Magnetic Fields

There is a different kind of field, called a magnetic field or B-field.

 B-fields are created by moving charges (currents).
 B-fields exert forces on moving charges.

The force FB from a B-field on a moving charge depends on the velocity of the charge in a
peculiar way: a charge q, moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B , feels a magnetic force
given by FB qv B (q times cross-product of v and B: see mathematics notes for review

of the cross-product). This equation is the definition of B, analogous to the FE q E , which

defines E.

The magnitude of the magnetic force is FB FB q v B sin q v B

v = v sin
B B

v 
v
q
The direction of the
force FB is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B . The direction of v B is determined

by the "Right-hand rule". Use your right hand. Point your fingers in the direction of v , curl
your fingers toward B . (Orient hand so that fingers curl thru angle < 180o). Your thumb then
points in the direction of v B , which is the direction of FB if the charge q is positive. If q is

(–), FB is other way

vB

B
v
 F (out) F (in)
B B F (in) B

q v v q v
q (–)

Unlike gravity or the electric force, the magnetic force is a velocity-dependent force.
 If v B , then sin = 1  FB = |q| v B

 If v B , then sin = 0  FB = 0

 If v = 0, then FB = 0 (unlike gravity or E-field force)

[F] N
Units of B: [B] = [B] 1 tesla (T)
[q][v] m
C
s
Older, non-SI, unit of B: 1 gauss = 10-4 T , 1 T = 104 gauss
 Earth's magnetic field  0.5 gauss = 5  10-5 T
 kitchen magnet : 50 – 500 gauss = 0.005 – 0.05 T
 iron core electromagnet: 2 T (max) (Strong enough to yank tools out of your hand.)
 superconducting magnet: 20 T (max)

We have said that currents make B-fields. So where's the current in a

permanent magnet (like a compass needle)? An atom consists of an
electron orbiting the nucleus. The electron is a moving charge, forming a tiny
current loop –– an "atomic current".
In most metals, the atomic currents of different atoms have random orientations, so there is no
net current, no B-field. But in magnetic materials the atomic currents are aligned and they create
a net current.
Example
A proton is moving with a velocity of v = (2i – 4j + k) m/s in a region in which the magnetic
field in B = (i + 2j – 3k) T. Find the magnitude of the magnetic force on this charge.
Cross Product Hint

Motion of a charged particle in magnetic field

Consider a charge q moving in a uniform magnetic field B. Since the force FB is always
perpendicular to the velocity v, the force FB does no work :
dr
FB v, v WFB FB dr 0 . A magnetic force cannot change the KE of a
dt

particle (recall Work-KE theorem: Wnet = KE). The B-field changes the direction of the
velocity v, but does not change the speed, so we have v = constant.
If the velocity v is perpendicular to the field B, the magnetic force bends the path of the particle
in a circle.
 q v
FB q
FB v
FB v

B(out)
uniform B R
(out)
FB

We can relate the radius R of the circular path to the magnitude of the field B and the speed v
with Newton's Second Law:
v2 v2
Fnet ma qvB m ( recall that for circular motion a )
R R

mv
Solving for R, we get R . Notice that the radius is proportional to the mass of the
qB
particle. In a mass-spectrometer, the mass of an unknown particle is determined from
measurement of the radius (assuming charge, speed and B-field are all known).

B Since the magnetic force has no component along the direction

of B, there is no acceleration in that direction, and the
component of the velocity along the direction of B is constant.
Consequently, charged particles moving in a magnetic field can
form spiral trajectories, spiraling around and along the B-field
lines as shown.
Example
A proton traveling with a velocity v = 6 j enters in a region of uniform magnetic induction B = 4i
in a Cartesian co-ordinate system. Stating the direction, calculate the magnetic force acting on
the electron and draw its trajectory.

The Velocity Selector The velocity selector is a device which measures the speed v of an ion.
(ion = charged atom with one or more electrons missing) . A magnet produces a uniform B-
field and a capacitor produces a uniform E-field, with E  B .

Forces on charge:
FB = q v B
v E B(in)
FE = q E
mass m
charge q
uniform E down, B (in)
The B and E fields are adjusted until the particle goes straight through. If the path is straight,
then FB = FE  qvB = qE  v = E / B .
Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire
A B-field exerts a force on a moving charge. A current-carrying wire is full of moving charges,
so a B-field exerts a force on the current-carrying wire. The force on a straight wire of length L,
carrying a current I, in a uniform magnetic field B, is given by F IL B , where we define
a length vector L, having magnitude L = length of the wire and direction equal to the direction of
the current in the wire.
Proof: N moving B
charges
Force on a single charge = Fon q qv B. q v
area A
Number of charges in wire = N n A L L
#/ vol volume

Total force on all the charges = Ftot Nq v B n ALq v B

I
Recall from the chapter on current that J nqv I n q v A so
A
Ftot n ALq v B IL B.

Alternative proof: Let t is time for charge to move distance L, so speed of moving charges =
L Nq
v , current I . Assume B wire, just to simplify math.
t t
Nq
Fon wire N Fon q N qv B LB I L B . Done.
L
t
t I

I
L F = I L B ( B  I direction)
B (uniform) F (in)

dF
If wire is not straight or B is not uniform, then do that I
calculus thing: in your imagination, break the wire up dL
B (in)
into little segments dL. d F I dL B,

Ftot dF I dL B I
Example
A wire 2.8 m in length carries a current of 5.00 A in a region where a uniform magnetic field has
a magnitude of 0.39 T. Calculate the magnitude of the force on the wire if the angle between the
magnetic field and the current carrying segment is (a) 90° (b) 120°.

Torque of Current Loop in Uniform Magnetic Field

Consider a rectangular loop carrying a current I in the presence of a uniform magnetic field B
directed parallel to the plane of loop as shown in the Figure below.

Using Left hand rule: There would be no magnetic force exerted on sides 1 and 3 due to angle
between L and B is zero (F=ILB sin0 = 0).

The forces F exerted on sides 2 and 4 are equal but in opposite direction with the magnitude
given by F2 = F4 = I a B

From LHR, the force on wire 2 is out of page, whereas the force on wire 4 is into the page, i.e.
the net force on a closed loop is zero.

This arrangement forms a couple pivoted at “O”.

The magnitude of torque τ is obtained using the formula force, τ = force × distance, and is
given as

b b b b
 max  F2  F4  IaB  IaB  IabB
2 2 2 2
The area enclosed by the loop A=ab
 max  IAB
Now suppose B (uniform) makes an angle θ with the plane of the loop
 max  IABsin 
Example
A 40.0 cm length of wire carries a current of 20.0 A. It is bent into a loop and is placed with its
normal perpendicular to a magnetic field strength of 0.52 T. What is the torque if it is bent into
(a) Equilateral triangle?
(b) Square?
(c) Circle?

Electric Motors
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical work. It consists
of a rotating coil of wire carrying current I in a constant magnetic field B. (The B-field is made
by a permanent magnet or by another coil of wire with current I .)
The B-field exerts forces
on the coil, causing it to
rotate. After the coil rotates F (out)

180o, the current I reverses B (uniform) F (in)

direction so that the force
I I
always causes the coil to
rotate in the same sense. rotation
axis

So far, we have assumed the existence of B, and described the force on a moving charge due to
that B. Now we will show how to make a B-field with a current.
Faraday's Law
Faraday's Law is one of 4 basic equations of the theory of electromagnetism, called Maxwell's
Equations. We have said before that
 charges makes electric fields. (Gauss's Law)
 currents make magnetic fields. (Ampere's Law)
This is the truth, but not the whole truth. Michael Faraday (British physicist, c.1850) showed
that there is a second way to make an electric field:
 a changing magnetic field makes an electric field. (Faraday's Law)
Around 1860, James Maxwell(Scottish physicist) showed that there is a second way to make a
magnetic field:
 a changing electric field makes an magnetic field. (modification of Ampere's Law)

Before stating Faraday's Law, we must define some new terms:

Definition: emf , E , is (roughly speaking) a voltage difference (V = E d ) capable of doing
continuous useful work.. Think of emf as a battery voltage. Batteries have an emf, but resistors
do not, even though a resistor R can have a voltage difference across it (V = I R )

Technically, the emf around a closed loop L is defined as E E d

L

Recall that voltage difference was defined as V    E  dr . For the case of E-fields created
A

by charges, the voltage difference when we go around a closed loop is zero (KVL), since voltage
A

depends only on position, not on path: V    E  dr  0

A

Definition: magnetic flux through some surface S, (represents the number of field lines passing
through an area A placed in magnetic field)

B. B B dA B A BA cos
if B const
S
and A flat B B cos 

A area A
Units [] = Tm2 = weber (Wb)
Faraday's Law (in words): An induced emf (E) is created by changing magnetic flux.

d M
Faraday's Law (in symbols): E(1 loop)
dt

loop of
wire If B = constant  emf = E = 0

d
V If B is changing with time  E 0.
dt
B(in) voltmeter
uniform

d
If have several loops, E( N loops) N
dt
N=2 V
We can change the magnetic flux  in several ways:
1) change B (increase or decrease magnitude of magnetic field)
2) change A (by altering shape of the loop)
3) change the angle  between B and the area vector A (by rotating the loop, say)

Example of Faraday's Law: We have a square wire loop of area A

B
= 10 cm  10 cm, perpendicular to a magnetic field B which is 10 cm
V
dB
increasing at a rate 0.1 T / s . What is the magnitude of the
dt 10 cm
emf E induced in the loop?
d d(BA) dB
Answer: E A (0.01m 2 )(0.1T / s) 10 3 V 1mV
dt dt dt
What is the emf if N = 1000 loops?
d(BA)
E N 1000 10 3 V 1V
dt
Lenz's Law
Lenz's Law: the induced emf E induces a current that flows in the direction which creates an
induced B-field that opposes the change in flux.
Example: a loop of wire in an external B-field which is increasing like so

B increasing induced B Bind

 OR ??
induced I Iind

Answer: Binduced downward opposes the increase in original B.

B decreasing Bind
Here, induced B is upward to oppose
 the decrease in the original B.
Iind

Lenz's Law says "Change is bad! Fight the change!

Example of use of Lenz's Law A square loop of wire
moving to the right enters a region where there is a wire
loop
uniform B-field (in). What is the direction of the current v
B (in)
through the wire: CW or CCW? Answer: CCW here
B=0 B=0
The flux is increasing as the loop enters the field. In here here
order to fight the increase, the induced B-field must be B=0
here
out-of-the-page. An induced CCW current will produce a B-field
pointing out.
I F
Does the magnetic field exert a net force on the loop as it enters
the field? Answer: Yes. The upward current on the right side of
the loop will feel a force to the left (from Fwire = ILB and
R.H.R.). Notice that the direction of the force on the wire loop
will slow its motion.
Electrical Generators
Convert mechanical energy (KE) into electrical energy (just the
crank
opposite of motors). A wire loop in a constant B-field (produced
by a magnet) is turned by a crank. The changing magnetic flux in
the loop produced an emf which drives a current. B I
(i
n
)
light
bulb
Eddy Currents
If a piece of metal and a B-field are in relative motion in such a way as to cause a changing 
through some loop within the metal, then the changing  creates an emf E which drives a
current I. This induced current is called an eddy current. The relative direction of this eddy
current I and the B-field are always such as to cause a magnetic force ( F I L B ) which
slows the motion of the metal .
(Faraday)
Again, if metal moving in a B-field makes a changing  I Fon metal ( I L B)
eddy current

and the direction of the force always slows the motion.

If the eddy current force did not slow the motion, but instead aided the motion, then we would
have runaway motion  free energy  violation of energy conservation.

Motional emf
Consider the following contraption. A metal bar sliding on metal rails.
rails
I

bar pulled to the right

v with constant speed v
L I
I
B = uniform, constant
I

x=vt
(v = x / t)
The bar+rails form a wire loop of area A = Lx = Lv t. The magnetic flux  = BA is
increasing, which produces an emf, which drives a current I (an eddy current!) which is CCW by
d d(BA) d(B L v t)
Lenz' Law. |E| BL v
dt dt dt
This is an example of a "motional emf". The motion of the bar creates the
emf.
F(up)

v
+ There is another way to see why there is current in the circuit with the
q
B(in) current flowing upward in the bar: The charges in the bar are moving in a B-
field, so they feel a force Fon q = q v B (upward)  I (upward)

Because of this current I, there is a magnetic force on the bar FB = I L

I
B
( Recall Fon wire I L B ). An external force Fext must act on the bar to FB Fext

balance the magnetic force FB and keep the bar moving with constant B
speed v: Fext = FB. The power delivered by Fext must equal the
electrical power delivered by the emf in the circuit, which is dissipated as heat in the resistance
of the rails+bar.
dW d
Pext (Fext x) Fext v , Pelectrical E I (Recall P = I V)
dt dt
?
Fext v E I  FB v E I  ILB v BL v I (it checks!)

Example
Consider the arrangement shown in Figure below. Assume that R = 6.00 Ω, ℓ = 1.20 m, and a
uniform 2.50T magnetic field is directed into the page. At what speed should the bar be moved to
produce a current of 0.500 A in the resistor?
Reference
Dubson, Phys1120 Notes, University of Colorado.