BUILDING REPAIRS AND

MAINTENANCE
PART-I

Dr. S. THIRUGNANASAMBANDAM
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPT. OF CIVIL & STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
ANNAMALAI U NIVERSITY
ANNAMALAINAGAR-608 002
Structures are designed to withstand safely a
particular predetermined load during their life
period. Generally reinforced concrete (RC)
structures can suffer varying degrees of
damage due to several reasons including
material deterioration, construction technique
adopted, poor workmanship, overloading,
aggressive environments, fatigue and
corrosion of steel reinforcement embedded in
concrete.
 BUILDING MATERIALS
Building materials can be generally categorized into two
sources:

 Natural and Synthetic Materials

Natural building materials are those that are unprocessed or

minimally processed by industry, such as clay, sand, wood,
rocks and glass.

Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after much

human manipulations, such as plastics and petroleum based
products.

Concrete is a composite building material made from the

combination of aggregates and a binder such as cement.
 WHY IS CONCRETE SO POPULAR?

Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world.

Can be fabricated practically anywhere

Can be moulded and cast into a wide range of shapes
and geometries
Is relatively cheap
Stronger and more durable
 Cement
Age of Cement nearly 150 Years
33 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement
43 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement
53 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
Portland Pozzolana Cement (fly ash based)
Portland Pozzolana Cement (calcined clay based)
Low Heat Portland Cement
Sulphate Resisting Cement
 Grade of Concrete
Ordinary Concrete
M10, M15, M20

Standard Concrete
M25, M30, M35, M40, M45, M50, M55

High Strength Concrete

M60, M65, M70, M75, M80
Minimum Grade of Concrete: R.C.C - M20
P.C.C - M15
P.S.C - Pre tensioned M40
Post tensioned M30
 Codal Provisions
Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice: IS 456 - 2000
Strength Concept
Durability Concept
Durability of Concrete: A Durable Concrete is One that Performs
Satisfactorily in the Working Environment
During its Anticipated Exposure Conditions
During Service.
Environmental Condition: Mild, Moderate, Severe, Very Severe and
Extreme.
Nominal Cover to
Reinforcement : Slab:20mm, Beam:25mm, Column:40mm and
Foundation: 50mm
Quality of Concrete
• water cement ratio
• sand/stone ratio
• cover depth
• chloride content in constituents
• moisture content
• oxygen
• pH value
• temperature
• permeability of concrete
• method and time of curing
• electrical resistivity of concrete
• crack width
• type and size of reinforcement bars.
DAMAGE
Quay Wall Collapse
 Damages in RC Structures:
• Cracking
• Leakage
• Settlement
• Over Deflection
• Wearing
• Spalling
• Disintegration
• Delamination
• Over loading
• Aggressive Environments
• Materials used for construction
• Fatigue and Corrosion
 A strip of notched tape works similarly :
Movement is indicated by tearing of the tape
 The device using a typical vernier caliper is the most
satisfactory of all.
Both extension and compression are indicated
 If more accurate readings are desired, extensometers
can be used
 Where extreme accuracy is required resistance strain
gauges can be glued across the crack
Design and construction stages - durability of structures:

•Right choice of material

•Proper construction methods
•Adequate specifications for construction and installation
work.
•Effective supervision throughout the construction period and
rectification of defects prior to final handover of the buildings.
•Provision of adequate space for landscaping with proper design
 Damage Assessment of Structures

• To identify the suitable repair procedure, it is

necessary to have a planned approach to
investigate the condition of concrete and
reinforcement
 Repair and Rehabilitation
Repair and rehabilitation mean restoring the
damaged structures to make them fit for
serviceability condition.
 Selection of repair materials
• Dimensional stability
• Modulus of elasticity
• Permeability
• Chemical resistance
• Adhesion with parent concrete
• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Easy to use
 CRACKS

CAUSES OF CONCRETE CRACKING

• Physical damage
• Structural damage
• Chemical and electrochemical damage
• Construction damage
I. Physical damage

 a. Plastic shrinkage
 b. Plastic Settlement
 c. Drying Shrinkage
 d. Thermal effects
 e. Freeze and thaw
 f. Abrasion
 g. Erosion and cavitation
 h. Fire
II. Structural damage

 a. Design errors
 b. Overloading
 c. Settlement
 d. Creep
 e. Deflection
 f. Fatigue
III. Chemical and electrochemical damage

 a. Corrosion of reinforcement
 b. Alkali-aggregate reaction
 c. Sulphate attack
 d. Acid attack
 e. Carbonation
IV. Construction damage

 a. Movements of the ground and formwork

 b. Construction movement
 c. Vibration
 TYPES OF CRACKS
 1. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
 2. Plastic Settlement Cracks
 3. Drying Shrinkage Cracks
 4. Thermal Cracks
 5. Map Cracks due to alkali aggregate reaction
 6. Longitudinal Cracks due to Corrosion
 7. Transverse Cracks due to loading
 8. Shear Cracks due to loading
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete or by the

absorption by aggregate or subgrade is believed to be the main
reasons of plastic shrinkage. The loss of water results in the
reduction of volume.
The factors affecting the plastic shrinkage are (i) Ambient
temperature (ii) Relative humidity (iii) Wind velocity
(iv)Temperature of concrete.
The preventive measures for plastic shrinkage are listed
below:
1. Dampening of subgrade and forms
2. Controlling the wind velocity by erection of windbreaks
3. Minimizing placing and finishing time
4. Using membrane curing, begin curing as soon as possible
after finishing
5. Using monomolecular films (evaporation retarders) or fog
spray immediately after the screeding to maintain the
water/cement ratio at the surface
6. Using surface dry aggregates
 Plastic Settlement Cracks

These cracks form during construction in concrete due to

settlement of concrete and bleeding of excess water from the
concrete.
 Differential Settlement Cracks

At changes of section such as the section at a beam/slab

junction, the different amount of settlement can lead to
cracks forming at the surface as shown in Figure
Drying Shrinkage Cracks

Floor Above the doors

Cracking of concrete due to drying shrinkage
Factors affecting the drying shrinkage
Factors affecting the drying shrinkage

Factor Reduced Shrinkage Increased Shrinkage

Cement type Low grade High grade
Cement content 325 kg/m2 450 kg/m2
Aggregate Size 40mm 20mm
Aggregate type granite Sand stone
Slump 50 - 75mm 125mm – 150mm
Curing 7 days 3 days
Placement 15-20°C 30°C
temperature
Aggregate state washed dirty
 Thermal Cracks

The factors affecting the thermal cracks are as follows:

1. Initial temperature of materials
2. Ambient temperature
3. Large dimensions
4. Curing conditions
5. Early removal of formwork
6. More cement
7. Cement grade
8. Admixtures like flyash, etc.
Differential Thermal Exposure:
 Map Cracks due to alkali aggregate reaction

The reaction of siliceous minerals (silica) in aggregate with

alkalies (sodium oxide and potassium oxide) present in cement
causes the swelling of concrete which results a pattern of cracking
of concrete surface.
Longitudinal Cracks due to Corrosion
 Transverse Cracks due to loading

These cracks form in the concrete after it has hardened due to

shrinkage, thermal contraction or structural loading.
 Shear Cracks due to loading

Beam Column base

Columns of bridge.
MICRO CRACKS
MACRO CRACKS
0.1 mm to 3 mm

1. Improper placement of concrete

2. Settlement cracks of fresh concrete
3. Cracking due to
Intrinsic sulphate attack
Alkali aggregate reaction
Heat of hydration
Increased volume of corroded reinforcement exerting
bursting pressure on concrete
4. Excessive loading
Corrosion damage
2006
What is "Concrete Cancer"?

Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structures is

well known to be "Concrete Cancer", which is a significant
worldwide problem and causes multi-billion dollars
losses to the infrastructure and building owners each year.

India loses around Rs.25,000 Crores every year on

account of corrosion.

The detection, diagnosing and appropriate treatment of

this complicated problem requires very special expertise in
this field.
Stage 1: Initially, the concrete appears
to be sound with relatively little Stage 2: Macroscopic cracks have
macroscopic cracking and no reddish appeared and the concrete surface is
discoloration from corrosion product stained by reddish corrosion
formation. products.
Stage 3: Spalling of the concrete cover Stage 4: Severe spalling of the concrete
over the reinforcing steel is clearly cover over the reinforcing steel is evident,
leaving the reinforcing steel bars directly
visible, due to the formation of
exposed to the atmosphere.
voluminous corrosion products.
Overall view of the advanced concrete degradation in the barrier wall.
Spalling and the remains of uncovered reinforcing steel can be seen.
Symptoms of corrosion in a reinforced concrete slab
Symptoms of corrosion in a reinforced concrete beam
Diagrammatic representation of cracking – corrosion – cracking cycles
 Corrosion initiation depends

 Concrete mix proportions

 Cement type

 Tri-calcium aluminate content of the cement

 W/C ratio

 Temperature

 Relative humidity

 Source of chloride penetration

Influence of Construction Defects
on the Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
Adding too much water..
Carbonation

Ca(OH)2+ CO2 → CaCO3+H2O

Hydration reaction of the cement Calcium carbonate
Carbonation
Chloride Attack

Passive film protecting the steel is

directly destroyed due to Chloride
attack
Chloride Attack
Localized corrosion Uniform corrosion
Can corrosion be avoided in reinforced concrete?
Yes if:

(a) Concrete is always dry, then there is no

H2O to form rust. Also aggressive agents
cannot easily diffuse into dry concrete.

(b) Concrete is always wet, then there is no

oxygen to form rust.

(c) Cathodic protection is used to convert all

the reinforcement into a cathode using a
battery.
(d) A polymeric coating is applied to the concrete
member to keep out aggressive agents. These are
expensive and not easy to apply and maintain.

(e) A polymeric coating is applied to the reinforcing

bars to protect them from moisture and aggressive
agents. This is expensive and there is some debate as to
its long- term effectiveness.

(f) Stainless steel is used in lieu of conventional black

bars. This is much more expensive than black bars.

(g) Use FRP rebars.

Can we avoid corrosion?

No, not entirely:

Concrete is not usually under water or

continuously dry. Aggressive agents such as
carbon dioxide, de-icing agents and/or sea
water can diffuse into the best of moist
concrete, and corrosion will eventually result.
Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete

H2O
O2

secondary
reaction Fe2O3H2O (rust)

O2
2Fe(OH)2
4(OH-)
anodic cathodic H2O
reaction reaction

2Fe++ 4e-

- electron transfer
-
- -
anodic dissolution of iron cathodic region
 CORROSION REACTIONS
 Anode: Fe Fe++ + 2e- (1.1)
 Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH- (1.2)
 Fe++ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 (1.3)
 Fe(OH)2 + O2 Fe2O3.H2O + 2H2O
(Red-brown rust) (1.4)
 6Fe(OH)2 + O2 2Fe3O4.H2O + 4 H2O
(1.5)
 Fe3O4.H2O Fe3O4 + H2O (1.6)
(Black magnetite)
Volumetric change
 45
40
35
30 SRB1
Load kN

25 SRB2
20 DB1
15 DB2
10 DB3
5 DB4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Midspan deflection mm
Comparison of damaged beams with reference beam

With reference to reference beams

Serial Beam % Reduction % Reduction
number designation % Weight loss in flexural in deflection
strength
1 DB1 5.0 10.36 32.60
2 DB2 5.0 11.84 33.70
3 DB3 7.5 19.20 35.24
4 DB4 15.0 36.29 48.80
 VISUAL OBSERVATION

Sketch of surface appearance when concrete has been mixed for too
long or the time of transport has been too long

Sketch of crack due to concrete settling

 Sketch of exposed aggregate

Unsuitable process at construction joint

Sketch of cracking due to bowing of formwork

Sketch of cracking due to sinking of timbering

Sketch of severe rusting of reinforcing bars due to chemical action

Sketch of effect of fire on concrete

Cracks due to differential settlement of central column

shearing bending

Cracks due to bending and shear stresses

Cracking in columns and beams due to an earthquake

Cracks due to insufficient reinforcing bars

Cracks due to abnormal set of cement

Sinking of concrete
 Rusting of reinforcing bars

Effect of heating and freezing cycles

Effect of changing ground conditions:
a)low temperature or b) dryness

Effect of atmospheric conditions

 Non-uniformity of admixture

Pop-out due to reactive aggregate and high humidity

NDT OF CONCRETE
Test Methods :

• Nondestructive
• Semi-destructive
• Destructive
Methods for Estimation of Concrete Strength

S.No. Test Equipment Type

1 Core test Mechanical

2 Surface hardness method Mechanical

3 Ultrasonic pulse velocity Electrical

4 Break-off and Pull-off Mechanical

Penetration Test
5 Mechanical
(Windsor Prob)
6 Pull-out Test Mechanical

7 Lok Test & capo Test Mechanical

Strength Tests- a Comparative Assessment
 NDT Non-Destructive Testing of RC Components

NDT Equipments
NDT Carried
out during the
Site Visits
using the
following
Equipments:
REBOUND
HAMMER
(Concrete Test
Hammer)
Ultrasonic Rebar Locator
Instrument
(PUNDIT)
PROFORMET
ER (Rebar
Locator)
CORE
CUTTING
TEST
 Laboratory Testing

Lab Testing
Carried out for
the Basic
Materials at
CBRI, Roorkee
 Reinforcement
 Concrete
Samples
 Chloride
Content
 Sulphates
 pH
 Aggregates
 Cement
 Bricks
 Blocks
CUBE TEST
 INDICATES ONLY POTENTIAL STRENGTH
 SUBJECT TO UNINTENTIONAL DEVIATIONS
 DELIBERATE DEVIATION ?
 NOT A TRUE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
STRUCTURE DUE TO PRESENCE OF STEEL, VOIDS,
CRACKS & DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS
 CANNOT BE VERIFIED
 CAN BE ONLY PERFORMED DURING
CONSTRUCTION STAGE
 N D T - OBJECTIVES
 TO ESTABLISH HOMOGENEITY OF CONC.
 COMPARISON OF CONCRETE QUALITY w.r.t. A
STANDARD
 DETECTION OF CRACKS, VOIDS/ OTHER
IMPERFECTIONS
 MONITORING CHANGES IN CONCRETE WITH
PASSAGE OF TIME
 TO ESTABLISH QUALITY OF ONE ELEMENT
w.r.t. ANOTHER
N D T - OBJECTIVES
 ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING
STRUCTURE FOR REHABILITATION
PLANNING
 AS AN ALTERNATIVE TESTING
METHOD IF CUBE RESULTS RAISE
DOUBTS ABOUT CONCRETE
QUALITY (POST MORTEM)
N D T - METHODS
 VISUAL INSPECTION
 REBOUND HAMMER
 ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY METER
 PENETRATION RESISTANCE
 PULL OUT STRENGTH
 COVER METER
 CARBONATION DEPTH
 CORROSION MAPPING
 MATURITY METER
 PERMEABILITY TEST
 RADIOGRAPHY
Surface Hardness Method

- Popularity known as Schmidt Hammer

- Widely used ; truly nondestructive

- Easy to use ; not reliable for fc

 Rebound / Schmidt hammer

Average rebound number Quality of concrete

> 40 Very good hard layer
30 to 40 Good layer
20 to 30 Fair
< 20 Poor concrete
0 Delaminated
Testing of Concrete in Structures

Typical rebound hammer

 Procedure

• Make surface smooth, if necessary, and dry

• Use grids points over an area to avoid bias
• Hold hammer normal to the surface
• Take as many readings as possible
• Convert readings to comp. strength (calibration)
• Note correction for inclined surfaces
REBOUND HAMMER
 MOST COMMON NDT METHOD
 DEVELOPED IN 1948
 MEASURES REBOUND HARDNESS OF
CONCRETE
 NO THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIP
AVAILABLE FOR ASSESSMENT OF
STRENGTH
 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
REBOUND HARDNESS AND STRENGTH
DEVELOPED
REBOUND HAMMER - GUIDELINES

 CONDUCT ON SMOOTH AND UNIFORM

FACE
 AVOID ROUGH SPOTS, HONEY COMBS
 AVOID TROWELLED SURFACES
 THIN SECTIONS (< 100 mm) SHOULD BE
BACKED UP TO AVOID DEFLECTIONS
 TAKE ATLEAST 15 REBOUND READINGS IN
ANY ONE TEST
REBOUND HAMMER - GUIDELINES

 CALCULATE THE MEAN

 COMPARE DEVIATION OF READINGS
FROM THE MEAN
 TEST IS CONSIDERED RELIABLE IF
THE DEVIATION OF TEN READINGS
IS NOT MORE THAN THE
FOLLOWING:
REBOUND VALUE 15 30 45
DEVIATION 2.5 3 3.5
REBOUND HAMMER - GUIDELINES

 USE BEST 10 READINGS FOR

CALCULATING THE MEAN
 DETERMINE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH BY REFERRING TO
REBOUND NUMBER Vs STRENGTH
CHARTS AGAINST THE MEAN VALUE
 BEST ACCURACY ACHIEVEABLE IS
WITHIN + 20%
FACTORS AFFECTING REBOUND VALUE

 TYPE OF AGGREGATES
 DEGREE OF COMPACTION
 AGE OF CONCRETE
 DRYNESS/WETNESS OF THE SURFACE
 RIGIDITY OF THE MEMBER
 SURFACE FINISH OF CONCRETE- MOULDED/
TROWELED
 MAINTENANCE OF REBOUND HAMMER
 INCLINATION OF THE REBOUND HAMMER
 TYPE OF CEMENT
 CARBONATION
 COVER
Calibration of Concrete Test
Hammer
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

- Widely used
- Good reliability ; truly NDT
- Portable equipment ; easy to use
PULSE VELOCITY METHOD

 DEVELOPED IN 1940s
 BASED UPON PROPOGATION OF ULTRASONIC
WAVES IN ELASTIC MEDIUM
 MEASURES VELOCITY OF PROPOGATION OF
ULTRASONIC WAVES
 VELOCITY RELATED TO THE DENSITY OF THE
MEDIUM V=(E/p)1/2
 STRENGTH IS DEDUCED FROM THE DENSITY OF
THE MEDIUM
 FREQUENCY OF WAVES USED - 20 - 150 kHz
Procedure

• Good coupling between concrete and

transducers (no gap, void)
• Select a suitable transmitting station
• Select receiving stations
• Take readings (time for travel of pulse)
• Calculate velocity (pulse velocity)
• From calibration, find concrete strength
PULSE VELOCITY METHOD

 TYPES OF TESTING METHOD

DIRECT TRANSMISSION
SEMI DIRECT TRANSMISSION
SURFACE TRANSMISSION
 DIRECT TRANSMISSION METHOD IS
THE BEST BUT IT REQUIRES ACCESS
TO TWO OPPOSITE SIDES OF
CONCRETE MEMBER
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Velocity Concrete quality

> 4.0 km/s Very good to excellent
3.5 to 4.0 km/s Good to very good, slight porosity may exist
3.0 to 3.5 km/s Satisfactory but loss of integrity is suspected
< 3.0 km/s Poor and loss of integrity exists
DIRECT TRANSMISSION

TRANSMITTER

RECEIVER
SEMI DIRECT TRANSMISSION

R
SURFACE TRANSMISSION

T R
PULSE VELOCITY RATINGS

QUALITY PULSE VELOCITY

km/sec
Excellent > 4.6
Good 3.7 to 4.6
Fair 3.0 to 3.7
Poor 2.1 to 3.0
Very poor < 2.1
FACTORS AFFECTING PULSE VELOCITY

 DEGREE OF COUPLING
 PRESENCE OF REINFORCEMENT
 CONCRETE TEMPERATURE
 MOISTURE CONTENT
 MIX PROPORTION
 AGE OF CONCRETE
 STRESS LEVEL IN CONCRETE
 CONCRETE STRENGTH CAN BE PREDICTED
WITHIN + 20% PROVIDED CALIBRATION CURVE IS
ESTABLISHED
APPLICATIONS OF PULSE VELOCITY METHOD

 MAIN APPLICATION FOR ASSESSMENT OF

CONCRETE UNIFORMITY
 TO ESTABLISH AREAS OF DETERIORATED
CONCRETE
 DETECTION OF CRACKS
 CALCULATION OF DYNAMIC YOUNG’S MODULUS
System for measuring the Half-cell potential
The potential recorded in the half-cell
measurement can be used to indicate the
probability of corrosion of the steel reinforcement

Qualitative manifestation and interpretation

Less negative than 0.20 volts --- 90% probability of no corrosion

Between 0.20 and 0.35 volts --- corrosion is uncertain

More negative than 0.35 volts --- 90% probability of corrosion

occurring
 Four-probe resistivity test

Resistivity (ohm cm) Corrosion

probability
Greater than 20,000 Negligible
10,000 – 20,000 Low
5,000 – 10,000 High
Less than 5,000 Very high
COVER METER

 COVER IS A VERY IMPORTANT

PARAMETER DICTATING DURABILITY OF
CONCRETE
 COVER PROVIDED IS INADEQUATE MORE
OFTEN THAN NOT
 CONVENTIONALLY PROVISION OF COVER
IS CHECKED PRIOR TO CONCRETING
 POST FACTO ASSESSMENT OF COVER IS
POSSIBLE THROUGH COVER METERS
COVER METER

 BASED ON MAGNETIC PRINCIPLE

 RANGE OF MEASUREMENT POSSIBLE IS 0-75 mm
 ACCURACY WITHIN 6 mm
 NOT VERY EFFECTIVE IN HEAVILY REINFORCED
MEMBERS OR MEMBERS WITH SPIRAL
REINFORCEMENT
 SIZE OF THE REINFORCEMENT BAR IS REQUIRED
TO BE KNOWN FOR ACCURATE ASSESSMENT OF
COVER
APPLICATION OF COVER METER

 REHABILITATION PLANNING
 ASSESSMENT OF RESIDUAL TIME TILL
INITIATION OF CORROSION
 TO IMPROVE QUALITY CONTROL DURING
CONSTRUCTION
 IDENTIFICATION OF LOCATION OF
REINFORCEMENT BAR WITH THE FOLLOWING
APPLICATIONS
– HELPS IN AVOIDING DRILLING INTO THE
REINFORCEMENT
– TO AVOID REINFORCEMENT IN PULSE VELOCITY
MEASUREMENTS
CARBONATION DEPTH

 CARBONATION IS CHEMICAL REACTION

BETWEEN Ca (OH)2 AND CO2 OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
 CARBONATION DESTROYS PASSIVE PROTECTION
PROVIDED BY CONCRETE TO THE
REINFORCEMENT
 CARBONATION PROCEEDS FROM THE SURFACE
INTO THE CONCRETE
 WHEN DEPTH OF CARBONATION EQUALS
CONCRETE COVER REINFORCEMENT CORROSION
IS IMMINENT
CARBONATION DEPTH

 METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
– DRILL INTO CONCRETE
– SPRAY PHENOLPHTHALEIN SOLUTION
– UNCARBONATED CONCRETE WILL SHOW
BRIGTH PINK STAIN
– CARBONATED CONCRETE WILL NOT CHANGE
COLOUR
– WITH THE ABOVE VISUAL INDICATION DEPTH
OF CARBONATION CAN BE EASILY MEASURED
LIMITATIONS OF N D T

 ALL NDT METHODS ARE INDIRECT

 CORELATION BETWEEN MEASURED PARAMETER
AND CONCRETE STRENGTH IS NEVER EXACT.
 EFFECTIVENESS OF NDT REDUCES WITH
HETEROGENEITY OF THE MATERIAL
 RESULTS ARE DEPENDENT ON TOO MANY
PARAMETERS
 NORMALLY ACHIEVEABLE LEVEL OF ACCURACY
IS + 25%
 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS REQUIRE
INTUITIVE JUDGEMENT
Pull-out Tests

Lok Test (developed in Denmark)

Capo Test
Lok – Test

(Preplanned tests – new structures)

• Attach the head and shaft to the formwork

• Concrete is cast
• Remove formwork at test location
• All parts except disc is removed
• A pull-rod is treaded to disc
• Pull-rod attached to testing equipment
• Pull rod pulled and the force to pull out is noted
• Calibration provided to convert into strength
a b

c d

Lok Test procedure

 Capo-test

(For existing structure)

Similar concept as Lok-test, except hole

is made and disc is inserted

c d
Remarks

- Capo-test has good reliability

for estimation of strength

- Equipment available (Portable)

- Needs some practice

Other Methods

• Penetration Method

• Pull-off Tests

• Break-off Tests

(These are not widely used)

Penetration Method

- Popularly known as ‘Windsor probe’

Procedure

• A probe is prepared by attaching firing head

• Place the probe into the driver (gun)

• Fire the driver, holding against a steel locating plate

• Measure the depth of penetration by measuring the

exposed length

• Dept of penetration is a measure of strength

 Pull-off Method

- Arrangement as shown
- Direct pull-off using epoxy is not recommended
- Partial coring recommended
 Break-off

Arrangement shown
- Modulus of rupture is estimated
- High degree of variability
Core Tests

• Most accurate test, if performed correctly

• An essential component of in-situ investigation
• Other than strength, can be used for visual
inspection, crack depth, chemical analysis,
permeability
• Location, size and numbers
 Location

- If concrete is in suspect, use weakest area

- For compliance, avoid unrepresentative areas
- Avoid reinforcement
- Avoid critical areas
 Size

- Desirable 100 mm dia for strength;

though 70-75 mm dia widely used

- Generally size affects strength

(if small dia, less than 70 mm, use correction factor)

- L/d ratio ~ 2 ; for smaller L/d ratio, use correction factor

- Accuracy decreases as agg/core dia increases

(use at least 3 * maxm. size)

 No. of Cores

- Depends on purpose

- For strength verification, use statistically significant numbers

- Minm. 3 to 4 cores for strength

- Compromise between cost, damage and accuracy

Trimming, Capping and
Measurement

- Trim edges with a saw to make ends square

- Cap properly with horizontal face

- Measure length, average diameter

(cross readings at mid-height and at ¼ points)

- Calculate density
 Testing

- Test in dry or wet condition as required

(dry cores 10-15% stronger than wet cores)
- Test under a comp. machine, neither too
slow or too fast (15 N/mm2/min)
- Avoid eccentricity
Correction Factors

- L/d ratio
- Reinforcement (not recommended)
- Small diameter cores
 1.1

CORRECTION FACTOR

0.9

ASTM
BS 1881
0.8
CONC. SOC.

0.7
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

LENGTH / DIAMETER

Effect of length / diameter ratio on core strength

Impact Echo Testing
 Impact Echo Scanning from the top

• To locate top and bottom

delamination caused by
corrosion at the top and bottom
reinforcement
• An Impact Echo Scanner was
used to scan on the top of the
balcony deck
• A “point by point” Impact Echo
test was used from the
underside to confirm the top
delamination

Impact Echo Test (point by point) from th

 8
Width (ft)

6
1.2

1.0
0.95
4 0.85
0.8

0.5

0.0
0
-7 -4 -1 2 5 8
Length (ft)
Living Room Area

Graphical IES Test Results (Normalized Thickness) from the Balcony Deck
Acoustic Emission

Acoustic emission correlated with the presence of rebar

corrosion
SUMMARY

 A number of test methods that can be applied to determine

strength of in-situ concrete have been presented.
 Core test must be included in a test program to lend
confidence in the measured strength.
 Hammer rebound numbers are least accurate. Only a
notional estimate can be obtained.
 High strength does not necessarily mean high quality
concrete, though it is expected in most cases.