PET-332 E

Production Engineering
&
Surface Facilities

Reservoir Inflow Performance

Present time IPR’s for oil wells

Up to this point we talked about theoretical inflow equations. If all of the

variables in the inflow equation could be available accurately, Darcy’s law
cold be used to quantify the IPR. Unfortunately, sufficient information
rarely exists especially at the earlier life of the reservoir to accomplish this.
Therefore, empirical methods must be used to predict the pressure-inflow
rate for a well.

We will mainly discuss Vogel and Fetkovich equations and their

modifications for future IPR predictions. Basic forms of the equations
account for the effects of drawdown only. This means average reservoir
pressure (PR) is assumed constant.

1
Vogel’s equation

Vogel reported the results of his study in which he used numerical

simulation model to calculate IPR for oil wells producing from saturated
reservoirs. The final equation for Vogel’s method was based on
calculations made for 21 reservoir conditions.

Although the method was proposed for saturated, dissolved gas drive
reservoirs only, it has been found to apply for any reservoir in which gas
saturation increases as pressure is decreased.

Vogel’s results are summarized in the following slides.

IPR change with depletion

2
Dimensionless IPR for depletion

IPR change with changing reservoir conditions

3
Dimensionless IPR for changing reservoir conditions

Vogel’s equation

After plotting dimensionless IPR curves for all the cases considered, Vogel
arrived at the following relationship between dimensionless flow rate and
dimensionless pressure (must be ratio of gauge pressures) :

where
qo inflow rate corresponding to Pwf
qo,max inflow rate corresponding to zero wellbore flowing pressure
PR average reservoir pressure existing at the time of interest
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4
Vogel’s dimensionless IPR

Vogel’s equation

Vogel pointed out that in most applications of his method the error in
inflow rate is less than 10%. But the error could be as high as 20%
during the late stage of depletion. If the constant productivity index
version of the equation

is used, the error increases to 70% to 80% at low values of Pwf . It has
also been shown that Vogel’s method can be applied to wells producing
water, oil, and gas with a small modification (qL=qo+qw) :

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Example #2 : Vogel’s method (s=0)

A well is producing from a reservoir having an average reservoir

pressure of 2085 psig. A stabilized (pseudosteady state) production test
on the well resulted in a producing rate of 282 STB/day when the
flowing bottomhole pressure was 1765 psig. The bubble point pressure
is 2100 psig. Using Vogel’s method, calculate :

a. The producing rate if Pwf is reduced to zero (qo,max)

b. The producing rate if Pwf is reduced to 1485 psig
c. The bottomhole pressure necessary to obtain an inflow rate of 400
STB/day.

11

Solution #2 : Vogel’s method (s=0)

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Solution #2 : Vogel’s method (s=0) (continued)

Pwf qo
2085 0
1800 253
1765 282
1618 400
1300 618
1000 790
700 923
300 1046
0 1097
13

Solution #2 : Vogel’s method (s=0) (continued)

If we compare the results for both straight line and Vogel approaches,
the difference is pronounceable at high flow rates :

Constant J Vogel

q @ Pwf=1485 psig 528 496

Pwf @ q=400 1645 1618

qo,max 1848 1097

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Vogel’s method for undersaturated reservoirs

Two different approaches must be considered to apply Vogel’s method

to single phase reservoirs. Depending on the test flow rate and
corresponding bottomhole flowing pressure, a test can be conducted
either at Pwf ≥ Pb (Test case #1) or Pwf < Pb (Test case #2) :

15

Vogel’s method for undersaturated reservoirs

Applying Vogel’s equation for any flow rate greater than the rate qb
(Pwf = Pb) :

The reciprocal slope is defined as the change in flow rate with respect
to the change in Pwf :

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8
Vogel’s method for undersaturated reservoirs

Evaluating the expression for J @ Pwf = Pb for unsaturated

reservoirs gives

This equation also establishes a relationship between J and qo,max for

saturated reservoirs (Pb = PR and qb = 0),

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Vogel’s method for undersaturated reservoirs

Substituting the expression for qo,max in the main equation gives :

Once a value of J at Pwf ≥ Pb is determined, above equation can be

used to generate an IPR.

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Procedure for test case #1 (Pwf ≥ Pb)

1. Calculate J using test data in

2. Calculate qb using

3. Generate IPR for values of Pwf < Pb using

4. The IPR for Pwf ≥ Pb is linear.

19

Example #3 : Undersaturated reservoir Pwf > Pb

The following data pertain an unsaturated reservoir :

PR = 4000 psig
Pb = 2000 psig
S=0
Stabilized flow test results are

Pwf = 3000 psig

qo = 200 STB/day

Generate IPR behavior of the reservoir using Vogel’s model.

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10
Solution #3 : Undersaturated reservoir Pwf > Pb

Pwf qo Calculated from

4000 0 Straight line
3000 200 Straight line
2000 400 Straight line/Vogel
1500 489 Vogel
1000 556 Vogel
500 600 Vogel
0 622 Vogel
21

Procedure for test case #2 (Pwf < Pb)

1. Calculate J using test data in

2. Calculate qb using

3. Generate IPR for values of Pwf < Pb using

4. The IPR for Pwf ≥ Pb is linear.

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11
Example #4 : Undersaturated reservoir Pwf < Pb

The following data pertain an unsaturated reservoir (previous example) :

PR = 4000 psig
Pb = 2000 psig
S =0
Stabilized flow test results are

Pwf = 1200 psig

qo = 532 STB/day

Generate IPR behavior of the reservoir using Vogel’s model.

23

Solution #4 : Undersaturated reservoir Pwf < Pb

Pwf qo Calculated from

4000 0 Straight line
3000 200 Straight line
2000 400 Straight line/Vogel
1500 489 Vogel
1000 556 Vogel
500 600 Vogel
0 622 Vogel
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12
Vogel method with s≠0

In the previous slides we defined flow efficiency as

In terms of productivity index flow efficiency becomes

25

Vogel method with s≠0 (continued)

Vogel’s equation may be written using previous definitions as

where qo,max term is the maximum inflow which could be obtained for
the well if EF = 1 or S = 0.

From the definition of EF, we can find the following equation :

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13
Vogel’s IPR as a function of EF

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Vogel method with s≠0 (continued)

The previous graph can be put into equation form as

Because of the restriction that Pwf ’ ≥ 0, above equation is valid only if

This restriction will always be satisfied if EF ≤ 1.

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14
Vogel method with s≠0 (continued)
For values of EF > 1, calculations at higher drawdown must be checked
if the criteria holds. If not then the following approximation may be
used to calculate the maximum flow rate :

For the case of EF = 1 (Pwf = Pwf ’ ),

derived equation is identical to
Vogel’s equation.

29

Example #4 : Standing’s modifications

Use the following data and construct an IPR for this well for the
present conditions and for a possible value after a successful frac job :

PR = 2085 psig
Pb = 2100 psig
EF = 0.7
Stabilized flow test results are

Pwf = 1765 psig

qo = 202 STB/day

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15
Solution #4 : Standing’s modifications

qo qo
Pwf
@EF=0.7 @EF=1.3
2085 0 0
1800 181 324
EF=1.3
1765 202 360
1600 300 518 EF=0.7
1300 461 758
1000 604 937
700 730 1054
300 871 NA
0 955 NA (1224) 31

Modified Vogel method

Complex flow regimes existing around the wellbore may not be

predicted by Vogel equation. Bendaklia and Aziz used a complex
reservoir model to generate IPR’s for a number of wells and found that
the Vogel equation would fit the generated data if expressed as

In order to apply this equation at least three stabilized tests are required
to evaluate the three unknowns, qo,max ,V and n.

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16
Fetkovich method
Fetkovich proposed a method for calculating inflow performance for
oil wells using the same type of equation that has been used for
analyzing gas wells for many years. The procedure was verified by
analyzing isochronal and flow-after-flow tests conducted in reservoirs
with permeabilities ranging from 6 md to greater than 1000 md.
Pressure conditions ranged from highly unsaturated to saturated at
initial pressure and to a partially depleted field with a gas saturation
above the critical. In all cases oil-well backpressure curves were found
to follow the same general equation :

where
C is the flow coefficient
n is exponent depending on well characteristics
33

Fetkovich method (continued)

The value of n ranged from 0.568 to 1.000 for the 40 field tests. It is
understood today that the exponent n accounts for the effect of
high-velocity flow and pressure squared function accounts for
the effect of simultaneous two-phase flow.

The applicability of Fetkovich’s equation to oil wells was justified by

writing Darcy’s equation in integral form :

where

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17
Fetkovich method (continued)

For an unsaturated reservoir, the integral must carried out over two
regions since the behavior of pressure function f is different at above
and below bubble point :

where

35

Fetkovich method (continued)

Assumptions are

P > Pbp

P < Pbp

Making these substitutions into Darcy’s equation and integrating gives

36

18
Fetkovich method (continued)

Fetkovitch then stated that the composite effect of both terms in the
previous equation can be evaluated under a single equation :

As there are two unknowns in the above equation, at least two tests
are required to evaluate C and n, assuming average reservoir pressure
PR is known. When a gas well is tested, it is customary to use at least
four flow tests to determine two unknowns. This is also
recommended for oil wells. Increased data points should increase the
accuracy of the parameters calculated from the slope of the graph.

37

Fetkovich method (continued)

By taking the log of both sides, the new equation may be written as

A plot of squared pressure difference versus qo on log-log scales will

result in a straight line having a slope of 1/n and an intercept of qo =
C @ PR2 – Pwf2 = 1. The value of C can also be calculated using any
point on the linear plot after n has been determined :

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19
Transient production

Initial reservoir pressure is dictated by depth, geological evolution, and

migration of hydrocarbons. Prior to discovery, pressure is distributed
uniformly throughout the reservoir and reservoir fluids are motionless.
A producing well disturbs the existing equilibrium and creates a
pressure gradient toward the wellbore. The pressure gradient results in
flow of mobile oil, gas and water towards wellbore.

The response of a reservoir to production is a chain reaction. Reducing

the pressure at the wellbore results in flow of reservoir fluid from the
immediate vicinity of the wellbore. This, in turn, causes a pressure drop
in the regions beyond the immediate wellbore vicinity and expansion.
This process is repeatedly progress and the pressure disturbance and
fluid movement propagates radially away from the wellbore.

39

Transient production (continued)

Movement of pressure disturbance

throughout the reservoir is a time
taking process which depends on
the rock and fluid properties. Time
dependent propagation of pressure
response is referred to as transient
production. During transient
production a well’s performance
is unstable and may not be
described by the stabilized IPR
equations.

40

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Transient production (continued)

Assuming single-phase oil flow in porous media, constant rate solution

of the diffusivity equation gives

Pwf flowing bottom-hole pressure, psia

Pi initial reservoir pressure, psia
qo oil production rate, STB/day
µo oil viscosity, cp
t flow time, hours
ko effective horizontal permeability to oil, md
h reservoir thickness, ft
ø porosity
ct total compressibility, 1/psi
rw wellbore radius, ft 41

Transient production (continued)

In relation to transient production, wells experience thee distinct

production periods :
1. Infinite-Acting Period, starting at the onset of production and
continuing until the nearest no-flow boundary is reached by the
propagating pressure disturbance. During this period, the well
behaves as if it was located in a reservoir of infinite size.
2. Transition Period, starting when the disturbance reaches the
nearest boundary and ending the furthest outer boundary is
reached.
3. Pseudosteady-State Period, at the end of transition period, the
entire drainage area starts to contribute to production. Wellbore
conditions (rate and pressure) tend to stabilize.

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Transient production (continued)

Two general observations can be made regarding transient production:

1. For medium to high permeability reservoirs (>10 to 50 md), the

infinite-acting period may last from only a few seconds to several
hours. Practically, this type of flow conditions does not affect the
design of well performance and stabilized IPR equations can be
used. However, infinite-acting performance can be important to
multirate test interpretation.

2. Wells producing from low permeability reservoirs can require days,

months, or years to reach stabilization. For such wells, infinite-
acting pressure response has a significant effect on inflow
performance, and the concept of stabilized IPR is no longer
useful.

43

Duration of transient production

The stabilization time for a well in the center of a circular drainage area
may be estimated from

where

ts : stabilization time, hours

Φ : porosity
Ct : total fluid compressibility
A : drainage area, ft2
µo : oil viscosity, cp
ko : permeability to oil, md
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22
Types of tests to determine IPR

A multirate test is usually sufficient for an oil well to construct IPR

behavior, three types of test are commonly used for gas well testing to
determine C and n in Fetkovich’s equation. These test types are

1. Flow after flow test

2. Isochronal test

3. Modified isochronal test

45

Flow after flow testing

A flow after flow test begins with the well shut in so that the pressure
in the entire drainage area is equal to PR. The well is put on production
at a constant rate until the flowing wellbore pressure becomes constant.
The flowing pressure should be measured with a bottomhole pressure
gauge. Once Pwf has stabilized, the production rate is changed, and the
procedure is repeated for several rates.

The stabilized rate-pressure data are plotted as q versus ∆P2 on log-log

paper. A straight line is drawn through the points. The exponent n is
determined from the reciprocal of the slope of the line :

46

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Flow after flow testing (continued)

47

Flow after flow testing (continued)

48

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Isochronal testing

If the time required for a well to stabilized on each choke size or

producing rate is excessive, an isochronal or equal time test is
preferred. A true isochronal test consists of flowing a well at several
rates, each separated by a buildup period of sufficiently long duration
to reach stabilized reservoir pressure.

The wellbore flowing pressure is recorded during each flow period at a

specific time. If the time is 4 hours, then the test is referred to as a
4-hour isochronal test.

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Isochronal testing

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Modified isochronal testing

The modified isochronal test consists of flowing and shut-in periods

of equal duration (e.g. 4 hours). Stabilized flow does not occur during
drowdown or buildup. Instead of using average reservoir pressure to
plot the curve, the shut-in pressure at the end of each shut-in period is
used. The flowing pressure is used with a shut-in pressure is that
corresponding to the start of the buildup period.

The modified isochronal test should only be run with a normal

(increasing) rate sequence. Modified isochronal testing should be
limited to low permeability wells.

51

Modified isochronal testing

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26
Example #5 : Flow after flow testing

A flow after flow test is conducted on a well producing from a

reservoir in which PR= 3600 psia. The test results are

qo, Pwf ,
STB/day psia
263 3170
383 2897
497 2440
640 2150

Construct a complete IPR for this well and determine qo,max.

53

Solution #5 : Flow after flow testing

qo, Pwf , (PR2-Pwf2) 106,

STB/day psia psia2
263 3170 2.911
Pwf , qo,
383 2897 4.567
psia STB/day
497 2440 7.006 3600 0
640 2150 8.338 3000 340
2500 503
2000 684
1500 796
1000 875
500 922
0 937

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Solution #5 : Flow after flow testing (continued)

55

Solution #5 : Flow after flow testing (continued)

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Normalization of Fetkovich’s equation

When considering the published data on multirate oilwell tests, it is

difficult to find field data to support Vogel’s equation. But
Normalization of the IPR by qo,max was a novel idea introduced by
Vogel. In the same way, Fetkovitch equation can be normalized as
follows :

57

Normalization of Fetkovich equation (continued)

This equation contains two parameters that must be determined, qo,max

and n. These factors can be determined if at least two rate-pressure
data are available.
If only one test point is available, the normalized Fetkovich equation
may be simplified by assuming n= 1.0 :

This equation is slightly more conservative than Vogel’s IPR, but

difference is small.

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Predicting future IPR for oil wells

As the pressure in oil reservoir declines as a result of depletion, the

ability of the reservoir to transport oil will decline. This is caused from
the decrease in f (P) as relative permeability to oil is decreased due to
increasing gas saturation.

Reservoir development plans on sizing surface equipment, deciding on

installing artificial lift, as well as evaluating the project from an
economic point of view requires the ability to predict reservoir
performance in the future.

We will discuss the modifications of both Vogel and Fetkovich

equations to quantify future behaviors of the current IPR.

59

Standing method

Standing introduced a new procedure to predict the decline in qo,max as

gas saturation increase as a result of depletion. Vogel’s equation may be
written as

Substituting the definition of productivity index into above equation

and rearranging gives

60

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Standing method (continued)

Zero drawdown productivity index is defined as

Standing also observed that another definition for J* is

61

Standing method (continued)

The pressure function will change as production continues since µo and

Bo are functions of PR and kro is a function of oil and gas saturation.
Then the relation between present and future J* can be expressed as

where

JF* value of J* at a lower (future) average reservoir pressure

JP* value of J* at present conditions
F and P are used in place of future and present respectively.

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Standing method (continued)
This feature of J can be used to predict the future qo,max as follows

Once the value of qo,max or J is adjusted for the future expected average
reservoir pressure, future IPR’s can be generated from

63

Example #6 : Future IPR

For the given data below generate IPR’s for present and future time

Present time Future time

PR 2250 psig 1800 psig
µo 3.11 cp 3.59 cp
Bo 1.173 Bbl/STB 1.150 Bbl/STB
So 0.768 0.741
kro 0.815 0.685

Present time test data

qo= 400 STB/day

Pwf =1815 psig

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Solution #6 : Future IPR
Pwf , qoP qoP
psia STB/day STB/day
2250 0 -
2000 197 -
1800 378 0
1600 542 142
1400 690 270
500 1148 661
0 1257 749

Present

Future

65

Fetkovich method

Fetkovich’s method to predict future IPR depend on adjusting the flow

coefficient C while keeping n unchanged. He assumes that f(PR) is a
linear function of PR and therefore, the value of C can be adjusted as

Future IPR’s can be generated from

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Example #7 : Future IPR

Use the data in Example #5 and construct an IPR for the time when
PR has declined to PRF = 2800 psia and PRF = 2000 psia (Previous data
was PRP =3600 psia, n= 0.854, CP= 0.00079).

67

Solution #7 : Future IPR

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Solution #7 : Future IPR

69

Solution #7 : Future IPR

Future

70

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