Q1 — Theories (causes) of Violence against Women

Introduction to Gendered-Based Violence

Gendered-based violence reflects power inequalities between women and men. Women and
girls are more commonly the victims of gendered-based violence, which is a manifestation of
power imbalance tilted in favor of men that reflects many patriarchal cultures around the
world.

Background to Gendered-Based Violence

Violence against women is widely accepted as a human rights violation and public health
concern. The most common form of violence against women is that perpetrated by men
towards their female partners, and daughters, and sisters, and estimates suggest that one in
three women have experienced physical violence by the hands of an intimate partner, father, or
brother in their lifetime.
Violence against women is more prevalent in patriarchal societies, and research indicates the
cause being the unequal power relations that assert men’s dominance over women in all
spheres of society whether it be political, legal, or economic. This reinforces the disadvantaged
status of women at both the community and the individual level.

Causes of Domestic Violence

Theories of violence are based on the causes of violence. A common understanding of the
causes of domestic violence can help communities develop more effective responses to the
violence, and thus protect victims and hold batterers accountable.

Bio-Psychosocial Perspective of Violence (Nature Argument)

This theory attempts to adds together:
1. Biological factors — like, higher testosterone levels, alcohol abuse, etc.
2. Psychological factors — like, whether a person has antisocial tendencies, whether he is
hostile, whether he is egocentric, whether he is in need for gratification or attention,
whether he has stress or anxiety, etc.
3. Social factors — such as the level of social stress, how is the quality of his relationship,
income, and social status.
So this theory, attempts to add together the biological, psychological, and social factors to
conclude the battering behavior of a person, mainly male, towards their partner and family
members, mainly women and children.

Social Learning Theory of Violence (Nurture Argument)

Social learning theory argues that violence against women occurs due to many contextual and
situational factors. Contextual factors include, for example, establishing male dominance or
patriarchal norms of society, cultural violence in the family, etc. Situational factors include, for
example, substance abuse, financial difficulties, etc. Social Learning theory also extends these
factors onto the influence of children growing up within a combination of these factors.

1.1 Culture of Violence Theory

This theory argues that within large, pluralistic societies, some subcultures develop
specialized norms that justify the use of physical force and they make it a “normal” part of
their culture as a whole. Thus, violence will occur more frequently in such cultures,
especially in families. Peer-relationships that support patriarchal dominance in the family
and use of violence such as that represented in pornography and violent images on TV that
support patriarchal dominance are examples of this subculture.
The Patriarchal theory and Power and Control Wheel theory show us “Why” and “How”
violence is exerted on women in such cultures.
1.2 Patriarchal Theory
This theory argues that men use violence as a tool to exert control over women, to suppress
the latter’s rebellion and resistance to male domination, and to enforce the differential
status of men and women as defined by the culturally constructed norms of patriarchy, in
order to serve the collective interests of men. This theory eventually leads us to “The Power
And Control Wheel” Theory.
1.3 The Power And Control Wheel Theory
This theory emphasizes that men use violence as a tool to exert power and control over
women, which is learned by them from the culturally constructed norms of patriarchy, in
order to exert their male dominance in the relationship and set the acceptable mechanisms
in the relationship. This theory describes the different tactics an abuser uses to maintain
power and control over his partner. The batterer consciously uses these tactics to ensure
the submissiveness of his partner. The Power and Control Wheel theory, developed by the
programs in Duluth, Minnesota from interviews with victims of domestic violence lists the
following behaviors demonstrated by offenders towards victims:

 Using coercion and threats — making threats to do something to her, or threatening

to leave, or to commit suicide, or to report her to welfare to gain custody of
children.
 Using intimidation — destroying property, or displaying weapons, or to use extreme
and harmful actions and gestures to intimidate (scare) the partner.
  Using emotional abuse — name calling, mind games, humiliation are all tactics
offenders use to psychologically hurt their partner and make her feel guilty about
herself, which in turn makes them resort to the dictates of their male partner.
 Using isolation — dictating women completely by controlling what she does and
who she sees, acting out in front of family and friends, or threatening relatives.
 Denying and blaming — making light of injury and abuse inflicted, denying harm, or
blaming her for he attacks.
 Using children — threatening custody, making complaints to child protective
services, telling the children that she doesn’t care or that she has a boyfriend.
 Using male privilege (constructed by society norms) — insisting that he is head of
household, making decisions for all of family members whether they like it or not,
controlling the activities of the family as he desires.
 Using economic abuse — controlling all of the money, preventing female partner
from working, creating a dependency by giving an allowance and occasionally using
it as a base for blackmailing, requiring receipts of the shopping she made, taking
money from her that she had saved, depriving her share in the family income so that
she remains powerless.

Now, Let’s look at the impact on children of such societies that have made violence a part of
their normal culture. This is discussed in “Learned Behavior” theory and the consequent “Cycle
of Violence” theory.

1.4 Learned Behavior Theory

Researches theorized that violence was learned. They argued that men battered because
they had learned violence in their families as children, and women sought out abusive men
because they saw their mothers being abused. This was the “learned behavior” theory of
violence.
A recent study reported by the Family Violence Prevention Fund does indicate that women
who were physically or sexually abused as children are more likely to be abused as adults,
because they receive information from the society that it is appropriate to be controlled as
a women through violence. The research also shows that boys who witness abuse in home
are seven times more likely to batter, because similarly, they receive information from
society that it is appropriate to control your women and to enforce this control through
violence.
According to this theory, this behavior of violence or being dominated is:
 Learned through observation
  Learned through experience and reinforcement
 Learned in culture
 Learned in families
 Learned in communities, such as schools, peer groups, workplaces
This eventually leads us to the “Cycle of Violence” Theory.
1.5 Cycle Of Violence Theory
This theory purports that violent victimization, particularly physical abuse perpetrated by
parents or caregivers, increases the likelihood of subsequent violent behavior among their
children. This eventually leads to a never ending cycle of violence in the family.

1.6 Loss Of Control Theory

This theory describes violence as the result of a loss of control, due to various situational
factors, for example, consumption of alcohol and drugs. This theory argues that gendered
societal expectations prevented men from expressing anger and frustration; these feelings
would built up until the man lost control and released his feelings through the use of
violence.

Evolutionary Perspective of Violence

Evolutionary Theory
This theory argues that as societies evolved overtime from being simple to more advanced
societies, different styles of parenting, husband/wife, sibling relationships came into being
some of which resulted in domestic violence. For example, in a nuclear family, less
independence is granted to children, women, sisters and there is a reliance on physical violence
to secure obedience, in an otherwise free or more open society. So parents, husbands, brothers
become more controlling and constrained because they are scared of the fact that the society
has become advanced or free and open to almost all sort of things, so they feel the need to
exert physical violence on their children, women, sisters to secure obedience, so that they do
not indulge in the norms of the free and open society and thus start disobeying their parents,
husbands, brothers (in other words, start threatening their male dominance) or involve in
activities that are against their family values. Obedience is most valued in highly structured
hierarchical families.
External Factors of Violence
1.1 Exchange Theory
This theory argues that people will most definitely commit violence on their partners if it
achieves benefit that outweighs the cost of committing that violence. For example, if a
husband is likely to suffer social censure and castigation for committing violence on their
partner, then he may be less inclined towards using violence as a means of control.

So this theory views violence in a nuclear family as a product of a lack external constraints
(which are in this case “social laws against violence”).

1.2 Resource Theory

Resource Theory argues that a person within family who brings in and controls the most
resources both financially, social, and organizational (e.g. money, property, prestige,
strength), traditionally the male, commands higher power in the marital and family
relationships than other members. Therefore, they tend to oppress and easily commit
violence against family members, especially women and children, who are in subordinate
and vulnerable positions.

So just like Exchange theory, resource theory views violence in a nuclear family as a product
of a lack of external constraints (in this case “social, financial, and organizational
resources”).
Why Sometimes Women Choose To Stay in an Abusive Relationship
It is a fact that there are many social, economic and cultural reasons a woman might chose to
stay in an abusive relationship. For example, women may fear retaliation against themselves or
their children, or they may not be able to financially support themselves and their children, or
they may be ostracized by their family and community if they leave.
Another reason could be that women may sometimes hold their behavior responsible that
caused their husband’s violence. This is not surprising, because according to the patriarchal
norm of society, women are responsible for creating a happy family.

Conclusion
These theories argue that the unequal distribution of power between sexes has resulted in
societies being dominated by men, and women occupying subordinate positions of power. This
culturally constructed norm of patriarchy increases their vulnerability to violence, especially
within the family.