HIGHWAY -I HIGHWAY ONE

Chapter
Course Information
One
Course Name: Highway Engineering I
Chapter
Course Code: CEng3182
Two
Credit Hour: 3
Chapter Prerequisite: Surveying Field practice (CEng2083)
Three
&Transport Engineering (CEng3181)
Instructor: Destaw K.
MSc In Highway Eng
destaw02@gmail.com
HIGHWAY -I Highway Alignment & Route Surveys

Chapter ❖ Highway Alignment ❖ Route Surveying

One
 Ideal Alignment  Desk Study

Chapter  Requirement of ideal  Filed Study

Two alignment  Preliminary Survey

 Factor controlling alignment  Final location & detail

Chapter
Three drawing
HIGHWAY -I
Geometric Design of Highway

Chapter ❖ Design Control & Criteria ❖ Vertical Alignment

One
❖ Highway X-Section  Vertical Curve

Chapter Element ✓ Sag V.C

Two ❖ Horizontal Alignment ✓ Crest V.C

 Horizontal curve  Sight Distance for V.C

 Sight Distance for H.C ❖ Phasing of

Chapter
Three  Supper Elevation Alignment

 Extra Widening
HIGHWAY -I Earth Work
❖ Estimation of Earthwork Quantities
Chapter ❖ Area of Cross-Section
One  Coordinate method
 Area for regular section
Chapter  Area of Irregular section
Two ✓ Trapezoidal rule
✓ Simpsons Rule
Chapter ❖ Volume Computation
Three  Average Ende Area Method
 Primordial Method
❖ Mass Haul Diagram
 Debretabor University 2021

Chapter 1. Highway Alignment and

5
Route Surveys

Instructor: Destaw Kifile

destaw02@gmail.com
 Objective of this chapter:
6

❑ At the end of this chapter students will be able to:

▪ identify basic requirement of an ideal alignment.

▪ identify the factor controlling highway alignment.

▪ know the selection criteria for different alternative route.

▪ identify the preliminary design considerations.

 Question
7

 How do you define alignment?

 Highway Alignment
8

 The position or layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is

called the alignment.

 Alignment includes horizontal alignment and vertical alignment.

 The projection of highway alignment in the horizontal plane is termed

as the horizontal alignment and

 The projection of highway alignment in the vertical plane is called

vertical alignment.
8
 Highway Alignment …..cont.
9

 Horizontal alignment consists  Vertical alignment consists of

of straight paths and curves grades and curves

Horizontal Alignment Vertical Alignment

9
 Highway Alignment …..cont.
10

 A new road should be aligned carefully as faulty or improper

alignment would increase:-

 construction cost.

 land acquisition cost

 maintenance cost.

 vehicle operation cost.

 accident rates.
 Question
11

❑ What are the various requirements of an

ideal highway alignment?
 Requirements of Ideal Alignment
12
❑ The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal station
are as follows:-
❖ Short
o It is desirable to have a short alignment between two stations.
❖ Easy
o Easy to construction, Easy to maintain and Easy for vehicle to operate with easy
grades and curves
❖ Safe
o Safe for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of hill slopes,
embankment and cut slopes
o Safe for traffic operations with easy geometric features such as sharpness of curves,
grades, side slopes and etc.
❖ Economical
o The alignment should consider initial cost, maintenance cost, and operation cost
❖ Comfort
o it provides comfort to the drivers and the passengers.
 Question
13

❑ What are the factors controlling alignment?

 Factors Controlling Alignment
14

❖ The various factors which control the highway alignment are:

A. Obligatory points

B. Traffic

C. Geometric design

D. Economics

E. Other considerations
 Factors Controlling Alignment..(Cond..)
15

A. Obligatory points
❖Points through which the alignment is to pass
o Bridges sites
o Existing Road
o Intermediate town to be accessed between the terminal,
o Mountainous pass
❖Points through which the alignment should not pass
o Areas requiring costly structures

o Highly developed expensive land areas

o Cultural or religious places

o Hospitals, schools
o hilly terrain where there is a possibility of land slides, etc.
 Obligatory points
16
 Factors Controlling Alignment..(Cond..)
17

B. Traffic
 The alignment should suit traffic demand
 The alignment should kept in view of the desire lines, flow patterns and
future trend
 Present and future travel patterns should be observed & forecasted
C. Geometric design
 Geometric design factors such as max. gradient, minimum radius of curve,
minimum available sight distance, maximum allowable super-elevation, etc.
should be within the limits of allowable design values which are governed
by the expected traffic speed
D. Economy
 Total transportation cost including initial construction cost, maintenance
cost, and operation cost
 Example :
• Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need to be constructed,
etc. increases the initial cost of construction.
 Factors Controlling Alignment..(Cond..)
18

E. Other considerations:

 Drainage consideration

 Hydrological factors affect in deciding

the alignment
 Water level, seepage flow, high flood level

 Political considerations
 Special considerations alignments on hilly roads
19

• Slope Stability
– a common problem in hill roads is land slide. Special care should be taken to
choose the side that is more stable
• Drainage
– Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the water across the road
should be provided
• Geometry
– Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances, speeds and other
related features are followed in hill roads
• Resisting Length
– The resisting length should be kept as low as possible. Thus, the ineffective
rise and excessive fall should be kept minimum
 The stages of Engineering Surveys for Highway location
20

❑ In order to select the best road corridor, the following

engineering surveys are usually involves:

o Map study

o Reconnaissance surveys

o Preliminary surveys

o Final location & detailed surveys

 1. Map Study
21

❑ The study of the topographical map is done to find out the

possible alternative routes of the road.
❑ The features like river, hills valleys, and contour intervals can
be observed. By knowing these feature it can properly assign
the alignment.
❑ Probable Alignment is identified on the map by:
o Avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
o Avoiding river bends where bridges should not be located;
o Keeping in view of geometric standards (e.g. avoiding steep
terrain, etc.)
 Map study
22
 2. Reconnaissance Survey
23

❖it is a rapid and rough survey.

❖it is done without accurate instruments.
❖It provides additional information not available in map sheets.
❖Objectives of Reconnaissance are: -
✓ To study the feasibility of the proposed route
✓ To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map
✓ To estimate probable cost and draft a report
✓ To examine the general character of the area for deciding the most feasible
routes,
❑ Factors considered:
❖ Terrain & soil conditions
❖ Availability of construction materials, water
❖ Serviceability to industrial & population areas
❖ Intersections with other transportation facilities like waters, railways, other
highways
 2. Reconnaissance Survey (Cont..)
24

❑ The Following information are obtained during the reconnaissance survey:

 Valley, pond, lakes and other features that were not present in the
topographic map.
 A number of cross drainage structures, High Flood Level, Natural Ground
Level.
 Values of the gradient, the length of gradients and radius of the circular curve.
 Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of the
geological features.
 Sources of construction materials, water & location of stones
❑ Useful checklists:
o Design standards o Drainage
o Grading & earthwork o Right of way
o Foundation condition o Effect on community
o Geological conditions
o Traffic characteristics & maintenance cost
 3. Preliminary Survey
25

❖ This survey consists of running an accurate traverse line along

the routes already recommended as a result of reconnaissance
survey in order to obtain sufficient data for final location
❖ Objectives of the Preliminary Survey are: -
o To collect necessary physical information and details of
topography, drainage, and soil etc. on alternate alignments.

o To compare the different proposals

o To estimate the quantity of earthwork, other construction

aspects.

o To finalize the best alignment from all consideration.

 3. Preliminary Survey (cont..)
Methods of Preliminary Survey
26

❖ The preliminary survey may be carried out by one of the

following two methods:

❑ Conventional Approach

❑ Modern Rapid Approach

 3. Preliminary Survey …………(cont..)
Methods of Preliminary Survey
A) Conventional Method
27

❖ The procedure for the conventional approach are listed below:

1. Traverse: The traverse is run from the starting point to the end point by
setting out various control points.
2. Levelling work: The levelling work is carried out along the centre line or the
proposed road. The levelling work is used to estimate the volume of the
earthwork. Both L-section and X-section are carried out.
3. Topographical features: All geographical and man-made features are survey
4. Drainage Studies and Hydrological data: The number of cross drainage
structures are estimated during the preliminary survey.
 3. Preliminary Survey …………(cont..)
Methods of Preliminary Survey
A) Conventional Method
28

5. Soil Survey: The soil survey is conducted for working out details of
earthwork, slope stability of materials, sub surface and surface drainage
requirements and the type of the pavement requirements.
6. Material Survey: The location of construction materials need to be known.
7. Traffic Survey: Survey regarding the number of lanes, roadway width, and
pavement design need to be done.
8. Determination of final centre line: After completion of all the above
mention steps and calculating the amount of earthwork, the final centre line
is determined.
 3. Preliminary Survey …………(cont..)
Methods of Preliminary Survey
B) Modern rapid approach
29

❖ The procedure for the Modern rapid approach are listed below as:
▪ Taking aerial photographs with required lateral and
longitudinal overlaps.
▪ These photographs are then examined under stereoscopes and
control points are selected for the establishment of the traverse.
▪ The spot levels and contour lines may be obtained from the
stereo – pair observations.
▪ Photointerpretation method is used to take information on the
geological features, soil conditions, drainage requirement, etc.
 4. Final Location and detailed Survey
30

❖ The purpose of the final location is to fix the centre line of the
selected alignment.

❖ To collect additional data for the design and preparation of

working drawings.
 Tasks during Final Location Survey
31

1. Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations established at

30m intervals with reference to preliminary traverse/ base
line.
2. Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at intermediate
points between stations where there is a significant change in
the slope to obtain the representative profile of the ground
3. Cross-section Levelling: at each station and at points with
significant change in ground slope
4. Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre line of all
intersecting roads, profiles, and cross-sections for some
distance on both sides
5. Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment, profile, and cross
section levelling of the banks of the stream/river
 Drawings & Reports
32

• The data, after the necessary investigation and final location

survey, is sent to the design office where it’s suitably proceed
with respect to
– geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage
facilities and other structures, and specifications
• A complete sets of drawings for a road design includes:
– Site plan of proposed alignment
– Detailed Plan & Profile

– Cross-sections for Earth work at all necessary locations

– A mass-haul diagram showing the movement of earth work

– Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts,….

 Example
33

A road is proposed to connect two points A and B. Between point A and B, the road
will be located in an area whose topographical characteristics are as shown in
Figure 1. For the given topographic contour map, select the best route with
appropriate gradients and geometric details that minimize earthwork quantities.
34

Determining route alternatives

Alternative # 1

Preliminary alignment profiles

35

Alternative #2
36

Alternative #3
37

Site plan of proposed alignment

38

Screening Evaluation
Criteria
Route-1 Route-2 Route-3
Length
Number of bridge

Number of curve

Cut and fill balance

Environmental impacts

Potential high cost items

❖ Alignment must be selected in such a way that the overall cost

during construction, operation and maintenance is minimum.
39

Thank You
 Debretabor University 2021

40 Chapter 2. Geometric Design of Highways

Instructor: Destaw Kifile

destaw02@gmail.com
 Objective of this chapter:
41

❑ At the end of this chapter students will be able:

❖ To identify factors influencing locating and configuration of

geometric design.

❖ To identify highway cross‐section elements of the road.

❖ To identify criteria for horizontal alignment design.

❖ To Know types of sight distance and important determinants.

❖ To identify factors influencing vertical alignment design.

❖ To know coordination of horizontal and vertical alignments.

 Introduction
42

• The geometric design of highway deals with the dimensions and

layout of visible features of the highway such as alignment, sight
distance and intersection.
• The main objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable
cost.
• The geometric design of the highways deals with following
elements:
• Sight distance
• Cross-section element
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Intersection elements 42
 Introduction …… (cont.)
43

❖ Objective of geometric design

▪ Provide efficiency in traffic operation.
▪ Provide maximum safety at reasonable cost.
▪ Minimize the environmental impacts.
▪ Maximize the comfort, safety and economy of facilities.
 Introduction …… (cont.)
44

❖ The engineer has to be consider the following points when

selecting design standards

▪ Volume and composition of traffic in the design year

▪ The design should minimize initial, maintenance, road user

cost.

▪ Safety should be built in the geometric design .

▪ The design should contain all aspects of design including

signs, markings, lighting, etc.

▪ The design should be enable all road users to use the facility.
 Design Control And Criteria
45

□ The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the

following factors:
• The functional classification of the road;
• Nature of the terrain;
• Design vehicle;
• Traffic volumes expected on the road;
• Design speed;
• Driver Characteristics;
• Composition of the traffic;
• Roadside population and land use
• Pavement type;
• Soil type and climate;
• Safety;
• Economic and environmental considerations.
 A. Functional Classification of Roads
46

❑ Classification of Highways

Balance between Arterials and Locals

 Mobility vs. Accessibility
47

Mobility

Accessibility
 Road Classification As per AASHTO
48

➢ Principal arterial – main

movement (high mobility,
limited access)
➢ Minor arterial – interconnects
principal arterials (moderate
mobility, limited access)
➢ Collectors - connects local
roads to arterials (moderate
mobility, moderate access)
➢ Local roads and streets -
permits access to adjacent land
(high access, limited mobility)
49
 Functional Classification As per ERA
50

❑ The functional classification of road in Ethiopia includes five

functional classes.
I. Trunk Roads (Class I)
II. Link Roads (Class II)
III. Main Access Roads (Class III)
IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)
V. Feeder Roads (Class V)
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
51

I. Trunk Roads (Class I): Centers of international importance

and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked
with Addis Ababa by trunk roads .
▪ They are numbered with an "A“ prefix: an example is the
Addis to Gonder road (A3). Trunk roads have a present
AADT≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 150
AADT
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
I. Trunk Roads (Class I)
52
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
53

II. Link Roads (Class II): Centers of national or international

importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must be
linked between each other by link roads .
❑ A typical link road has an AADT greater than 300 although values
can range between 70-10,000 AADT.
▪ They are numbered with a "B" prefix.
▪ An example of a typical link road is Woldiya _DebreTabor_
Woreta road (B22) which links Woldiya on road A2 with
Woreta on road A3
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
II. Link Roads (Class II)
54
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
55

III. Main Access Roads (Class III): Centers of regional importance are linked
by main access roads.
❑ The AADTs are typically between 150 and 300 but can range from 25 -
1000.
▪ They are numbered with a "C“ prefix.
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
III. Main Access Roads (Class III)
56
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
57

IV. Collector Roads (Class IV): Roads linking locally important

centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher
class roads must be linked by a collector road.
❑ AADTs are between 25-300.
▪ They are numbered with a "D" prefix.
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)
58
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
59

V. Feeder Roads (Class V): Any road link to a minor center such as
market and local locations is served by a feeder road.
❑ AADTs are less than 150.
▪ They are numbered with an "E" prefix
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
V. Feeder Roads (Class V)
60
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
61

❑ Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have major
function to provide mobility,
❑ while the primary function of lower class roads/Feeder Road/ is
to provide access.
❑ The roads of intermediate classes have/Main Access and
Collector Roads/, for all practical purposes, to provide both
mobility and access.
 Ethiopian road classification ...(cond..)
62
 B. Nature of Terrain
63

❑ The location and geometric design elements such as

• gradients,
• sight distance,
• cross-sections, affected by topography, physical
• radius of curvature, features, and land use.
• speeds, etc.
❑ Ethiopian Road Authority classifies terrain as:
• flat,
• rolling,
• mountainous and
• escarpment.
 B. Nature of Terrain …(cont.)
64

1. Flat: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles

to the construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted
horizontal and vertical alignment
✓ Transverse terrain slope up to 3 percent.
 B. Nature of Terrain …(cont.)
65

2. Rolling Terrain: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the

slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where random
steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in
alignment
✓ Transverse terrain slope from 3 percent to 25 percent
 B. Nature of Terrain …(cont.)
66

3. Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river

gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the
standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep
grades and limited sight distance
✓ Transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent.
 B. Nature of Terrain …(cont.)
67

4. Escarpment: Escarpment include situations where

switchback roadway sections are used or side hill transverse
sections which cause considerable earthwork quantities.
✓ Transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent.
 B. Nature of Terrain …(cont.)
68

❖ The terrain classification has been adopted for the Project Road is
given in Table below
 C. Design Vehicle
69

❑ Design vehicles are selected to represent all vehicles on the

highway.
❑ The weight, physical dimensions, and operating characteristics
of the design vehicle will be used to establish the geometric
features of the highway.
❑ In the design of any highway facility, the designer should
consider the largest design vehicle likely to use that facility
with considerable frequency
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
70

❑ The physical characteristics of vehicles directly affect the

required characteristics of the roadways on which they are
driven.
❑ Roadway features such as
• intersection corner radii,
• overpass clearances,
are all directly affected by
• lane widths
the size and shapes of the
• Horizontal curve widening
vehicles using a facility.
• Junction design
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
71
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
72

□ Design Vehicle Classes

❖ According to AASHTO there are 4 classes
▪ Passenger Vehicles: passenger vehicle class includes small, medium,
and large passenger vehicles, pickup, sport utility vehicles, and vans
▪ Buses: include all single unit buses, all articulated buses and intercity
busses
▪ Trucks: include single‐unit trucks, tractor‐trailers, and semi‐tractor
trailer combinations
▪ Recreational Vehicles: vehicles with long wheel bases that have
tracking characteristics are similar to single‐unit buses
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
73

❖ According to ERA’s there are 4 classes:

▪ Utility vehicle DV1
▪ Single unit truck DV2
▪ Single unit bus DV3
▪ Semi-trailer combination DV4
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
74

❑ Design Vehicle Classes

 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
75

❑ The four design vehicles indicated in table should be used in the

control of geometric design:
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
76

(DV1)
 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
77

• Vehicle dimension and

turn radius

• e.g. Single Unit Bus (DV3)

 C. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
78

(DV4)
 D. Design Volume
79

□ Traffic volume is number of vehicles that pass a point along a

roadway during a specified time period.
□ directly affects features of design such as:
▪ number of lanes, widths, alignments, and gradients.
□ Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): during a period of 24
consecutive hours averaged over a period of 365 days.

□ Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is the average of 24-hr counts collected

over a number of days greater than one but less than a year.
 D. Design Volume ….(cont.)
80
 E. Design Speed
81

❑ A design speed is a selected speed used to determine the various

geometric design features of the roadway.
❑ Design speeds are selected to achieve a desired level of operation and
safety on a highway.
❑ Design elements such as sight distance, vertical and horizontal
alignment, lane and shoulder widths, roadside clearances,
Superelevation, etc., are influenced by design speed.
❑ directly related:
▪ Curvature(radius), super-elevation, and sight distance
❑ Indirectly related:
▪ widths of lanes and shoulders and roadside clearances
 E. Design Speed …… (cont.)
82

❑ Design Speed
depends on
❖ Topography
▪ Flat
▪ Rolling
▪ Mountainous
▪ Escarpment
❖ The adjacent land
use
❖ The functional
classification of
highways
❖ Surface type
(paved or
unpaved)
 E. Design Speed …… (cont.)
83

❖ Various factors influence the speed of vehicles on a particular

road. These include:
▪ Driver skill, driver culture and driver behavior;
▪ Vehicle operating capabilities;
▪ The physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings;
▪ Weather;
▪ Presence of other vehicles, and
▪ Speed limitations (posted speed limits).
 F. Driver Characteristics
84

❑ Geometric design of a highway should consider users,

especially drivers’ performance limits.
❑ There is limits to a driver’s vision, perception, reaction,
concentration, comfort that could impact the highway safety
and operating efficiency.
❑ Example:
▪ The average brake-reaction time of a driver (including
decision time), is 2.5 sec which important in determining
sight distance in highway geometric design
 Highway Cross-section Elements

85
 Highway Cross-section Elements
86

❖ A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway,

shoulders or curbs, drainage features, and earthwork profiles
❑ Carriageway- use by moving traffic: traffic lanes, auxiliary
lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes etc.
❑ Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders,
parking lanes and viewing areas
❑ Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
87

 Highways are categorized into

▪ Divided highways
▪ Undivided highways
• The distinction is based on the presence of median
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
88

❖ A divided highway is a road which has two lanes of traffic

traveling in each direction with a strip of grass or concrete down
the middle to separate the traffic.
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
89

➢ Divided Multi-Lane Highway (Depressed Median)

Traveled Way/Shoulders/Drainage
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
90

❑ Divided Multi-Lane Highway (Raised Median)

 Traveled Way/Shoulders/Drainage
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
91
❖undivided highway is a road with one, two or more lanes
arranged within a single carriageway with no central reservation
to separate opposing flows of traffic.
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
92

➢ Two-Lane Highway
Traveled Way/Shoulders/Drainage
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
93
 The components of divided highways within the right of way are:
▪ Travel / traffic Lanes
▪ Shoulders
▪ Medians
▪ Normal Cross fall /cross slope
▪ Side slopes
▪ Guardrails
▪ Right of way
 Highway Cross-section Elements…(cont.)
94
 I. Travel Lanes
95

❖ A traffic lane or travel lane the portion of the roadway

provided for the movement of vehicles from one destination to
another, not including shoulders, it takes the vehicular loading.

❖ Factors which influence the width of travel lane are:

 functional class of highway,

 design speed,

 traffic volume,

 Vehicle dimensions and

 level of development of the area.

 Travel Lanes …(cont.)
96

❖ Width of travel lane is determined on the basis of the width of the

vehicle and the minimum side clearance for safety.
❖ The width of lane decreases, accident rate for large trucks tend to
increase particularly on two-way rural roads.
❖ Also decrease in lane width result in decrease in speed of travel
and capacity of the road.
 Travel Lanes …(cont.)
97

Travel Lanes
 II. Shoulder
98

□ Shoulders attached with the travelled way for:

▪ accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use
▪ lateral support for the pavement structure.
▪ recovery of errant vehicles
▪ to increase sight distance on horizontal curves
▪ to provide clearance for placement of road signs
▪ provides additional space for bicycle use

□ Width vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads where there

is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater
 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
99

❑Materials used to surface shoulders include:

gravel, crushed rock, mineral or chemical additives,
bituminous surface treatments
❑All shoulders should be sloped sufficiently to rapidly drain
surface water
❑The slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of the
pavement.
high type surfacing: slope from 2 to 4 percent.
Gravel :4 to 6 percent
turf shoulders : 6 to 8 percent slopes
❑the color and texture of shoulders be different from those of
the traveled way
 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
100
 Shoulders widths as recommended by the ERA design Guide
• Shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain, design classification and traffic volume.
 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
101
 III. Medians
102

□ Median is the portion of a highway separating opposing directions of the

traveled way.
□ The functions:
▪ To separate opposing traffic
▪ Provide a recovery area for out of- control vehicles,
▪ Provide a stopping area in case of emergencies,
▪ Provide stopping area for left and u-turning vehicles
▪ Minimize headlight glare, and
▪ Provide width for future lanes.
□ Additional benefits:
▪ In an urban area it may offer an open green space,
▪ It may provide a refuge area for pedestrians crossing the street, and
▪ It may control the location of intersection traffic conflicts.
 III. Medians…(cont.)
103

❑ Median can be either raised, flush or depressed.

❑ median widths is from 1.2 to 24 m or more depending on the availability of ROW
 IV. Crown Slope (Normal Crossfall)
104

□ It is the raising of the centerline of the roadway above the

elevation of the pavement edges.
□ The principal functions
▪ To remove the rain water from the pavement surface.
□ The amount of normal cross fall depends on the pavement
surface and amount of rainfall.
□ The normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4
percent on unpaved roads.
□ Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 % steeper
□ When four or more traffic lanes are used, it is advisable to
provide a higher rate of crown on the outer lanes
 IV. Crown Slope (Normal Crossfall)
105
 VII. Side slopes
106

❑ Side slope is defined as the slope of the cut or fill expressed as

the ratio of horizontal distance to vertical distance.
❑ Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the
roadway and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery
of an out-of-control vehicle.
 VII. Side slopes
107

❖ Side slopes depends on types of material and the height of slope

 VIII. Guardrails
108

❑ A guardrail is provided where:

▪ Fills height over 2.4m,
▪ Shoulder slopes are greater than 1V:4H,
▪ There is sudden change in alignment,
▪ Deep roadside ditches, steep banks,
▪ Right-of-way limitations,
❑ Guardrails (roadside barriers) should be located beyond the
edge of the shoulder.
❑ The height must be a minimum of 42 inches (1.0668 m) above
the leading edge of walking surface.
 VIII. Guardrails
109

❑ The main purpose of a highway guardrail along the highway

▪ Used as a safety barrier to help protect a motorist who
has drifted off the road.
▪ To reduce a severity of a potential crash and make the
roads safer.
 VIII. Guardrails
110
 V. Curbs
111

❖ A curb is a steep raised element at the edge of roadway.

❖ functions:
• Reduction of maintenance operations
• To control drainage
• Improve aesthetic
• Reduce roadway
 Curbs..(cont.)
112

❑ Vertical curbs may range from 150 to 200 mm in height.

❑ When the slope of the curb face is steeper than 1V:1H, and 1V:2H,
the height should be limited to about 150 mm.
 Curbs..(cont.)
113

Curbs
 Right of Way (ROW )
114

❖ Right of Way is the total land area acquired for the construction of
the roadway.

❖ All the cross‐section elements are accommodated within the

right‐of‐way (ROW) of the highway

❖ Width ROW should be enough to accommodate all the elements of

the roadway cross section, any future widening of the road and any
public utility facilities that will be installed along the roadway.

❖ ROW is the area of the road acquired for carriages way + other
necessities + future extension, along its alignment.
 Right of Way (ROW )
115

❖ The width of right-of-way depends on

 the cross-section elements of the highway,
 topography and
 other physical controls together with economic
considerations.
❖ Factors Affecting Right of Way
 Width of roadways
 Height of embankment
 Side slopes
 Drainage system
 Sight distances consideration on horizontal curves
 Future extension
 Right of Way (ROW )
116
 Question
117

 Draw neatly the cross-section of a highway, and name

the important elements.
 Draw the schematic representation of the various
elements showing the road cross section in a fill only and
in a cut only and both cut and fill section.
 Sight Distance

118
 Sight Distance
119

Definition:
❖ Sight Distance is the actual distance along the road surface,
which a driver from the specified height above the carriageway
has visibility of stationary or moving object
❖ It is the length of highway visible to the driver of a vehicle.
 Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance
120

❖ Sight distance is the distance along a roadway throughout which an

object of specified height is continuously visible to the driver.
❖ This distance is dependent on the height of the driver’s eye above
the road surface, the specified object height above the road surface,
and the height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the
driver’s line of sight.
✓ Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
✓ Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
✓ Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
 Types of sight distances
121
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
122

 Stopping sight distance is the minimum sight distance available

on a highway to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed it reaches
a stationary object in the vehicle’s path.
❖ The minimum stopping is based on the sum of two distances:
❖ brake reaction distance
❖ braking distance
 Factors Affecting Stopping sight distance
123

 The computation of the sight distance mainly depends on the:

 Factors Affecting Stopping sight distance
124

ERA 2013 Stopping sight distance for paved road

Stopping sight distance for Unpaved road
 Factors Affecting Stopping sight distance
125

PRT = 2.5 sec may not be adequate for the most complex,
unexpected conditions encountered in actual driving
 Factors Affecting Stopping sight distance
126

ERA 2013 Stopping sight distance for paved road

Stopping sight distance for Unpaved road
 Factors Affecting Stopping sight distance
127

❖ SSD on upgrades are shorter

than on level roadways; those on
downgrades are longer.
❖ The stopping sight distances for various
grades are shown in table below.
ERA 2013 Stopping sight distance for paved road

Stopping sight distance for Unpaved road

 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
128

Stopping sight distance (SSD)

 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
129

1. brake reaction distance: the distance traversed by the vehicle

from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to
the instant the brakes are applied.
◼ it depends on the speed of vehicles and the perception time
and break reaction time of the driver.
2. Braking distance: the distance required to stop the vehicle
after brake activation.
◼ it dependson the speed of vehicles, declaration rate of
vehicles & alignment and grade of the highway
 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
130

Stopping sight distance (SSD)

 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
131

Brake Reaction Distance:- distance traversed before breaking

Dr = 0.278Vt
Where Dr = Total reaction distance in (m)
V= Initial vehicle speed in Km/hr.
t=perception & Reaction time in second (2.5se)
Breaking Distance:-the distance required to stop after brake activation
𝑉2 (0.278𝑉)2
Db = 𝐺 = 𝐺
254(𝑓±100) 2𝑔(𝑓±100)
Where Db = Breaking distance in (m)
V= Initial velocity when breaks are applied in Km/hr.
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see
Table 7-1)
G=grade in %
( f = a / g where, a = deceleration rate, typical value 3.4 m/s2 as per ASHTO
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.8 m/sec2)
 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
132
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
= Brake Reaction Distance (Dr) + breaking distance (Db)
V2
SSD = (0.278)(t)(V) +
254 f ± G
SSD = Stopping Sight Distance (meter)
= Dist. traveled during perception/reaction time + Braking Dist.
t = Driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = Initial speed (km/h)
f = Coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
G=percent of grade divided by 100
Take G + Sign for upgrade/uphill
- Sign for downgrade/downhill
 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
133
 Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
134
 Examples of Stopping Sight Distance
135

1. Calculate the stopping sight distance for the design speed of the road is
90km/hr. the coefficient of friction between the road surface and tires
may be taken as 0.3 and the reaction time of the driver is 2.5 seconds.
The road way is level.
Solution
Design speed V=90km/hr
Coefficient of friction f= 0.3
Reaction time t=2.5 seconds
Gradient G=0%
Brake Reaction Distance (Dr) = 0.278 t V =0.278*2.5*90=62.55

V2 902
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑏 = = = 106.3𝑚
254 f ± G 254 0.3 ± 0
Stopping Sight Distance = Brake Reaction Distance (Dr) + breaking distance (Db)
=62.55m+106.3m=168.85m
 Examples of Stopping Sight Distance
136

2. Two derivers each have a reaction time of 2.5 sec. One is travelling a 88.5
km/hr speed limit, and the other is travelling illegally at 112.6 km/hr. How
much distance will each of the drivers cover while perceiving/reacting to the
need to stop, and what will the total stopping distance be for each driver
(using practical stopping distance assuming G = ‐2.5%)?
 Examples of Stopping Sight Distance
137

3. A driver is travelling at 70 km/hr on a wet road. An object is spotted on the

road 140 m ahead and the driver is able to come to a stop just before hitting
the object. Assuming standard perception reaction time and practical
stopping distance, determine the grade of the road. (PRT = 2.5 sec, f= 0.315)
Solution:
stopping sight distance SSD=140m
Design speed V=70km/hr
Coefficient of friction f= 0.315
Reaction time t=2.5 seconds
Gradient G=??????

Brake Reaction Distance (Dr) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝒕 𝑽 =0.278*2.5*70=48.65m

𝑽𝟐
SSD- Brake Reaction Distance = breaking distance = = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 − 𝟒𝟖. 𝟔𝟓 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝒎
𝟐𝟓𝟒 𝐟±𝑮

𝑽𝟐
𝐟±𝑮 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟐
𝟐𝟓𝟒∗𝟗𝟏.𝟑𝟓

𝐆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟓 = −𝟏𝟎. 𝟑%

 Stopping sight distance on single lane
138

 Safe SSD depends on: Example:- calculate the safe stopping

sight distance for design speed of 50
 No of lanes and km/hr. Assume coefficient of friction as
 Direction of traffic 0.28 and reaction time of the driver as
2.5se.
◼ Single lane (one-way)
a) two way traffic on a two lane road
◼ Safe SSD=SSD b) two way traffic in single lane road
◼ Single lane (two-way) Solution
◼ Safe a) SSD- for two way two lane
SSD=2*SSD+30m 𝑉2
SSD = 0.278Vt + 254𝑓
◼ Two lane (one-way) 502
= 0.278*50*2.5 +
◼ Safe SSD=SSD 254∗0.28
= 69.9m
◼ Two lane (two-way)
b) SSD- for two way single lane
◼ Safe SSD=SSD SSD = 2(SSD) + 30
= (69.9*2) +30m
=169.8m
 Exercises
139
1. What is the safe stopping sight distance for a section of rural freeway
with a design speed of 80km/hr on a 4% upgrade? use t= 2.5sec&f= .30
2. How far does the vehicles approaching a traffic signal on a 5%
downgrade at a speed of 80 km/hr? Take standard reaction time of
2.5sec and coefficient of friction of 0.305.
3. A diver takes 2.5sec to react to a complex situation while traveling at a
speed of 110km/hr. How far does the vehicle travel before the driver
initiates a physical response to the situation. Use a standard coefficient
of friction of 0.28
4. Consider a section of rural freeway with a design speed of 70 km/hr on
a section of level terrain, what safe stopping sight distance must be
provided? If coefficient of friction between tires and roadway is 0.315
and standard reaction time of 2.5 s.
5. The available sight distance for a single lane two way road with 6%
downgrade is 130m. The design speed for the road is 50km/hr. Assume
coefficient of friction as 0.35 and reaction time of the driver as 2.5sec.
Is the available sight distance adequate for emergency stopping of
vehicles? Discuss.
 Assignment
140

 Find the minimum stopping sight distance to avoid head on

collision of two cars approaching at 90km/hr and 60km/hr.
given t=2.5sec, f= 0.7 and break efficiency of 50%in each case.
 Overtaking Or Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
141

❖ The minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that

must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another
vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle
traveling at the design speed is called overtaking sight distance or say
passing sight distance.
❖ The following assumptions are made concerning driver behavior in
passing maneuvers:
1. The passed vehicle travels at uniform speed.
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it
reaches passing section
3. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver, and its average
speed during the occupancy of the left lane is 15 km/h higher than
that of the passed vehicle.
4. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle
when the passing vehicle returns to its lane
 Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
142
 Continue …
143
 Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
144
The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the
sum of the following four distances
PSD = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4
Where:- d1= initial maneuver distance including a time for precision & reaction
d2 = distance during the passing vehicle in opposing lane
d3 = clearance b/n passing & opposing vehicle
d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle
 Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
145

▪ The distance d2 traveled in the left lane by the passing vehicle is

computed with the following equation:
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∗ 𝐯 ∗ 𝒕𝟐
Where:- t2 = time which the passing vehicle occupies on the left lane (s)
v = speed of the passing vehicle (km/hr)
𝟐 ∗ 𝒅𝟐
𝒅𝟒 = )
𝟑
 d3 = safe clearance distance between passing & opposing vehicle at the
end of the passing maneuver

ERA (clearance distance vs ambient speed)

Speed group(km/hr) 50 - 65 66 - 80 81 - 100 101 - 120
d3(m) 30 55 80 100
 Factors Affecting on Minimum Overtaking Sight Distance
146

 The minimum overtaking sight distance depends upon the

following factors:
• Speed of the overtaking, overtaken and the vehicle coming
from the opposite direction.
• Rate of acceleration of the overtaking vehicle.

• Spacing between the vehicle.

• The gradient of the road

• Skill and reaction time of the driver.

 Examples of Overtaking Sight Distance
147

Example A vehicle moving at speed of 50km/hr. is slowing traffic on two lane

highway, what PSD is necessary in order to a passing maneuver to be carried
out safely?
- In your calculation assume that the f/f variable have the values given
- passing vehicle driver reaction time = 2.5sec, t2 =10sec
- passing vehicle acceleration (a) = 2.5km/hr/sec.
- speed of passing vehicle =70km/hr.
- speed of passed vehicle = 50km/hr.
- speed of opposing vehicle = 70km/hr.
2.5∗2.5
Solution 𝑑1 = 0.278 ∗ 2.5(70 − 20 + ) = 36.92𝑚
2
d2 = 0.278* 70*10= 194.6m
d3= 55m
d4= (2*194.6)/3 =129.73
PSD = 36.92+194.6+55+129.73= 416.25m
 Exercises
148

1. A passed vehicle moving at Constant speed of 60kmph on two lane

highway. What PSD is necessary in order to a passing maneuver to be
carried out safely? Assume that the following data are given below:-
❖ passing vehicle driver reaction time t1= 2.5 sec, t2 =10sec
❖ passing vehicle acceleration (a) = 2.5kmph/sec2
❖ speed of passing vehicle =80kmph
❖ speed of passed vehicle = 60kmph
❖ speed of opposing vehicle = 85kmph
 Horizontal Alignment

149
150

❑ By the end of this session students will be able to:

▪ Define what mean horizontal alignment
▪ Identify what are components of horizontal alignment
▪ Identify how, when and where we use different types of horizontal curves
151
Horizontal Alignment
❖ Horizontal Alignment deals with the design of the directional
transition of the highway in a horizontal plane.
❖ It is the combination of tangent sections (straight roadway
sections), circular curves, and spiral transitions.
❖ Design of horizontal alignment depends on :-
 Design Speed
 Type of Curve,
 Side Friction,
 Supper Elevation and
 Highway Widening of pavements on curves.
❖ Factors which affect the design of horizontal alignment:-
 Safe vehicle operating speeds,
 Sight distances, and
 Opportunities for phasing and highway capacity
 General Criteria
152

General criteria which consider Horizontal alignment

are:-
 Alignment should be as straight as possible within physical
and economic constraints
 Curves in the same direction separated by short tangent
should be avoided.
 The alignment should avoid sudden changes.
 A sharp curve at the end of a long tangent is extremely
hazardous and should be avoided.
 Avoid horizontal curvature on bridges when possible
 Avoid “Brocken-back” – short tangent section between two
curves in the same direction.
 Design Elements In Horizontal Alignment
153

I. Tangent Sections:- Tangent sections are beneficial in flat

terrain but less in other terrain from aesthetic point of view
and from safety point of view.
❖ They provide better visibility and more passing opportunities.
❖ However, long tangent sections increase the danger from
headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding.
❖ Maximum length should not be greater than 20*Velocity (in m).
❖ In curves of the same direction intermediate straight lines
should be avoided or amounted to 6*Velocity.
❖ As per ERA, the maximum length of a tangent section should not
exceed 4.0 kilometers
 Horizontal Curves
154

II. Horizontal Curve:- provides a transition between two tangent

strips of roadway.
Types of horizontal curve
A. Simple circular curve
B. Compound curve
C. Revers curve
D. Switch-Back curve
E. Broken-Back curve
F. Transition curve
 … Continue …
155

A. Simple Circular Curve

❖ It is a curve consists of a single arc with a constant radius
connecting the two tangents.
 Exercises 1
156

 A horizontal curve is designed with a 1500 m radius. The

tangent length is 400 m. and the PT station is 20+00. What
are the PI and PT stations?
 … Continue …
157

B. Compound Curve
❖ A compound curve
consist of two or
more arcs of a circle
of different radii
that deflect in the
same direction and
join at a common
tangent point.
 Formula for compound Curve
158

Tangent Length Length of Curves

∆ ∆ 𝜋𝑅1 ∆1 𝜋𝑅2 ∆2
t1 = R1 tan 1 t2 = R 2 tan 2 𝐿𝐶1 =
180
𝐿𝐶2 =
180
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛∆2 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝑇1 = (t1 + 𝑡2 ) + 𝑡1 𝜋𝑅1 ∆1 𝜋𝑅2 ∆2
𝑠𝑖𝑛∆
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛∆1 180 180
𝑇2 = (t1 + 𝑡2 ) + 𝑡2
𝑠𝑖𝑛∆

 Chain age of PC = Chain age of P.I. – T1

 Chain age of PCC = Chain age of PC + lc1
 Chain age of PT = Chain age of PCC + lc2
Where ∆ = ∆1 + ∆2
 … Continue …
159

C. Reverse Curve
❖ A reverse curve consist of two circular arcs of the same or
different radii having their center on the opposite sides of the
common tangent.
 … Continue …
160

D. Broken Back Curve

❖ It is two curves, turning in
the same direction, with a
short tangent between them.
❖ On new construction or
reconstruction, a minimum
tangent of 450m should be
provided between curves
turning in the same
direction.
 … Continue …
161

E. Switch-Back Curve
❑ Switchback curve are used where
necessary in traversing mountainous &
escarpment terrain.

❑ Employing a radius of 20m or less,

with a minimum of 10m, they are
generally outside of the standard for
all road design.
 … Continue …
162

F. Transition Curve
❖ It is a curve in plan which is provided to change the
horizontal alignment from straight to circular curve
gradually means the radius of transition curve varies
between  to R or R to .
Purpose
 To provide Super Elevation in a gradual manner
 To reduce the radius from infinity at a straight junction to
a radius R at curved junction gradually.
 To control centrifugal force increases or decreases
gradually as a vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve
 … Continue …
163
 … Continue …
164

0.0214𝑉 3
▪ Length of transition curve (𝐿𝑡 ) =
𝑐𝑅
Where:-
𝐿𝑡 Lt = length of the transition curve
▪ Shift angle (∅𝑠 ) = c = rate of centrifugal acceleration
2𝑅
(0.3 to 0.9m/s3 for highway)
𝐿𝑡 2 V=Design speed in km/hr
▪ Shift length (S) = R= radius of curve
24𝑅
𝐿𝑡 ∆
▪ Total tangent length (𝑇𝑡 ) = + 𝑅 + 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2 2
𝜋𝑅(∆−2∅𝑠 )
▪ Curve length on transition (𝐿𝐶 ) =
1800
1800𝑙 2
▪ deflection angle for transition (𝛼) =
𝜋𝑅𝐿𝑡
𝐶
▪ deflection angle for circular curve (𝛿) = 1718.9
𝑅
 Superelevation

165
 Superelevation
166

❖ Superelevation(e) is the raising of the outer edge of the travel lane

to counterbalances the centrifugal force, or outward pull, of a
vehicle traversing on the horizontal curve to provide safely and
comfortably navigating through curves at higher speeds.
❖ Maximum super elevation value is controlled by four factors:
• Climatic conditions: frequency & amount of snow/icing
• Terrain condition: flat vs. mountainous
• Area type: rural vs. urban
• Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
 … Continue …
167
 … Continue …
168
 … Continue …
169

Equations Where:-
Fc = Centrifugal force
𝑊𝑣 2 v = design speed (m/s)
𝐹𝑐 = V = design speed (km/hr)
𝑔𝑅
B = width of the pavement (m)
From slope equation g = gravitational acceleration
(9.81m/s2)
𝑒 𝐹𝑐 𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = = = R = Radius of the curve
𝐵 𝑊 𝑔𝑅
Hence:-
𝐵 ∗ 𝑣2 𝐵 ∗ 𝑉2
𝑒= =
𝑔𝑅 127𝑅
 Exercise 2
170

1)
 … Continue …
171
 … Continue …
172
 … Continue …
173

❖ Anther important term is degree of curve, which is defined as the

central angle subtended by a30 meter arc along the horizontal
curve whose radius is R. This results in the following equation
relating R (radius, in meter) to D (degree of curve, in degrees):
✓ The total circumference of the circle=2𝜋R
360° = 2𝜋𝑅
D° = 30
360°∗30 1718.87
D° = =
2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
Substituting in above equation gives the maximum degree of curvature
for a given design speed(V) and maximum superelevation rate (e):
1718.87∗127(e+f)
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉2
 Cont.…..
174

❖ Side friction coefficients are dependent on:

✓ vehicle speed,
✓ type condition and texture of roadway surface,
✓ weather conditions and
✓ type and condition of tires.
 Example 2
175

1. Calculate the maximum degree of curve and minimum radius of a

simple circular curve with an external angle of 100º. Design speed of
80kph; fmax 0.14; max e =0.10.
 Solution
◼ external angle of 100º
◼ V=80km/hr,
◼ fmax 0.14;
◼ max e =0.10.
360°∗30 1718.87
 D° = =
2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
V2
 Rmin = = 210𝑚 and
127(𝑒+𝑓)
1718.87
 D°max = = 8.180
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Exercise 3
176
1. The radius of a horizontal circular curve on a highway is 120m. The design
speed is 60km/hr, and the design coefficient of lateral friction between
the tyre and the road surface is 0.15. Calculate the superelevation
required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop, and calculate the
coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.
2. Consider a roadway with a design speed of 60km/hr, for which a
maximum superelevation rate of 6% has been selected. What are the
minimum radius of curvature and maximum degree of curve that can be
included on this facility of paved road?
3. A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 km/h. At one horizontal
curve, it is known that the superelevation is 8.0% and the coefficient of
side friction is 0.10. Determine the minimum radius of curve (measured to
the traveled path) that will provide for safe vehicle operation.
 Assignment 2
177

1. The intersection angle of a 5° curve is 110°, and the PC is located

at station 4+844.75. Determine the length of the curve, chord
length and the station of the PC and PT.
2. A circular curve connects two tangents that intersect at an angle
of 48°. The point of intersection of the tangents is located at
station (2+867.32m). If the design speed of the highway is
60km/h, for which a maximum superelevation rate of 8% has
been selected. determine the point of the tangency of paved road.
(Select appropriate values for f.)
3.
 Superelevation transition
178

❖ Superelevation transition section consists of the superelevation runoff and

tangent runout sections for reasons of safety and comfort .
• Tangent Runout section consists of the length of roadway needed to
accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from the normal cross
slope rate to zero (flat), or vice versa.
• Superelevation Runoff section consists of the length of roadway needed to
accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from zero (flat) to full
superelevation, or vice versa.
 … Continue …
179
 Location of Superelevation Runoff on simple curves
180

❖ On simple curves, 67 % of the superelevation runoff normally be

developed on tangent and 33 % on circular curve.
 Location of Superelevation Runoff on spiral curves
181

❖ On spiral curves, the superelevation runoff transition is normally

within the entire length of the spiral (TS to SC and CS to ST)
 … Continue …
182
 … Continue …
183
 … Continue …
184
𝒘𝒏 𝒆
Minimum Length of Superelevation runoff: 𝑳𝒓 = (𝒃𝒘 )
𝑫

1+0.5(n−1)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑤 =
𝑛
 … Continue …
185

length of tangent runout

❖ length of tangent runout is determined by the amount of adverse

cross slope to be removed and the rate at which it is removed.

𝒆𝑵𝑪
𝑳𝒕 = 𝑳𝒓
𝒆𝒅
Methods for rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
186

 These methods are:

1. The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the
centerline constant.

2. The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, by raising the center and
the outer edge.

3. The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge, by depressing the center
and the outer edge
Method (1) is the most generally used.
 Example 2
187

1. Given design speed 70km/hr. super elevation 4%, 4 lane two way highway
rotate about the center of road with 3.65 m per lane in width and cross slope
1.5% . What is length of run off and length of run out? And the station of
beginning and ending of super elevation run off and run out when the
station of pc is 100+50m , show net diagram.
▪ Solution
▪ Minimum Length of Superelevation runoff:
𝒘𝒏 𝒆 𝟑.𝟔𝟓∗𝟐 ∗𝟒
𝑳𝒓 = (𝒃𝒘 ) = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟓)=40m
𝑫 𝟎.𝟓𝟓
▪ Length of tangent runout:
𝒆𝑵𝑪 𝟏.𝟓
𝑳𝒕 = 𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎 =15m
𝒆𝒅 𝒓 𝟒
 Assignment 3
188

1. What length of supper elevation runoff should be used to achieve a

superelevation rate of 10%? the design speed is 70km/hr., and a three lane
cross section 3.5m is under consideration. Super elevation will be achieved
by rotating all three lanes around inside edge of the pavement.
2. If in question number one , the normal cross slope was 2.5%, what would
be the length of tangent runoff?
 Extra Widening of Curves
189

❖ Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway required on a

curved section of a road.
❖ Widening is done due to two reasons.
▪ Additional width required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve (mechanical
widening)
▪ Due to the tendency of the drivers to fully away from the edge of the carriageway as
they drive on a curve (psychological widening).

Note: R>250 m, no
extra widening is
required.
 Extra Widening of Curves
190

 Widening is needed for the following objective:

 To avoid off-tracking due to rigidity of the wheel base

 To increase visibility at curves.

 To encounter psychological effect.

 To counteract transverse speeding.

 Analysis of extra widening on curves
191

❖ Total widening is computed by adding the mechanical widening and psychological widening.
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂 = 𝑾𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 + 𝑾𝒑𝒔𝒚𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
Let
R1 = Radius of outer track line of rear wheel
R2 = Radius of outer track line of front wheel
l = The wheel base of design vehicle
n = Number of lane
v = Design speed

𝒏𝒍2
 Mechanical widening: 𝑾𝑴 =
𝟐𝑹
𝒗
 Psychological widening: 𝑾𝒑𝑺 =
𝟗.𝟓 𝑹
Therefore Extra widening:
𝒏𝒍2 𝒗
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂 = 𝑾𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 + 𝑾𝒑𝒔𝒚𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = +
𝟐𝑹 𝟗.𝟓 𝑹
 Exercise
192

1. Calculate the Extra widening required for a pavement width 7m on

the horizontal curve radius 200. if the longest wheel base of vehicle
expected on the road 6.5m, Design speed 65 kmph and No. of lane 2.
2. A two lane, one way road with radius of 50m is predominantly
carrying lorries with wheelbase of 5m. The speed of lorries is
restricted to be between 60km/hr and 80km/hr. calculate the
mechanical widening and psychological widening at 60km/hr and
80km/hr.
 Assignment 4
193

1. Find the total width of a pavement required on a horizontal curve for

a new national highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a
ruling minimum radius. Assume design speed V = 80kmph, pavement
width W = 7m, No. of lane n = 2, wheel base l = 6m Max. Superelevation
e = 0.07and Skid resistance f = 0.15.
 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
194

 Adequate sight distance must be provided in the design of

horizontal curves.
 The visible sight distance to the driver along the circular curve
due to the obstruction is called Setback Distance (SD) or sight
distance on horizontal curve.
 On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove
buildings, trees or other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the
insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance.
 In driving equations for SSD relation ship for horizontal curves
two cases can be considered.
 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
195

❑When length of the curve is greater than the SSD (Single lane road) Lc > S

28.65
Ms= 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑆SD)
𝑅

 Where:
▪ Ms= Setback sight distance from the
sight obstruction to the center of road
▪ R=Radis of curve
▪ SSD= Stopping sight distance
 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
196

❑When length of the curve is greater than the SSD (Multilane road) Lc > S

 Where:
▪ Ms= Setback sight distance from the
sight obstruction to the center of
inside lane
▪ Rv=Radial distance from center of
curve to middle of inside lane
▪ W = width of inner lane
▪ SSD= Stopping sight distance
 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
197

❑When length of the curve is less than the SSD (Single lane road) Lc < S

∆𝑠 𝑺𝑺𝑫 − 𝑳𝒄 ∆𝑠
𝑴𝒔 = 𝑹 − 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔 +( )𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

 Where:
▪ Ms= distance from the sight
obstruction to the center of inside lane
▪ R=Radis of curve
 Lc= arc length of curve
 ∆s = angle subtended at the center by an
arc of length (in degree)
▪ SSD= Stopping sight distance
 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
198

❑When length of the curve is less than the SSD (Multilane road) Lc < S
𝑊 ∆𝑠 𝑺𝑺𝑫 − 𝑳𝒄 ∆𝑠
𝑴𝒔 = 𝑹𝒗 − 𝑹𝒗 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 + ( )𝒔𝒊𝒏
2 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝑊 ∆
𝑴𝒔 − 𝑹𝒗 + 𝑹𝒗 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑠 )
𝑺𝑫 = 𝟐 2 𝟐 +𝑳
∆𝑠
𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐
Where:-
 Ms = distance to obstruction from centerline of
the inside lane
 W = width of inner lane
 Lc= arc length of curve
 ∆s = angle subtended at the center by an arc of
length (in degree)
 Rv = Radis of curve from the centerline of the
inside lane
 SSD= Stopping sight distance
 Examples of stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
199

 A horizontal curve on a two‐lane highway is designed with a 609.6 m radius,

3.6 m lanes, and a 96 km/hr design speed. Determine the distance that must be
cleared from the inside edge of the inside lane to provide a sufficient stopping
sight distance. (The coefficient of friction of the road surface f = 0.32 and PRT =
2.5 sec). [The SSD for the design speed of 96 km/hr is 180 m.]
 Examples of stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
200

 Horizontal curve with 540m radius; 3.65 m lanes, the distance that
must be cleared from the inside edge of the inside lane is 13.65m to
provide sufficient stopping sight distance. Calculate the required
minimum sight stopping distance in meters.

Rv=540 - 0.5*3.65=538.175m
𝜋∗538.175 − (538.175−13.65)
SSD = ∗ cos
90 538.175
=242.938m
 Exercises
201

1. A horizontal curve with R = 600mis part of a 2-lane highway with a

posted speed limit of 90km/hr. What is the minimum distance that a
large billboard can be placed from the centerline of the inside lane of
the curve without reducing required SSD? Assume p/r =2.5sec and a
=3.4 m/sec2
2. A 2-lane 7.3 m wide single carriageway road has a curve radius of
600m. The minimum sight stopping distance required is 160m.
Calculate the required distance to be kept clear of obstructions in
meters.
3. Horizontal curve with 200m radius; 3.5m lanes; 60kph design speed.
Determine the distance that must be cleared from the inside edge of
the inside lane to provide sufficient stopping sight distance of 150m.
 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
202

 The alternatives where there is insufficient SSD:

◼ increase the offset to the obstruction,
◼ increase the radius, or
◼ reduce the design speed
203
 Vertical Alignment
204

❖ Vertical Alignment is the combination of parabolic vertical

curves and tangent section for particular curve.
❖ Vertical curves are used to provide gradual change from one
tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as
they traverse the highway.
❖ The design of the vertical alignment of a roadway also has a
direct effect on the safety and comfort of the driver.
❖ Grades is the rate of rise or fall along the length of highway.
❖ The Operation Cost, Design Speed and the Capacity of a Highway
are highly affected by the grades provided.
❖ The minimum gradient for the usual case 0.5% to facilitate
surface drainage.
 … Continue …
205
 Types of Vertical Curves
206

Vertical curves can be classified in to the following two groups

1. Crest /Summit Vertical curves
2. Valley/sag Vertical curves
 … Continue …
207
 Vertical Curve Formula
208

 Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the point of

intersection(P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join. Vertical curves
are thus of the form

Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = end of the vertical curve
 Vertical Curve Formula
209

Equations Where:-
𝑔2 − 𝑔1 𝐴
𝑟= =  PVC = BVC = point on the beginning of the
L L
Tangent to curve offset
curve
𝑟𝑥 2  PVT = EVT = point of tangency (Ending of
𝑦=
2 vertical curve)
PVI to curve offset  PVI = point of tangent intersection
𝑟𝐿2 (𝑔2 −𝑔1 )𝐿
𝑒= =  A = g2-g1 = grade difference in decimal
8 8
 r = rate of change of grade per section
Elevation on Curve equation
 e = offset from PVI to curve

𝑟𝑥 2  x = horizontal distance of a point on

𝐸𝑝𝑐 = 𝐸𝐵𝑣𝑐 + 𝑔1 𝑥 + curve from PVC
2
or  y = vertical distance from the tangent to
the curve
4𝑒𝑥 2
𝐸𝑝𝑐 = 𝐸𝐵𝑣𝑐 + 𝑔1 𝑥 + 2  EPVC = EBVC = elevation of point on BVC
𝐿  EPC = elevation of point on curve
 g1 = initial tangent grade (in decimal)
 Vertical Curve Formula
210

 Highest point of crest and lowest point of sag-curve

Where x is the distance in station from the BVC to the high or low
point.
The elevation of the point is then computed by substituting x in to
 Example
211

 A +4. 6% grade intersects a ‐3.0 grade at station 92+ 00 and at

elevation of 1004.86 m. Given that a 360 m curve is utilized,
determine the station and elevation of the PVC and PVT. Calculate
the station and elevation of the high point of the curve.
212
 Gradient
213

 It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of highway.

 It is expressed as a ratio of 1in n (1 vertical unit to n horizontal unit). Sometimes the
gradient is also expressed as a percentage i.e. n% (n in100).
 The design criteria of vertical cure:
 Minimize cut and fill  Not to exceed maximum grade
 Balance cut and fill  Meet fixed elevations, other roads or bridges
 Maintain adequate drainage  Provide sufficient sight distance
 Minimum length of the crest vertical curve
214

❖ The minimum length of L is such that when the driver

of a vehicle climbs over the crest should have enough
stopping distance.
❖ Two different factors are important for crest curves
▪ Height of the driver’s eye (h1)
▪ Height of a roadway obstruction object (h2)

❖ Other controlling factors for stopping sight distance is

absolute change in gradient before and after the crest
curve (A = lG1 - G2l; in %)
 Minimum length of the crest vertical curve
215
 Minimum length of the sag vertical curve
216

❖ For sag vertical curves, stopping sight distance is based

on the distance illuminated by the headlights at night.
❖ The selection of minimum length of a sag vertical curve
is controlled by the following criteria:
o Headlight SSD
o Passenger Comfort
o Drainage Control
o General appearance
 Minimum length of the sag vertical curve
217

SSD (HSD) is consider at night, because it is visible for all maneuvers

in the day time.
For SSD≤L
𝐀 ∗ 𝐒𝐒𝐃𝟐
𝐋𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝐡 + 𝐒𝐒𝐃 ∗ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛃)

For SSD L
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝐡 + 𝐒𝐒𝐃 ∗ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛃)
𝐋𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐 ∗ 𝐒𝐒𝐃 −
𝐀
Where:-
𝐴 = 𝐺1 − 𝐺2 grade difference in %
β=10 = 0.6m
 Length of Crest and Sag Curves Based on K
218

❑ The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves

have been designed to provide sufficient
stopping sight distance. The design is based on
minimum allowable "K" values, as defined by
the formula:
𝐿
𝐾= 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = k ∗ A
𝐴

Where:-
K = limiting value, K-depends on design speed
L = minimum length of the vertical curve (m)
A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit
grades
Example: Design Speed = 100 km/h, g1= 6%,
g2= 2% Sag Curve from Table 9-2 K= 51
Algebraic difference in grades 2-(-6) = 8%
Minimum length L = AK = 8(51) = 408 meters
 Examples
219

1. A vertical curve is to be constructed between a 3.5% grade

and a -4% grade. The required sight distance is 300 m. The
dangerous object is considered to be on the pavement surface,
and the driver’s eye level is at 1.05 m above the pavement
surface. Determine the length of the vertical curve that will
satisfy the sight distance requirement.
2. A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -5% grade to a
+2% grade. If the design speed is = 65km/hr and the car head
light height was 0.6m, Determine the minimum length of the
curve that will satisfy all criteria. Assume a = 3.4m/sec2 and
perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec.
 … Continue …
220

3. An existing vertical curve on a highway joins a +4.4% grade

with a -4.4% grade. If the length of the curve is 85m, height of
driver eye and the height of object are 1,080 mm and 600 mm.
What is the maximum safe speed on this curve? What speed
should be posted if 5 kmph increments are used? Assume f=
0.35, perception-reaction time =2.5 sec, and that S < L.
4. Determine the minimum length of curve required to connect a
descending 4% grade to an ascending 3% grade. The vertical
clearance should be 5.1 m and the required sight distance is
300 m. The height of eye for a commercial vehicle is 1.83 m
and the hazardous object is 0.46 m above the pavement
surface.
 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
221

❖ Phasing problem is avoided if

❑ The horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated
❑ The horizontal and vertical curves are coincident (i.e., begin and
end at the same station),
❑ Depending on the curvature, it may be sufficient if only one end
of each of the curves is at a common station.
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
 DebrTabor University 2020

229 Chapter 3. Earth Work

Instructor: Destaw K.
destaw02@gmail.com
 … Continue …
230

Key terms and definitions associated with this process include:

 Borrow:- material not obtained from roadway excavation but
secured by widening cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating
from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-way, or
from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans
 Waste:- material excavated from roadway cuts but not
required for making the embankment
 Free Haul:- the maximum distance through which excavated
material may be transported without the added cost above
the unit bid price
 Earthwork
231

❖ Earthwork is simply the quantity of material to be moved or put

in place to convert the natural condition and configuration
within the ROW of the road to the section and grades described
in the plans.
❖ Classification of earthwork operations
❑ Clearing and grubbing
❑ Excavation
▪ Roadway and drainage excavation
▪ Excavation for structures
▪ Borrow excavation
 … Continue …
232

 Overhaul:- excavated material transported to a

distance beyond the free haul distance
 Economic Limit of Haul:- distance through which it is
more economical to haul excavated material than to
waste and borrow.
Earthwork activities includes:
 Clearing and grubbing
 Roadway excavation: This consists of common or soft
excavation, intermediate and hard rock excavation and
boulder excavation.
 … Continue …
233

 Removal and stockpiling of unsuitable excavated

material off the right of limit.
 Borrow excavation and hauling to be used for roadway
filling.
 Embankments constructions from material obtained from
excavation within the right of way or borrow.
 Shoulder and side slope construction
 Estimation of Earthwork Quantities
234

❖ Steps involved in the computation of earthwork

quantities and the development of the optimal mass haul
diagram are:
 End area calculations

 Earthwork calculations

 Preparation of mass haul diagram

 Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram

 Estimation of Earthwork Quantities
235

 Estimation of the area of cross‐section as a cut and fill.

 Excavation(cut)- the amount of material that needs to be removed from
the grade.
 Embankment(fill)- the amount of material that needs to be added to the
grade.
 The distance between these areas, l (or L)
 Area of cross section
◼ Coordinate method
◼ Trapezoidal rule
◼ Simpson’s rule
 Volume of earthwork
◼ Average end‐area method
◼ Prismoidal method
 Areas of Cross-sections
236

❑ There are different methods of area for regular & irregular section
 Coordinate Method
 Area for regular Section
 Trapezoidal Cut or Fill Section
 Regular Cut and Fill Section
 Area of Irregular Section
 Trapezoidal Rule
 Simpson’s Rule
 Areas of Cross-sections
237

 Calculation of cross‐sectional areas

 Coordinate method:
❖ If all the corners of a cross‐section known,
the area may be computed by means of the
coordinate method.
❖ The point of intersection of the center of
formation with the centerline of the road
(c) is used as the origin.
 Cut above the formation are written as
plus (+) and below as minus (‐).
 Distances to the right are written as
plus (+) and those to the left as minus
(‐).
 Areas of Cross-sections
238

Example: Calculate the area of the following cross section

The numbers to the left of the lines represent the easting, and those
to the right represent the northing. we can do the labeling from left
to right or vice versa. But when we pass the centerline, the distances
will be negative.
 Areas of Cross-sections
239

X Y ❑ Now relate the first easting with the second

northing; and proceed like that.
0.0 2.0 (0x1.8) + (3.5x0) + (7x0) + (0x0) + (-7x1.8) +
(-3.5x2) = -19.6
3.5 1.8 ❑ Then relate the first northing with the second
7.0 0.0 easting; and proceed like that.
(2x3.5) + (1.8x7) + (0x0) + (0x-7) + (0x-3.5) +
0.0 0.0 (1.8x0) = 19.6
❑ Now the area of the section can be calculated
-7.0 0.0 using the previous formula.
2A = 19.6 – (-19.6)
-3.5 1.8 A = 19.6 square meter.
0.0 2.0
 Areas of Cross-sections
240

Regular Trapezoidal Cut or Fill section

 Areas of Cross-sections
241

Example: Workout the total volume of earth work for an

embankment 120m long and 10m wide at the top of side slope is 2:1
and depths at each 30m interval are 0.4,0.6, 1.4, 1.2 and 0.8m.
Inte Depth Center area Side area Total area Mean area (m2) Volume (m3)
rval (m) (m2) (m2) Sxd2 (m2) bd+sd2 A=0.5(A1+A2) V=AxL
bxd
0 0.4 4 0.32 4.32
30 0.6 6 0.72 6.72 5.52 165.6
30 1.4 14 3.92 17.92 12.32 369.6
30 1.2 12 2.88 14.88 16.40 492
30 0.8 8 1.28 9.28 12.08 362.4
Total fill or embankment (m3) 1389.6
 … Continue …
242

Regular Cut and Fill Section When

fill
c is to the right of the point of zero
A1=Area in cut (𝑏 − 2𝑛𝑑)2
𝐴1 =
A2=Area in fill 8(𝑛 − 𝑠1 )
(𝑏 + 2𝑛𝑑)2
𝐴2 =
8(𝑛 − 𝑠2 )

L
C When c is to the Left of the point of zero fill
(𝑏+2𝑛𝑑)2
b/ 𝐴1 =
8(𝑛−𝑠1 )
&
2 (𝑏 − 2𝑛𝑑)2
1 h2 𝐴2 =
8(𝑛 − 𝑠2 )
s1 d s2
1 c
h1

d1 d2
 Area of irregular section
243

 Calculation of cross‐sectional area of irregular section

 Trapezoidal rule: In this method
• The entire area is divided in to trapezoids.
• If the uniform interval (b) between the offsets is small, the boundary can be
approximated to a straight line between the offsets.
 Area of irregular section
244

 Calculation of cross‐sectional areas of irregular section

 Simpson’s rule: assumes that instead of being made up of a series
of straight lines the boundary consists of a series of parabolic arcs.

𝐴 = 𝑏/3(ℎ1 + ℎ𝑛 + 4 ෍ even offsets + 2 ෍ remaining odd offsets)

 Examples
245
1. Determine the area between the
straight line AB and the undulating
line where in offsets are taken at
regular interval of 20m along the line
AB. Use trapezoidal and Simpson's
rule
Solution:
A. By using trapezoidal rule
𝐿
𝐴 = [ℎ1 + ℎ𝑛 + 2 ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ⋯ + ℎ𝑛 − 1 ]
2
20
𝐴= 16.3 + 15.3 + 2 18.8 + 17.1 + 15.2 + 19.8 + 18.1 + 19.2 + 17.7
2
= 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟒𝒎𝟐
B. By using Simpson's rule
𝐿
𝐴 = [ℎ1 + ℎ𝑛 + 2 ℎ3 + ℎ5 + ℎ7. . +ℎ𝑛 − 2) + 4(ℎ2 + ℎ4 + ℎ6 + ℎ𝑛 − 1 ]
3
20
= [16.3 + 15.3 + 4 18.8 + 15.2 + 18.1 + 17.7 ) + 2(17.1 + 19.8 + 19.2 ]
3
= 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟎𝒎𝟐
 x
246
247
248
 Exercise
249

1. The following offsets 8m apart were measured at right angles from a

traverse line to an irregular boundary of 0m, 2.3m, 5.5m, 7.9m, 8.6m,
6.9m, 7.3m, 6.2m, 3.1m & 0m. Determine the area by Trapezoidal Rule.
2. Calculate the total area of the plot between the survey line the
boundary by Simpson’s Rule. If the offsets, scaled from the plan of the
intervals of 10m are 16.76, 19.81, 20.42, 16.76, 17.69, 17.68, 17.37,
18.53, 16.76 & 17.68
3. The following offsets were taken at 15m intervals from a centreline of
road to an irregular boundary line: 3.5, 4.30, 6.75, 5.25, 7.5, 8.80, 7.90,
6.40, 4.40, 3.25m. Calculate the area of the boundary by
a) Trapezoidal rule
b) Simpson's rule
 Methods of Computation of Volume
250

❖ Computation of Volumes
1. Average end‐area method
❑ The area between the existing ground and proposed ground is calculated at each
cross-section.
❑ The area between two consecutive cross-sections is averaged.
❑ This area is multiplied by the distance between two cross-sections.
2. Prismoidal method
❑ a prismoid is a solid whose ends are parallel and whose sides are plane surfaces.
 Methods of Computation of Volumes
251

Average End Area Method Primordial Formula Method

Let Let A1, A2, A3………An be the areas
V1,2 = L/2(A1 + A2) of various cross section spaced at a
uniform interval ‘L’ then total
V2,3 = L/2(A2 + A3) volume
V3,4 = L/2(A3 + A4) V13 = L/3(A1 + 4A2+ A3)
… … ... V35 = L/3(A3 + 4A4+ A5)
For n numberA1 + A4 of section … … …
Vn-1, n = L/2(A1 +An + 2(A2+ A4 + V15 = L/3(A1 + A5 + 2A3 + 4(A2+ A4))
…+An-1)
Generally
V = L/3[A1 + AN + 2(remain odd
Area) + 4(Even Area)]
N ➔ Odd
252

 Tabulation of earthwork quantities

 Mass Haul Diagram
253

Mass Haul Diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent

the stations of the survey and the ordinates represent the
algebraic sum of excavation and embankment quantities from
some point of beginning on the profile.
Is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of
the cuts (+ve) and fills (-ve) from some initial station to any
succeeding station
254

 Net earthwork values are plotted along the

y‐axis
ycumulative earthwork from the origin to that Point
yupward sloping curves (rising left to right) indicate a cut
ydownward sloping curves (falling left to right) occur in a fill
section
ypeaks indicate a change from cut to fill and
yvalleys occur when the earthwork changes from fill to cut
 A positive value at the end of the curve indicates that a
waste operation will be the net result
y A negative value at the end of the curve indicates that
borrow is required to complete the fill
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 Haul Distance:- The distance of moving the masses of soil from

one place to another, in the process of earthwork.
 Free Haul Distance (F. H. D.):- The distance within which there
is a fixed price for excavating, hauling, and damping the
materials regardless of the distance moved.
 Over Haul Distance (O. H. D.):- The distance beyond (F. H. D.)
for which there is an additional price for each (m3.sta.)
 Limit of Economical Haul Distance (L. E. H. D.):- The distance
beyond which it is more economical to waste and borrow rather
than to pay for the cost of over hauling.
L. E. H. D. = F. H. D. + max. O. H. D.
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The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:

❖ Proper distribution of excavated material
❖ Amount and location of waste
❖ Amount and location of borrow
❖ Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
❖ Direction of haul.
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General steps to be following for determining Mass Haul

Diagram are:
1. Calculate fill and cut Area for each cross section
2. Calculate fill and cut volumes separately
3. Correct the volumes calculated for swell and shrinkage
4. Determine the cumulative volume at each station
Plot the Mass-haul diagram with stations in x-
coordinate and aggregate volumes in y coordinate.
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261
 DebrTabor University 2020

262 Chapter 4. Highway Drainage Design

Instructor: Destaw K.
destaw02@gmail.com
 Introduction
263

❖ Proper drainage is important to ensure a high

quality long lived pavement;
❖ Moisture accumulation in any pavement structural
layer can cause problems.
❖ Moisture in the subgrade and aggregate base
layer can weaken these materials by increasing
pore pressure and reducing the materials’
resistance to shear.
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264

❖ Highway drainage is the process of collecting, transporting,

and disposing of surface water and underground water
encountered within the limits of the ROW and adjacent
territory
❖ Serviceability of a highway is greatly dependent upon the
adequacy of its drainage system.
❖ Around 20 – 25% of the total highway cost to be spent for
erosion control and drainage structures, such as culverts,
bridges, channels and ditches.
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Impacts of Inadequate drainage are:-

❖ Serious damage to highway structure
➢ Reduce pavement strength
➢ Swelling heave
➢ Stripping of asphalt
➢ Cause pumping in rigid pavements
➢ Fronts heave and reduction of bearing capacity when
melting
❖ Traffic operation problems
➢ Slow traffic movement by accumulated water on the pavement
➢ Cause traffic accidents
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Requirements of highway drainage system

 Surface water from carriageway and shoulder should
effectively be drained
 Surface water from adjoining land should be prevented from
entering the roadway
 Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and
along slopes shouldn’t cause formation of cross ruts or
erosion
 Seepage and other sources of underground water should be
drained off by the subsurface drainage system
 In water logged areas special precautions should be taken
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Factors to be considered in drainage design

 Size of the area to be drained
 Expected maximum rainfall (Runoff)
 Slop of the surrounding terrain / possible rate of runoff
 Characteristics of the soil (incl.: permeability, tendency
to erode)
 Presence of springs or other underground water
 General elevation of the ground water level
 Minimum depth of cover required to protect pipes from
traffic loads
 Types of Highway Drainage
269

There are three principal Surface Drainage:-

 It refers to the removal of
types of highway drainage surface water by
are: development of the slope
of the land utilizing
 Surface Drainage systems of drains to carry
away the surplus water.
 Subsurface Drainage
 The removal of excess
 Cross Drainage water from the
neighboring surface
land of highway.
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 Surface drainage system is  Surface drainage consists

most important in Highway of the arrangements made
for the quick and effective
engineering. A pavement draining of water that
without proper drainage collect from:-
facilities will not serve for  Pavement Surface
long time.
 Shoulders
 The water or rainfall on
road should be collected  Slopes of Embankments
by side drains which carries
 Cuttings and Adjoining
the drain water to natural
or artificial channels. land up to the right of
way.
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There are three primary means used to prevent surface water

infiltration and accumulation:
❖ Impermeable HMA:- tends to be impermeable below about 8%
air voids, therefore proper compaction practices should be
followed to ensure an impermeable pavement.
❖ Slope:- The pavement section should be sloped to allow
rainwater to sheet flow quickly to the edge where it is typically
collected in a curb and gutter system or a roadside ditch. A
generally accepted standard is a 2% cross slope.
❖ Grade:- The curb and gutter or roadside ditch must be properly
graded to allow flow to central collection points such as catch
basins or detention ponds. A generally accepted standard is a
grade of 0.5 percent or more.
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Subsurface Drainage:- ❖ Gravity flow:- Water from

surrounding areas can be absorbed
It is concerned with removing water
by the soil then flow by gravity to
that percolates through or contained areas underneath the pavement
structure.
in the underlying subgrade. This
In pavement with high air voids above (8 – 9)%
water, typically the result of a high water can percolate down through the pavement
structure itself.
water table or exceptionally wet
❖ Capillary rise:- is the rise in a
weather, can accumulate under the liquid above the level of zero
pressure due to a net upward force
pavement structure by two chief
produced by the attraction of the
means: water molecules to a solid surface
(e.g soil).
 Gravity flow.
smaller the soil grain size, the greater the
 Capillary rise potential for capillary rise.
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Types of subsurface drainage Subsurface pipe

There are 4 main types of ❖ It is the best suited in deep
subsurface drainage systems: permeable soils where their
❖ corrugated & PVC slotted depth allows wider spacing
subsurface pipes and minimizes cost.
❖ mole drainage (including mole
❖ It can also successfully drain
drains, mole drains over
for heavy (clay), poorly
collector pipe systems and
gravel mole drains) drained soils but have to
be installed so close
❖ interceptor drains
together that they are
❖ ground water pumps uneconomic in extensive
farmland systems.
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Cross Drainage:-
Cross drainage works is a
structure constructed when
there is a crossing of canal
and natural drain, to prevent
the drain water from mixing
into canal water. This type of
structure is costlier one and
needs to be avoided as much
as possible during route
selection.
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The following some details to be collected in this

phases are:
 Design of Surface Drainage
276

Hydrologic analysis:-
The design of surface
❖ The method that used to estimate
drainage system carried the runoff (maximum quantity of
water) expected to reach the
drainage system or structure.
by two types of analysis:
❖ Runoff is the difference b/n
amount of rainfall and loss due
 Hydrologic analysis to infiltration, evaporation,
transpiration, interception &
 Hydraulic analysis storage
Hydraulic analysis:-
❖ Used to design the drainage facility
with respect to type, shape and size
of the drainage structure to drain
out Max. Runoff.
277
 Hydrologic Analysis
278

Runoff Estimation methods are:-

The analysis of the peak rate
of runoff, volume of runoff, and  Rational Method
time distribution of flow is  NRCS Runoff Curve Number
fundamental to the design of Methods
highway drainage structures.
 Statistical analysis of stream
❖ The following methods and
sources can be used in data and
determining peak flood
magnitudes for design of road  Regional regression
drainage structures in Ethiopia.
equations.
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There are different ❖ Other than the above

factors which affect to factors, rain fall
estimate the maximum intensity, occurrence of
run off. these are:- storms in that area are
to be studied from the
 Rate of rain fall
old records. Hence,
 Moisture condition
maximum run off can
 Soil type
be estimated to build
 Ground cover presence
safe surface drainage
 Topography
system.
 Rational Method Equation
280

The rational formula estimates Rational Formula

the peak rate of runoff at any 𝑄 = 0.00278CIA ➔ A in ha
location in a catchment area or
as a function of:- 𝑄 = 0.278CIA ➔ A in Km2
Where:-
 Catchment Area;
Q = maximum rate of runoff, m3/s
 Runoff Coefficient and C = runoff coefficient representing a
ratio of runoff to rainfall
 Mean Rainfall Intensity I = average rainfall intensity for a
duration equal to the time of
(for a duration equal to the concentration, for a selected return
time of concentration. ) period, mm/hr
A = catchment area tributary to the
design location (ha)
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𝑄 = 0.278CfCIA ❖ If the drainage area consists of

different ground characteristics
Cf = runoff coefficient due to design
period with different runoff
Runoff Coefficient (C) coefficients,
The weighted Runoff coefficients Cw is
❖ It is an integrated value computed by :-
representing the ratio of runoff to
rainfall for the drainage area. σ 𝐂𝐢 𝐀 𝐢
It depends on the 𝐂𝐖 =
σ 𝐀𝐢
 Type of ground cover,
 Slope of drainage area,
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + … Ci Ai
 Storm duration, and CW =
A1 + A2 + … + Ai
 Prior wetting.