CELLULAR METABOLISM Oxidation- loss of hydrogen atom

1. Metabolism - Reducing agent: donor of electron

2. Cellular Respiration- converting Reduction- addition of hydrogen atom
macromolecules into energy - Oxidizing agent: accept electron
3. Protein & Lipid Metabolism
1. Glycolysis: Glucose converted into Pyruvate
- result to 2 pyruvate molecules
- occurs in cytosol
2. Pyruvate Oxidation: Pyruvate converted into Acetyl
CoA
3. Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle:
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation: produce more ATP

GLYCOLOSIS
 END RESULT: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
- series of reaction
- conversation of single molecule of glucose into
pyruvate
- happens in cytosol

ENERGY FLOW in Ecosystem 1. Energy Investment Phase

- starts with autotrophs or organism that  invested 2 ATP
manufacture their own food  started of 1 glucose molecule
- plants and photosynthetic algae perform  1 glucose > glyceraldehyde-3-phospahte (3GP)
photosynthesis= need light energy, carbon [phosphate attached to the 3rd Carbon] then
dioxide and water utilize to another slide
- result: organic molecule and oxygen= used up
by the mitochondria of other cells produce ATP
- ATP- adenosine triphosphate= energy source for
the power cellular work
- Metabolism happening in mitochondria: use
CO2 and O2 used by autotrophs
- Cycle starts again

METABOLISM
- Catabolism- break down of complex molecule
into simpler compound and energy  Cells use ATP
- Anabolism- use of compound and energy in  2 ATP to power up enzymatic reaction
synthesis of complex molecule S1: conversion of glucose into glucose-6 phosphate.
The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is hexokinase.
OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION ATP is used (phosphate group of ATP molecule will be
transferred).
S2: glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) into fructose 6-
phosphate by Phosphoglucoisomerase
S3: Phosphofructokinase changes fructose 6-phosphate
into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. ATP is used.
S4: The enzyme Aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-
bisphosphate into two sugars that are isomers of each
other. These two sugars are Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(3GP).
S4.1: DHAP and 3GP (both isomers that have difference
in the position of carbon) will be converted by PYRUVATE OXIDATION
isomerase into another glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate  END RESULT: 2 NADH and 2 Acetyl CoA
2. Energy Payoff Phase - Occurs in mitochondrion
 produced 4 ATP minus 2 ATP [2 ATP from first - transport protein
slide] - helping entry of pyruvate to mitochondria
 2 NAD⁺= molecule that will give electron - carboxyl group of pyruvates will be oxidized
 electron that will be donated is 2 Hydrogen resulting to the formation of carbon dioxide
(release Co2)
- remaining carbon will be oxidized to transfer
electron to NAD molecule +H (accepts H)
- Coenzyme A (proteins) [acts upon the metabolic
activities in body] attach to 2-carbo
intermediate to form Acetyl CoA
- pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA

S5: 3GP dehydrogenates by transferring one of its

hydrogen (H⁺) molecules to the oxidizing agent (accepts
electrons) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) to
form NADH + H⁺.
Triose Phosphate dehydrogenase adds a phosphate
from the cytosol to the oxidized GAP to form 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) (took 1 phosphate).
S6: The enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a
phosphate from BPG to a molecule of ADP to form ATP.
This happens to each molecule of BPG. This reaction
yields two 3-phosphoglycerate (3PGA) molecules and
two ATP molecules.
S7: The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P STEPS:
of the two 3PGA molecules from the third to the second S1: The pyruvate from the Glycolysis enters the
carbon to form two 2-phosphoglycerate (2PGA) mitochondria and loses a carboxyl group in a form of
molecules CO2.
S8: The enzyme enolase will form double bond and S2: NAD+ now has electron available to take from the
removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate remaining 2-Carbon fragments and form NADH+H+
to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) S3: An organic compound, Coenzyme A attaches to the
S9: The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers phosphate 2-carbon fragment that is left from the pyruvate and
group from PEP to ADP to form pyruvate and ATP. This forms Acetyl CoA
happens for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields
two molecules of pyruvate and two ATP molecules.
KREBS CYCLE
*NADH- electron donor molecule + hydrogen- will be  END RESULT: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH
donated - Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
*glucose is isomerase of fructose - Proponent: Hans Adolf Krebs
*molecules can easily be agitated by enzymes - Citric Acid Cycle
*essence of Glycolysis: simply produce energy - phospho relation and redux reaction
- formation of Carbon dioxide and molecules will
*metabolism is formation of energy be used to produce ATP molecules
*zoology: how many ATPs are produced - series of converting acid to another acid

*NADH and FADH- molecules that are very rich in

energy
 S8: Malate is oxidized to produce oxaloacetate, the
starting compound of the citric acid cycle by malate
dehydrogenase. During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced
to NADH.

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
 END RESULT: 26-28 ATP
- pyruvate will move inside mitochondria > Krebs
cycle > oxidative phosphorylation
- 2 processes are occurring
- Oxidation- losing electrons
1. Electron Transport Chain
 Electrons are transported which results to
pumping of protons
 Creates a gradient across the membrane
2. Chemiosmosis
STEPS:  ATP synthesis is powered by the flow of the
S1: the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to hydrogen ions back across the membrane
form citrate, catalyzed by citrate synthase. A water  [ATP Synthase + H+ > e- spins and jams to ADP
molecule attacks the acetyl leading to the release of +phosphate group > ATP]
coenzyme A from the complex
S2: Citrate is converted to its isomer, isocitrate, by
removal of one water molecule and addition of another
S2.1: Citrate formed in first step is converted into its
isomer isocitrate in a two – step reaction in the
presence of iron containing enzyme aconitase:
Dehydration- A molecule of water is released and citric
acid is changed into cis-aconitate and Rehydration- Cis –
aconitate combines with a molecule of water and form
isocitrate.
S3: In the reaction, generation of NADH from NAD+ is
made. isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidative
decarboxylation of isocitrate to form α-ketoglutarate.
Another CO2 is lost. STEPS:
S4: Alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized, carbon dioxide is S1: NADH transfer its electrons directly to complex I,
removed, and coenzyme A is added to form the 4- turning back into NAD+. It loses 2 e- (electron) giving it
carbon compound succinyl-CoA (by an enzyme α- to iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters. The 2 e- is received by CoQ
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase). During this oxidation, molecule that turns to CoQH2 or Ubiquinol. CoQH2 uses
NAD+ is reduced to NADH. this energy to pump 4 H+ (hydrogen proton) from the
S5: CoA is displaced by a phosphate group, which is matrix into the intermembrane space.
transferred to GDP, forming GTP, a molecule with S2: Ubiquinol loses accepted e- and additional 2 H+ were
functions similar to ATP. GTP can also be used, as pumped and CoQH2 oxidizes back to CoQ.
shown, to generate ATP. The four-carbon molecule S3: Two e- are accepted by Fe-S in Complex III as two
produced in this step is called succinate by an enzyme protons are pumped again into the intermembrane
called Succinyl-CoA synthase space.
S6: Succinate is oxidized to fumarate. During this S3.F: Succinate from the Krebs Cycle oxidizes into
oxidation, FAD is reduced to FADH2. The enzyme Fumarate by Succinate dehydrogenase, during this
succinate dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal of two oxidation FAD is reduced to FADH2 and loses 2 e- that is
hydrogens from succinate accepted by the Iron-sulfur clusters in Complex III.
S7: water is added to the four-carbon molecule S4: As electrons move through complex III, more H+
fumarate, converting it into another four-carbon ions are pumped across the membrane, and the
molecule called malate by a help of an enzyme electrons are ultimately delivered to another mobile
fumarase carrier called cytochrome C (cyt C).
S5: Cyt C carries the electrons to complex IV, where a
final batch of H+ ions are pumped across the
membrane. FERMENTATION (Anaerobic Respiration)
S6: Complex IV passes the electrons to O2 which splits - glucose converted to lactate
into two oxygen atoms and accepts protons from the - pyruvate molecule is reduced by NADH to form
matrix to form water. lactic acid through lactate dehydrogenase
S7: As H+ ions flow down their gradient and back into - lactate molecule converted back to pyruvate
the matrix, they pass through an enzyme called ATP with oxygen > Krebs cycle & oxidative
synthase, which harnesses the flow of protons to phosphorylation
synthesize ATP. - Gluconeogenesis to produce glucose molecule
- aerobic in presence of oxygen
Complexes: - animals like photosynthetic algae X undergo
I- NADH CoQ (Oxidoreductase) Reductase aerobic but fermentation = anaerobic pathway
II- Succinate CoQ (Dehydrogenase) Reductase - glucose converted to pyruvic acid > lactic acid
III- CoQH2 Cytochrome C. Reductase - glycolysis= glucose to pyruvate acid
IV- Cytochrome C. Oxidase
V- ATP Synthase

Mobile Carriers:
1. Ubiquinol
2. Cytochrome C.- transport 1 electron at a time from
C.III to C.IV

ATP YIELD
- how many ATP produced
- NADH= 2.5 ATP
- FADH 1.5 ATP
- Glycolysis- EIP= invest 2 mol of ATP
POP- 4 mol of ATP= 2 net ATP
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
- Pyruvate Oxidation- 2 Acetyl CoA
2 NADH LIPID AND PROTEIN METABOLISM
- Citric Acid Cycle- 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH (Macromolecules)
- Oxidative Phosphorylation- NADH + FADH used
to form ATP
~26-28 ATP net
- 30 to 32 ATP per glucose

LIPID METABOLISM
- broken down into fatty acid
- fatty acid undergoes beta-oxidation to be
converted to Acetyl CoA
 - Acetyl CoA > Krebs Cycle & Oxidative
Phosphorylation to produce ATP
- fatty acid converted back to triglyceride
- triglyceride undergoes glycolysis to produce
pyruvate > Krebs Cycle or Oxidative
Phosphorylation or gluconeogenesis

PROTEIN METABOLISM
- broken down to amino acid- composed of
amino and carboxyl group
- amino acid > oxidation = pyruvate > Krebs Cycle
& Oxidative phosphorylation= ATP
- pyruvate > Gluconeogenesis= glucose
- amino acid converted directly to acetyl CoA and
to be used as substrate in metabolic pathway
- amino acid > used directly by Krebs Cycle via
transamination (transfer of amino group) =
produce molecule needed for the production of
ATP in Oxidative Phosphorylation, and
Deamination- removal of amino group from
amino acid = Acetyl CoA > Krebs Cycle
- any molecule can be used by cell to metabolize
and produce ATP as source of energy

*Longer pathway= Carbohydrate- glucose is immediate

energy
*Lipids= mantika, chicharon, krispy pata= fatty acid
*Proteins- meat= amino acid
*Carbo > Lipids > Proteins

*30-32 ATP from 1 glucose molecule only

*Central biochemical pathway= Krebs Cycle

RESEARCH APPLICATION
- use of ATP in detection of contaminant
- principle of Lactic Acid Fermentation and use in
industrial production of lactic acid
- food we intake are converted to energy > used
by cells to perform various cellular processes