This document discusses sequences and limits of complex numbers. It defines convergence of a complex sequence as the absolute values of the terms approaching 0. Common limits of sequences are derived using properties like boundedness. Limits of functions are similarly defined using sequences of terms. Key results shown include the squeeze theorem for real sequences and continuity defined using limits. Examples demonstrate applying these concepts to complex sequences and functions.
This document discusses sequences and limits of complex numbers. It defines convergence of a complex sequence as the absolute values of the terms approaching 0. Common limits of sequences are derived using properties like boundedness. Limits of functions are similarly defined using sequences of terms. Key results shown include the squeeze theorem for real sequences and continuity defined using limits. Examples demonstrate applying these concepts to complex sequences and functions.
This document discusses sequences and limits of complex numbers. It defines convergence of a complex sequence as the absolute values of the terms approaching 0. Common limits of sequences are derived using properties like boundedness. Limits of functions are similarly defined using sequences of terms. Key results shown include the squeeze theorem for real sequences and continuity defined using limits. Examples demonstrate applying these concepts to complex sequences and functions.
This document discusses sequences and limits of complex numbers. It defines convergence of a complex sequence as the absolute values of the terms approaching 0. Common limits of sequences are derived using properties like boundedness. Limits of functions are similarly defined using sequences of terms. Key results shown include the squeeze theorem for real sequences and continuity defined using limits. Examples demonstrate applying these concepts to complex sequences and functions.
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits of Complex Numbers
Petra Bonfert-Taylor
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 1 / 13
Sequences of Complex Numbers
Consider the following sequences of complex numbers. What happens far out along the sequence? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1, , , , , , . . . , , . . . → ? 2 3 4 5 6 n i i i i i i i, , , , , , . . . , , . . . → ? 2 3 4 5 6 n −1 −i 1 i −1 in i, , , , , , ..., , ...→ ? 2 3 4 5 6 n Informally, a sequence {sn } converges to a limit s if the sequence eventually lies in any (every so small) disk centered at s. How do you make this mathematically precise?
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 2 / 13
Limits Definition A sequence {sn } of complex numbers converges to s ∈ C if for every ε > 0 there exists an index N ≥ 1 such that
|sn − s| < ε for all n ≥ N.
In this case we write
lim sn = s. n→∞
Examples: 1 lim = 0. n→∞ n
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 3 / 13
Examples
1 lim = 0 for any 0 < p < ∞. n→∞ np
c lim = 0 for any c ∈ C, 0 < p < ∞. n→∞ np lim q n = 0 for 0 < q < 1. n→∞
lim z n = 0 for |z| < 1.
n→∞ √ n lim 10 = 1. n→∞ √ n lim n = 1. n→∞
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 4 / 13
Rules for Limits
1. Convergent sequences are bounded.
2. If {sn } converges to s and {tn } converges to t, then
sn + tn → s + t.
sn · tn → s · t (in particular: a · sn → a · s for any a ∈ C.)
sn s → , provided t 6= 0. tn t
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 5 / 13
Examples
n 1 = 1 → 1 as n → ∞. n+1 1+ n
3n2 + 5 3 + n52 3 2 = 2i 1 → = −3i as n → ∞. in + 2in − 1 i + n − n2 i
n2 n = 1 not bounded. n+1 1+ n
3 5 3n + 5 n + n2 0 2 = 2i 1 → = 0 as n → ∞. in + 2in − 1 i + n − n2 i
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 6 / 13
How about . . . ?
Consider the sequence
n i −1 −i 1 i −1 = i, , , , , ,... n 2 3 4 5 6
This sequence seems to converge to 0, but how do we show this? The previous rules don’t seem to apply. Facts: A sequence of complex numbers, {sn }, converges to 0 if and only if the sequence {|sn |} of absolute values converges to 0. A sequence of complex numbers, {sn }, with sn = xn + iyn , converges to s = x + iy if and only if xn → x and yn → y as n → ∞.
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 7 / 13
Some Facts about Sequence of Real Numbers
Here is a really neat fact, often called the “Squeeze Theorem”:
Theorem Suppose that {rn }, {sn } and {tn } are sequences of real numbers such that rn ≤ sn ≤ tn for all n. If both sequences {rn } and {tn } converge to the same limit, L, then the sequence {sn } has not choice but to converge to the limit L as well.
And here is the equivalent of a sequence running against a wall:
Theorem A bounded, monotone sequence of real numbers converges.
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 8 / 13
Applying These New Facts... n i Let’s apply the facts that we learned on the last two slides to the sequence . n n i |i|n 1 in = n = → 0 as n → ∞. Thus lim = 0. Or: n n n→∞ n
0, n odd 0, n even in 1 1 = xn + iyn , xn = 1, n = 4k and yn = 1, n = 4k + 1 . n n n −1, n = 4k + 2 −1, n = 4k + 3
1 1 1 1 Since − ≤ xn ≤ and − ≤ yn ≤ for all n, the Squeeze Theorem implies n n n n n i that lim xn = lim yn = 0, hence lim = 0. n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 9 / 13
Limits of Complex Functions
Definition The complex-valued function f (z) has limit L as z → z0 if the values of f (z) are near L as z → z0 .
(More formally: lim f (z) = L if for all ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that z→z0 |f (z) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.) Note: Of course f (z) needs to be defined near z0 for this definition to make sense (but not necessarily at z0 ). Examples:
z2 − 1 f (z) = , z 6= 1. Then z −1 (z − 1)(z + 1) lim f (z) = lim = lim z + 1 = 2. z→1 z→1 z −1 z→1
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 10 / 13
Examples
Let f (z) = Arg z. Then:
π lim Arg z = . z→i 2
lim Arg z = 0. z→1
lim Arg z =? z→−1
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 11 / 13
Some Facts About Limits of Functions
The previous facts about limits of sequences imply the following facts about limits of functions: If f has a limit at z0 then f is bounded near z0 .
If f (z) → L and g(z) → M as z → z0 then
f (z) + g(z) → L + M as z → z0 ,
f (z) · g(z) → L · M as z → z0 ,
f (z) L → as z → z0 , provided that M 6= 0. g(z) M
Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 12 / 13
Continuity Definition The function f is continuous at z0 if f (z) → f (z0 ) as z → z0 .
Note: This definition implicitly says that:
f is defined at z0 . f has a limit as z → z0 . The limit equals f (z0 ). Examples of continuous functions: constant functions f (z) = z polynomials f (z) = |z| p(z) f (z) = , wherever q(z) 6= 0 (p and q are polynomials). q(z) Lecture 2: Sequences and Limits Analysis of a Complex Kind P. Bonfert-Taylor 13 / 13
