18.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS ers’ performance has declined.
WHO ARE SEVERELY AND/OR
MULTIPLY DISABLED 18.5.2 Cognition
Learners with severe and/or multiple disabilities The sensorimotor experience of a young learner
are a heterogeneous group presenting with provides the underlying information which facili-
diverse characteristics, abilities and challenges tates the interrelated development with other
and therefore having different needs. Their prob- domains, i.e. perception, cognition and language
lems differ both qualitatively and quantitatively. (Dunn 1996: 36). The ability to acquire knowledge
However, there are similarities, and knowledge through perception, grouping, analysis, synthesis
about the characteristics of these learners will and memorising may be impaired in the learner
increase our understanding of how to address with multiple disabilities, who develops much
them for optimal development and functioning of more slowly than the typically developing learner.
the learner. Although there are advantages to His perceptions are often distorted and therefore
understanding learners with disabilities, it is he might experience difficulties in learning what
always dangerous to label and concentrate only particular characteristic gives meaning to an
on their challenges and disabilities, thereby ignor- object so that the incoming information will fit
ing their strengths and abilities. The intelligence the action of the object. For example, if the learn-
of learners with severe physical disabilities and/or er is presented with a watering-can, the action of
sensory impairments can range between below to pouring water should be immediately associated
above average. However, the learners with below- with the object. If not, a poor foundation for con-
average cognitive abilities are our concern, cept formation is laid and this can result in impov-
because they need greater intervention and spe- erished conceptualisation. This explains why this
cial adaptation in the classroom. Learners with learner will tend to rely on others for solving
severe and/or multiple disabilities have signifi- problems. Problems are observed in all areas of

412
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

perceptual development, i.e. basic visual percep- genital syndromes such as, inter alia, Usher syn-
tual skills, spatial orientation, figure-ground and drome, De Toni-Fanconi syndrome, CHARGE syn-
form constancy, impacting directly on academic drome, and Laurence-Moon-Biedl-Bardet syn-
performance. drome. Usually the child may be born with either
a hearing impairment (Usher syndrome) or a visu-
18.5.3 Physical al impairment but may develop a visual impair-
ment (retinitis pigmentosa in the case of Usher
Problems in this area are widespread and include
syndrome) or a hearing impairment after birth.
poor fine and gross coordination, hyperactivity or
Vision and hearing are both called the distance
hypo-activity, poor balance, disturbances of body
senses because they enable people to receive
image and body scheme, and a tendency to tire
information from a distance (e.g. one does not
easily (emotionally and physically). The clinical
have to be near a car to see or hear it coming).
picture portrays a wide range of motor abilities,
Learners with multi-sensory impairments are at a
from being a clumsy learner (intellectual impair-
disadvantage to use their distance senses to
ment) to having severe motor impairment leaving
receive information. Multi-sensory impairment
the learner with few functional movements (i.e.
therefore alters the way in which a person
cerebral palsy or spina bifida). Other physical
receives and sends information, and interacts
problems may include the cardiovascular, respira-
with the social and physical environment (Mur-
tory and gastrointestinal systems. (Refer to Chap-
doch 1997: 356).
ter 13C to see the impact of abnormal muscle
tone on these systems). When a learner has a
physical disability, energy is used to “survive” the Please read Chapter 14 on visual
disability and not for academic learning. Imagine impairment and Chapter 15 on hearing
that you are a learner with muscular dystrophy impairment. Draw up a table with three
columns and write at least five learning-
and poor balance. All your energy and concentra-
related needs unique to learners with
tion are focused on maintaining your balance on
visual impairments in the first column,
the chair and on not falling off. You will have no to learners with hearing impairments in
ACTIVITY

residual energy to concentrate on academic activ- the second column, and to learners
ities in the classroom. who are deaf-blind in the last column.
See the example below:
18.5.4 Sensory
Learners Learners Learners
Another term that is used for deaf-blindness is with visual with hearing who are
multi-sensory impairment. This name indicates impairments impairments deaf-blind
that a person may have the loss or impairment of Communicate Communicate Communicate
more than one of his senses, the most common mainly by mainly by mainly by
being deaf-blindness. Although deaf-blindness means of means of means of
hearing vision touch
may indicate a total loss of hearing as well as
sight, fortunately it is relatively uncommon for
learners to exhibit both total deafness and total
blindness (Sacks & Silberman 1998: 29). Usually From the table it will be clear that deaf-blindness
these learners exhibit varying levels of hearing causes learners to be cut off from other humans,
and visual loss. Other impairments, such as intel- except if people consciously make an effort to
lectual and physical ones, may accompany deaf- establish communication with them. Chen and
blindness. Multi-sensory impairments are, there- Haney (1995: 25) summarise the devastating
fore, a heterogeneous group, which is very diffi- effects of deaf-blindness on a learner’s learning
cult to define (Murdoch 1997: 356). and development as follows:
The most common global cause of deaf-blind- • Reduced mutual interaction with educators
ness is when the mother contracts rubella in the • Backlogs in the acquisition of attachment to
first trimester of pregnancy. Other causes are con- educators

413
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

• Acceptance of a passive role of receiving

• Increasing self-stimulating movements It is always difficult to embrace people
• A reduced repertoire of preverbal communica- with disabilities if one has never been
tive behaviour exposed to understanding this sector
of the population. How would you pre-
pare learners in the classroom for the
18.5.5 Language and communication arrival of the new learner with severe

ACTIVITY
The young child with severe and/or multiple dis- and/or multiple disabilities? You may
abilities thinks in terms of action and images start by introducing the new learner to
rather than language or symbols (Piaget’s pre-con- the class by conveying his strengths,
ceptual phase of cognitive development). This likes and dislikes, and explain how the
class could contribute to making life
implies that the child cannot use language maxi-
easier for the newcomer. Provide
mally in his thinking to replace concrete thought
enough information on the type of dis-
(Burden 1997: 205). Receptive language is influ- ability (or disabilities) the learner has
enced as understanding complex verbal language and give the class time to ask ques-
may be impaired. The child does not readily use tions about it. It may be necessary to
language for thinking or as a mental tool (Burden include some of the other members of
1997: 207). He tends to talk later than typically the school-based support team or even
developing learners, has a very limited and con- district-based support team for assis-
crete vocabulary, and uses simple sentence con- tance.
struction. Poor articulation and voice disorders
are common and these learners usually have little
or no functional speech. (Refer to Chapter 9 for an oping learners because they cannot meet the
in-depth discussion of the impact of severe dis- demands of the activities. This usually manifests
abilities on language development and interven- as a lack of interest or diminished attention (Bur-
tion strategies.) den 1997). Some learners will demonstrate chal-
lenging behaviour (i.e. hand flapping, head bang-
18.5.6 Social behaviour ing, hitting other people), but the cause of these
Learners with severe and/or multiple disabilities types of behaviour is difficult to explain, and it
may have problems with social interaction, includ- may even be used as a form of communication
ing poor conversational skills, egocentricity, poor (i.e. protesting or requesting). (Refer to Chapter
social judgement, inappropriate behaviour, emo- 20 for more information on challenging behav-
tional instability and poor decision-making skills. iour.)
Poor personal habits and appearance have a detri-
mental effect on their social interaction (Kaplan & 18.5.8 Motivation and participation
Sadock 1982). Gaylor-Ross and Peck (1984) found Learners with severe and/or multiple disabilities
in a study that the social interaction between peo- show considerable lack of inner vitality, meaning
ple with and without disabilities only increased that their activity participation level is lower than
after both parties had been taught or prompted average. They lack spontaneity and their creative
to interact. This makes us believe that the best participation is impaired (Pretorius 1997). There
precursors of social interaction are opportunity, should be a direct relationship between the
understanding and common interest (Westing & child’s skills and the demands of the activity – if
Fox 2000). the demands are too high the child will not be
motivated to participate in the learning experi-
18.5.7 Emotional responses ence and will withdraw.
Emotional responses are of short duration and
change readily with poor execution of control. 18.5.9 Memory and concentration
Learners with severe and/or multiple disabilities Memory and concentration are one of the biggest
experience far more anxiety than typically devel- problems in an educational setting because the

414
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

learner with severe and/or multiple disabilities of independence in all self-help activities. The
may experience difficulty in screening unneces- child with severe and/or multiple disabilities is
sary or irrelevant detail and has a short attention usually the one with greater sensorimotor
span and low resistance to distraction, which involvement and therefore tends to stay depend-
imposes strain on the learning process (Pretorius ent on external support to a greater or lesser
1997). Burden (1997) indicates that the lower the extent. This tendency of dependency will exclude
learner’s intellectual ability, the poorer his short- him from many social experiences and expose him
term memory. This might be due to impaired sen- to health hazards if he is unable to perform basic
sory integration and organisation of incoming self-help tasks. An unfortunate consequence of
information. Remembering information that has overprotection or even impatience by the caregiv-
been learned previously presents a challenge to er is that these learners are never required to help
such learners as they have impaired long-term themselves and the phenomenon of learned help-
memory. If skills are not practised and used on a lessness will prevent them from reaching a stage
continual basis, they will be forgotten and usually of independence.
need to be taught again (Westling & Fox 2000).
18.6 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNERS WITH
18.5.10 Self-esteem SEVERE AND/OR MULTIPLE
During the learning process the typically devel- DISABILITIES
oping child experiences the pleasure of mastery Learners with severe and/or multiple disabilities
and the experience of success in activities, which are seen as “untestable” due to the influence of
creates a desire to practise and learn more. This their impairments on their performance and
process is severely hampered in the child with therefore the outcomes from traditional methods
severe and/or multiple disabilities since, from past of assessment, i.e. standardised tests do not
experience, he expects to fail and to be unable to reflect the learners’ actual abilities or progress.
complete tasks. This has a negative impact on his Most of the standardised tests are pen-and-paper
self-esteem. ones and it would be unreasonable to expect a
learner who has difficulty holding a pencil to carry
18.5.11 Self-regulation out such a test. If a learner has a language deficit
he may seem to have a cognitive deficit when
Sensory regulation is the capacity to regulate the
assessed by traditional measures, because a per-
intensity of arousal experienced while remaining
ceived deficit in one developmental domain may
engaged in the interaction of activity. It is the
mask abilities in another area. This may lead to
internal capacity to tolerate sensory stimulation
misinterpretation of the learner’s performance
from the environment and other people. It is the
and ultimately to inappropriate planning for the
senses working together that form a complete
picture of what we are physically, where we are learner’s individual support plan. The use of
and what goes on around us. developmental norms is therefore not appropri-
ate, as learners with severe and/or multiple dis-
Often learners with severe and/or multiple dis-
abilities do not develop in the typical sequence
abilities cannot adapt to changes in the environ-
and some of the skills required are physically
ment and they need a stronger external structure
impossible for them.
to regulate their behaviour. For instance, clinging
to the mother or carrying a favourite object into a The trend is to apply a functional assessment,
variety of social contexts enhances a feeling of which should be activity based, and to do the
security when environmental changes occur. assessment in a natural context as this would
increase the authenticity of the assessment. It
also underscores the idea of focusing not only on
18.5.12 Self-help skills the challenges (inabilities), but also on the capa-
There is a direct relation between the level of bilities (abilities) of the learner. The team, includ-
motivation, sensorimotor limitations and the level ing parents, caregivers, educators and health care

415
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

workers, should select activities that are impor- in the classroom context, rather than in isolation
tant for the learner in his particular context (e.g. in individual therapy sessions. The term “trans-
school). This way they can assess which skills the disciplinary team approach” is used in the medical
learner is able to perform as well as the level of field, but in the educational system the same
his independence. People who are familiar with approach is assumed by the district-based as well
the learner should be included in the initial as the school-based support team. The educator
assessment to observe functional skills and com- would be the person to implement the recom-
prehensively record performance on all develop- mendation after being trained. This shift from
mental domains, namely sensorimotor, cognition, individual specialist interventions to a more inte-
self-care, social-emotional and communication- grative approach supports the practice of educat-
language (Linder 1993). This means that the par- ing learners with severe and/or multiple disabili-
ents or caregivers of the learner should be pres- ties in general education (Giangreco et al. 1997).
ent during the assessment as they can provide For example, a learner with low muscle tone in his
qualitative information to the assessment team. trunk as well as poor vision would tend to fall for-
The most import factor to remember is that the ward during writing activities. The therapist sug-
main purpose of assessment is to establish educa- gests the use of a tilted surface for this learner as
tional goals. A “one size fits all” approach could this would force him to sit in a more upright posi-
not be applied in the assessment of learners with tion which would improve the cardio-respiratory
severe and/or multiple disabilities, and the follow- function and the upper limb function during writ-
ing readings should be considered: Browder, ing, and the learner would have better eye con-
1991; Linder 1993; Kleinert et al. 1997. tact with the educator when being spoken to.
Implementing the therapist’s suggestion in the
teaching situation (collaborative team work) will
According to the definitions provided be of benefit to the learner in different social con-
earlier, Kagiso is a learner with severe texts.
and/or multiple disabilities (see case The use of paraprofessionals is becoming more
study on Kagiso at the beginning of this popular in schools. A paraprofessional is a person
chapter). who enjoys working with learners with disabilities
Please read Chapters 12–17 and and functions as an aide to the teacher in the
ACTIVITY

integrate this knowledge with the

classroom to assist with all the learners. Spe-
abovementioned information as fol-
cialised responsibilities may be assigned to the
lows:
Draw a table with two columns. In
paraprofessional, i.e. to accompany a learner with
the left column, make a list of the chal- severe disabilities throughout the day and assist
lenges Kagiso will experience. In the him with all activities. Although teachers are used
right column, give an indication of how to working alone in the classroom, the benefits of
each challenge will impact on his inde- an assistant outweigh the disadvantages (Mas-
pendent participation in the classroom. tropieri & Scruggs 2004).

18.8 ADAPTING THE CLASSROOM FOR

18.7 COLLABORATIVE TEAM WORK ACTIVE PARTICIPATION
The trans-disciplinary team approach was indicat- The goal of teaching is to ensure that all learners
ed through research to be an effective method of actively participate in the classroom and learn.
managing learners with disabilities and their fam- This implies that the teacher of learners with
ilies. According to this approach all team mem- severe and/or multiple disabilities should imple-
bers will view the learner holistically and regard ment specific strategies so that these learners can
the family as equal partners in the intervention also acquire new skills. To ensure active participa-
team. The different professionals are all involved tion, it is necessary to analyse the different
in the assessment of the learner and make the aspects involved, i.e. the learner, the teacher, the
necessary recommendations to be implemented activity and the method of adaptation. It is only

416
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

not experience success and thus are likely to with-

draw and not participate further. Because of the
learners’ physical limitations and poor coordina-
Child Teacher
tion, it helps during activities to use non-slip mats
and perhaps to have edgings around the working
Active
surface to prevent objects from rolling out of
participa- reach. Selection and adaptation of the activities
tion should match the abilities and needs of the learn-
ers, and each learner should be viewed and treat-
Teaching ed individually. What works for one person does
Activity
strategy not necessarily assist another. For example, one
principle for improvement of attention is multi-
sensory input, as this will keep the learner atten-
tive and interested in the learning process (Mus-
Figure 18.4 Model of active participation
selwhite 1986), but for another learner multi-sen-
sory input could cause over-stimulation resulting
through active participation that a person learns in withdrawal. Sometimes it is necessary to allow
new skills. other learners to do certain steps of the activity
Each one of these plays an important role in the for the learner with severe and/or multiple dis-
outcome to facilitate the learning or acquiring of abilities, e.g. if he cannot fold paper accurately
new skills in the classroom. The school-based sup- after decorating a card, the classmates could be
port team should know the learner’s capabilities of assistance. Activities and any adaptations
and challenges and this can only be obtained after should be safe and durable as these learners can
a thorough assessment. When the areas in which injure themselves on such things as sharp corners.
the learner does not have adequate skills to do Some may have a problem with swallowing or an
activities have been identified, they should be over-production of saliva, so materials should be
analysed, and recommendations should be made. covered in plastic for durability.
The learner with severe and/or multiple disabili-
ties benefits from positive social interactions with
peers and it is therefore suggested that peer sup- 18.8.3 Teaching strategies
port networks, friendship and social circles, and The third area of adaptation is teaching strategies
participation in after-school activities should be in the classroom that form the foundation for
created. education of learners with severe and/or multiple
disabilities. Downing (2002: 22) identified two
18.8.1 The learner “promising” strategies, i.e. cooperative learning
and thematic teaching.
Because learners with severe and/or multiple dis-
Johnson et al. (1993) describe four components
abilities have impaired physical or motor capacity,
of cooperative learning. Positive interdepend-
they are restricted in their movements and their
ence refers to the learners working together to
ability to manipulate objects. There are many
attain a common goal (group projects). Individual
accommodations – both high and low technology
– available to increase active participation in accountability means that each learner has a spe-
activities. The first aspect is effective positioning cific task to fulfil to contribute to the group’s end
(see 18.9.3 for more information). product. Interpersonal and small-group skill
development and group processing refers to a
target social skill that is taught in the class. Per-
18.8.2 The activity formance is then assessed at the end of the class.
The demands of the activities presented to the The last component is face-to-face interactions,
learners should also match their abilities. If the which occur in cooperative groups when learners
demands of the activities are too high, they will are working together on projects. The group com-

417
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

position should be heterogeneous with a mix of for learning, as there are so many influences from
culture, gender and abilities (see Chapter 4). their health conditions on their body functions
Kovalik and Olsen (1992) identified eight com- and structural levels. It is difficult to look past the
ponents that are directly involved in the improve- severity of the condition of the learner as it tends
ment of the performance of learners. These com- to overshadow the potential that is hidden in
ponents are absence of threat, meaning of con- each one. Learners with severe and/or multiple
tent, choices, adequate time, enriched environ- disabilities do have the potential to learn, but this
ment, collaboration, immediate feedback and may not follow the same time span as typically
mastery. King (1978) also added that the person developing learners, and these learners may never
should be actively participating in the activity in reach the same level as their peers. However, we
order for learning to take place. These strategies do have to adapt teaching strategies so that they
support the second teaching strategy, namely the- can reach their optimal potential.
matic teaching. Thematic teaching centres on a Downing (2002), Cohen and Lynch (1991), and
specific theme, is presented in different content Arllen et al. (1996) suggest specific questions a
areas, corresponds to the way learners naturally teacher can ask to determine whether adapta-
learn, allows for greater continuity in the curricu- tions are necessary and which adaptations should
lum and ensures generalisation between different be implemented for each learner:
contexts. This is important for learners with • What are the teaching materials necessary for
severe and/or multiple disabilities as they have the lesson?
difficulty generalising to other environments and • Must the teaching materials be adapted for the
people. learner to be able to participate?
• Where will the lesson be taught, and will the
18.8.4 The educator/teacher learner have access to the environment?
The last component in the equation to ensure • What is the best position for the learner to be
active participation is the teacher who should in during the lesson?
integrate all the above components. Although • Where is the best position for the learner to be
teamwork is always of the utmost importance in in the classroom during the lesson?
the educational system, the importance of the • What is the best learning style for the learner?
teacher is evident in that teaching in the class- • How can the curriculum be adapted so that the
room is the culmination of the input by all other learner will be able to learn?
team members. In the classroom, the implemen- • Would the learner need extra support and if so,
tation of therapeutic strategies will enhance the who would provide it?
learner’s optimal functioning. Teachers therefore • What methods are provided for the learner to
need to be aware of their continuing complex and express himself during the lesson?
evolving role in the classroom. This requires the
teacher, who needs extra training provided by
18.9.1 Learning style
other team members, to be part of the school-
based support team, to trust other team members Learners with severe and/or multiple disabilities
in any recommendations made for each specific have at least one sensory limitation together with
case, to be able to let go of the traditional defini- other disabilities. It is therefore important to
tions of the role of a teacher, and to participate in remember that these learners each have their
an integral team to ensure an increase in per- own distinct way of learning and we should not
formance of each learner in the classroom. work towards making them conform to a specific
learning style, but rather help them to be success-
ful in their unique way.
18.9 ADAPTING TEACHING STRATEGIES
There are, however, general teaching strategies
From the above it seems as if learners with severe that could be implemented to enhance learning in
and/or multiple disabilities do not have potential the classroom:

418
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

• Planning. Carefully identify the outcomes of a slower rate than typically developing learners,
each lesson and include the methods of how modified systems of tracking performance
adaptations should be implemented. should be implemented. If the learner is not
• Time. Learners with severe and/or multiple dis- progressing, changes should be made in the
abilities need more time to process and organ- method of teaching.
ise incoming information. Extra time for prac- • Integrate vocational skills into lessons. Prepa-
tising should be included in the planning of the ration for employment starts at a very early age
lesson. The time of day is also important in and activities should be viewed as pre-voca-
deciding when an activity should be presented. tional training. The long-term goal should
More complex activities should be presented always be on employment, but the necessary
earlier in the day. skills should be incorporated in each lesson.
• Management of behaviour. It is important to • Expectations. What the educator is expecting
have basic rules in the classroom to which of the learner has a direct bearing on how much
everybody should adhere. or how little the learner learns. Because of the
• Instructional groups. The size of the group severity of the disability, we sometimes assume
should match the objective of the learning that the learner will not be able to learn, and
activity. that influences our realistic expectations.
• Presentation of the learning activity. Clear • Therapeutic use of self. The educator’s attitude
directions should be augmented by other towards the learner influences the learner’s
teaching aids (auditory, visual, tactile, etc.). performance. The educator should show real
concern towards the learner’s interests and
• Routines. Establish daily and weekly routines,
accomplishments.
be prepared for each lesson and have all the
necessary materials ready. This will decrease
the anxiety and increase the level of perform- For more information on teaching practices, the
ance of the learners (see the following activity following literature could be consulted: Sikorski
box regarding schedule planners). et al. (1996), and Wolery et al. (1992).
• Feedback. Learners need unambiguous feed-
back from the teacher and the activity (exter-
Use of schedule planners
nal) and from his own feelings about the
achievement (internal). Feedback should be Through the use of a schedule planner
the learner with severe and/or multiple
viewed as a learning opportunity. The perform-
disabilities learns various skills such as
ance of the learner will improve if the criteria self-control, self-management, commu-
for achievement are known. nication, as well as reading, writing and
• Internal locus of control. This is the relation- mathematics (Massey & Wheeler 2000).
ship between effort and achievement. When a A schedule planner is a row of boxes in
ACTIVITY

learner learns that mistakes are temporary and which an object, picture, word or com-
bination thereof is placed – depending
can be corrected through hard work, he learns
on the learner’s development – that
to take responsibility for his actions, and
represents the activity to be presented
learned helplessness will decrease. in the classroom. Usually only one box
• Structure of the classroom. Evaluate the noise is opened at a time and closed before
levels, other distractions, desk arrangements, the commencement of the following
lighting, temperature, ventilation and work activity. The whole schedule could be
location that would enhance each learner’s per- discussed with the learner at the begin-
ning of each day so that he is orientat-
formance.
ed and can anticipate events of the
• Monitor progress. Because learners with severe day. This way disruptive or challenging
and/or multiple disabilities tend to progress at behaviour is reduced.

419
SECTION F ADDRESSING DISABILITY

Design a schedule planner for your aids. (Please read Chapters 14 and 15 for more
classroom that represents the pro- information.)
ACTIVITY

gramme for the whole day. What would

you choose to include in each segment
to represent the activities and how 18.9.3 Adapting teaching strategies for
would you implement this so that com- the learner with physical
munication is also facilitated? disabilities
Correct positioning is the key to optimal func-
tioning of the learner with physical disabilities.
18.9.2 Adapting teaching strategies for Learners should have the opportunity to change
the learner who is deaf-blind positions during the day, as each activity requires
The same curriculum as that for sighted and hear- a position that matches the learner’s ability and
ing learners can be used for learning and develop- the demands of the activity. For example, an
ment, but it should be adapted, while outcomes upright sitting position should be maintained dur-
should be set according to the learner’s level of ing reading and writing activities, while a stable
development. supine position on the mat is required during the
Augmentative and alternative communication exercise class, where the necessary head and lat-
by means of touch cues, tangible symbols (putting eral supports should be provided. Educators
a spoon in the learner’s hands indicates that it is should be careful not to keep a learner in one
lunchtime), finger spelling, tactile sign language, position for too long as this could lead to the
Braille, speech, etc. is necessary to communicate shortening of muscles groups (contractures),
with learners who are deaf-blind. They may, how- causing discomfort for the learner who may even
ever, use different communication modes for develop pressure sores. If a learner is comfortable
receptive and expressive communication. For in his positioning equipment and has the added
example, a learner who is deaf-blind may receive benefit of optimal movements, he will be able to
information through finger spelling or tactile sign concentrate on the learning activity presented
language and tangible symbols but express him- and not on maintaining balance or on the discom-
self by means of tangible symbols shown to the fort in the positioning equipment. (Refer to Chap-
teacher or through speech (Sacks & Silberman ter 13C for more information on positioning.)
1998: 146). For reading and written communica- Another adaptation for the learner is the provi-
tion they may use Braille or large print and hand- sion of assistive technology so that the learner
writing, depending on their residual vision. can participate in activities. There is a wide range
Learners who are deaf-blind need concrete available which includes products like pencil
experience to understand new concepts and grips, Velcro mittens to pick up objects (Beukel-
information. Their teaching should therefore not
man & Mirenda 1998), calculators with extra large
be bound to the classroom. Models could be used
numbers, and adapted eating utensils and drink-
effectively if concrete experience is dangerous or
ing cups (Beukelman & Mirenda 1998). A wide
not available. This further implies that teaching is
variety of technologies, for example switches, is
mainly individualised. A teacher assistant would
available that could be linked to items such as a
be indispensable in helping the teacher with the
tape recorder, radio and voice output device
transfer and establishment of new concepts while
the teacher is teaching the other learners. (refer to Chapter 9).
Nowadays, many assistive devices, especially in
communication, are available for learners who are If Kagiso and Mike were in your class-
ACTIVITY

deaf-blind. Amplification of residual hearing by room, answer the questions provided in

means of hearing aids and FM systems is avail- section 18.9 on the adaptation of
able, as well as large print, Braille and optical teaching strategies to indicate how you
devices such as closed-circuit television for visual would address their individual needs.

420
 SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES 18

18.10 CONCLUSION room, these teaching strategies need to be

In a country where the prevalence of severe adapted to ensure learning also includes learn-
and/or multiple disabilities is 0,6 per cent of the ers like Kagiso and Mike. Discuss how teaching
total population of all people, and where there is strategies should be adapted in the classroom
a strong indication of an increase in this preva- for learners with severe and/or multiple dis-
lence, attention must be paid to the development abilities.
of learners with disabilities in order to improve
their quality of life and the roles they will be able Bibliography
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improves daily. We are moving away from tradi- Arllen, N.L., Gable, R.A. & Hendrickson, J.M. 1996.
tional, not always appropriate, models of service Accommodating students with special needs in general
delivery to collaborative approaches to interven- education classrooms. Preventing School Failure, 41(1):
7–13.
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Bellenir, K. 1996. Genetic disorders sourcebook. Health
to programme efficacy. reference series: Volume 13. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics.
Intervention for the learner with severe and/or Beukelman, D.R. & Mirenda, P. 1998. Augmentative and
multiple disabilities involves the input of various alternative communication: management of severe com-
professionals, family members and caregivers, in munication disorders in children and adults, 2nd ed. Balti-
more: Paul H. Brookes.
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Bornman, J. 2004. The World Health Organization’s termi-
learner to develop his full potential in a variety of
nology and classification: application to severe disability.
social contexts. The vital importance of the input Disability and Rehabilitation, 26(3): 182–188.
of each team member must always be realised, Browder, D.M. 1991. Assessment of individuals with
but in viewing this team approach from an educa- severe disabilities: an applied behaviour approach to life
tional point of view, it becomes evident that the skills assessment, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
role of therapy is to facilitate but never to replace Brown, D. 1996. Conditions and syndromes that can
result in deafblindness. Deafblind Education,
education. It is within the educational context January–June: 9–10.
that we find the culmination of the contributions Burden, A. 1997. Learners with special educational needs.
by all the other team members to the enhance- (Intellectual disability) (only study guide for FDESEI-H).
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Questions Chen, D. & Haney, M. 1995. An early intervention model
for infants who are deaf-blind. Journal of Visual Impair-
1. There is a distinct difference between the ment and Blindness. 89(3): 213–221.
terms “severe disabilities” and “multiple dis- Cohen, S.B. & Lynch, D.K. 1991. An instructional modifi-
abilities”. Explain the differences as well as the cation process. Teaching Exceptional Children, 23(4):
12–18.
similarities.
Cusack, L., Phillips, L. & Singh, S. 1990. The role of the
2. The model of active participation prescribes occupational therapist in HIV disease and Aids. British
the equal involvement in four areas, i.e. the Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53(5): 181–183.
learner, the activity, teaching strategies and Downing, J.E. 2002. Including students with severe and/or
multiple disabilities in typical classrooms: practical strate-
the educator/teacher. When you revisit the gies for teachers, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
case of Kagiso, what will you do with regard to Dunn, W. 1996. The sensorimotor systems: a framework
each of these four areas to ensure that Kagiso for assessment and intervention. In Orelove, F.P. & Sob-
is actively participating in school? sey, D. (Eds), Educating children with severe and/or multi-
ple disabilities: a transdisciplinary approach, 3rd ed. Balti-
3. Strategies to enhance teaching in the class- more: Paul H. Brookes, 35–78.
room are used by all teachers. However, when Gaylor-Ross, R. & Peck, C.A. 1984. Integration efforts for
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practice. Reston: Division on Mental Retardation of the cation for children and young people. London: Fulton.
Council for Exceptional Children, 185–207. Musselwhite, C.R. 1986. Adaptive play for special needs
Giangreco, M.F., Edelman, S.W., MacFarland, S.Z. & children: strategies to enhance communication and learn-
Luiselli, T.E. 1997. Attitudes about educational and relat- ing. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
ed service provision for students with deaf-blindness and National Head Injury Foundation. 1985. Questions about
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Paper. 2004. Office of the President. s.a. Available at: severe and/or multiple disabilities: a transdisciplinary
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Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. & Holubec, E.J. 1993. Cir- mental health. Johannesburg: Maskew Miller Longman,
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Meyer, L.H., Peck, C.A. & Brown, L. (Eds). 1991. Critical ence the most profound disabilities: teacher’s perspec-
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Mulligan-Ault, M., Guess, D., Struth, L. & Thompson, B. lished doctoral thesis. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
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423
 Section

Addressing
health
problems

425
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19
MARLIZE KUNNEKE & JOAN ORR

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand how various chronic conditions affect the daily lives of
learners
Πdescribe the impact of chronic illness on the child, related to the
child’s level of development
Πidentify learners in your class who show signs and symptoms of
common chronic diseases
Πunderstand how to support learners with chronic diseases in a
classroom situation.

Key terms (HIV) and resulting in a protracted period of

chronic illness – emerged as one of the greatest
chronic disease ♦ illness ♦ disease ♦ learners ♦ infec-
viral health disasters known to mankind (Janse
tions ♦ human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) ♦
van Rensburg 2000: 267).
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (Aids) ♦ tuber-
Chronic diseases are not easy to eradicate and
culosis ♦ malaria ♦ bilharzia ♦ diabetes ♦ hypogly-
many of these are still major health problems
caemia ♦ hyperglycaemia ♦ asthma ♦ hypothyroidism
today. Improvements in health care and medical
♦ hyperthyroidism ♦ gastrointestinal disorders ♦ kid-
science have increased the life expectancy of chil-
ney disorders ♦ nutritional disorders ♦ childhood can-
dren with life-threatening and/or serious diseases
cers ♦ common heart disorders ♦ blood disorders ♦
and so have also contributed to the increase in
eating disorders
chronic health conditions. Better care of prema-
ture babies and the resuscitation of children in
19.1 INTRODUCTION near-drowning or life-threatening events now
Since the 1940s, adult and child mortality rates mean that many children who would have previ-
have decreased in most countries due to improve- ously died will survive, although often with
ments in community hygiene and advances in bio- adverse long-term developmental and learning
medical science and technology. This, together consequences.
with the introduction of immunisation and antibi- While the vast majority of children periodically
otics, has brought under control some of the suffer from acute illnesses which usually do not
major infectious diseases which had afflicted chil- result in any long-lasting problems, there are
dren and adults in earlier times. More recently, in some learners whose daily lives are affected by
the early 1980s, a devastating new infection – chronic health conditions and who may require
caused by the human immunodeficiency virus special attention by school personnel. Health and

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SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

disease are often conceptualised as occurring on a • They are permanent, of long duration and irre-
continuum from physical, social and emotional versible.
well-being to severe and life-threatening disease. • They may result in residual impairment.
This means that when we talk of striving for opti- • They may have multiple causes.
mal health or wellness, we refer to maximising
• They have a diversity of symptoms and mani-
the potential of the individual learner who,
festations.
despite any pre-existing problems, is able to func-
tion optimally and effectively within the environ- • They can vary in their intensity and
ment, according to his own ability, while experi- – have a slow but lingering course which even-
encing a sense of well-being (Kibel & Wagstaff tually leads to unpreventable death (e.g. cer-
1995: 4). Learners with chronic diseases are peo- tain cancers, some heart problems and cystic
ple first, and only then are they individuals who fibrosis – the latter being a hereditary disor-
happen to have special health needs which may der affecting the air passages, pancreas,
constitute barriers to learning. intestinal tract and sweat glands)
– have a good prognosis, with severe and
acute attacks (e.g. diabetes, porphyria or
CASE STUDY
asthma)
David, a Grade 5 learner, had become tired and – go into remission with occasional flare-ups
lethargic when playing outside. He was dropped (e.g. tuberculosis)
from the soccer team because the coach
– alternate periods of remission with acute
claimed that he was not fit. One teacher, how-
ever, asked his parents to take him for a medical
periods of disease (e.g. some childhood can-
examination because his schoolwork had also cers such as leukaemia and lymphoma)
deteriorated. He was then diagnosed with tuber- – be static with severe impairment (e.g. some
culosis (TB). genetic syndromes)
Would you regard TB as a chronic disease and – leave the child with an impairment which
if so, why? may either affect mobility or be disfiguring.

19.2 WHAT IS CHRONIC DISEASE?

19.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO CHRONIC
Some authors differentiate between the terms DISEASE
“illness” and “disease” explaining that illness is
what is felt or experienced by the individual There are many factors which may have a pro-
whereas disease is what a doctor diagnoses. For found effect on the ability of a person to grow and
example, a person might feel ill without experi- develop normally. Any chronic disease present
encing any disease or may have a disease like high from conception onwards may have an adverse
blood pressure without feeling ill (Bender & effect on growth and development and the subse-
Sorochan 1997: 158). Chronic disease is usually quent insult to neurological or other body sys-
defined as any disease which interferes with daily tems may cause difficulties with physical or cogni-
functioning for more than three months in a year tive development or socio-emotional adjustment.
and which may be “... protracted but stable, or Some of the common factors which contribute to
progressive and life threatening, or a non-fatal chronic disease in the child occur as a result of
handicapping condition” (Kibel & Wagstaff 1995: • prenatal factors (affecting the developing foe-
391). This means that chronic diseases usually tus from conception until birth) which include
have a long-term influence on the lives of affected infections in pregnancy, poor nutrition or dis-
individuals. Kapp (1994: 157–183) and Funk ease of the pregnant mother, substance abuse
(1993) state that chronic diseases have the follow- during pregnancy (alcohol, smoking or illegal
ing unique characteristics: drugs)
• They require lengthy supervision by the health • perinatal factors (occurring around the time of
team. birth) such as jaundice

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 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

• postnatal factors (after birth) which could 19.4.1 The impact of chronic disease on
include conditions causing damage to the neu- the child
rological system as a result of infections, poi- The factors which account for how the child expe-
soning, metabolic disturbances or oxygen riences and responds to a chronic disease are
depletion dependent largely upon the child’s age, level of
• environmental and developmental factors language and cognitive development.
such as overcrowded or inadequate living con-
ditions; land, air and water pollution; lack of
sanitation or clean water supplies; poor control Before reading any further, jot down

ACTIVITY
of home and workplace environments; rapid those factors that may have an impact
on the learner who suffers from a
urbanisation; poverty; unemployment; and lim-
chronic disease such as cancer or
ited access to health resources. These can all
HIV/Aids.
impact on the development of certain chronic
health conditions such as asthma and allergies,
lead poisoning, tuberculosis and malaria. Some of the most important of these factors are
summarised below (Betz et al. 1994: 658–665; Orr
Please read Chapter 2 on poor socio- 1992: 65–86):
ACTIVITY

economic environment. • The child’s understanding of illness is deter-

Find out how many learners in your mined mainly by his cognitive maturity and can
environment may suffer from chronic
be explained in terms of Piaget’s stages of cog-
diseases as a result of these circum-
stances.
nitive development, where the child progresses
from egocentric reasoning to a more abstract
view. It is only when the child reaches the stage
Many adverse occurences in pregnancy will have of concrete operational thought (6–12 years)
detrimental effects on the baby. One example, that we can expect him to begin to understand
found frequently in the Western Cape, is foetal the relationship between symptoms and treat-
alcohol syndrome (FAS) which leaves children ment.
with stunted growth, decreased brain growth as
well as various degrees of neurological impair- • Pain is a common stressor for both adults and
ment as a result of maternal alcohol abuse during children because of the unpleasant sensory,
pregnancy. Better management of severe infec- physical, emotional or motor responses it
tions and serious chronic diseases like HIV, child- evokes. Likewise, most young children will con-
hood cancers and tuberculosis is increasing the sider intrusive medical procedures (e.g. taking
number of children who will live for long periods. blood samples or giving injections) as acts of
These learners will usually have a variety of cogni- hostility which threaten their self-integrity and
tive or adjustment problems, either due to the self-esteem.
disease itself or due to prolonged absence from • Children who are hospitalised frequently may
school. feel that they have no control over what is done
to them. Protracted periods of hospitalisation
19.4 THE IMPACT OF CHRONIC DISEASE ON may isolate the child from his family and peers
THE CHILD AND FAMILY, AND ON and this could lead to serious adjustment prob-
SCHOOL SUCCESS lems when the child returns to school.
While each chronic disease has its own symp- • Chronic diseases may also interfere with the
toms, treatment and prognosis, most share com- achievement of some of the physical, psycho-
mon features which cause stress for children and social and intellectual tasks of infancy, child-
their families. Chronic disease can develop at any hood and adolescence. Table 19.1 gives an indi-
stage of childhood, and the way in which the fam- cation of some of the ways in which this can
ily and child respond to the illness will depend on happen (Betz et al. 1994; Jackson & Saunders
many factors, some of which are discussed below. 1993: 502–507).

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Table 19.1 The effect of chronic disease on developmental achievements

Stage of
Developmental task Effect of chronic disease
development
Infancy Developing an attachment Hospitalisation may interfere with the development of
relationship (bonding) with a attachment relationships, and parental anxiety, grief and guilt
primary caregiver may cause emotional withdrawal.
Developing a sense of trust Separation from parents and inconsistent care by many
caregivers may lead to mistrust.
Learning through sensori- The physical restrictions imposed by the illness may reduce
motor exploration, and cause opportunities for learning through mouthing, manipulation and
and effect exploration activities.
Toddler Developing autonomy and Medical procedures and frequent health care may inhibit the
independence, and testing development of autonomy. Overprotective parents may
social limits prevent the child from becoming independent and may also
fail to set realistic limits for acceptable behaviour.
Acquiring language and Illness which causes limitations in large and fine motor activity
motor skills may deprive the toddler of social, physical and sensory
stimulation which is necessary for optimal development.
Preschool age Learning self-care skills Parents may overprotect the child and regression may occur
after periods of hospitalisation.
Developing initiative Social isolation may deprive the child of exposure to new
experiences and may prevent the child from learning social
skills. Where possible attendance at early childhood
development (ECD) centres should be encouraged.
Development of pre- The child may attribute the cause of illness to his bad
operational thought and behaviour. Play could be used to relieve stress and improve
learning through play coping mechanisms.
Middle childhood Using concrete operations School, hobbies and peer interaction will help achieve these
and thinking abstractly tasks. Irregular school attendance and social isolation will
inhibit these achievements.
Developing industry and Children should have some control over what happens to
initiative them by participating, under supervision, in their own care and
medication administration. They need factual, honest
information about their condition.
Need to feel accepted by Illness may decrease peer interactions and make the child
peer group feel different. Chronically ill learners may not progress with
their peers to the next grade and this increases their social
isolation. Social interaction with peers should be facilitated
through appropriate school and recreational activities.
Adolescence Establishing independence Compliance with medical treatment often becomes a problem,
and relationships with parents and health care providers may
become hostile. Health care requirements often prolong
dependency upon parents. Teens with a terminal disease may
lack the motivation to learn if they feel they have no adult
future.
Developing a good body Illness may make the teenager feel different from his peers.
image and self-image Visible physical defects often result in anger and grief.
Developing formal– Problems in previous developmental stages may lead to
operational thought cognitive and emotional immaturity. In order to mature,
teenagers require opportunities to interact, confront and
cooperate with peers, and illness often deprives them of these
opportunities.

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 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

19.4.2 The impact of chronic disease on they are healthy while their sibling experiences
the family problems due to chronic ill health or terminal
Chronic disease may place enormous financial, illness. Many siblings will benefit from coun-
time and emotional burdens on family members, selling or sibling support groups where they
and may strain parental and sibling relationships. can express their emotions (fear, anger or guilt)
It is often an ongoing struggle for a family to in a non-threatening environment.
reach a balance between normal functioning and
remaining sensitive to the particular needs of a 19.4.3 The impact of chronic disease on
child with a chronic disease. For families to sur- school success
vive these stresses they need to be supported by It is commonly agreed that success at school
family members, peers, the health team, support depends upon a number of factors such as rea-
groups and other social structures like the school sonable school attendance, the psychological
and church. The attitudes of parents play a critical well-being of the learner, parental attitudes which
role in ensuring school success for the child with value school attendance, the attitudes of teachers
a chronic disease. Chronic disease may impact on towards the chronically ill learner, as well as good
the family as follows: peer group relationships.
• Certain chronic diseases may result in families • The teacher and parent should collaborate to
becoming socially isolated because of the fear, minimise barriers to school attendance as the
anxiety and embarrassment caused in the social “... school provides opportunities ... [for the
environment. For example, families with HIV- learner] ... to learn, socialize with peers, expe-
infected children may be socially ostracised rience success, and develop increased inde-
because of unrealistic fears of contagion, and pendence and control over their environments”
this discrimination and stigma is often worse (Sexson & Dingle 2001: 31).
than the illness itself. Likewise some families
may withdraw socially because of the distress • Many learners with chronic diseases, despite
caused when taking children out who are phys- normal intelligence and a lack of cognitive
ically disfigured. impairments, may experience academic difficul-
ties. Factors which can detract from the learn-
• With more serious chronic diseases families ing process include fatigue (tiredness), pain,
may go through a grieving process and experi- infrequent school attendance, embarrassment
ence chronic sorrow interspersed with feelings about physical appearance (e.g. hair loss caused
of anger, denial, guilt and blame. High rates of by drug therapy for cancer), and discrimination
maternal depression as well as marital prob- and ridicule by peers.
lems are also found in families who have chron-
• Certain medications used to treat chronic dis-
ically ill children. Support and counselling is
eases may also directly or indirectly affect
often helpful to enable family members to cope
school performance. For example, certain anti-
with these stressors.
hypertensive drugs (to treat high blood pres-
• Families may suffer from burnout due to the sure) may cause depression, nightmares, seda-
continual demands of a child requiring much tion, agitation and increased activity levels
physical care. Respite care by relatives or other (Sexson & Dingle 2001: 40).
caregivers can help relieve this and provide the
• Teachers are often unsure of how to deal with
family with some time alone. Likewise the time
the chronically ill child and may be overly sym-
spent by a chronically ill child in an early child-
pathetic or, conversely, not take into account
hood development (ECD) centre or at school
the effect that the disease has on the learner’s
can help families to cope better.
school experiences. Teachers may also lack
• Siblings might feel resentful of the extra time expertise in how to integrate the child with a
and money spent by parents on the care of a chronic disease into the classroom and to facil-
chronically ill child. They may also feel guilty if itate good peer relationships with healthy

431
SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

learners. Good communication and team work dures or drug abuse, or the reusing of blood-
between the family, teacher, the health team, contaminated instruments during cultural prac-
and the school-based and district-based sup- tices like circumcision or scarification.
port teams will provide assistance to the
teacher which will ultimately also benefit the Common health problems of the HIV-infected
chronically ill child. learner
HIV/Aids is a multi-system disorder and the HI
19.5 SOME COMMON CHRONIC DISEASES virus affects most parts of the body. Early mani-
festations of infection include enlarged parotid
19.5.1 Infection with the human glands (in the neck area), low grade fever, failure
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to gain weight, and liver and spleen enlargement.
What is HIV/Aids? As the infection progresses, the child may experi-
Aids (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is ence frequent ear, chest, throat and urinary tract
caused by infection with the HI virus which infections as well as mouth problems (e.g. bleed-
increasingly destroys certain types of blood cells ing gums, and candida or thrush infection of the
whose function is to protect the body against mouth and oesophagus). HIV-infected persons
infection. Over a period of five to ten years, also experience multiple problems with general
immunity progressively deteriorates until the per- health such as chronic fatigue (tiredness), wheez-
son becomes immune deficient (unable to fight ing and shortness of breath, tuberculosis, malnu-
infections). Most HIV-infected persons do not die trition, chronic diarrhoea, and skin problems. One
from the virus itself, but from infections that of the virus’s most detrimental effects is on the
would not normally pose a risk to a healthy per- nervous system, often causing irreversible dam-
son. Aids is the final stage of HIV infection which age despite anti-retroviral treatment. HIV infec-
will eventually result in death. tion affects myelinisation of the nerves (see sec-
tion 12.2.1 of Chapter 12) and also damages the
How do learners become infected with HIV? neurons (cells of the central nervous system),
• The majority of learners under the age of 13 which causes a wide spectrum of problems with
with HIV/Aids will have been infected by the HI- great variation among children. The most severe
virus as a result of mother-to-child transmission problem is HIV-encephalopathy caused by irre-
during pregnancy, during the birth process or versible demyelinisation and calcification of parts
during breastfeeding. We refer to this as “verti- of the brain (usually the basal ganglia and areas
cal transmission of infection”. Without anti- controlling movement). This results in severe cog-
retroviral drug therapy (ART), many of these nitive impairment and spasticity (greatly
children will die within the first two to three increased muscle tone) leading to movement and
years of life. South Africa introduced ART into muscle tone disorders which deteriorate over
the public health system in April 2004 and this time. All HIV-infected children will have some
should increase the life expectancy of HIV- neurological sequelae, which can progress slowly,
infected children. rapidly or have plateau periods. As a result of this
• Learners may become infected through unpro- brain involvement, learners may present with a
tected hetero- or homosexual intercourse with wide spectrum of problems affecting behaviour
an infected person. This could include rape or and intellectual function such as learning disabili-
sexual abuse. ties, hyperactivity, speech problems or motor
• A less common form of infection could be problems (which could include toe-walking, in-
through unsafe health and cultural practices toeing and increased tone or spasticity).
which allow direct blood-to-blood or blood-to-
mucous membrane contact. Examples here Educational implications of HIV/Aids
include the use of contaminated or unscreened • Teachers must ensure that they are familiar
blood products, the reuse of blood-contaminat- with the educational legislation regarding HIV/
ed syringes and needles during health proce- Aids, which should be available in each school.

432
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

follows: the uninfected child would have to bite

National policy on HIV/Aids for learners and the HIV-infected child so seriously that the skin
educators in public schools and students and is broken, and blood from the infected child
educators in Further Education and Training enters the uninfected child’s mouth. There
institutions, Notice 1926 of 1999. Government would then have to be a blood-to-blood or
Gazette, 410(20372), 10 August 1999. Preto- blood-to-mucous membrane exchange. If a HIV-
ria: Government Printer. infected child bit an uninfected child, the fol-
lowing would have to occur: the infected child
This document deals with HIV/Aids issues in would have to have fresh blood in his mouth
the school pertaining to non-discrimination, and break the skin of the uninfected child, mix-
testing, school attendance, disclosure of ing the infected blood directly with the unin-
HIV/Aids-related information, confidentiality, fected blood – a most unlikely situation (Black
maintenance of a safe school environment, pre- 1999: 39–45). ECD practitioners should never-
vention of transmission during play and sport, theless be very vigilant when any biting injury
education about HIV/Aids, duties and responsi- occurs in which the skin of any child is broken
bilities of learners, educators and parents as and blood is present in the biter’s mouth (an
well as school implementation plans. Some extremely rare occurrence) as the HIV status of
important issues are: most children is not normally known. This
– Teachers and learners should be familiar information should be immediately document-
with Universal Precautions (7.1.1 of Notice ed in writing and reported to the principal and
1926 of 1999) which relate to the handling parents who should get expert medical advice
of any blood-related injuries or blood-con- (within 12 hours) regarding the need for post-
taminated items occurring in the classroom, exposure prophylaxis.
during sporting activities or on educational • The implications of HIV infection for learning
outings. Universal Precautions should be used can be quite diverse and may also vary over
with all learners and educators at all times as time in the same child. Certain children may be
it is impossible to know who is HIV infected
developmentally delayed from birth and pres-
or who not. More information appears in the
ent with language problems and a low IQ. Oth-
National Policy on HIV/Aids, Notice 1926 of
ers would start to develop normally and then
1999 of the National Education Policy Act 27
their development would plateau off in school
of 1996 (Department of Education 1999).
with subtle language, behavioural or learning
– Parental and learner education is required to disabilities. Many HIV-infected children suffer
ensure correct knowledge and attitudes from attention deficit disorders with the spec-
about HIV/Aids are internalised by the school trum of low tone, posturing and learning prob-
community. This includes making realistic lems accompanying the syndrome.
information available to all about the negli-
gible risk of infection during normal social • Frequent infections and malnutrition may lead
contact in the school environment. to a chronically fatigued child who is unable to
concentrate and learn. Supplementary nutri-
• One issue commonly causing unnecessary hys- tion as well as extra rest periods may need to
teria in ECD environments is the problem of be provided during the school day.
toddler biting, and some ECD centres are
excluding HIV-infected children under the age • The teacher should make allowances for a HIV-
of three from their facilities. If one carefully infected child who needs to take anti-retroviral
considers the issue, it is only when an uninfect- medication during the school day, while main-
ed child bites a HIV-infected child and there is taining confidentiality. It is important that this
an exchange of infected with uninfected blood medication is taken on time and that any food-
that a possible risk of HIV exposure might related instructions are followed carefully
occur. This unlikely possibility could occur as (some medications need to be taken with

433
SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

food). ECD and foundation phase teachers infection which may re-activate in any organ at
might need to take responsibility for adminis- any time. TB meningitis may cause serious neuro-
tering medication to younger learners. logical effects, while TB of the spine may lead to
kyphosis. TB is caused by the mycobacterium
• Recent research has demonstrated that despite
tuberculosis organism which is usually found in
central nervous system (CNS) pathology in the
the sputum of infected persons. The germ is
child, certain parental factors like alcohol and
spread into the air when infected people cough,
drug abuse, low socio-economic status (SES),
sneeze or spit and then it is breathed in by oth-
low levels of parental education and parental
ers. TB occurs more frequently in poor socio-eco-
HIV-related illness may increase the child’s vul-
nomic circumstances and spreads rapidly when
nerability to intellectual dysfunction, while par-
people live in overcrowded areas, are malnour-
enting education and the provision of stimulat-
ished, or live in close proximity to someone who
ing toys can enhance the child’s cognitive skills
has untreated TB. People with HIV infection are
(Coscia et al. 2001: 321–329; Knight et al. 2000:
at high risk for contracting TB due to their poor
583–587). ECD practitioners should monitor
immune status.
the developmental progress of all children, as
well as known HIV-infected children, to enable Common health problems of a learner with TB
them to provide early supportive intervention
for developmental delays. ECD centres could The usual symptoms suggestive of TB in young
also plan and present parenting programmes children are weight loss for more than one month
within their communities to teach parents how (seen as a decline in mass in the “road to health”
to provide inexpensive and educationally stim- card), a cough lasting more than three weeks,
ulating experiences for young children and so chronic ill health, and failure to thrive (grow nor-
optimise their development. mally). Some of the more prominent symptoms in
older persons include a persistent cough, cough-
• The teacher should refer any child who ing up of blood, weight loss, night sweats, poor
requires special intervention to the appropri- appetite, breathing difficulties and lack of energy.
ate professionals such as occupational thera-
pists, speech therapists and learning support Educational implications of TB
teachers. Assistance from the school-based and • Fatigue, secondary to chronic ill health, as well
district-based support teams could be invalu- as coughing at night might result in an inability
able for the teacher of the school-age learner. to concentrate and learn.
• TB meningitis usually has severe long-term
What is your view on the dissemination effects varying from mild learning disabilities to
of information about the HIV status of a severe retardation. These learners will need
learner in your class? Do you think it is special educational services.
ACTIVITY

necessary for you to know who the

HIV-positive learners are? Do you know
• Before young children are admitted to ECD cen-
that the Promotion of Equality and Pre- tres, educators should check that their BCG
vention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of immunisation was done (this is usually done
2000 refers in particular to unfair prac- soon after birth).
tices in education? • ECD practitioners should encourage parents to
take their children regularly to health clinics to
be immunised, to monitor growth and to treat
19.5.2 Tuberculosis any health problems at an early stage.
What is tuberculosis? • All learners should be educated about the
Tuberculosis (TB) is a common disease in South importance of good hygiene practices such as
Africa which mainly affects the lungs, but may the proper disposal of tissues and not spitting.
also involve the kidneys, heart, skeletal system, • Learners from impoverished socio-economic
brain and meninges (brain lining). TB is a chronic environments should receive referral to the

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 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

necessary sources for supplementary nutrition • using insect-repellent creams on exposed skin,
or be encouraged to start food gardens. and covering exposed skin with light clothing
• avoiding going outdoors at dusk when mosqui-
toes are most prevalent
The principal of a school in a disadvan-
taged community allows a group of • using insecticide-treated mosquito nets when
unemployed parents to start a veg- sleeping
etable garden on the school premises. • getting immediate medical attention if any flu-
ACTIVITY

The mothers prepare food for learners like symptoms develop after a visit to a malari-
to enjoy during break while the remain- al area.
ing vegetables are taken home or sold
to generate income. Can you give any
19.5.4 Bilharzia
examples of what is happening in your
community to supplement nutrition for What is bilharzia?
needy learners? Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is a disease caused by a
parasitic fluke (trematode worm) which com-
pletes its life cycle both in a human host as well as
19.5.3 Malaria in freshwater snails. Bilharzia infects a large per-
centage of school children in some north-eastern
What is malaria?
regions of South Africa e.g. KwaZulu-Natal and
Malaria is a notifiable disease which is endemic in Limpopo province (Kibel & Wagstaff 1995: 268).
some north-eastern areas of South Africa. It is
caused by the malaria parasite (Plasmodium falci- How do learners become infected with
parum, Plasmodium vivax or Plasmodium ovale), bilharzia?
which is transmitted to humans by the bite of an Ova (or eggs) of the parasite contaminate rivers
infected female anopheles mosquito. Symptoms and dams when humans urinate or defecate in or
of malaria include fever, chills, sweating, severe near surface water sources. Larvae hatch from
headaches, convulsions, jaundice, loss of these ova and enter freshwater snails where they
appetite, nausea and vomiting. These symptoms develop further. Small larvae, called cercariae, are
often occur in one- to three-day cycles. Cerebral released by the snails and penetrate the skin of
malaria can cause acute neurological damage persons who wade, swim or wash in infected
resulting in long-term intellectual impairment of water. Once inside the body, the flukes lay eggs in
various degrees. the bladder and intestines and the whole process
is repeated if the ova re-enter the water supply
Educational implications of malaria
during urination or defecation.
Cerebral malaria can cause acute neurological
damage with long-term cognitive effects, depend- Common health problems caused by bilharzia
ing on how early treatment was initiated. Educa- Manifestations of bilharzia infestation are fever,
tors should provide specific education about how local skin irritation, enlarged glands, blood in the
to decrease the risk of malaria especially if going urine, a swollen abdomen and chronic diarrhoea.
on excursions or school tours to a malarial area. In many cases the liver, spleen and brain are also
The most important preventative measures affected.
include
• taking preventative drugs when visiting a Educational implications of bilharzia infection
malarial area • Teachers should ensure that there is an uncon-
• avoiding tours or excursions to malarial areas taminated water supply and proper toilet facili-
during the rainy season ties for school use.
• using window and door screens in malarial • Adults and children should avoid wading or
areas (also at schools) to prevent mosquitoes swimming in contaminated water when on out-
from coming indoors ings or school tours.

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SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

• Learners should be educated about proper san- causing hyperglycaemia (or high blood sugar) and
itation practices and informed about the dan- spills over into the urine. When the body cannot
ger of urinating or defecating near water utilise or store glucose due to the absence of
sources, as this can cause a number of serious insulin, it uses fat and proteins as an energy
diseases. source. Manifestations which might indicate that
a learner has developed diabetes are rapid weight
19.5.5 Other infections loss despite increased hunger, more frequent uri-
nation and increased thirst, tiredness and weak-
Infections by a variety of pathogens (viruses, bac- ness, nausea, vomiting or dehydration, dry and
teria or parasites) during pregnancy or after birth itchy skin, recurrent infections such as boils and
can cause long-lasting ill health, physical or learn- deteriorating visual acuity.
ing impairments, and/or a slow death. It is difficult to effectively control diabetes in
• Some viruses causing this type of damage are children (Type 1 diabetes) because of variations in
HIV, rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes, polio, their activity levels and problems with regulating
Epstein-Barr virus, varicella, and hepatitis B their food intake. To control diabetes, the blood
and C. sugar should be kept within normal limits and this
is assessed every day using urine or blood tests.
• Bacteria which cause neurological and develop- Proper control of diabetes is essential to prevent
mental sequelae are haemophilus influenzae and complications affecting the eyes, kidneys, nerves
streptococcal infections. Haemophilus influenzae and blood vessels. Creating a balance between
can cause severe upper respiratory infections food intake, insulin administration and exercise
as well as meningitis. The introduction of levels will achieve control. Food intake increases
immunisation with the HiB vaccine is reducing blood sugar levels while exercise and insulin
the incidence of this infection among young decrease it. Thus insufficient food and excessive
children. Acute streptococcal infections can exercise, or insufficient food and excessive insulin
leave an individual with severe sensory or intel- can cause blood sugar levels to drop. Likewise,
lectual impairments or cause chronic kidney or too much food and insufficient insulin will lead to
heart problems. a rise in blood sugar levels. When blood sugar lev-
• A serious parasitic infection is caused by the els are too high (hyperglycaemia), a diabetic coma
echinococcus (a type of tapeworm) which is can develop as a result of the build-up of ketones
found in dogs. When tapeworm eggs are swal- in the blood which are a by-product of fat meta-
lowed by adults or children, larvae develop bolism. When blood sugar levels are too low
which enter the walls of the intestines and (hypoglycaemia), the child will also become coma-
migrate to the brain, liver and lungs. Large cysts tose but with severe and ongoing damage to
may develop in the brain which slowly enlarge brain cells resulting in convulsions and death if
and cause brain oedema (swelling) which may not treated early. Table 19.2 summarises what the
result in epileptic seizures and hydrocephalus. teacher should know about these two complica-
Teachers need to educate children, from ECD tions of diabetes (Marotz et al. 2001: 232).
level onwards, about the importance of wash-
ing their hands after handling pets. Educational implications of diabetes
• The teacher should liaise with the parents and
19.5.6 Diabetes mellitus child regarding a suitable routine at school to
maintain a balance between the amount and
What is diabetes? timing of meals, insulin and exercise. Discuss
This disease is caused by a malfunction of the suitable foods to carry in case of a low blood
insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. The hor- sugar level with parents and the learner. It is
mone insulin is required for the uptake of glucose recommended that these foods are kept in the
into the body cells. When too little insulin is pro- classroom and are easy to open so that the
duced, glucose builds up in the bloodstream, whole class is not disrupted.

436
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

Table 19.2 Complications of high and low blood sugar

Hyperglycaemia (high blood sugar levels), also Hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar levels), also called
called ketoacidotic coma insulin shock or insulin reaction

Caused by too little insulin, a missed dose of insulin, Caused by too much insulin, too little food or a
too much food, anorexia, illness or stress missed meal, unexpected strenuous exercise or
underlying illness

Manifestations of high blood sugar • develops Manifestations of low blood sugar • develops sud-
slowly • slow and deep breathing • dry and flushed denly • pale, cool and clammy skin • extreme hunger
skin • increased thirst • increased urination (also at • headache, dizziness and blurred vision • shakiness,
night) • blurred vision • confusion and drowsiness • tiredness, lack of concentration and coordination •
fruity, sweet-smelling breath • nausea and vomiting • restlessness and sudden behaviour change – may
abdominal pain • coma give strange answers to questions and speech may be
slurred • confusion and aggression • rapid and shal-
low breathing • convulsions • unconsciousness

What to do • Contact parents. • Get medical help What to do • If conscious, give learner some con-
quickly as the child will need to have insulin. • Be centrated glucose like a glucose sweet or a sugary
aware that it may take the learner a few days to drink. Call parents. • If learner is unconscious, watch
recover and get blood sugar levels under control. breathing and rush the child to hospital or call an
ambulance. Contact parents. • The learner should
recover within minutes.

• The teacher should be able to recognise the periods, on the sports field or when going on
early manifestations of and provide emergency an excursion or tour. If learners must stay after
treatment for hyperglycaemia and hypogly- school for any reason, they must have extra
caemia. Attention problems or aggression just food with them.
before meals or during periods of increased • Implement the “buddy” system when the dia-
exercise could indicate low blood sugar levels. betic learner swims or is on a group outing so
• Learners may need to be reminded to have that he is never alone in a situation where low
their regular snacks if they are very involved in blood sugar may result. It is advisable for a
an activity or if they are becoming confused learner with diabetes to wear a Medic-Alert
due to low blood sugar levels. bracelet or neck chain so that if he is found
• Consider the child’s dietary limitations and unconscious then suitable treatment can be
arrange for suitable alternatives when planning given.
food-related activities or celebrations in the • Provide careful treatment of any injuries, as
classroom. persons with diabetes often have problems
• When going on overnight school tours, the with the healing of wounds.
teacher should find out when and how the
learner’s insulin injections need to be given and You are the teacher of a Grade 5 class
blood sugar levels monitored. Some provision and are planning a three-day school
will also need to be made regarding the stor- tour to the Kruger National Park during
age of insulin as it has to be kept cold. For the
ACTIVITY

the month of March. You are aware

younger learner the teacher might offer to that one of the learners in your class
learn how to give the child his insulin injections has diabetes and at least one of the
so that he can accompany the class on the trip. other learners in the class is HIV infect-
ed. What particular planning will you do
• Allow the child to have a snack if regular meal- for this trip to make it possible for
times are delayed. The teacher should always everyone to attend?
have a quick energy snack available during gym

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SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

19.5.7 Asthma Educational implications of asthma

What is asthma? • Wherever possible, the teacher should min-
imise the presence of known triggers in the
Asthma is a chronic disease characterised by
school environment. The classroom should be
hyperactivity of the airways causing reversable air-
kept clear of unnecessary airborne pollutants
way obstruction.
such as chalk dust, mould spores (found in
Asthma causes a constriction and narrowing of dried flowers and soft toys) and animal dander.
the muscles of the air passages (bronchi and bron- ECD and foundation phase classrooms with car-
chioles) in the lungs which become swollen and pets should be vacuumed daily. Curtains, cush-
clogged by mucous, causing breathing difficulties. ions and soft toys should be washed regularly.
It is a serious condition which can cause many lost
• The teacher should always supervise young
school days and result in much suffering and even
asthmatic children during movement and sport
death. Up to 60 children die annually in the UK fol- activities, and allow for a warm-up period.
lowing an acute asthma attack. Most asthmatics Cycling, swimming and walking can improve fit-
have chronic bronchial irritation and a variety of ness, while running for extended periods may
trigger factors can cause periodic acute asthmatic increase the possibility of an asthma attack.
attacks. Some common ones are Learners should be reminded to take any nec-
• allergenic foods such as nuts, milk, wheat, cit- essary medication before undertaking exercise.
rus, preservatives or colourants • The teacher should find out from parents how
• airborne allergens such as mould spores, dust, to recognise the early warning signs of an asth-
animal dander, perfumes, strong-smelling chem- ma episode, and how to manage an asthmatic
icals, or pollen from grasses, trees or flowers attack and provide necessary emergency treat-
• sudden changes in the weather such as cold or ment. This may include the following:
wind – Staying calm, reassuring the child and letting
him sit upright while you administer any pre-
• second-hand smoke from cigarettes, pipes or
scribed medication (one dose only).
cigars
– Contacting the parents and emergency serv-
• chest infections like colds and bronchitis ices if the child does not improve, or gets
• excessive or vigorous exercise. worse after the medication. Immediate help
is required if the learner becomes very anx-
Manifestations of asthma are wheezing, coughing ious and restless, becomes blue (cyanosis)
and difficulty in breathing (especially expiration or around the lips or nails, or loses conscious-
breathing out). Breathing problems at night often ness.
result in disturbed sleep, and distressed and tired
• Side effects of medication may affect learning,
learners will find it difficult to concentrate on
and teachers should find out what these are
schoolwork. Some children appear to outgrow (e.g. medication used to dilate the air passages
their asthma during the middle childhood years, (bronchodilators) may cause tremors, rapid
while others require daily medication for life to heart beat and agitation).
prevent asthmatic attacks. These learners need to
• The teacher should provide the learner with
be diligent about taking their asthma therapy for
quiet learning activities while he is recovering
life and maintaining a healthy balance with appro-
after an acute asthma attack. At other times the
priate, but not excessive, exercise. It is often a
learner should be treated normally and not be
problem taking the metered dose inhalers regu-
allowed to use this condition as a means of
larly, especially at school as the spacer device manipulation.
used with young children is large and difficult to
carry around. During the teenage years problems
with treatment compliance often occur and there 19.5.8 Hypothyroidism and
is a high incidence of death in asthmatic teenagers hyperthyroidism
(Kibel & Wagstaff 1995: 232). The thyroid gland produces a hormone which

438
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

controls the basal metabolic rate of the body. disfiguration, jaundice and severe malabsorption
Hypothyroidism (a low level of thyroid hormone) as well as vitamin deficiencies due to the inability
is usually congenital and if it is not diagnosed to absorb fat-soluble vitamins. Learners with liver
soon after birth may lead to growth retardation disease are often very tired and may require extra
and severe and non-reversible neurological rest or a shortened school day. Teachers should
impairment. This condition will require long-term be aware of dietary limitations imposed by liver
medication. problems. Teachers should also include education
Hyperthyroidism (excessive levels of thyroid related to good personal hygiene habits like hand-
hormone) causes severe hyperactivity, tachycardia washing, universal precautions with regard to the
(rapid heart beat) and irritability, and the child can handling of body fluids, and drug abuse preven-
appear sweaty and anxious and have difficulty tion. Young children with liver failure may be at
concentrating. This condition requires medical risk for delays in intellectual and motor develop-
treatment which may include surgery or radiation ment (Kline et al. 2001: 39).
treatment.
19.5.10 Kidney (renal) disorders
19.5.9 Common gastrointestinal Renal pathology is seen less often than disorders
disorders of other body systems. Individuals with chronic
nephritis (kidney disease) may develop renal fail-
Chronic inflammation of the bowel causes dis-
ure and need regular kidney dialysis. Children
eases such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative coli-
present with oedema (swelling), hypertension
tis. These are seen most often in older boys and
(high blood pressure) and/or the loss of vast
cause acute attacks of severe abdominal pain and
amounts of protein or blood in the urine. Hyper-
anorexia (poor appetite) that can result in lengthy
tensive encephalopathy (affecting the brain) is
absences from school. These conditions are often
always a risk, and fluid intake and blood pressure
exacerbated by stress and require dietary treat-
should be managed properly. In the event of renal
ment. Preadolescents and adolescents often
failure, the outcome is not good and children
become angry and frustrated when they are
would need renal transplantation to survive.
unable to participate in their normal activities
Steroid use leads to changes in appearance, with
during an acute stage of the disease. The teacher
puffiness of the face, a prominent neck and
must be sensitive to the needs of the learner
abdomen, thinning of the legs and arms, and
which might include frequent visits to the toilet
often stretch marks and purple discolouration of
and dietary considerations.
certain areas of the skin. Teachers should ensure
Other chronic gastrointestinal problems
that classmates understand these physical
include malabsorption disorders as a result of
changes and do not ridicule the affected learner.
pancreatic insufficiency (cystic fibrosis); liver
Research has suggested that learners with kidney
pathology (bile duct atresia, hepatitis); anatomical
failure frequently have impairments in language
abnormalities of the bowel (resection post
and mathematical skills and that after successful
obstruction, infection, volvulus, intussusception);
renal transplant, cognitive functioning may
mucosal problems, e.g. celiac disease (gluten
improve (Kline et al. 2001: 39). Absenteeism due
intolerance); and disaccharidase deficiencies, all to dialysis or surgery may interrupt the learner’s
with an extremely chronic course and needing fol- academic progress.
low-up investigations and treatment, as well as
lifelong dietary manipulation. The teacher must
take this into consideration when planning learn- 19.5.11 Common nutritional disorders
ing activities related to food. Nutritional disorders usually occur due to defi-
Liver diseases caused by infections, congenital ciencies of certain nutrients in the diet, an unbal-
structural defects, tumours or toxin-induced dam- anced diet or a diet deficient in kilojoules (calo-
age need specific mention as they are usually ries). Different presentations are seen, from stunt-
associated with severe discomfort and a long- ing and wasting to water retention and severe
term chronic-to-fatal course, and often result in oedema. Skin lesions can look a lot like burns, or

439
SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

the skin can be dry and scaly resembling pellagra. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are eating
The heart muscle is affected and severe malnutri- disorders associated with adolescents (and even
tion can often lead to death. Intelligence is affect- younger children) of all types of background and
ed but this seems to be reversible; however, long- ethnic groups.
term starving or repeated malnutrition can lead to Although anorexia nervosa begins as a diet with
permanent brain damage. Children who are mal- restricted kilojoule intake, it ends up as a psycho-
nourished often live in poor socio-economic cir- logical disturbance. These learners are usually
cumstances with little developmental stimulation very determined and motivated when taking on a
and nurturing. The teacher has an important role challenge such as losing weight. They can no
to play in identifying learners who require enrol- longer keep up with their other positive achieve-
ment in feeding programmes. Learning activities ments because of a lack of nutritional food, dizzi-
will be affected as hungry children can be very ness and poor concentration (Krüger & Groe-
fidgety, apathetic and listless, and may also have newald. 2004: 24; Mental Health Information Cen-
concentration problems. tre 2004: 1–2). Learners with anorexia usually
Vitamin deficiencies are commonly associated have a low self-esteem and they may feel that the
with malnutrition and the following are common: only control they have over their lives is their
• Vitamin D deficiency is common in Africa in the weight and the amount of food they eat. They
first year of life and leads to rickets, with bow- often do not recognise that they are underweight.
ing of the legs in older children, softening of They may even enjoy exercising control over the
the skull bones, broadening of the wrists and hunger pains until they subside. They usually
thickening of certain parts of the ribcage in resist any attempt of help because to them, help
smaller children. is synonymous with being forced to eat.
Bulimia, on the other hand, is characterised by
• Night blindness is the classical feature of vita- periods of starving followed by periods of
min A deficiency in adults and older learners, overeating and then vomiting. Laxatives and
while varying degrees of damage to the cornea diuretics are also used in excess to get rid of the
is seen in younger children and infants. The amount of food that is consumed.
affected corneal damage can be reversible in
Signs of anorexia nervosa and bulimia are
the early stages but irreversible corneal ulcera-
tion and blindness will occur in later stages. • excessive weight loss
• Deficiencies of the B complex vitamins are com- • excessive exercise (especially those who suffer
mon, with nicotinic acid deficiency presenting from anorexia nervosa)
with pellagra, riboflavin deficiency presenting • wearing clothes that are too large to cover up
with skin lesions and pyridoxine deficiency pre- weight loss
senting with convulsions. Treatment is with B • frequent excuses for not attending meals (“I
complex preparations and is mostly reversible. will eat later; I am not hungry now”)
• Vitamin C deficiency usually presents in infancy • dry hair and skin
between 4–10 months of age and may thus not • complaining of severe stomach-ache (bulimia)
be a problem in the school population. • tooth decay (because of vomiting)

Mary, a 15-year-old girl, has gradually become very moody and is never satisfied with her
performance. Her friends say that she visited the gym every day until a month previously.
ACTIVITY

You notice that she is wearing loose clothes and has lost weight. When you speak to her
parents about her weight loss, the mother replies that Mary is never hungry. When she is
called for supper, her reply is that she is not hungry and that she will eat later. They are wor-
ried about her general health. What warning signs of an eating disorder can you find in this
case study?

440
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

• complaining of being too fat, although they are itself, with long courses of chemotherapy, radical
excessively thin surgery and irradiation. Irradiation has a direct
• obsession with food, kilojoules and recipes effect on the central nervous system, resulting in
• depression, mood swings, etc. behavioural, concentration and memory prob-
• secretiveness about eating patterns, etc. lems. The child will often lose his hair as a result
of treatment and will have an increased suscepti-
bility to infection. Exhaustion is common. The
ACTIVITY

Can you think of more signs that you teacher can play an important role in reducing the
should be aware of that may result in child’s social isolation and helping the reintegra-
anorexia nervosa and bulimia? tion of the learner into the class by maintaining
contact with the individual when he is absent
from school through visits, letters or manageable
Teachers should be aware of the signs of anorexia school projects. If a child with cancer dies, the
nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Parents or guardians teacher may need to support parents and other
should be informed about any signs that may be learners through their grieving process.
indicative of eating disorders. Medical as well as
psychiatric support is necessary. Teachers cannot 19.5.13 Common heart disorders
do much except observe and accept the learner. It
Cardiac pathology (heart problems) covers a wide
helps to recognise that those suffering from
spectrum of diseases such as acute rheumatic
anorexia and bulimia are engaged in a battle and
fever resulting in chronic heart valve lesions, con-
can be helped in the following ways (Krüger &
genital cyanotic defects (allowing unoxygenated
Groenewald. 2004: 26):
blood to circulate through the body, causing a
• Avoid topics concerning food as well as bal- decrease in oxygen in the tissues) and acyanotic
anced diets. They will not listen. lesions (causing impairment of blood flow within
• Act absolutely normally towards that person. the heart or great blood vessels), as well as heart
• Do not join in gossip groups – there are many muscle disorders (e.g. cardiomyopathies). Most
other reasons why people might lose a lot of heart problems result in exercise intolerance,
weight. tiredness, cyanosis (blue discolouration of lips and
• Try to understand their depression, inner nail beds), strict adherence to medication and/or
emptiness, poor self-image, anxiety and fears. heart surgery with long periods of hospitalisation,
and sometimes an insidious course leading to
• Appreciate their special qualities and strong
death. Abnormalities with the heart’s rhythm (con-
points and build on them to enhance their self-
duction disorders) can be treated with a pacemak-
esteem.
er, which will prevent the child from doing any
contact sport. Rhythm disturbances are sometimes
19.5.12 Common childhood cancers associated with deafness. Often heart problems
Childhood cancers, such as leukaemia (cancer of are part of a syndrome and associated with renal
the blood-forming tissues), lymphomas (tumours (kidney), vertebral and gastrointestinal pathology,
of the lymph glands and lymph nodes), retinoblas- leading to many surgical procedures over many
toma (tumour arising from retina of the eye), neu- years.
roblastoma (tumour of the sympathetic nervous The teacher needs to be aware of any restric-
system), rhabolomyosarcoma (malignancy of tions with regard to physical activities as well as
straited muscle cells) and osteosarcoma (tumour the need for any medication which must be taken
of the bone), are usually not cured, but go into during the school day. Children who have heart
remission and require vigorous treatment which surgery will be absent from school for extended
will have the child in hospital for lengthy periods, periods and the teacher needs to maintain con-
often months at a time. The treatment is often as tact with the child and provide appropriate learn-
disfiguring and painful to the child as the disease ing activities if the child’s condition permits.

441
SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

19.5.14 Blood disorders be “... defined by his disease”. The same stan-
dards of behaviour should be expected from all
Haematological (blood) abnormalities cover a
learners, and the teacher should consistently
wide spectrum of diseases which include iron-
implement classroom and school rules for all
deficiency anaemia as a result of malnutrition,
learners. Some teachers may question why
severe and chronic deficiency of platelets (idio-
learners with life-threatening diseases should
pathic thrombocytopenia), deficiency of clotting
spend any effort on schoolwork if the child has
factors (haemophilia), and bone marrow suppres-
no long-term future. Research with terminally
sion (aplastic anaemia), to mention a few. All
ill children has shown that, wherever possible,
these abnormalities lead to either an increased even chronically ill persons want to live normal
risk of infection, chronic fatigue or a high tenden- lives and that the “... removal of the normal
cy to bleed. According to Kline et al. (2001: 37), challenges, disciplines and expectations of
learners with blood disorders have a high risk of school life can be worrying; similarly, unlimited
educational, psychosocial and behavioural prob- treats and uncritical acceptance of misbehav-
lems. These authors recommend careful educa- iour can cause anxiety” (Jeffrey 1990: 135).
tional assessment for the early identification of
academic difficulties. The teacher will often be • Teachers should be able to recognise the most
the first person to notice that a learner is lethar- usual manifestations of common chronic dis-
gic, pale and unusually tired, and should consult eases which might affect learners in their class
with the parents if these symptoms persist for any and refer these individuals, via their parents or
guardians, to appropriate health and/or sup-
length of time without a reasonable explanation.
port services. Classroom teachers are in a good
position to observe all learners every day and
19.6 LEARNING SUPPORT TO LEARNERS they should be able to notice changes in the
WITH CHRONIC DISEASES behaviour, health (such as losing weight) and
• The teacher should be able to assess the aca- academic performance of individual learners in
demic performance of the child with a chronic the classroom.
illness and then develop, in collaboration with • Should teachers be aware of any learners with a
parents, an educational plan to foster success chronic disease in their classes, they have a
at school while promoting all aspects of the responsibility to obtain current information
child’s development. This should include iden- from the learners’ parents or health care
tifying strengths of the learner and building on provider (only with parental permission) about
them while giving positive feedback for effort the disease and how to manage it in the class-
and success. Learner assessment should be room situation. The teacher should cultivate a
ongoing so that adaptations can be made to good relationship with the parents or
learning activities to meet any changing educa- guardians of a learner, as in many cases parents
tional needs of the child as a result of declining become experts in the day-to-day management
health (e.g. a chronically tired learner or one of the particular chronic illness. The teacher
whose fine motor hand skills are deteriorating will need information about any medication,
may require extra time to complete assign- diet or exercise requirements during the school
ments or tests). Both the school-based and the day. Regular contact should be maintained with
district-based support teams can be parents, who should be requested to communi-
approached to give advice with regard to learn- cate any important information about the
er assessment and educational support, and the learner to the school which might affect the
teacher should also consult the Curriculum 2005 child’s learning experiences and/or time at
assessment guidelines for inclusion (Department of school. This should include information related
Education 2002). to medical appointments, changes in medica-
tion, special adjustments required to the school
• Frieman and Settel (1994: 199) remind us that environment or school programme, and deteri-
the learner with a chronic disease should not oration in physical health.

442
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

• The teacher should keep updated telephone not accessible to younger learners (e.g. insulin
numbers of the learner’s parents or guardian as and antibiotics need to be stored in a refrigera-
well as emergency medical contacts in an acces- tor).
sible place for use in an emergency. Details like
• The family (parents and siblings) may need
medical aid name and number, and/or hospital
extra support to cope with the emotional and
or clinic number are important to have at
psychosocial demands of a chronically ill child,
school if the learner has to be taken by school
and the teacher can encourage all family mem-
personnel in an emergency to hospital. Like-
bers to join support groups to help them share
wise, written parental consent for emergency
their feelings and learn from others who are
medical treatment should be available on the
experiencing similar situations.
learner’s file.
• Teachers might also be asked by doctors to
• The teacher should check with parents whether
provide feedback on the effectiveness of med-
any particular precautions are required for
ications used to improve behaviour, concentra-
excursions or any other unusual school or
tion or learning. Information about a learner
sporting events. Everything possible should be
may only be obtained from, or supplied to,
done to include learners with chronic diseases
health or other professionals, with the permis-
in these aspects of school life.
sion of the parent or legal guardian. Any infor-
• The teacher should be prepared to cope with mation obtained about the health status of a
any health emergencies related to a specific particular learner should be confidential and
chronic disease (e.g. hypoglycaemia or an asth- shared only within the school on a “need-to-
matic attack). This might include providing ini- know” basis with the written permission of the
tial emergency care, or contacting emergency parents or legal guardian. Although this is par-
health services and parents. ticularly relevant to chronic diseases like
HIV/Aids, it also applies to any other health
• Teachers should try unobtrusively to integrate
impairment.
some of the less-involved medical treatments
into the everyday classroom routine (e.g. the • The teacher should find out from the parents
administering of medication) without unduly what the child knows and understands about
disrupting the classroom activities or embar- his chronic disease. It is not the role of the
rassing the affected learner. The learner may teacher to disclose any personal health infor-
require privacy at certain times of the day for mation to a chronically ill learner unless this is
the administration of chronic medication like done in collaboration with the family. For
insulin injections or asthma medication using a example, many young children who are HIV
spacer device. infected and not yet ill will not necessarily
know their diagnosis and the teacher must
• The teacher should keep written and dated
ensure that this information is not inadvertent-
records of all medication administered during
ly disclosed to the learner.
school hours by staff and immediately report
any unusual side effects to the parents. It is • The teacher should ensure that the classroom
important to ask parents to provide a doctor’s environment, where possible, makes allow-
prescription for any medication which must be ances for the specific child’s chronic disease.
given to the learner during school hours. This For example, pets should be removed from a
should clearly list the name of the learner, the classroom if a learner is allergic to animal dan-
name of the medication, the time the medica- der. Toys and learning materials should be
tion should be given, the amount to be given appropriate to the developmental level of the
(dose) and how it should be given. Some chronically ill child and extra uncluttered space
thought should be given to where and under allowed for learners in wheelchairs or with
what conditions medication will be stored so poor motor coordination. Suitable develop-
that it does not lose its potency and so that it is mentally appropriate opportunities should be

443
SECTION G ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS

available for learners to express feelings and 19.7 CONCLUSION

frustrations in an acceptable way. Music, fanta- Teachers are in contact daily with many learners,
sy play, puppet play and sensopathic activities some of whom will have chronic health problems.
(water, sand and play-dough) are wonderful, Meeting the needs of all learners in the classroom
legitimate ways in which to release tension and implies that teachers have to expand their tradi-
express negative emotions. tional roles and become competent in recognising
• The teacher should make allowances for devia- chronic health problems which affect learners,
tions in the school routine, such as permitting while optimising learning experiences for these
the learner to visit the toilet more frequently if individuals. An inclusive approach to education
required (e.g. learners with high blood sugar means that all learners, including those with
levels may need to urinate more frequently, chronic diseases, have the right and ability to ben-
while persons on certain medications or who efit from appropriate learning experiences provid-
ed in the school setting.
are HIV infected may have chronic diarrhoea).
Extra rest periods or snacks might need to be
provided for some chronically ill learners dur- Questions
ing the day. 1. What resources are available in your communi-
• The teacher should be on the lookout for any ty to help teachers learn more about the fol-
overt or covert discrimination against or lowing chronic health diseases: asthma, dia-
ridicule of learners with chronic diseases, and betes, HIV/Aids? Develop a resource file with
should integrate positive education messages useful information for teachers about some of
about chronic diseases into the learning pro- the chronic diseases mentioned in this chap-
gramme. It is important for classmates to ter.
become compassionate and supportive of the 2. Write a short article for the staff newsletter
learner who experiences a medical emergency about the general educational implications of
during the school day. chronic diseases in the school situation.
• If a learner is absent from school for a lengthy
period of time, the teacher should liaise with Bibliography
parents about whether it is appropriate to send American Academy of Pediatrics. 1999. Issues related to
learning activities home. Likewise, written mes- human immunodeficiency virus transmission in schools,
child care, medical settings, the home and community.
sages and drawings from classmates can be
Pediatrics, 104(2): 318–324.
sent to the child to help decrease social isola-
Baum, J.D., Dominica, F. & Woodward, R. (Eds). 1990.
tion from school and the peer group. A wel- Listen my child has a lot of living to do: caring for children
come-back activity on the day of a learner’s with life-threatening conditions. Oxford: Oxford University
return to school will help to facilitate reintegra- Press.
tion into the class. Bender, S.J. & Sorochan, W.D. 1997. Teaching health sci-
ence: elementary and middle school, 4th ed. Boston, MA.:
• Finally, if a learner should die, the teacher Jones & Bartlett.
should be able to help the class deal with this Betz, C.L., Hunsberger, M. & Wright, S. 1994. Family-cen-
experience in a developmentally appropriate tered nursing care of children, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B.
way, bearing in mind that there are a variety of Saunders.
different religious and cultural beliefs and ritu- Bigge, J.L., Best, S.J. & Heller, K.W. 2001. Teaching indi-
als about death. Appropriate interventions viduals with physical, health or multiple disabilities, 4th ed.
Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
might include attending the funeral, sending
Black, S. 1999. HIV/Aids in early childhood centres.
letters or drawings to the family, talking about Young Children, 54(2): 39–45.
the missed classmate or reading stories to
Coscia, J.M., Christensen, B.K., Henry, R.R., Wallston, K.,
younger children that deal with loss, death or Radcliffe, J. & Rutstein, R. 2001. Effects of home environ-
dying. ment, socioeconomic status, and health status on cogni-

444
 CHRONIC DISEASES 19

tive functioning in children with HIV-1 infection. Journal of Knight, W.G., Mellins, C.A., Levenson, R.L., Arpadi, S.M.
Pediatric Psychology, 26(6): 321–329. & Kairam, R. 2000. Effects of pediatric HIV infection on
Department of Education. 1999. National policy on mental and psychomotor development. Journal of Pedi-
HIV/Aids for learners and educators in public schools and atric Psychology, 25(8): 583–587.
students and educators in Further Education and Training Krüger, D. & Groenewald, S. 2004. A practical guide for
institutions, Notice 1926 of 1999. Government Gazette, learners to accommodate diversities in inclusive education
Volume 410(20372). Pretoria: Government Printer. – secondary schools and colleges. Bapsfontein: OBE Pub-
Department of Education. 2002. Curriculum 2005 assess- lishers.
ment guidelines for inclusion. Available at: [Link] Lewis, S.Y. 2001. Coping over the long haul: understand-
[Link]/[Link]?src=rsea (accessed 29 August ing and supporting children and families affected by HIV
2004). disease. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 26(6): 359–361.
Department of Health. 2001. HIV/Aids: care and support Marotz, L.R., Cross, M.Z. & Rush, J.M. 2001. Health, safe-
of infected and affected learners. Pretoria: Government ty and nutrition for the young child, 5th ed. Albany, NY:
Printer. Delmar.
Frieman, B.B. & Settel, J. 1994. What the classroom Mental Health Information Centre. 2004. What is an eating
teacher needs to know about children with chronic med- disorder? Available at: [Link]
ical problems. Childhood Education, 70(4): 196–201. health/[Link] (accessed 15 June 2004).
Funk, S.G. (Ed.). 1993. Key aspects of caring for the Orr, J.P. 1992. A nursing model for the care of the hospi-
chronically ill: hospital and home. New York: Springer. talised preschool child. Unpublished MA dissertation. Pre-
Jackson, D.B. & Saunders, R.B. 1993. Child health nurs- toria: Unisa.
ing: a comprehensive approach to the care of children and Perrin, E.C. & Gerrity, P.S. 1981. There’s a demon in your
their families. Philadelphia: Lippencott. belly: children’s understanding of illness. Pediatrics, 67(6):
Janse van Rensburg, E. 2000. The origin of HIV. South 841–849.
African Journal of Science, 96(6): 267–269. Sexson, S.B. & Dingle, A.D. 2001. Medical disorders. In
Jeffrey, P. 1990. Enhancing their lives: a challenge for Kline, F.M., Silver, L.B. & Russell, S.C. (Eds), The educa-
education. In Baum, J.D., Dominica, F. & Woodward, R. tor’s guide to medical issues in the classroom. Baltimore,
(Eds), 1990. Listen my child has a lot of living to do: caring MA: Paul H. Brookes.
for children with life-threatening conditions. Oxford: Synoground, S.G. & Kelsey, M.C. 1990. Health care prob-
Oxford University Press, 133–137. lems in the classroom: a reference manual for school per-
Kapp, J.A. (Ed.). 1994. Children with problems: an sonnel emphasizing teacher classroom observations and
orthopedagogical perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik. management techniques. Springfield, lL: Charles C.
Kibel, M.A. & Wagstaff, L.A. (Eds). 1995. Child health for Thomas.
all: a manual for southern Africa, 2nd ed. Cape Town: Tompkins, W. & Shannon, T. 1993. Student health prob-
Oxford University Press. lems: an educator’s reference. Albany, NY: Delmar.
Kline, F.M., Silver, L.B & Russell, S.C. (Eds). 2001. The Wolery, M. & Wilbers, J.S. (Eds). 1994. Including children
educator’s guide to medical issues in the classroom. Balti- with special needs in early childhood programs. Washing-
more, MA: Paul H. Brookes. ton, DC. NAEYC.

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 Section

Addressing
challenging
behaviour

447
 ADDRESSING
CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR
20
IN THE CLASSROOM
ERNA PRINSLOO

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πunderstand the nature and extent of challenging behaviour and its
causes
Πrecognise the roles of home, school and society in creating
behavioural and discipline problems
Πidentify some common mistakes teachers make when they discipline
learners
Πunderstand and implement useful strategies in preventing disruptive
and challenging behaviour.

The reasons for this rising tide of unruliness are

Having learners who show disruptive
manifold. The origin of the problem lies in the
behaviour is not new.
total disruption of family life in the postmodern
Our approach to helping them has changed world. Safe and secure family circumstances
dramatically. where parents and grandparents inculcate values
and serve as role models for children are fast dis-
Key terms appearing. The lack of warmth, acceptance and
provision of basic needs has caused a climate of
challenging behaviour ♦ disruptive behaviour ♦ prob- physical and emotional insecurity, which has led
lem behaviour ♦ causes of problem behaviour ♦ mani- to hostile and unruly behaviour of children. Low
festations of problem behaviour ♦ teacher mistakes ♦ economic status of families and communities has
strategies to prevent problem behaviour ♦ positive influenced children’s lives and behaviour. Single
reinforcement ♦ punishment ♦ token economy pro- parenthood, stressful life experiences and vio-
gramme lence in everyday life contribute to feelings of
insecurity and isolation and aggravated problem
20.1 INTRODUCTION behaviour (Najman et al. 2000: 439).
One of the most important problems facing teach- The problem is further aggravated by a situa-
ers in the new education dispensation in South tion in schools that is not conducive to positive
Africa is challenging behaviour in the classroom. character development or the stimulation of cre-
There is a general climate of undisciplined behav- ative cognitive development. Teachers are often
iour and an aversion to the acceptance of author- not well qualified. They lack the knowledge of dif-
ity, which results in the disempowerment of ferent teaching methods, and they are demotivat-
teachers and a lack of successful learning of too ed by the large number of learners in their class-
many learners in South African schools. rooms, by the lack of parent involvement in the

449
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

learning process, and by the challenges of out- that they exist and can cause perceptual prob-
comes-based education and the new National Cur- lems, attention deficits, hyperactivity, lack of
riculum. social perception and a general lack of perception
The 21st century has also brought an important of proper behaviour in the classroom. Detailed
change in communal life in the country. The information on the nature and effects of intrinsic
emphasis on human rights and the decline of factors causing challenging behaviour, as well as
norms and values have resulted in moral and sex- guidelines on dealing with these problems, can be
ual licentiousness. The demand for human and found in Chapters 12–19.
children’s rights without the acknowledgement of
the responsibilities expected from members of [Link] Extrinsic factors
the community encourages rebellious behaviour. The home environment and the school determine
Materialism, abject poverty and the influence of the emotional and social adjustment of children
globalisation on communal life and the economy and these factors interact with the genetic predis-
contribute to the spirit of selfish individualism, position in shaping behaviour (Farrell 1995: 3).
desperation and the lack of involvement in the
cognitive, moral and social development of chil- Family factors
dren. The most important function of a family is to pro-
vide parents and children with love, emotional
The most recent documents of the support and security. It serves to guide the chil-
ACTIVITY

Department of Education (2001; 2002) dren to behave in a socially acceptable manner

speak of “challenging behaviour” according to the values and norms of their society
instead of behaviour problems. What is and to provide for the basic physiological needs
your view on this? of all its members (Wood 1991: 414). Researchers
such as Rizzo and Zabel (1988) and Weeks (2000)
identify the experience of a variety of needs in the
20.2 CAUSE, NATURE AND EXTENT OF
developmental years of children and adolescents:
TYPICAL CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN
they want to be accepted and needed by their
THE CLASSROOM
families, they want to be cared for and protected,
20.2.1 Causative factors they want to be treated with respect and dignity,
Learners may display challenging behaviour and they want to experience a sense of belonging and
emotional problems for a variety of reasons. feel valuable to their families, they want to be
These can be caused by factors that are intrinsic educated and guided to act in a socially accept-
or extrinsic. Usually the factors are mutually inter- able way and they want to benefit from opportu-
active and although we cannot really separate nities which will provide them with a feeling of
them, the following main groups are distin- self-actualisation by being creative and having
guished for the sake of clarity: done useful work (Weeks 2000: 215). It is essen-
tial that the atmosphere in the home be of such a
[Link] Intrinsic factors nature that children can develop a sense of trust
Intrinsic factors that impact on learners’ behav- and positive self-esteem and a feeling of inde-
iour include hearing and vision impairments, food pendence and self-actualisation.
intolerance, autism, medical conditions (e.g. The home environment in South Africa, as in
epilepsy and brain damage, heart diseases, and the rest of the postmodern world, fails to a large
disturbances of glandular activity and blood extent to provide children with the background
sugar), and psychological conditions ( e.g. low that is conducive to harmonious development and
self-esteem, difficult temperament, psychotic dis- positive behaviour patterns. Parents are often
orders and levels of intelligence). Teachers have beset with a spirit of selfishness and materialism
little influence on these conditions – except for and are so busy with their own expectations that
direct support in cases of difficult temperament they do not have time to pay attention to their
and low self-esteem – but it is necessary to know children. They neglect their responsibility to

450
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

inculcate norms and values and serve as role mod- tional life will lack depth because of emotional
els. The children are not regarded as worthy of neglect. On the other hand, their understanding
attention and are deprived of emotional support. of norms will be poor because of a lack of involve-
The rising number of divorces causes a large num- ment and role modelling. Such children often dis-
ber of single-parent households where children play a weak will, lack of moral feeling and self-
have little opportunity of experiencing parental control, and little empathy with others. They find
involvement and security. it difficult to integrate into society, and experi-
The rising tide of poverty in South Africa has a ence dissatisfaction and frustration with resultant
devastating effect on the developmental environ- misbehaviour or deviant behaviour as an expres-
ment in many homes. Poverty manifests in ill sion of inner conflict. This in turn may lead to
health, undernourishment, deprivation of privi- clashes with educators and sometimes also with
leges, unsupportive environments in informal set- the law (Kapp 1999: 116).
tlements and squatter camps, language deficien-
cies, limited social status and a negative view of
Make a list of the factors that make

ACTIVITY
the future. Technological backwardness, an family life in your community dysfunc-
opportunity-deprived existence, conflict, vio- tional. Can the school or other commu-
lence, crime, substance abuse and psychological nity structures be mobilised into
deprivation aggravate the problem and form an improving the situation?
escalating cycle of deprivation. The increasing
number of Aids deaths in the country has the
effect that more and more children are becoming School factors
the heads of households where they must assume
the financial and emotional responsibility of pro- Some children display challenging behaviour
viding for younger members of the family without when entering school, while challenging behav-
any kind of support system. Children in such cir- iour of others commences during their school
cumstances are vulnerable and isolated and very years, often simply as the result of unfavourable
often the victims of physical, emotional and sexu- experiences at school. Children experiencing chal-
al abuse. A negative personal and academic self- lenging behaviour create problems for teachers as
concept, a low level of motivation, accumulated well as for classmates. They are not easily accept-
scholastic backlogs and frequent early school ed into the class community and feel unwanted,
leaving are all problems that these children are belittled and alone. They cannot fully participate
forced to deal with. Educators have to be aware of in class life and are deprived of the opportunity to
the circumstances of these disadvantaged learn- acquire the necessary cognitive and social skills to
ers and also realise that they constitute the vast establish self-confidence, a sense of worthiness,
majority of the school population in the country effective communication, harmonious relation-
(Prinsloo in Van Wyk & Lemmer 2002: 66). Digni- ships and eventual self-actualisation.
fied and respectful conduct towards teachers and Factors that may contribute to emotional and
peers at school becomes an empty ideal that has behaviour problems in schools are the following:
no place in their frame of reference.
Educational neglect implies, as a matter of The curriculum
course, that little or no demands are made on Learning content must be embedded in the con-
children regarding self-discipline. They do not text of the children’s culture and life world in
acquire positive norms and they are not required order to be meaningful to them. Learners who
to comply with demands. The influence of the find the curriculum pointless and meaningless and
home on the development of children’s con- not targeted at an appropriate level, or who even
science therefore remains incomplete. Kapp view it as irrelevant to their future work-related
(2002: 116) explains that educational neglect like needs, distance themselves from the task of learn-
this may lead to serious deficiencies in children’s ing and may as a consequence display various
psychological lives. On the one hand, their emo- forms of unacceptable behaviour. Such behaviour

451
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

may typically include not paying attention in class,

not completing their homework, not preparing Consider the situation at your school

ACTIVITY
for tests, and in certain circumstances, even tru- and then point out in what way the
organisation of the school can be mod-
ancy (Jones & Charlton 1996: 19).
ified to improve learning success and
Curriculum renewal has become a top priority
to produce better-behaved learners.
in South Africa’s education policy since 1994. The
present curriculum strives to reflect learners’ cul-
ture, unique history, familiar life experiences and The school personnel
future work-related needs. Great emphasis is
placed on the teacher’s task to present the study The attitude and behaviour of the principal and
material in a manner that is in line with learners’ the class teachers have an important influence on
life world and is engendered with meaning and the attitude and behaviour of the learners in the
relevance. Learners need to be encouraged to crit- school.
ically evaluate their study material and to be A principal who is rigid, autocratic and unwill-
involved in the implementation of it in their frame ing to listen to teachers and learners, and who
of reference. Teachers have to ensure that all con- conveys the message that he is not interested in
tent is presented in a learner-oriented way by promoting the interests of learners and teachers,
using examples and assignments that relate to encourages demotivation and misbehaviour from
learners’ life worlds. The new National Curriculum all members of the school community. The princi-
changed the focus in the classroom from content pal should at all times be dedicated, enthusiastic
to vocational training, and emphasises the devel- and willing to motivate learners, teachers and
opmental outcomes of each phase. In culturally parents. The whole school development, which is
diverse classes, however, where learners are not the natural result of this approach, is described in
taught in their mother tongue, this is no small Chapter 1.
task. In the present inclusive educational scene Teachers are the people who have the most
with its large classes and increasing levels of influence on learners’ behaviour and perform-
diversity, this task has become extremely com- ance. They determine the class atmosphere and
plex. take the initiative for relationships between
themselves and each of the learners. They decide
School organisation how the class routine and activities will be organ-
The organisation and rules of the school should ised, in what way they will present the curricu-
make sense to learners. Where they do not fit into lum, which teaching methods they will apply and
the general pattern or where they feel that they what kind of behaviour they will expect and toler-
are not important and not accepted in their ate in their classrooms. Teachers should have the
unique circumstances, they will be uncooperative necessary knowledge of the learning areas they
and display unacceptable behaviour. The way in teach, the skills to observe and assess undesirable
which discipline is maintained in the school and in behaviour, and the ability to design suitable
the classroom often contributes to the encour- strategies to prevent and alter misbehaviour.
agement of misbehaviour. Discipline should never Teachers who are not well qualified and who lack
be too lax, too rigid or inconsistent. Too often the necessary skills to understand different learn-
misbehaving children are rewarded with recogni- ing styles and use different teaching styles are too
tion and attention in the form of criticism or pun- often so unsure of themselves that they have little
ishment while the children who behave well are positive influence on learners. Their lack of moti-
ignored. vation, enthusiasm and interest in the learners
encourages negative behaviour in the class. Chil-
Treat people as if they were what they ought dren need a supporting atmosphere of emotional
to be and you help them become what they warmth, encouragement, high expectations and
are capable of becoming. active guidance in the development of a positive
self-concept. Where such an atmosphere is

452
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

lacking, they are naturally inclined towards an licentiousness and the egotism and greedy
unwillingness to learn and towards negative materialism of the new South African society
behaviour. come to the fore in the responses of 87 per
cent of the participants in the survey
(Prinsloo 1998: 19).
The demands of inclusive education,
outcomes-based teaching, new forms
of assessment and the new National
A misinterpretation of the privileges of human
Curriculum often serve to demotivate rights has resulted in disharmonious relationships
between parents and children. Traditional morals
ACTIVITY

teachers – especially where they strug-

gle with large classes of 40 and more have been discarded for a more permissive way of
learners. life. Parents in all areas report an often unbridge-
Do you have any suggestions on how able gap between them and their children. They
teachers can succeed in meeting the complain that children are becoming increasingly
new demands and keep up a positive, difficult to control and disrespectful of elders.
self-motivated and enthusiastic attitude Restoring the value system and moral fibre of
in class? society is a challenge of the highest priority for
South Africans in general and the education sec-
tor in particular. The Minister of Education and
Community factors
the Department of Education have accepted this
Post-industrial life in the 21st century is deter- challenge and stated that our entire reconstruc-
mined by continuous and dramatic changes. tion and development project in the 21st century
Social structures in South Africa have under- will depend upon our determination and creativi-
gone a radical change in terms of rapid and ty in addressing the complicated area of values
unplanned urbanisation, a breakdown in family education (Republic of South Africa 2000: 3).
life, a new permissiveness regarding moral values
and the HIV/Aids pandemic. Moreover, the 21st
century is characterised by a production-oriented When you think about everyday life in
your community, can you point out
materialism and accelerated technological
specific attempts of families, schools
ACTIVITY

advances. Developments in the mass media with and community structures like church-
specific reference to the Internet and television es and cultural or sport organisations to
make it possible to be instantly aware of what is inculcate proper values in the lives of
happening in every corner of the earth. The children? Write down your thoughts on
boundaries between peoples, nations, religions, the degree of success you think your
value systems and lifestyles are collapsing, there- community structures are achieving.
by creating a cosmopolitan world order. Society is
confronted by a powerful, often confusing diversi-
ty of values. Influences of the mass media, and the Apart from the abovementioned contextual situa-
advertising, fashion and entertainment world are tions, learners are also more inclined to develop
often in direct conflict with the values of tradi- challenging behaviour, according to the Royal Col-
tional cultures in South Africa. The continuous lege of Psychiatrists (1999), if they
confrontation with a multiplicity of lifestyles and • always had difficult personalities
pluralistic values has had its impact on society. A • have learning and reading problems which
countrywide survey conducted in 1998 brought make it difficult for them to participate in class
the following sad picture to light: activities – they become bored and feel inferior
There is an increasing loss of honesty, • are inclined to be depressed
integrity, chastity, diligence, a pride in work • are abused or bullied
well done, and respect for the lives and pos- • are hyperactive, which causes a lack of self-dis-
sessions of others. The rising wave of cor- cipline, and the inability to concentrate and
ruption, crime, violence, moral and sexual obey rules.

453
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

20.3 MANIFESTATIONS OF CHALLENGING • There is a continuation of early challenging

BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOLS behaviour into later juvenile delinquent behav-
Challenging behaviour is encountered in learners iour during adolescence.
of all ages. The following research findings are but
Teachers from all areas in South Africa report that
a few examples illustrating the different perspec-
the most common problems which they
tives from which challenging behaviour is viewed.
encounter in the classroom are attention-seeking
In these perspectives are elements of labelling in
and disruptive behaviour. Other common prob-
terms of sex, age and characteristics of behaviour
lems in the classroom are
patterns, as well as elements of moral judgement.
According to Herbert (in Weeks 2000: 167), the • attention deficit
art of labelling is rooted in social judgements • aggressiveness
made on the basis of social criteria embedded in • stubborn disobedience and a refusal to accept
society, while moral judgements are based on discipline
good or bad behaviour which is founded on moral • negativity – a refusal to strive towards achieve-
values. Weeks (2000: 167–168) summarised the ment or to work and cooperate with others
findings of Barker, Herbert, McNamara, Mont- • depression
gomery, Conway, and Lewis and Doorlag as fol- • anxiety
lows, and stated that some of these viewpoints • lack of motivation and interest
might be contradictory and not applicable to all • talking out of turn and hampering other learn-
learners or groups of learners: ers
• Behavioural problems are more common • inadequate peer relations.
among secondary than among primary school
learners. Lying, stealing, truancy, fighting, use of addictive
• Boys are more likely than girls to display prob- substances, rape, arson and vandalism are more
lem behaviour. They are also more frequently serious problems which are very often part of the
involved in juvenile delinquency. school scene in the country, but such behaviour
• Boys are more inclined to exhibit disruptive patterns do not interfere with the everyday class-
behaviour than girls. room routine to the same extent as the above-
mentioned problems do.
• Challenging behaviour occurs more frequently
in urban than in rural areas.
20.3.1 Effects of disruptive behaviour
• Certain types of challenging behaviour tend to
on teachers, learners and the
occur in certain combinations. For instance,
country
aggressive behaviour is associated with juvenile
delinquency and the use of addictive sub-
Before reading this paragraph, make a
stances. Lying is often associated with theft and
list of the types of behaviour that you
other severe challenging behaviour. Types of encounter in your classroom (or have
challenging behaviour are interrelated and encountered in the class during your
ACTIVITY

should be treated as such. school-going years) that you regard as

• Challenging behaviour often makes its first most problematic for teachers. What do
appearance within the home where the earliest you think can be done about it? Are
symptoms can be detected – lies, disobedience, teachers in any way empowered to deal
and verbal or physical aggressiveness towards with problems which have their cause
family members. As the problem gets worse, it in factors often completely out of their
sphere of influence?
begins to manifest outside the home environ-
ment.
• Disruptive behaviour in the classroom is the Disruptive behaviour includes any kind of behav-
most common challenging behaviour that iour that has a negative effect on the learning
teachers encounter in practice. process in the classroom. Teachers mention the

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 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

following as examples of common types of behav- 20.4 STRATEGIES IN DEALING WITH

iour that disturb their lessons. A refusal to obey CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE
requests and commands; noisiness; showing off; CLASSROOM
teasing; irritating or disturbing other learners;
Discipline problems in schools can in many ways
leaving their seats without permission; talking out
be categorised into some general types. It is,
of turn; calling out when the teacher is speaking;
however, virtually impossible to anticipate partic-
making improper noises; not paying attention;
ular problems and to employ predetermined
storming out of the classroom, and even knife
strategies of intervention. Teachers need to
attacks. These forms of challenging behaviour
become proficient in using a hierarchy of disci-
establish patterns that occur all the time and
pline strategies and to be comfortable with
make it virtually impossible for teachers to teach
responding in particular situations to a multitude
properly. Teachers are unable to pay the neces-
of unique and unexpected situations. In order to
sary attention to any other learners who are in
do this effectively, it is important for teachers to
need of support, the learners who engage in such
develop a sound theoretical foundation from
behaviour get no benefit from the learning mate-
which to approach each unique learner’s disci-
rial, the attention of all the other learners is dis-
pline problem.
tracted and the atmosphere in the class is nega-
tively affected. Teachers are often so discouraged As teachers manage their classroom rules and
by this loss of control that they lose their enthusi- procedures, they periodically encounter various
asm and motivation, and the entire learning kinds of misbehaviour. If such discipline problems
process is hampered. have not been prevented, they must be managed
A lack of enthusiasm to teach and the lack of when they occur. There are a variety of specific
proper circumstances to learn inevitably lead to strategies, ranging from non-intrusive to very
underachievement and aggravate the lack of a cul- intrusive, that teachers can employ to effectively
ture of learning and teaching which has become deal with the various discipline problems they will
the one problem that will have the most profound encounter. It is essential for teachers to correctly
influence on South Africa’s future development. choose and effectively employ the appropriate
Underachievers usually leave school early or strategy. It is important not to overreact to a situ-
unqualified, find it difficult to secure employment, ation with an intervention that is too heavy-hand-
easily become trapped in poverty, participate in ed, and similarly, it is necessary not to under-
negative social practices and crime, and are unable respond to a situation and let it get out of hand.
to control their own lives. Often they become part The most important thing that teachers have to
of that growing social grouping in the community remember is that they always have to respond to
that does not make a positive contribution to the learners in a totally consistent manner. In terms of
social and economic welfare of the country, but discipline, all children must be treated exactly the
remains dependent on the state’s health and wel- same all the time. The next most important thing
fare services that cater for the poor. It is therefore in maintaining discipline is the issue of respect. If
of the utmost importance that teachers are trained teachers are respected by their learners, they will
and empowered to successfully deal with chal- have fewer discipline problems to deal with and
lenging behaviour in the classroom. will be more effective in handling those that
occur. The first and most important step in earn-
Consider all the aspects of your past or ing learners’ respect is to respect them. Respect
current training as a teacher. Write in its turn evokes a relationship of trust, and with
ACTIVITY

down everything that has helped you mutual respect and trust the cornerstones are laid
(or will help you) to cope with difficult for a classroom atmosphere of warmth and caring
situations in the classroom. What which is necessary for successful learning to take
would you like to add to your training to place.
enable you to deal more effectively with
learners’ challenging behaviour?
Prevention is always better than cure. Teachers
should plan the classroom procedure and

455
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

atmosphere beforehand in order to prevent, as far • To develop learner responsibility and self-regu-
as possible, discipline problems before they lation
occur.
Classroom management means establishing and
20.4.1 Prevention of challenging maintaining a routine in the classroom that allows
behaviour teaching and learning to proceed effectively. An
important component of classroom management
The discipline situation in many schools in South is planning.
Africa is definitely not conducive to teacher
enthusiasm in conveying learning material. Teach- [Link] Planning
ers often despair because of the large numbers of
Well-managed classrooms do not happen auto-
learners in the classrooms and the difficulties they
matically; a shrewd teacher plans everything, from
have in trying to control all types of disruptive
the seating arrangements to what happens when
behaviour.
the bell rings at the end of a period.
There are, however, a number of important
Important questions that should be considered
steps teachers can take to prevent discipline
are the following:
problems from developing. In all effective schools
the following qualities of teachers are implicit: • How do I develop healthy, appropriate relation-
ships with learners? (Should I try to be popular
• Teachers should have high expectations of
or should I be firm and knowledgeable so that
learners.
they can respect me first and then hope for
• They should communicate such expectations trust and liking?)
regularly.
• In what different ways can I communicate with
• They should monitor learner behaviour consis-
learners (spoken words; eye contact, body lan-
tently.
guage; written words)?
• They must share the responsibility for disci-
• What do I have to do to keep the learners busy
pline with principals and vice-principals.
all the time?
• They should foster home–school relations by
• What rules should I have in my classroom?
keeping parents/caregivers involved and
informed. • Should I employ particular seating arrange-
ments and when should I change them?
Discipline problems can be prevented to a large • What issues should I consider in grouping
extent by the establishment and maintenance of learners for academic work and social activi-
an effective and efficient system of classroom ties?
management. Discipline and classroom manage- • What should I require or allow when learners
ment are not the same thing. Discipline is a major finish their work before the other learners?
part of classroom management but it is reactive in • What should I require or allow when learners
nature. Teachers react to learner behaviour that enter the class and when the bell rings at the
disrupts the good order of the classroom, where- end of the day or the end of a period?
as classroom management is proactive. It is pre- • In what ways can I make learners feel good
ventative and its goal is self-control on the part of about themselves and experience success in the
the learners. learning process?
According to Eggen and Kauchak (in Campbell
1999: 45) the two major goals of classroom man- Planning a system of classroom management
agement are the following: requires, according to Campbell (1999: 45), both
• To create the best learning environment possi- reflection and anticipation. It is important to reflect
ble (This does not necessarily refer to supplies on previous experiences and to think about the
and equipment but rather to an atmosphere of possible problems that could occur if teachers
warmth and care, of respect and trust.) have not prepared for them.

456
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

• A culture of warmth, caring and academic

Have you ever considered any one of excellence should be deliberately created so
these questions before entering your
that learners feel important, respected and
ACTIVITY

classroom? Do you think that it is nec-

motivated towards a hopeful future.
essary to do so? Have you ever found
yourself displaying a defensive reaction
to disruptive learners in any one of [Link] Classroom rules
these abovementioned situations? Rules can be considered the standards of accept-
able behaviour in the classroom. The learners
should be helped to realise that rules are neces-
Two important aspects of a system of classroom sary and fair, and they should be encouraged to
management that require planning are the class- participate in the development of the classroom
room rules and the procedures that will be rules (Campbell 1999: 47). It is common know-
employed in the classroom. Consideration of the ledge that learners are far more willing to comply
type of learners the teacher will have (foundation with rules they have helped to plan than with
phase, intermediate phase, senior phase) and the those that are forced on them.
total ecology of the classroom are necessary in A wise teacher will get the learners together on
order to develop appropriate rules. the first day of school to discuss and develop the
Possibilities within the school organisation that rules that are necessary in their particular class-
can be exploited to give learners a better chance room. Teachers should always remember that
of successful learning and positive behaviour are, consistency is perhaps the most important factor
for instance, the following: in enforcing classroom rules. All learners must be
• Learners may be grouped in classes according treated in exactly the same way when enforcing
to their performance in a learning area – i.e. the rules. Any exception should be clearly under-
ability grouping (e.g. their reading ability). stood and agreed upon by the entire class. Learn-
Groups may also be deliberately mixed, group- ers who regard a teacher as unfair will be most
ing stronger and weaker learners together so unwilling to obey any of that teacher’s rules or
that the stronger performers can help the commands. Disruptive learners especially will see
weaker ones. this as a reason and opportunity to disobey. Class-
• Teacher assistants can be used to increase the room rules should also be consistent with the
teaching time of teachers. school rules, and learners should have that con-
sistency emphasised for them. Teachers must also
• More flexible examination procedures can be ensure that learners understand the reasons
adopted so that learners who do not pass cer- behind the rules, which will be so much easier if
tain learning areas/subjects can continue with learners are given the opportunity to help devel-
their other learning areas/subjects while get- op and formulate them. Learners must also be
ting another chance to repeat anything they helped to understand that rules are expectations
have failed. This will bring about modified of positive behaviour and not a list of “do nots”.
forms of transfer and prevent the discourage- Rules should be clear and concise and the list of
ment of the repetition of a full year. rules must be kept short. A short list stated as pos-
• School timetables can be modified to fit learn- itive expectations of behaviour will be easy to
ers’ circumstances. In rural areas schools can understand and remember.
open later at certain times of the year.
• A rule system for the school may be developed [Link] Procedures (or classroom routines)
in cooperation with the learners, or with the Classroom procedures are the routine learners
class leaders and/or learner council. Always will have to follow in order to fulfil all the respon-
ensure that there is some form of recognition sibilities implied by the rules. Established proce-
and reward for learners who are well behaved dures are not only helpful but necessary to estab-
and have a positive attitude. lish order in the classroom. This is especially

457
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

important in South Africa where there are large problematic such confrontations will be. If you are
numbers of learners in most classrooms. Camp- too democratic you may invite anarchy. How,
bell (1999: 49–51) states the following as situa- then, should you create this atmosphere of
tions in the classroom requiring carefully devel- warmth, sympathy and enthusiastic support – the
oped procedures: most important facet of successful teaching and
• Learner arrival and acceptable activities while learning – in your classroom?
waiting for the teacher to begin Eggen and Kauchak (1997) suggest three impor-
• What learners may do when they have complet- tant teacher skills that are helpful in creating such
ed their work an atmosphere and in preventing discipline prob-
lems. These skills are organisation, lesson flow
• How homework and class work are to be hand- and communication
ed in
• To what extent learners are allowed to talk qui- Organisation
etly occasionally, or whether they are expected
Organisation refers to the fact that teachers
to remain totally silent all the time
should know the learning material well and be pre-
• How to ask for help from the teacher pared to teach it well in each separate lesson. To be
• How to clean up at the end of the day unprepared in any way is an invitation for disor-
• How a teacher can work successfully with one der and disruption. Lessons must be carefully
group of learners in a cooperative learning situ- planned and teaching materials well prepared and
ation, and also monitor the behaviour of the ready to use. If you are unsure of how to proceed
rest of the class with the lesson or if you do not have the learners’
books ready to pass out, you create the opportu-
Teachers who anticipate situations that will nity for disruption. Learners who are continuous-
require set routines and develop such routines in ly kept involved in the learning activity will not
advance will have these situations unfold in an easily disrupt others or start whispering to a
orderly manner in most cases (Campbell 1999: friend.
54). Once routines have been established – even A second organisational skill that helps prevent
with the senior learners in secondary school – discipline problems is the effective use of time.
they should be rehearsed until they become auto- Begin the day and all lessons on time and keep the
matic. Teachers have to stand absolutely firm on learners involved for the duration of each activity.
all issues of classroom management. Learners who are waiting for a teacher or have
This brings us to the important issue of the per- nothing to do will make mischief and create dis-
sonality of the teacher and the teacher’s ability to ruptions.
successfully establish a relationship of respect and
trust with learners. Lesson flow
The skill and efficiency with which a teacher
[Link] Teacher–learner relationships keeps the lesson moving determine the involve-
Teachers all have different types of personalities. ment of the learners and the prevention of distur-
Whether you are a cheerful extrovert or a serious bances. This skill comes with time and experience
introvert does make a difference to the way in and is often difficult for new teachers. You
which you initiate relationships with your learn- should, however, be aware of its importance and
ers. Naturally you will fall somewhere on the con- purposefully strive to achieve it. Also, teachers’
tinuum of autocratic to democratic. You have to ability to know what is going on everywhere in
keep in mind, however, that your position on this the classroom – even when they are occupied – is
continuum will create certain consequences in an important skill in preventing all kinds of dis-
your classroom. If you attempt to be too auto- ruptions. Kounin (in Campbell 1999: 54) coined
cratic, you will invite many confrontations with the term “withitness” to describe the art of con-
your learners and the older the learners, the more veying to the learners that you know what is

458
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

going on all the time. “Withitness” helps immea- punctuality, obedience, loyalty and neatness. Par-
surably in preventing discipline problems. ents’ relationships with their children influence
the learning process and children’s behaviour at
Communication school. Children who grow up in a home where
there is understanding, love, trust, confidence,
The way in which teachers express themselves to
warmth and acceptance are well adjusted. They
their learners is another important skill that helps
develop positive self-concepts and are diligent,
in the prevention of disruptive behaviour. “Tone
obedient and responsible learners in the class-
of voice, body posture, and facial expression are
room.
powerful tools of communication that teachers
can use strategically to prevent problems before Success at school depends on a triangle of
they blow up” (Campbell 1999: 54). It is always interaction of three components, namely the
better to prevent problems in the classroom than teacher, the parent and the child. A working part-
to deal with them when they occur. nership between parents and teachers enhances
the chances of successfully helping the child to
It is important to remember that the personality
learn and to develop positive behaviour.
of the teacher is certainly the most important fac-
tor in preventing challenging behaviour. Teachers Parental involvement in education can be
who earn the respect of their learners and who explained in terms of intentional and functional
are trusted to guide them will have fewer disci- education roles. An intentional education role is
pline problems than those who are not respected. the purposeful intervention of parents with a view
Teachers should earn learners’ respect by respect- to agree with, prevent or correct specific behav-
ing them. Treat them fairly and courteously. Be iour of their children. Functional education
consistent in the enforcement of rules and treat results from the presence of the educator. The
all learners in exactly the same way. Set an exam- mere presence of parents and the norms they
ple in diligence and work well done and create a embody sometimes has a greater influence than
classroom atmosphere where the learners feel intentional education. Parents’ or – as is mostly
welcome and appreciated. Create opportunities the case in South Africa – caregivers’ physical
for success for all learners – no matter what their presence at school, interest in school activities
potential – and praise them individually within and contributions through governing bodies, task
groups and security offices can be regarded as
the hearing of the peer group. Nothing succeeds
functional education. This greatly facilitates the
like success and the experience of success in class-
children’s educational development and behav-
room activities will inspire the learners to try
iour patterns. Read more about parental and com-
their hand more at learning and not so much at
munity involvement in the learning situation in
mischief.
Chapter 11.
There are many ways in which parents or care-
[Link] Parent involvement
givers can be involved in school life:
Parents and teachers working together can pro-
duce more effective changes in a learner’s behav- • They can be involved in activities such as par-
iour than either party can when grappling with ent–teacher associations, education commit-
the problem alone. tees, supervision of the school library or study
periods in the afternoon, social events, fund
Children learn socially acceptable behaviour in
raising and classroom activities.
the home. Parents/caregivers invest psychic ener-
gy in certain modes of conduct and the child emu- • They can support school activities when they
lates these. Moral, cognitive and spiritual aspects accompany teachers and learners to the local
are learned through parental models. Social library, the park, the zoo or a more distant out-
development is also closely related to normative ing.
education. Examples of behaviour traits learned • They can act as teacher assistants in the inclu-
by children from parents/primary educators sive classrooms where there are usually learn-
include cooperation, responsibility, unselfishness, ers who need individual attention.

459
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

• They can assist in the organisation and man-

agement of extracurricular activities such as Write down the attempts made by your
sports coaching, fund raising and assisting with school in involving parents in the learn-

ACTIVITY
ing process. How successful are these
school newsletters and magazines.
attempts? Do you have any proposals
• They can also help with the day-to-day running of your own about the way in which
of the school, e.g. the maintenance and repair parents can be involved in the learning
of school facilities, protection of the school process and in the control of challeng-
facilities and gardening. ing behaviour?

A rural primary school in Mpumalanga

called upon all the grandmothers in the 20.4.2 Dealing with challenging
school area to help with the establish- behaviour
ment of a vegetable garden on the One of the most efficient strategies for altering behav-
school grounds. The aim was to use iours is to alter the consequences that follow it.
the vegetables to cook soup for the
“Positive discipline should suggest a range of
children who often came to school with
empty stomachs. The grandmothers
practices that contribute to a well-managed class-
were also asked to be present at the room in which students enjoy going about the
ACTIVITY

school gates early in the morning to business of learning” (Smith & Misra 1992 : 353).
welcome the children and to hug those Children and adolescents are seldom well
who looked dejected and miserable. behaved all the time. For the past two decades in
The results were remarkable: learners South Africa – as in the rest of the world – teach-
and teachers started to arrive on time ers and parents have experienced an increase in
and the younger learners were very disruptive, aggressive and violent behaviour from
eager to receive their morning hug. learners. Major problems in classrooms include
Spirits rose and the atmosphere of open defiance, violence, possession of drugs,
warmth and caring at the school
rape, insubordination, vandalism and stealing.
changed not only the behaviour of the
learners but also their academic
There are also a number of less serious but more
achievements. frequent behavioural problems that teachers have
to deal with such as sulking, interrupting, seat
leaving, talking out and open lack of interest.
It is often very difficult to involve the parents in The way in which teachers respond to challeng-
South Africa in school life. In the rural areas chil- ing behaviour should always depend on the type
dren live with grandparents who are too old to of problem exhibited. One cannot react to an
travel the far distances to the school. In urban episode of interruption in the same way as one
areas parents work such long hours that they sel- does to an act of vandalism or violence. Teachers
dom have the time to become involved in the run- should never overreact, but should respond
ning of the school or even in assisting or motivat- appropriately to discipline problems.
ing their children with their academic work. Nev- A number of efficient intervention strategies
ertheless, in spite of all the difficulties, the school that teachers should keep in mind and implement
personnel of every school should strive towards at the right moment are the following:
involving the parents as far as possible. Such • Positive reinforcement
involvement eliminates conflicts, strain and con- • Punishment
troversy between teachers and parents or care-
• Token economy programme
givers, and it ensures effective control of the
school system as well as the control and discipline
of unacceptable behaviour patterns. The support [Link] Positive reinforcement
system created in this way makes life that much A reinforcer is any stimulus that follows the occur-
easier for teachers, parents and learners. rence of certain behaviour and increases the

460
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

probability and rate of that behaviour (Burke complete their reports/essays on time will be
1992: 64). In order to alter negative behaviour motivated to complete their work in order to
patterns, a teacher should alter the consequences enjoy such a pleasurable reward (reinforcer).
that follow such behaviour. Consequences may Clever teachers will plan academic activities in
include obtaining a preferred object, participating a manner that leads to learners’ receiving a
in a fun activity or receiving additional attention natural or direct reinforcer as a consequence
from a teacher or from other learners. Any event, for demonstrating positive classroom behav-
object or activity that is preferred by a learner can iour.
be used as a reinforcer. It is unfortunately so that
teachers often reinforce negative behaviour by Guidelines to follow when using this strategy are
rewarding it. How often have you noticed yourself the following:
or other educators rewarding a disobedient or
argumentative learner with extra attention? • Reinforcers must be preferred by a learner. A
Learners are very seldom noticed and praised for learner must really want the item or desire to
sitting quietly or paying enthusiastic attention or participate in the activity, otherwise the
completing a task eagerly and quickly. It is usual- attempt will not serve as a reinforcer. Teachers
ly the learner who behaves disruptively who is should choose reinforcers mostly on an individ-
noticed and addressed. Learners with emotional ualised basis to ensure that the learner really
problems who are in need of attention will specif- likes it.
ically use this kind of manipulation to get the • Reinforcers must be checked during the time
attention they want. of use. This implies that the teacher must re-
Teachers should be alert to the fact that rein- evaluate the strength of a reinforcer over time
forcement must be given to positive behaviour. and, if necessary, incorporate other items or
Specific attention of the teacher and the class- activities.
mates is a very strong reinforcer. Once teachers
start using reinforcers to strengthen positive • Reinforcers must convey a direct message.
behaviour and discourage negative behaviour, When teachers use social attention (a word of
there are a number of them that they can keep in praise, a pat on the back, etc.) as a reinforcer,
mind. Depending on the age of the learner the fol- the type of attention should not be ambigu-
lowing may be used: ous. Saying: “Excellent work, Thabo!” with a
frown or a dull voice may in fact serve as a pun-
• Edible reinforcers, such as raisins, nuts, cookies isher. A word of praise as a message should be
or candies very clear in words, tone of voice and body
• Sensory reinforcers, such as listening to music, language. Social attention is usually highly
watching a colourful display or puppet show, desired by all learners and teachers should
riding a bike or scooter attempt to use positive social attention fre-
• Secondary reinforcers such as toys, balloons, quently as a consequence for appropriate
happy-face stickers, star stickers, more time to behaviour.
use a computer in the classroom or being class • Reinforcers should be given immediately.
leader for a day/week Teachers need to deliver a reinforcer immedi-
• Direct reinforcers, which are those which are ately following the learner’s positive behaviour.
directly related to the task or activity the learn- This will help the learner to see the connection
er is working on. For example, the Grade 7s are between the appropriate behaviour and the
given an assignment to write a report on the positive consequence. Senior learners in
care of wild animals in a zoo. Following the Grades 11 and 12 also like to receive rein-
completion of their reports on a Friday they are forcers soon after performing a difficult or chal-
allowed to attend a special trip to visit the zoo lenging task. Teachers should, however, pay
or even a nearby museum where wild animals careful attention to the selection of reinforcers
are exhibited. Many learners who usually fail to for older learners.

461
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

they will deliberately repeat the misbehaviour

Consider the ages and personalities of and frustrate all your attempts to control the class
the learners in the classes you are atmosphere.
responsible for. Then make a list of Factors that influence the rate and effectiveness
ACTIVITY

reinforcers that would work well in the

of punishment are timing, frequency, intensity,
process of motivation of positive
consistency, the nature of the punishment (pres-
behaviour for the class as a whole and
for specific individuals (the difficult entation of a painful stimulus vs removal of
ones). Motivate why such reinforcers rewards), the affectionate relationship between
may work well and specify under what the teacher and the learner, and the strength and
circumstances you will use them. nature of the behaviour being punished. Accord-
ing to Clarizio (1980: 161), punishment should
have the following characteristics if it is to be
[Link] Punishment used in aiding self-control:

Competent teachers will use rewards more often • It should be related in form to the misbeha-
than punitive measures in managing learner viour.
behaviour. Yet even the best of teachers will have • It must be certain and consistent.
to use aversive strategies to suppress undesired • It must be fair and just.
behaviour. Punishment involves a wide variety of • It must be impersonal.
practices that learners find unpleasant. Teachers • It must be constructive and conducive to better
should, however, be reminded that corporal pun- self-control.
ishment is totally against the law in South Africa. • It should avoid the arousal of fear.
Since punishment is a complex and unpredictable • It should not involve the assignment of extra
phenomenon, it must be used sparingly, skilfully work that is unrelated to the act for which the
and carefully. In some circumstances it is the best learner is being punished.
choice for dealing with learners who frequently
behave disruptively. The use of punishment Within the school climate of today it is sometimes
enables the teacher to suppress unacceptable difficult to decide what form of punishment will
behaviour at least temporarily, thereby creating serve a situation the best. Teachers report that
an opportunity to establish more suitable beha- the removal of rewards or privileges is widely
viour through the use of reward. used and serves well to encourage learners to
The punishment of specific responses is inform- forego undesirable behaviour. Teachers who
ative to the learner, since it teaches what was occasionally mete out punishment against the
wrong. It also has the advantage of stopping mis- background of a school and class atmosphere of
behaviour immediately and, as every teacher warmth and care where learners feel welcome,
knows, there are occasions when this is neces- where they trust teachers to help them to build posi-
sary. Teachers should remember that the negative tive self-concepts, where they are motivated to feel
consequences meted out for deviant behaviour pride in work well done, where they experience suc-
can serve as a lesson to the rest of the class. cess and where the teachers are good role models
Learners are less apt to imitate a given misbehav- of diligence and responsibility, seldom fail in their
iour once they have seen a classmate punished for attempts to use punishment positively.
it, but they are inclined to imitate disruptive The following types of punishment can be used
behaviour if their classmate goes unpunished. positively:
The warning of using punishment skilfully and
sparingly must, however, always be remembered Time-out procedures
by all teachers. If you inflict pain through fre- A learner who violates the rights of the teacher or
quent criticism, sarcasm or the removal of a the classmates is isolated from the group for 15 to
reward/privilege too often, you may draw the 45 minutes, depending on the age of the learner.
learners together in a defence mechanism and The learner must be placed in a position where he

462
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

is not able to talk to others, to look at friends, to ral help with problem areas when teachers take
laugh at or with them, or have any communica- turns to invigilate detention classes. This is a par-
tion with them at all. An ideal way to achieve this ticularly good strategy in urban schools where
end is to place a screen at the back of the class- children live fairly near to the school.
room in such a position that the learner is out of
sight of the peers but in sight of the teacher. A Being sent to the principal’s office
small place between the wall and the filing cabi- Larger schools have vice-principals who take pri-
net can also serve this purpose. mary responsibility for solving discipline prob-
The teacher must not yell or scold but should lems. Such managers are able to employ more
dismiss the troublemaker as quietly as possible. drastic measurements than teachers can. They
Be consistent and isolate learners immediately can administer detention, in-school suspension,
who break specific rules (which have been agreed suspension from school, transfer to another
upon by learners and teachers at the beginning of school, expulsion and referral to other profes-
the year). It is a good idea to give one (but only sionals.
one) warning before isolation. The warning is
often sufficiently punishing to eliminate the need Sending learners to another class
for the time-out procedure.
Learners ordinarily do not like being sent away to
Teachers who use the technique of allowing
another class. Such a technique will help them to
learners to wear ribbon wristbands that would
understand that inappropriate behaviour will not
entitle them to certain rewards can also do the
be tolerated. They would be sent away for the
following. Remove the wristband when the learn-
purpose of doing assigned work. Prior arrange-
er misbehaves. During this specified period when
ments must be made with the other teacher.
the wristband is removed, all rewards would be
temporarily suspended.
[Link] Token economy programme
Isolation within the classroom works best with
primary school learners. One of the most commonly used behaviour man-
agement systems is the “token economy” pro-
Withdrawing a privilege gramme that was initiated by Kazdin (in Burke
1992: 95). A token economy system is a pro-
Free time or recess or other preferred class activ- gramme that is based on economic principles. A
ities such as physical education, art, field trips or learner earns tokens for displaying a wide variety
music may be taken away. Recalcitrant learners of appropriate classroom behaviours including
can also be denied participation in activities such task completion, responding to instructions and
as cheerleading, learner government, the school communicating appropriately with others. The
yearbook or the school newspaper. The more tokens are acquired contingently and immediate-
meaningful the activity to a particular learner, the ly after learners display such behaviour. The
more useful the technique is in forcing the learn- tokens can be used at a later time to purchase
er to comply. preferred items in the reinforcement store
(books, pens, pencils, etc.), to obtain more time
Detention to play a computer game, or to participate in an
Staying after school may take place under the extracurricular activity such as an outing. In addi-
teacher’s direction, or learners may spend their tion, a learner can lose tokens for displaying dis-
detention time in the principal’s office. Some- ruptive behaviours or for not cooperating with
times there is a special room in school set aside the teacher. If a learner breaks a rule, he can be
for detention. A detention room is a particularly fined and lose a number of tokens. Each learner
effective punishment for learners who do not can earn, spend or lose tokens in an individu-
complete their assignments during class time as alised manner; therefore a token economy pro-
their detention time can be used to finish their gramme can be a valuable method for promoting
work. It also provides opportunities for extramu- positive classroom skills and decreasing disrup-

463
SECTION H ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

tive and non-compliant behaviour. Considerable Questions

planning is necessary to ensure that such a pro-
gramme is effectively initiated and maintained. 1. Explain in what way family circumstances can
The following guidelines for implementing a influence children’s lives and how they can
token economy programme were determined by contribute to children showing challenging
behaviour.
Burke (1992: 100):
2. Schools can be responsible for challenging
• The programme should emphasise behaviours behaviour of children. Do you agree with this
that are considered positive. statement? Motivate your answer.
• Initially, learners should be rewarded for posi- 3. Discuss the strategies implemented in your
tive behaviours throughout the day. school to prevent challenging behaviour.
• The amount of the reinforcement should be in 4. What do you think of positive reinforcement
direct proportion to the amount of good behav- as strategy to create positive behaviour pat-
iour shown during the time period (e.g. day, terns?
week), and in relation to the backup reinforcers
5. Discuss the degree of success you achieve with
that are being used (e.g. extra time to play on
the types of punishment you use in your class-
the computer).
room.
• Learners must be taught that tokens are valued.
This can be done by allowing learners frequent
opportunities to exchange them during the ini- Bibliography
tial phase. Burke, J.C. 1992. Decreasing classroom behaviour prob-
lems. San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group.
• Learners must be taught to save tokens and to
wait for increasingly longer periods of time to Campbell, J. 1999. Student discipline and classroom
management. Springfield, lL: Thomas.
exchange them for a backup reinforcer.
Clarizio, H.F. 1980. Toward positive classroom discipline.
• A token economy programme has to be individ- New York: Wiley.
ualised for learners who experience barriers to
Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6:
learning. Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education
and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education. 2002. Draft guidelines for the
20.5 CONCLUSION implementation of inclusive education (second draft). Pre-
toria: Department of Education.
Challenging behaviour in the school and class-
Edwards, C.H. 1993. Classroom discipline and manage-
room forms a serious barrier to learning in the ment. New York: Macmillan.
present school situation. The general climate of
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. 1997. Educational psychology:
undisciplined behaviour and the increasing aver- windows on classrooms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren-
sion to the acceptance of authority in schools tice Hall.
necessitate the urgent attention of educators and Farrell, P. 1995. Children with emotional and behavioural
policy-makers. Teachers spend too much time difficulties: strategies for assessment and intervention.
dealing with disruptive behaviour. They have to Washington, DC: Palmer Press.
be empowered to meet this challenge in such a Jones, K. & Charlton, T. 1996. Overcoming learning and
way that the academic performance of learners is behaviour difficulties: partnership with pupils. London:
Routledge.
no longer adversely affected. Understanding and
managing challenging behaviour by focusing on Kapp, J.A. 1999. Children with problems: an orthopeda-
gogical perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
the active promotion of desirable behaviour con-
stitutes a new way of thinking for many teachers. Kounin, J. 1970. Discipline and group management in the
classroom. New York: Holt Rinehart.
It is the intention of this chapter to guide teachers
Najman, J.M., Bor, W., Anderson, M.J., O’Callaghan, M. &
and education planners to rethink the way in
Williams, G.M. 2000. Preschool children and behaviour
which strategies to prevent challenging behaviour problems. Childhood: a Global Journal of Child Research,
are implemented. 7(4): 439–466.

464
 ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN THE CLASSROOM 20

Prinsloo, E. 1998. Social change in South Africa: opportu- Smith, M. & Misra, A. 1992. A comprehensive manage-
nity or crisis? Society in Transition, 29: 1–2. ment system for students in regular classrooms. Elemen-
tary School Journal 92(3): 353–372.
Republic of South Africa. 2000. Education in a global era.
Country paper delivered at the 14th Conference of Com- Van Wyk, N. & Lemmer, E.M. 2002. Transforming educa-
monwealth Education Ministers. Canada, June 2000. tion: the South African experience. New York: Nova Sci-
ence.
Rizzo, J.V. & Zabel, R.H. 1988. Educating children and
adolescents with behavioural disorders: an integrative Weeks, F.H. 2000. Behaviour problems in the classroom:
approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. a model for teachers to assist learners with unmet emo-
tional needs. DEd thesis. Pretoria: Unisa.
Royal College of Psychiatrists. 1999. Mental health and
growing up: behavioural problems and conduct disorder. Wood, J. 1991. Adapting instruction for main-streamed at
Available at: [Link] risk students. New York: Macmillan.
mhgu/[Link] (accessed 20 May 2003).

465
 Section

Addressing
giftedness

467
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21
SHIRLEY KOKOT

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
Πrecognise signs of gifted behaviour in learners
Πrelate their special needs to aspects of education and personal
development
Πdesign lesson plans and use teaching strategies to better
accommodate gifted learners in the classroom
Πunderstand how a curriculum model may be used for enrichment
within a school environment
Πexperience a positive attitude towards gifted learners.

gin of genius, the natural laws of its devel-

True democracy demands that every child,
opment, and the environmental influence by
whether superior, average or inferior in ability
which it may be affected for good or ill, are
be given the fullest opportunity to develop to
scientific problems of almost unequalled
the limit of his (her) mental capacity. It is the
importance for human welfare (Terman
gifted child, more than any other, who has
1925).
hitherto lacked this opportunity (Lewis M.
Terman cited in Seagoe 1975: 80).
Through the intervening years, no one has chal-
lenged this statement and the world is as sorely in
Key terms need of people with high ability now as it was 80
giftedness ♦ acceleration ♦ enrichment ♦ teaching years ago! Problems experienced in the medical,
strategies economic, political and scientific fields await a
solution from children who are still busy develop-
ing that extra something needed for great contri-
21.1 INTRODUCTION
butions to mankind.
The words in the above quote may have been South Africa is no exception. Yet, in spite of a
written many years ago, but the sentiment still worldwide consensus regarding the value of gift-
holds true. In the preface to his monumental work edness, there are still those politicians who fail to
on giftedness in 1925, Terman stated: take the needs of gifted learners into account in
It should go without saying that a nation’s educational policies; there are still teachers, igno-
resources of intellectual talent are among rant through faulty training, who believe that
the most precious it will ever have. The ori- there is no need to study giftedness or cater for

469
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

the gifted learner in the classroom. There are 21.2.1 Giftedness as an interrelated
even those who still persist in regarding gifted- system
ness as an elitist concept. They need to be High ability is seen to be biologically rooted in
reminded that in terms of human rights, equal the child and develops as an expression of a sys-
opportunity for all should not mean obstruction tem of interrelated influences within the child’s
of opportunity for some because of diverse levels inner and outer environment. This means that
of ability (Brunault 2003). If consideration is given children may be born with the genetic potential
to learners with intellectual impairments, how can for giftedness in one or more fields in their neu-
it be justified that no consideration is given to rological structures, but this potential needs to
learners at the other end of the scale who have be nurtured to fruition by and within children’s
high abilities requiring specialised help? There is life-worlds.
a danger that in the new dispensation, highly able
learners may be stifled rather than be encouraged
to develop their potential. Like their counterparts Consider the meaning of the phrase
in other parts of the world (see, for instance, Pers- “biologically rooted”. What does this
son 1999: 6), South African teachers seem to suf- mean?

ACTIVITY
fer mostly from a lack of adequate information on What is meant by the “inner and
outer environment”?
the needs and educational provision of gifted
What is a child’s life-world?
learners. This chapter aims at helping those who Please read Chapter 1 regarding
are interested in gaining insight into the gifted Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological
learner so that they, as educators or other helping approach.
professionals, may ensure that the education or
help provided to these learners will allow them to
become fully functioning adults who will use their The life-world is composed of a network of rela-
gifts to the benefit of society. tionships: children form relationships with the
In this chapter, we will first be dealing with the inner self as well as with all the people, objects,
concept of giftedness – its meaning and identify- concepts and other aspects of reality that consti-
ing characteristics. Following this, we will consid- tute their environments (including home, school
er the particular challenges faced by gifted learn- and social environments).
ers. Finally, we offer some teaching approaches The relationships with outer reality must be of
that may be used to accommodate the needs of a nature and quality that challenge and foster the
gifted learners in an inclusive classroom. realisation of the giftedness within the child’s
inner reality (the emotional, motivational, intel-
21.2 WHAT IS “GIFTEDNESS”? lectual and physical aspects), thus creating condi-
tions that are necessary for giftedness. But chil-
To explain giftedness, we need to describe what
dren’s relationships with the inner self must also
is necessary for a child, first of all, to show early
be satisfactory to allow affirmation of their abili-
promise and then to be able to achieve excellence
ties in their relationships with outer reality; hence
in a culturally valued area of activity. Abraham
the critical interaction. Figure 21.1 represents this
Tannenbaum (1991: 89) describes the essentials
view.
of giftedness as a filigree of factors which have to
When children are born, a biological potential
be “interwoven most elegantly for a child to
for giftedness may exist. Relationships with peo-
become truly gifted”.
ple, ideas, objects and the self begin to influence
A South African view of giftedness (Kokot 2000:
their emotional, intellectual, motivational and
43–45) that recognises this view sees giftedness
physical aspects. These interactions (which are in
as dependent on the interactions between the
turn influenced by further networks of relation-
child and the environment. Accordingly, gifted-
ships within the broader context) must create the
ness can be explained in terms of an interrelated
conditions needed within these aspects to fan and
system.
nurture the biological spark of giftedness. In

470
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

aspect may thus develop a high academic abili-

ty or a high ability in one or more specialised
Parents areas.
• Physical. Good health and correct nutrition are
l

M
is ca important if the child is to develop giftedness.

ot
iva
y
Ph Integration between body and mind can devel-

tio
na
op high levels of physical ability in some or

l
SELF other area, for instance athletic or sporting
Objects Peers
Biological ability, dancing or ballet, or a particular dexter-
ity in hand-eye coordination.
l
In

na
tel

io
ot The relationships that are considered to be
le
ct

Em
u

important for the development of all children and

al

School equally important for the realisation of giftedness

in potentially able children are the following:
• Relationships with significant people. These
Figure 21.1 An ecosystemic view of include firstly the child’s caregivers and family
giftedness members who satisfy basic needs, create an
enriched environment and serve as role mod-
els. The presence and attitude of peers both in
return, this giftedness will express itself in and
and out of the classroom is important, as is the
influence the aforementioned relationships.
interaction with teachers. It is by meeting their
Conditions that are necessary for giftedness are
needs within these relationships that children
found within the aspects that make up the child’s
develop emotional and motivational conditions
total self. The potential for developing these con-
necessary for giftedness to emerge.
ditions lies within the biological structure of the
brain, but they are created and nurtured by the • Relationships with school, concepts and other
child’s relationship formation. At least some of resources. The quality of education and the
the conditions must be present in each of the stimulation and encouragement of curiosity
aspects of self for giftedness to be realised. Some foster sound relationships with the world of
of these conditions relevant to aspects of the ideas. Access to cultural resources such as
child are briefly discussed as follows: museums and libraries are also important to
• Emotional. This aspect refers to those emo- the developing child. No child can form a rela-
tional factors that are needed for the emer- tionship with the written language without
gence of giftedness, including confidence, self- access to books.
awareness, courage, perseverance, security, • Relationships with objects. These include all
sensitivity, intensity, energy and so on. the objects in the world including pens, paint-
• Motivational. Conditions here include a will to brushes, computers and soccer balls. Many a
be involved, the motivation towards self-actual- young gifted child with a highly developed
isation and commitment to tasks; an interest in intellectual ability has been emotionally affect-
the meta-needs of society (moral issues, justice, ed by an inability to perform adequately on the
truth); a willingness to be open to experiences sports field. For this reason, one has to take
as well as religious beliefs. note of the child’s relationships with the “hard-
ware”.
• Intellectual. This refers to the ability to under-
stand and integrate information from the envi- • Relationship with self. Realising the potential
ronment and to use such knowledge to pro- for giftedness takes courage, perseverance and
duce or create new information, either in terms confidence, among other personal qualities.
of general abilities or in specific fields. This The development of these qualities depends on

471
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

a sound relationship with self which is charac- begin communicating with words long before
terised by an ever-increasing realistic know- their first birthday. Of course, not all gifted chil-
ledge and acceptance of the self. Children who dren are verbal or show early use of language.
have a positive self-relationship will tell them-
selves that they can achieve. Keen observation and curiosity
A potentially gifted child may ask questions that
This view highlights why it is impossible to pre- are unusual (e.g. What makes sticky tape sticky on
scribe a formula for giftedness because so many one side and smooth on the other?). They also ask
variables exist within, firstly, the child and sec- many searching questions about topics in which
ondly, within so many relationships that will be young children do not ordinarily have an interest.
formed. It does offer a framework for understand- A gifted child will also observe details. At a very
ing gifted learners as they are in their personal young age, the child might remember where all
realities and also for understanding why learners the toys go on a shelf and replace everything cor-
who show the potential for giftedness may not be rectly.
able to realise that potential.
Retention of a variety of information
21.2.2 A definition of giftedness as an Gifted children amaze parents and teachers by
interrelated system recalling details of past experiences. At two-and-
On the basis of the view given above, giftedness a-half, Obed, when being instructed why streets
can be defined as an inherent potential, latent or were dangerous, remembered a parade he had
realised, for extraordinary achievement in one or watched six months previously and said those
more areas that have value for a specific culture. people should not have been walking in the
The realisation of this potential is dependent on street.
the nature and quality of the individual’s relation-
ships with aspects of reality in the home, school, Periods of intense concentration
society and the self throughout the lifespan. A potentially gifted one-year-old might sit for five
minutes or more listening attentively to a story
being read to an older sibling. Older gifted chil-
Before reading further, write down your
dren can become engrossed in a project, totally
ACTIVITY

ideas of what giftedness is. Does it only

oblivious of the events happening around them.
refer, for example, to learners who are
exceptionally good in mathematics or
who are talented in music? Ability to understand complex concepts,
perceive relationships and think abstractly
Although an average four-year-old looks through
a picture book of baby and mother animals with
21.2.3 Characteristics of giftedness
interest, a gifted four-year-old is more likely to
There is a fine line between being an intelligent, observe concepts such as how much animal moth-
capable human being (as is the majority of the ers and babies look alike except that the baby is
population) and one with really high potential smaller. If a Grade 5 class had to write a story
that we call giftedness. Because the potential for about what it is like to be poor, most of them
giftedness has to do with a quick rate of develop- would comment on the concrete issues, such as
ment, it helps to compare the mental develop- hunger, not having enough money, and so on. A
ment of possibly more advanced children with gifted child may tend to view the problem more
what is considered “normal” for a particular age. abstractly and might write: “Being poor would
only be a problem if others were not poor. If
Early use of advanced vocabulary everyone else also had very little money, then we
Early language development is a very reliable sign would all have less to spend and things would be
of developing high potential. Many gifted children cheaper.”

472
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

A broad and changing spectrum of interests especially in educational and other settings that
Gifted children often show an intense interest in a do not understand giftedness and so fail to give
subject (perhaps dinosaurs) one month, then turn the child the necessary support.
to a totally different subject (racing cars, for
instance) the next. Table 21.1 The two sides of the coin

Positive Negative
Strong critical thinking skills and self-criticism
Gifted children evaluate themselves and others. Learning comes easily Develops carelessness;
is lazy; omits details;
They notice discrepancies between what people resists guidance
say and what they do. They can be very disap-
Has abstract reasoning Tends to pseudo-intellec-
pointed if their parents or teachers fail to carry abilities tualise; makes excuses;
through on their promises. They can also be very loses contact with reality
critical of themselves. Has a questioning atti- Is impatient and critical of
tude and critical thinking others; being “different”
skills creates peer problems
To summarise, the characteristics most fre-
quently seen in young gifted children are as Has the ability to work Can become an elitist,
follows: independently; has misfit or a nonconformist
unique ideas
• unusual alertness during infancy
Possesses a keen sense Can be sarcastic to the
• long attention span
of humour point of cruelty
• high activity level
Has a good memory; is Dislikes routine or drill; is
• less need for sleep strong in analysing and unwilling to get down to
• advanced development through mile- synthesising tasks; easily becomes
stones bored
• keen powers of observation Displays good task com- Is stubborn; often refuses
• extreme curiosity mitment; is goal directed to change direction
• excellent memory Has a variety of interests Interests can take a sin-
• early and excellent vocabulary develop- gle, narrow and inflexible
path; is uninterested in all
ment else
• rapid learning ability
Is eager and alert; has Is frustrated when things
• abstract reasoning high energy levels do not go own way
• sensitivity
Is sensitive and empathic Has a fragile ego; dis-
• perfectionism plays extreme sensitivity
• advanced ability to play with puzzles, to criticism
mazes or numbers
One of the greatest misconceptions that inter-
feres with our provision for the needs of high abil-
21.2.4 The two-sided coin ity or gifted learners is that they will make it on
It is worth remembering that gifted children do their own. A typical comment overheard by many
not always show positive characteristics. Some- is “They’re so clever they can learn the work by
times it is hard to be gifted and the very potential themselves – why must they distract the teacher
these children possess may manifest itself in less from helping those learners who struggle to
acceptable ways – especially if needs are not met understand? Let them help the teacher and con-
at school or in the home. Table 21.1 shows some tribute by supporting those who are less able.”
positive characteristics with the possible negative Indeed, many case studies can be used to show
consequences of those characteristics on the how this attitude, coupled with an inadequate
opposite side. The negative ones are very often and unchallenging school curriculum and emo-
seen and in fact eclipse the special abilities – tional difficulties can all but extinguish the spark

473
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

of potential excellence in individuals. It can also ence from the norm, so it is the exceptionally gift-
cause severe stress, as the following story illus- ed child who in particular may face problems in
trates: coping with psychological conflict or stress.
Our son suffered tummy aches all through It would be wrong to suggest that all gifted chil-
Grade 4. The school wouldn’t listen to our dren have problems. Most of these children find
pleas for more enriched work or at least a effective ways of coping with any problems with
change from a fairly average class to one very little negative effect. You will find many stud-
containing a few children who could chal- ies that show gifted children as making good
lenge or at least work with ours (and whose social adjustment and having healthy, positive
teacher would possibly listen to us). His role self-concepts. It is also true that a nurturing, sup-
in class was that of “junior teacher” and he portive environment at home and at school will
was expected to help the weaker children enhance and facilitate the gifted child’s total
for most of the time. In desperation, the development. It is with this goal in mind that an
doctor eventually operated and when he understanding of the possible areas of emotional
removed a perfectly healthy appendix, we vulnerability and stress are required by the adult
knew that the school would have to get our to help the child’s development of self-know-
message loud and clear. We insisted on a ledge, and sound interpersonal and other rela-
change, and got it. That was the end of the tionships.
tummy aches. We learned the hard way
about the effect of boredom and frustration 21.3.1 Characteristics as a source of
on a gifted child. problems
Sensitivity
The following will consider some of the special The emotional supersensitivity that we men-
challenges that gifted learners face in the light of tioned in section 21.2 and the intensity of feeling
their needs. that accompanies it is one cause of the problems
gifted children experience. Kline and Meckstroth
21.3 UNIQUE NEEDS OF GIFTED LEARNERS (in Kokot 2000: 183) write:
Gifted individuals are identifiable by their excep- What is passed over as trivial by others may
tional competency in some area of ability or per- be the cause for severe emotional response.
formance. It is this unusual quality or area of tal- Parents say: “He’s always been so old, old,
ent that makes them different from others. The old”; “I just wish he weren’t so sensitive”;
key to understanding giftedness lies in under- “She understands other children, but they
standing the unusual, extraordinary nature of gift- don’t understand her”; “He’s eight years old
ed behaviour, whether it be exceptional creativi- and it’s as if he has the weight of the world
ty, musical talent, leadership qualities, sporting on his shoulders.”
ability or intellectual reasoning ability. Being gift-
ed means being different from others with Sensitive, compassionate gifted children may
respect to the particular area of talent. show a great amount of empathy. This is not
It is possibly the “differentness” inherent in the merely knowing what others feel, but actually
nature of giftedness that causes gifted children to feeling like the person themselves. So whereas
face certain difficulties, particularly in social and most children know when a parent is angry, sensi-
emotional development. The differences make tive gifted children feel the anger inside them-
them vulnerable to problems resulting, inter alia, selves. They are sensitive to others’ being hurt, to
from myths surrounding giftedness, unrealistic injustice and also to criticism and pain. Sensitivity
expectations regarding their behaviour, pressure can be a sense of identification with other people,
to perform and/or conform, constant criticism or animals, nature and the universe by being able to
praise, and difficulty finding friends. The greater associate on a deep level with the things that
the degree of giftedness, the greater the differ- make up the world.

474
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

Kate, aged 7, being a gifted child with great gifted children are important indications of
compassion and intuition, regularly rescues advanced development, yet may cause problems
bees with broken wings or other injuries for such children. At a much earlier age than their
and brings them into the house for rest. peers, these children seem to be less self-centred
Strangely, she has almost never been stung. and become troubled over problems of morality,
When asked to verify this statement she religion and world peace. Interest in problems in
answered: “A bee only stung me once but their societies is common in even very young,
he was in great pain and had to blame me foundation-phase learners.
for it.”
Perceptiveness
Like supersensitivity, other characteristics of gift- Related to their rapid moral development is the
edness are the source of many problems. Some of characteristic of perceptiveness. This means that
these, in conjunction with their attendant prob- several points of view may be understood simul-
lems, may be discussed so that it is easier to taneously; the core of an issue may be quickly per-
understand why gifted children have unique ceived. In interpersonal situations, such percep-
needs. tiveness helps gifted children see beyond the
superficiality of a situation to the person beneath.
Perfectionism It is commonly called insight and allows such chil-
Some gifted children are perfectionists, others are dren to quickly assess people and situations. In
idealists. Perfectionism is the conflict between fact, they are skilled at sensing the difference
“what is” and “what ought to be”. In these terms, between social facades and real thoughts and
it is a positive quality – an energy or a striving for feelings.
something better that drives the individual Such perceptiveness gives rise to certain values
towards a higher level of functioning or develop- in gifted individuals: they recognise and need
ment. It is perfectionism that is responsible for truth, justice and fairness and these become
humanity’s progress, so we should not want to issues to them. They clearly see the unfairness in
“cure” children of this. However, it certainly is not the way people are treated and sometimes the
easy to live with, and children need help in using idea of showing different “faces” to the world is
this trait to their advantage, rather than consider- puzzling to them. These children regard truth as
ing it a negative thing that one uses to berate an absolute and both look for and tell the truth –
oneself for futile attempts or past mistakes. sometimes with devastating results. This shows at
Some strategies for helping a perfectionist an early age: sometimes it seems as if a gifted
learner include the following: child’s first words are “it’s not fair”. This is in
• Help to set priorities. response to injustices to themselves and others
• Help to set reasonable and reachable expecta- that they notice when still very young. This keen
tions. sense of injustice inevitably leads to the question-
ing of rules and authority figures. Adults can help
• Refrain from criticism.
in this regard by discussing issues about the con-
• Show that your caring or interest has nothing
cept of fairness. Often books, films and real-life
to do with performance.
situations with this as a theme can be shared. Ask
• Create a safe environment where effort is more such children: “When is mercy more appropriate
important than winning or losing. than justice?” When younger children cry: “It’s
• Focus on strengths and successes. not fair”, try to introduce the idea of other people
• Help to set goals (or plan rewards) that do not being involved. Ask the child: “Is what you want
require perfection. fair for yourself only, or is it fair for everyone
involved?” Gifted children have the advanced rea-
Values and morals soning ability to cope with discussions about
The values and attitudes of the gifted child can global interdependence and the need for cooper-
deviate from the norm. The moral concerns of ation to replace competition in order for planet

475
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

earth to survive. Children who must win every Vulnerability to stress

argument and who are threatened unless they are Gifted children are as susceptible to stress as any-
right all the time are displaying the signs of a low one else is – in fact, because of their uneven
self-concept. Some counselling may be needed to development, sensitivity and perfectionism, they
get to the bottom of the problem. may be even more vulnerable. In extreme cases
stress has even led to ideas of and attempts at sui-
Questioning authority cide. Some common stressors associated with
giftedness are loneliness, feeling the need to hide
Following on the previous paragraph, perhaps
abilities in order to be accepted, excessively high
more should be said about the gifted child’s ten-
standards and academic pressure. Extreme emo-
dency to question authority – even in cultural
tional intensity and a tendency to become easily
groups that strongly discourage this. Most inquis-
over-stimulated help to make life stressful for
itive children question everything. Questioning
these children.
and arguing are forms of mental exercise for gift-
Another important source of stress in the lives
ed children that they engage in for pure pleasure,
of many gifted children is that they are often
for learning purposes or simply to win a point.
asked to make decisions that are simply beyond
Children with devastating logic and highly devel-
their capabilities. This is perhaps because of the
oped intuition are simply born to argue, and usu-
“mental age” trap. Adults expect that children can
ally win. Often, highly intuitive children will play
make difficult decisions because of their excellent
devil’s advocate and argue an opposing point of
reasoning abilities. These advanced abilities are of
view merely to hear the other person’s rationale.
no help in weighing emotions, and if children are
These children can be very intimidating to others.
given choices beyond their maturity they may
If they have underdeveloped emotional sensitivity
react with avoidance, confusion and anxiety. In
they may be highly competitive and too bent on
this case, the solution is to allow the child to be
winning at all costs. Their argumentative and ver-
part of the decision-making process but to care-
bally aggressive skills need to be tempered with
fully guide the child towards a healthy decision
understanding of other people’s feelings and reac-
tions to their argumentativeness.
21.3.2 Relationships as a source of
problems
Imagination
[Link] The relationship with peers
Highly imaginative children tend to fantasise. This
can be interpreted as daydreaming, immaturity Gifted children do not always feel superior to
and laziness. their peers. Because giftedness enables children
to realise the consequences of behaviour, they are
often over-careful and this may lead to despon-
Need for self-expression dency and doubt. In turn, this results in a lack of
A facet of gifted children that makes them vulner- self-assurance, especially in the face of more care-
able to stress is their need for creative self-expres- less and daring peers. Gifted children may also
sion. Gifted people need psychological freedom lack practical ability or physical prowess and this
to express themselves in the world: they need the can also lead to feelings of inferiority. Such feel-
opportunity to perform brilliantly and to experi- ings affect relationships negatively. To compen-
ence success. Often they tend to organise, con- sate, some children apply themselves exclusively
trol, challenge, manage, correct or otherwise to their particular area of giftedness and with-
improve other people, who do not appreciate this draw from social interaction.
behaviour. The response is often one of rigid When exceptionally gifted children become
expectations, work constraints, stifled self- aware that other people do not perceive or even
expression and demands for conformity. These experience the world as they do, they find their
are “stressors” that will impact on social and emo- isolation intensified. Some of the more frequently
tional development. reported social problems are

476
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

• social isolation (lack of true peers) [Link] The relationship with self
• bullying by older classmates In terms of emotional need, gifted children need
• play interests that cannot be shared marked amounts of acceptance and approval as
• few peers with whom to share interests people. Too often, their feelings of self-worth are
• great dependence on parents for companion- tied up with accomplishments, performances or
ship products. Damage to the self-concept can happen
if learners feel that others value them only
• high expectations from others
because they are clever, get good reports or per-
• hostility from others towards their abilities.
form well. Gifted learners may sometimes wonder
if they will be loved if they stop achieving.
However, many gifted children have wide circles The following have been identified as needs in
of friends and are generally popular – particularly this relationship area:
if they are extroverted and have had the chance to
develop good social skills. Their imaginations • The need to know and accept themselves. This
make them fascinating playmates who are never includes knowing their abilities, interests, per-
at a loss for new games or pranks, and their sensi- sonality traits and shortcomings.
tivity means that they know how to make sure • The need to understand their own feelings.
others are included in the game. Gifted learners should know their similarities to
The social needs that have been identified with and differences from other people and feel
regard to peers are as follows (Steinberg 1996): pride in their abilities rather than guilt or anxi-
• The need to accept the abilities, interests and ety. Too often gifted learners have been known
shortcomings of others and to be able to com- to blame themselves for being different.
municate with others. • The need to assert own needs and feelings
• The need to work independently, which causes non-defensively. It would be pointless if gifted
them to fail to respond positively to interests learners were to be helped to know themselves
or enterprises of their peers. They need to be if they are denied the right to express their per-
helped to strike a balance between their own sonal needs. The community should recognise
activities and constructive interaction with oth- and respect their special needs.
ers. On the other hand, constant group work • The need to acquire appropriate values. Gifted
where they are forced always to “pool” their learners search intensively for information,
efforts is not recommended. knowledge, understanding, beauty, truth, rea-
son, meaning and so on. This quest may result
• The need for help in forming appropriate social
in disillusionment and rebellion against the
relationships. This does not mean that they
established norms and values of society which
should be pressurised into spending most of
are not always practised as professed.
their time with chronological peers. Gifted chil-
dren typically choose friends who are similar in • The need to remain a child. Gifted learners are
mental or developmental age. Their peer no less children than others and should be
groups may consist of same-aged peers with given every opportunity to enjoy their child-
whom they skateboard, for example, as well as hood. They are entitled to do childlike things.
older groups with whom they share an intellec- • The need for appropriate identification fig-
tual interest that cannot be shared with ures. Gifted learners sometimes have difficulty
younger peers. in finding suitable role models. Mentors can be
• The need for social skills. They should be of great help here.
helped to understand the differences between
cooperation and competition and when each [Link] The relationship with parents and
may be appropriate. They need to learn the art teachers
of compromise and to adapt successfully in The advanced abilities of particularly intellectual-
varying situations. ly gifted children enable them to evaluate their

477
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

parents, other family members and teachers soon- lation can be found in, for example, a beetle, a
er than the average child does. At an early stage stone, a leaf or a seed.
they identify parental weaknesses and incon- • If gifted learners challenge you because of a
gruities and notice irrational, hypocritical and dis- mistake you may have made, admit your error
criminatory behaviour. If parents notice outstand- and thank them for their correction.
ing intellectual potential in their child, they have a
tremendous responsibility to behave in such a • Insist on their completing the basic work in the
way that the child can identify with them and be curriculum correctly, otherwise they will be
helped to understand the reasons behind per- handicapped if they are given enrichment pro-
ceived incorrect behaviour. grammes or accelerated.
A major problem in the education of many gift- • Avoid over-concentration on a gifted child or
ed learners is inadequate parental interest, or an learner to the detriment of siblings or class-
indifferent and passive attitude to suitable stimu- mates. Gifted learners should not be treated in
lation of their gifted child’s abilities. Sometimes an entirely different and obvious way from the
the behaviour of parents is ambiguous. They are way other children or learners are treated.
proud of their child’s abilities but may either over- • Pressure should not be put on the gifted learn-
or underestimate their value and potential. Either er to further the ends of adults, e.g. high aca-
way, this can be a cause of stress in the child. demic success or sporting achievement for the
Some teachers feel inferior in the presence of a glory of the school or family.
highly intelligent child. They are often reluctant
• Organise material for enrichment projects and
to provide cooperation and guidance, and even
use the learners’ own suggestions.
humiliate the child in front of others. The result is
that the child may withdraw into his shell and pre- • If they ask questions you cannot answer,
fer to be “like the others” to avoid being singled endeavour to find the answers together or
out. encourage them to find out for themselves.
Parents and/or teachers who may feel threat- They may then be asked to give the class a talk
ened by such children should keep the following on what they have discovered.
in mind: • Provide many opportunities for creative work
• Your maturity and experience of life should and the development of their special abilities –
enable you to cope with gifted children’s appar- e.g. working independently in the library, art
ently superior intellectual abilities. Your profes- room or any place available – and encourage
sional training, reading and study should also them to submit a report on their work.
give you the confidence and competence you • Provide opportunities and time for them to talk
need. and discuss their problems and questions with
• If you know the characteristics listed, you can an interested adult. One of the greatest needs
be the one to identify the gifted learner of gifted children and learners is the need for
through your observation and thus you are very someone who really listens with understand-
important to these learners. ing.
• One of the barriers to learners’ intellectual
[Link] The relationship with schoolwork
growth in our schools is not the problem of
equipment and organisations but rather the The special giftedness shown by intellectually and
reluctance of teachers to “let their learners specifically gifted learners in the academic sphere
go”. indicate the following needs:
• Poor families and school communities can also • The need to explore, discover and create. They
adapt to the presence of a gifted child. A wealth need time to express their interests in practice
of knowledge, information and enrichment can and even to daydream productively. They may
be found in old newspapers and even old mag- constantly be asking questions, querying
azines. Challenges, wonder, mystery and stimu- answers and perhaps deviating from prescribed

478
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

lines of thinking and behaviour. This may tend

to be irritating to teachers and parents. The new National Curriculum is an out-
comes-based system of education. It
• The need for greater latitude for self-actualisa- stresses the need to allow all learners
tion. Gifted learners have a greater potential to progress at their own pace. Consider
for development than average learners. This the following questions.
has implications for their schooling as well as in When you were at school, what did

ACTIVITY
other areas. teachers do to encourage the abilities
• The need to be challenged. Gifted learners may of the “really clever” learners?
find that their work does not challenge them to What resources does your education
department have to help teachers who
mobilise their full potential. This may result in a
may have gifted learners in their class-
negative attitude towards schoolwork. Gifted rooms?
learners need to be confronted with subject How would you plan to accommo-
matter and learning content that present a real date the needs of a gifted learner in
challenge. Forcing them to conform to the stan- your classroom?
dard of a group is not recommended.
• The need for skills development. Gifted learn-
ers, if lacking challenge and practice in self-dis- 21.4.1 Teaching strategies for gifted
cipline, may become unmotivated in their learners
approach to academic work. Consequently, Two possible ways of coping with gifted learners
when they eventually face a challenging aca- in the classroom is to use acceleration or enrich-
demic situation, many do not have the study ment strategies.
skills needed to cope with the challenge. Sec- Acceleration means that a learner moves
ondly, because gifted learners have to make through lower levels or sections of the standard
many more choices in life than average individ- curriculum at a faster rate than age-matched
uals because of their varied abilities coupled peers. It is probably the cheapest and simplest
with strong and versatile interest patterns, they form of curriculum provision for able learners.
need the skills of decision making early in life. Acceleration thus enables learners to acquire
Thirdly, some gifted learners need help in basic knowledge quickly and to progress rapidly
becoming skilled at taking tests so that they to higher levels of abstraction and creative prob-
can demonstrate their abilities in educational lem solving. Nevertheless, acceleration is a con-
testing situations. tentious issue. Some arguments in its favour are
• The need for early identification. The earlier its motivating power – the fact that it counteracts
giftedness is recognised in children, the sooner passivity and offers the learner an opportunity for
their particular needs will be recognised. earlier professional training and entry into a
Teachers, particularly at early childhood learn- career. Arguments against acceleration are that it
ing centres and in the foundation phase, should may disrupt a learner’s social adjustment and pro-
be very alert to signs of giftedness. mote a one-sided academic development. One of
the chief objections to acceleration is the fact that
In the light of the characteristics and accompany-
when the progress of gifted learners is speeded
ing needs of gifted children, it is now necessary to
up, they simply receive more advanced tuition
look briefly at a few examples of classroom strate-
(meant for older learners) instead of receiving
gies and school adjustments that may be made to
appropriate curriculum development for the par-
accommodate their special needs.
ticular needs of gifted learners (a research, prob-
lem-solving orientation). In this way, acceleration
21.4 APPROPRIATE WAYS OF TEACHING makes for quantitative rather than qualitative
THE GIFTED LEARNER learner differentiation – with some possibly seri-
In this section, we focus on the planning and prac- ous problems in socialisation skills and develop-
tice of classroom programmes. ment.

479
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

Enrichment means supplementing the ordinary The major idea of the taxonomy is that learning
curriculum by means of activities that afford the outcomes can be arranged in a hierarchy from less
learner an opportunity to broaden as well as to more complex. When we address higher-level
deepen knowledge in a given field or learning cognitive outcomes in worksheets, to get away
area, for example by means of doing a project or from simple recall and low-level understanding of
doing investigations/problem solving. This concepts we emphasise the ability to apply and
involves more than just a broadening or deepen- synthesise knowledge to complex problems. This
ing of knowledge – there is also the matter of how suits gifted learners very well.
knowledge is acquired by means of research. In The taxonomy is presented in Table 21.2 with
short, good acceleration should be enriching, and sample verbs for each level that can help you to
good enrichment accelerating! know that you are indeed implementing the
model as outlined by Bloom. It is clear that learn-
ers can “know” about a topic, subject or learning
Having read the above description of area at different levels. While most teacher-made
enrichment and acceleration, which
tests still test at the lower levels of the taxonomy,
approach do you think would be most
research has shown that learners remember more
successfully implemented in South
ACTIVITY

African schools? What problems are when they have learned to handle the topic at the
associated with enrichment? Do you higher levels of the taxonomy. Thus this is not an
think it is easy to offer a gifted learner exercise purely for gifted learners. All learners
enrichment in a “normal” school should be helped to acquire higher-level thinking.
environment? Can enrichment be The skill is to use questions that promote ability
accommodated within the framework to think at each level – and not to limit questions
of OBE? to the three lower levels (as many educators tend
to do!).
In Table 21.3 we see how Bloom’s taxonomy
One teaching strategy that is used in all class- can be applied to a classroom in the foundation
rooms, but can also be used to challenge the abil- phase that includes gifted learners. We will use
ities of gifted learners, is that of direct instruc- the story of Goldilocks and the three bears as an
tion. example.

Direct instruction as enrichment

Take a critical look at a recent question
Direct instruction is sometimes referred to as paper or worksheet that you have set
ACTIVITY

teacher “chalk and talk”. It is a teacher-centred for your class (or has been set for a
approach to instruction where the teacher deli- child you know). Which levels of
vers content in a structured way, directing the Bloom’s taxonomy are covered by the
activities of the learners and maintaining a focus questions and/or tasks? Which levels
on academic content. The teacher’s focus should are left out?
be on facilitating the learners’ understanding and
development of thinking skills. It should never
deteriorate into a process which requires learners 21.4.2 A curriculum development model
to merely memorise and reproduce. One way of for gifted learners
ensuring this is to use Bloom’s taxonomy in lesson Over the last number of years, curriculum devel-
planning. opment for gifted learners has progressed to a
Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive objec- multiplicity of approaches. The one we have cho-
tives (1954) is still a very useful framework for sen to include here is an example of several that
ensuring that gifted learners are stimulated and have been recommended for gifted learners, but
challenged in the classroom. Bloom’s taxonomy one which is widely used in schools across the
includes six levels: recall, understanding, applica- world. It can be implemented effectively in an
tion, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. inclusive school environment.

480
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

Table 21.2 Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive objectives

Level Definition Sample verbs

Knowledge Learner recalls or recognises information, write; list; label; name; state; define; match;
ideas and principles in the approximate outline
form in which they were learned
Comprehension Learner translates, comprehends or inter- explain; summarise; paraphrase; describe;
prets information based on prior learning illustrate
Application Learner selects, transfers and uses data use; compute; solve; demonstrate; apply;
and principles to complete a problem or construct
task with a minimum of direction
Analysis Learner distinguishes, classifies and analyse; categorise; compare; contrast;
relates the assumptions, hypotheses, evi- separate; examine
dence or structure of a statement or ques-
tion.
Synthesis Learner originates, integrates and com- create; design; invent; hypothesise; devel-
bines ideas into a product, plan or proposal op; formulate; plan
that is new to him
Evaluation Learner appraises, assesses or critiques use; judge; criticise; recommend; argue;
on a basis of specific standards and criteria justify; assess

Source: Bloom (1954)

Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Model or The Enrichment Triad (see Figure 21.2) pro-
Schoolwide Enrichment Model vides for three types of giftedness and three levels
Renzulli’s ideas on teaching gifted learners are in (or types) of enrichment. The first two types com-
line with the principles of problem solving. prise general exploratory activities and group
According to his Enrichment Triad, the role of the skills training for all learners in a group (class).
learner is transferred from that of an exercise-doer These two types of enrichment are of crucial
to that of a first-hand inquirer (Renzulli 1986: 24). importance for the gifted learner, since they stim-

Table 21.3 Applying Bloom’s taxonomy to a theme

Knowledge The recall of specific information. Who was Goldilocks? Where did she live? With
whom? What did her mother tell her not to do?
Comprehension An understanding of what was read. This story was about......... (topic) The story tells
us.......... (main idea). Why didn’t her mother want her to go to the forest? What did
Goldilocks look like? What kind of girl was she?
Application The converting of abstract content to concrete situations. How were the bears like
real people? Draw a picture of what the bears’ house looked like. Show through action
how Goldilocks sat in the chairs, ate the porridge, etc.
Analysis The comparison and contrast of the content to personal experiences. How did each
bear react to what Goldilocks did? How would you react? Compare Goldilocks to any
friend. Do you know any animals that act human?
Synthesis The organisation of thoughts, ideas and information from the content. List the events
of the story in sequence. Do you know any other stories about little girls or boys who
escaped from danger? Make a puppet of one of the characters. Using the puppet, act out
his/her part of the story.
Evaluation The judgement and evaluation of characters, actions, outcome, etc. for personal
reflection and understanding. Why were the bears angry with Goldilocks? What do you
think she learned by going into that house? Do you think she will listen to her mother’s
warnings in the future? Why? Do you think this really happened to Goldilocks? Why? Why
has this story been told to children for many, many years?

481
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

Type I Type II
General exploratory Group training
activities activities

Type III
Individual and small group

En in g
investigation of real problems

vi en
ul r

ro e
ic la
um
rr gu

nm ra
cu Re

en l
t
Figure 21.2 The Enrichment Triad

ulate interest and promote specific processes of • Field study tours where learners become active-
thinking and feeling with a view to the third type ly involved in certain subjects
of enrichment: the investigation of actual prob- • Inviting experts (writers, artists, sculptors, spe-
lems. cialists) to address the learners, or visiting
experts or professional people
Type I enrichment: general exploratory
activities
• Brainstorming sessions about appropriate sub-
jects
General exploratory activities are intended to
expose learners to various learning areas or topics During the exploratory activities it is the teacher’s
in which they may develop an interest. The choice role to assist learners in formulating solvable
of source material is crucial to the success of Type problems in relation to the learning areas and
I activities, as the material is intended not as an specific interest areas. The teacher also has to
information source, but rather as a stimulus help learners to structure their investigations and
towards research in a particular area of interest. to take note of the specialised materials or skills
Renzulli gives the following guidelines for Type I needed to conduct such investigations. Type I
enrichment: firstly, learners should be thoroughly activities thus provide a logical prelude to the
aware that they are expected to be purposeful in next stages of the enrichment programme.
their exploratory activities so as to analyse their
experiences and submit proposals for the study of Type II enrichment: group training activities
specific themes or topics within a given period of The second phase of Renzulli’s Triad is a process
time. Secondly, a variety of strategies may be activity as it involves teaching–learning activities
used to expose learners to a whole range of sub- which centre on the stimulation of higher-order
jects and learning areas from which they can thinking and feeling processes and skills. Such
select research problems. enrichment consists mainly of exercises enabling
A few examples of how learner interest can be learners to assimilate subject matter and to
stimulated are provided: resolve the problems inherent in it. It also
• Interest centres, exhibitions, libraries or book- involves exercises to stimulate critical and diver-
shops containing books, magazines, slides, cas- gent thinking and enhance problem solving, ana-
settes, models and the like lytical, synthetic and hypothesising skills; and

482
 ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS 21

comparative and productive thinking. Techniques a concern for the outcomes of their studies. Their
such as brainstorming are used to enhance fluen- work is often directed at some kind of product,
cy of ideas, flexibility, originality and other appro- and this attitude towards a problem situation may
priate thinking and feeling skills. be regarded as the essential difference between
Since such activities are oriented towards skills; the scientist, who discovers areas of inquiry, and
the emphasis is on skills training, rather than on the technician, who deals with presented areas of
content. Thus learners learn to handle new prob- inquiry.
lems and situations, having mastered general Although this model has been used effectively in
strategies for solving problems spanning a variety many schools throughout the world, it does pres-
of learning areas. It should be remembered that ent organisational problems for schools. Critics
Type II activities are not an end in themselves: say that the focus of this model creates confusion
they are there to prepare for Type III enrichment around the curricular scope and sequence of learn-
– the solution of actual problems. The following ing at all levels of instruction. Another concern is
cognitive and affective processes are, for instance, that basic content and skills can be undervalued in
included in Type II enrichment: brainstorming, a learning area. A learner first needs to master the
observation, classification, interpretation, analy- basics of the learning area before progressing to
sis, evaluation, comparison, categorisation, syn- doing research in that learning area. The model (at
thesis, fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, the elementary level) also tends to devalue core
hypothesising, awareness, appreciation, value content elements, and to overvalue independent
clarification and commitment. learning strategies at that stage of development.
These activities are fully in line with the Nation- Nevertheless, it is greatly favoured (especially in
al Curriculum as they represent process-oriented the natural sciences) as a learner-centred, hands-
activities which provide learners with advanced on, inquiry-based process of problem solving, as
problem-solving skills. learners are actively involved in the process of
constructing knowledge. Because investigation is
Type III enrichment: individual and cooperative emphasised, this model is clearly in line with the
problem solving tenets of outcomes-based education. Teachers
At the heart of Type III enrichment is the fact that should, however, always be sure that the learners
gifted learners are trained in methods of inquiry. have mastered the basic core content and skills in
The emphasis is on innovation in learning. Rather an area before proceeding to problem solving.
than have gifted learners discover a predeter-
mined solution or an already discovered method,
they are expected to find their own answers in To help you to relate this model to your
their own individual ways. This phase of the Triad work as a teacher, think of a group of
thus involves the investigation of real problems children and plan a project on the basis
of the Enrichment Triad.
by appropriate methods. Learners study theoreti-
Decide on
cal structures, examine raw data and discover
• the particular theme or issue that you
generalisations in their chosen learning areas.
will focus on
Only a few learners (the gifted) will reach the third
ACTIVITY

• the curriculum outcome that you will

level of the Triad, which involves finding the prob- address
lem, formulating the problem, analysing the prob- • how you will assess which issue will
lem, applying research methods and formulating form the first, second and third phas-
specific deductions. Teachers can help learners es of the Triad
find appropriate ways of communicating project • appropriate activities for each stage
outcomes to audiences that understand, appreci- of the Triad
ate and react critically to these products. The • resource materials or teaching aids
teacher’s role in Type III enrichment is thus main- to support the learners who partici-
ly that of a facilitator of learning. pate in each stage.
Renzulli indicates that firsthand inquirers have

483
SECTION I ADDRESSING GIFTEDNESS

21.5 CONCLUSION Bibliography

The success of any teaching situation depends Betts, G.T. & Hoover, M.J. 1995. Encouraging lifelong
largely on the personality of the teacher. Teachers learning through the autonomous learner model. In Gen-
may have the most brilliant qualifications, the shaft, J.L., Birely, M. & Hollinger, C.L. (Eds), Serving gifted
and talented students. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed, 135–154.
best aids at their disposal and the most intelligent
Bloom, B.S. 1954. Taxonomy of educational objectives:
learners in their classes, but in the final analysis it the classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: cog-
is the personal relationship between learners and nitive domain. New York: McKay.
teacher that counts. Brunault, J. 2003. Gifted children and human rights: col-
Gifted learners do not necessarily require gifted laboration with the Council of Europe. Paper presented at
the 15th World Conference of the World Council for Gifted
teachers, just as Olympic sportsmen do not
and Talented Children. Adelaide, Australia, 1–5 August.
require Olympic medallists as their coaches.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1993. The evolving self: a psycholo-
Although their teacher should be the same kind of gy for the third millennium. New York: Harper Collins.
bright, curious, enthusiastic person that they are, Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6:
the teacher need not be intellectually gifted. Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education
What is required is a teacher who grasps the fact and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
that the gifted are different and who understands Feldhusen, J. 2003. Reflections on the development of
creative achievement. Gifted and Talented International,
their special talents and problems. 18(1): 47–51.
It is very important that teacher training cours- Kokot, S.J. 2000. Understanding giftedness: a South
es expand their programmes concerning gifted African perspective. Johannesburg: Radford House.
learners. Plunkett (Vialle & Geake 2002: 242) Milne, H. 2003. The Schoolwide Enrichment Model:
reminds us that “[t]eachers not trained in gifted enriching the potential of persons with disabilities. Paper
presented at the 15th World Conference of the World
education tend to be more apathetic and even
Council for Gifted and Talented Children. Adelaide, Aus-
hostile toward gifted students”. Inclusion of gift- tralia, 1–5 August.
ed learners within the diverse school population Montgomery, D. 1996. Educating the able. London: Cas-
does not mean avoiding or ignoring their needs. sell.
The Education White Paper 6 of the Department of Montgomery, D. 2000. Inclusive education for able under-
Education (2001) echoes Montgomery (2000: 127) achievers: changing teaching for learning. In Montgomery,
D. (Ed.), Able underachievers. London: Whurr, 127–149.
with the statement that inclusive education does
Persson, R.S. 1999. Exploring high ability in egalitarian
not help the learner adapt to meet the needs of
settings: Swedish school teachers and gifted students.
the school but rather adapts the school to meet Gifted and Talented International, 14(1): 6–11.
the needs of the learner. With better understand- Renzulli, J.S. 1986. Systems and models for developing
ing and the knowledge and skills needed to make programs for the gifted and talented. Mansfield Center,
the necessary curriculum adjustment, teachers CT: Creative Learning Press.
may avoid the trap of neglecting or damaging our Schunk, D.H. & Zimmerman, B.J. 1994. Self-regulation of
learning and performance. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erl-
most able and potentially valuable citizens of the baum.
future. Seagoe, M.V. 1975. Terman and the gifted. Los Altos, CA:
William Kauffman.
Steinberg, L. 1996. Beyond the classroom. New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Questions Tannenbaum, A.J. 1983. Gifted children: psychological
and educational perspectives. New York: Macmillan.
1. How would you define giftedness to a fellow
Terman, L.M. 1925. Genetic studies of genius, Volume 1:
teacher or parent? mental and physical traits of a thousand gifted children.
2. Why is it believed worldwide that gifted learn- Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
ers have special educational, social and emo- Treffinger, D.J. & Feldhusen, J.F. 2000. Planning for pro-
tional needs? ductive thinking and learning. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.
Van der Horst, [Link]. 1994. Teaching the gifted (only study
3. What techniques are available to accom- guide for OBK454-P). Pretoria: Unisa.
modate gifted learners in an inclusive class- Vialle, W. & Geake, J. 2002. The gifted enigma: a collec-
room? tion of articles. Highett, VI: Hawker Brownlow Education.

484
INDEX

INDEX

A commonly associated features 315

triads of impairments 308
acceleration 479
autonomous nervous system 240
accommodation of barriers to learning
parasympathetic 240
definition 56
sympathetic 240
domains of accommodation 56
assessment 48
access 56 B
achievement, of 154 basal ganglia 246
continuous 58 bilingual 153
curriculum-based assessment 154 bilingual-bicultural approach 356
definition 46 bio-ecological model, see Bronfenbrenner’s bio-
dynamic assessment 54 ecological model
objectives of 49 Braille 340
proficiency assessment 153 contractions 344
purpose of 48 brain damage, causes 257
reliability 55 brain stem 244
sources of information 58 Bronfenbrenner 13, 214
technique 57 Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model 13, 62, 81, 349
validity 55 component 50
assessors 49 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model 10
asset-based approach chronosystem 10, 12
asset 51 exosystem 10, 11, 82, 215
asset access mapping 52 macrosystem 10, 12, 81
personal strength 51 mesosystem 10, 11, 82
trans-disciplinary model 52 microsystem 10, 82, 215
attention, types of 393 person characteristics 13
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) 357, process 13
366 time 15
auditory pathways 256 Bronfenbrenner’s systems theory 215, 338
auditory perception
auditory analysis 371
auditory closure 371 C
auditory discrimination 371 central nervous system 240
auditory figure ground identification 371 cerebellum 246
auditory memory 371 cerebral palsy 288
auditory order 371 assessment of intelligence 295
auditory synthesis 371 ataxia 294
definition 371 barriers 294
autism causes of 289
long-term outcomes 318 classification 290
placement of learners 324 classroom support 297
possible causal factors 317 definition 289
prevalence 318 dyskinesia 293
principle of intervention 318 hypotonia 294
secondary impairments 316 intelligence assessment 295
support and intervention strategies 320 medical and paramedical treatment 295
autistic spectrum disorder 308 mixed types 294

486
 INDEX

neurological levels 290 parity 229

spasticity 292 shared goal 229
cerebrum 247 shared responsibility 229
frontal lobes 249 sharing of resources 230
limbic lobes 251 volunteer participation 228
occipital lobes 251 communication 171
parietal lobes 250 aided symbol 172
temporal lobes 250 common gesture 173
challenging behaviour cultural gesture 173
extrinsic factors 450 ecolalia 312
intrinsic factors 450 finger spelling 174
chronic diseases 427 functions 120
anorexia nervosa 440 key word signing 174
asthma 438 natural gesture 173
bilharzia 435 oral approach 353
blood disorder 442 pantomime 173
bulimia nervosa 440 sign language 174
childhood cancer 441 sign language approach 353
definition 428 unaided symbol 172
diabetes 436 voluntary vocalisation 173
factors contributing to 428 communication device 176
gastrointestinal disorder 439 communication, means of
heart disorder 441 linguistics 119
HIV/Aids 432 paralinguistics 119
hyperthyroidism 438 communication skills 91, 110
hypothyroidism 438 communication system
impact on the child 429 pictorial symbol 176
impact on the family 429 tangible symbol 176
impact on school success 429 traditional orthography 176
kidney disorders 439 community factors 453
learning support 442 computer technology
malaria 435 computers 345
nutritional disorders 439 notetakers 344
Perthe’s disease 305 refreshable Braille 344
Scheuermann’s disease 305 scanners 344
tuberculosis 434 cooperative groups 156
classroom management 456 cooperative learning 71, 206, 359, 417
classroom procedures 457 brainstorming 159
classroom rules 457 buzz group 159
planning 456 core group 73
closed circuit television 345 face-to-face interaction 72
code switching 156 formal group 73
cognition group accountability 72
expressive language 120 heterogeneous group 73
inner language 120 homogeneous group 73
language, and 120 individual accountability 72, 417
receptive language 120 interaction 417
cognitive style 103 jigsaw activity 159
collaboration 338 learner reflection 72
collaborative relationships 226 positive interdependence 72, 417
definition 228, 230 skill 72, 417
interdisciplinary approach 228 temporary group 73
multidisciplinary approach 228 cooperative teaching 343

487
INDEX

coping tools 97 experiential learning 109

criterion-referenced test 58 eye 330
culture aqueous humour 331
definition 222 choroid 331
cultural differences 37 cornea 331
eye muscles 331
iris 331
D
lens 331
deafness 349 macula 331
aetiology 349 pupil 331
definition 349 retina 331
manifestation 357 sclera 331
socio-cultural issue 349 vitreous humour 331
developmental disabilities eye condition
aetiology 409 albinism 329, 333, 335, 342
directionality 339, 345 cataracts 332, 335, 342
disability conjunctivitis 333
definition 407 glaucoma 334
environmental factors 408 macular degeneration 334, 335, 338, 341
health condition 408 myopia 342
personal factors 408 nystagmus 333
discipline 455 refraction errors 332
disruptive behaviour 454 retinal detachment 334
district-based support team 63 retinitis pigmentosa 334, 338
Down syndrome 78 strabismus 332
trachoma 333
E eye testing
field of vision 338
early intervention programme 87
Snellen chart 337
educational neglect 451
visual acuity 338
enrichment 480
epilepsy 273
behaviour and emotional problems and learning F
283 family
broad groupings 274 definition 219
factors that cause 278 family structure 220
general seizures 275 family–school partnership 85, 219
identification 278 full-service school 65
intellectual functioning 280 functional speech 170
learning support to 284
medication and its possible effects 284
nature of 274 G
partial seizures 276 giftedness
relationship problems at school 282 definition 472
safety measures 286 graphic symbols 176
seizure and learning 280
susceptibility to 278
unclassified epileptic seizures 278 H
Epstein 214, 216 hearing loss
external model 216 central 352
internal model 217 conductive 352
ESL reading support 155 mixed 352
ESL writing support 155 sensorineural 352
writing workshop 166 high technology 179

488
 INDEX

advantage 183 definition 381

digital speech, definition of 181 general teaching support required 389
disadvantage 184 memorising, barriers 397
EasyTalk 181 memory, learning support 399
iTalk2 181 perception, learning support 394
little step-by-step communicator 181 perceptual barriers 391
Macaw digital speech output 181 prevalence of 381
synthesised speech output 182 skills required from teachers 387
HIV/Aids 81, 220 thinking, barriers 396
Strategic Plan 31 thinking, learning support 398
Tirisano plan for Aids intervention 32 intelligence 99
HIV/Aids pandemic 31 cognitive intelligence 103
human rights 30 definition 99
hypothalamus 246 emotional intelligence 100
moral intelligence 106
motivational intelligence 105
I
physical intelligence 99
iconicity situational intelligence 107
definition 174 social intelligence 101
impairment of the skeleton and muscular system 300
agenesis and deformed limbs 302
amputations 301 L
arthrogryposis 303 language
burn lesions 304 cognition, and 120
osteogenesis imperfecta 303 content 123
support to 305 form 121, 123
inclusion 3, 4, 7 function 123
attitudes 20 morphology 121
background 8 phonology 121
collaboration 19 spoken 120
definition 4, 8 syntax 121
leadership 19 language contextualisation 156
professional development 20 language of learning and teaching (LoLT) 37, 149
resources 20 language skill 91
South African context 15 laterality 339, 345
Salamanca Conference 8 learned helplessness 364, 415, 419
support 19 learner-centred classroom 158
vision 19 learning 214
whole-school development 19 learning impairment
inclusive community definition 364
cultural differences 222 learning style 452
linguistic differences 222 lesson plan 157
inclusive education 214, 358, 371 life skills programme 97
inclusive learning communities 214 continual learning process 109
integration 6, 7 curriculum 108
intellectual impairment 380 group context 108
attention, learning support 395 health promotion 98
attention problems 393 implementation 108
concentration problems 393 orientation to the world of work 98
causes of 382 personal development 98
communicating, barriers 399 personal journey 109
communication, learning support 400 physical development and movement 98
consequences of 386 social development 98

489
INDEX

lighting perception 370

environmental 342 auditory 335
task 342, 343 definition 335
low technology 179 spatial awareness 335
advantage 182 time awareness 335
communication board 179 visual 335
communication vest 181 perceptiveness 475
disadvantage 183 perceptual development
support 339
perfectionism 475
M peripheral nervous system 240
magnifying glass 345 cranial 240
mainstreaming 6, 7 spinal 240
mannerisms 336, 342 spinal nerves 251
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 33 personal skills 110
mediation 55 interpersonal life skills 112
medical model 5, 406 intrapersonal life skills 111
labelling 412 planning 456
mentoring 97 plasticity 242
metacognition 198 positive reinforcement 460
definition 120 post-lingual deafness
metacognitive awareness 59 causes 353
metalinguistics 121 poverty 28, 451
mnemonics 377 pre-lingual deafness
mobility 340 causes 352
definition 345 prosthesis 301
monolingual 153 punishment 462
multicultural classroom 156
multidisciplinary approach 41 R
multilingual teaching 151
reading 122, 164
components 124
N definition 124
neuron remedial education 47
axons 240 resource-based approach 83
cell bodies 240 reticular system 254
dendrites 241
lower motor neuron 252 S
neural development and growth 243
upper motor neuron 252 school
neurotransmitters 243 policies 224
normalisation 6 procedures 225
norm-referenced test 50, 57 school-based support team 66
learning support teacher 67
school climate
O definition 224
ordinary school 66 School Health Service 39
orientation 340 school organisation 452
definition 345 school personnel 452
second language environment 155
sensitivity 474
P sensory motor skills 369
paradigm 4 severe disabilities 407
parent involvement 459 social capital 217

490
 INDEX

social ecological model 6 organisation 458

social model 406 teaching approaches
social skills 110 communicative approach 160
socio-critical perspective 16 whole language approach 161
socio-economic status, of parents 221 teaching style 452
sound environment 343 thalamus 245
special school thematic teaching 417
resource centres 65 thinking skills 103, 110
special needs education 15 conflict resolution skills 104
spina bifida 261 critical thinking skills 104
spoken language 120 problem-solving skills 104
street children 38 reflective thinking skills 104
survival skills 110 total communication 355
synapse 242 trans-disciplinary team approach 416
syndrome transformative learning theory 109
Asperger 307
Down 383
Fragile X 384
U
Klinefelter 384 urbanisation 28
Marfan 305
Rett 307 V
Tourette 317
Turner 384 value system 30
systems model of cognition 390 verbalism 336, 341
visual impairment
classroom support 342
T manifestation 337
tactual kinaesthetic perception visual pathways 255
definition 371 visual perception
teacher definition 370
assessor 70 form consistency 370
assistants 70 spatial orientation 370
bridger 70 visual analysis 370
designer of learning programme 68 visual closure 370
facilitator 69 visual discrimination 370
interpreter of learning programme 68 visual figure ground perception 370
learning mediator 68 visual memory 370
philosopher 69 visual sequence 370
teacher assistants 420 visual synthesis 370
paraprofessional 416
teacher–learner relationship 458
teacher skills W
communication 459 World Health Organization 407
lesson flow 458 written language 122

491