MMW REVIEWER

>STATISTICS (CHAP 4) <

Descriptive Statistics: collection, organization, summarization, ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

and presentation of data
PROBLEM: Suppose you average 60 mph on a one-way trip of 60
Inferential Statistics: interprets and draws conclusions from data mi. On the return trip you average 30 mph. Because you were
travelling slowly, return trip took longer than original trip.
*An entire group under consideration is population (μ), any subset
Average rate for round trip is less than the average of 60 and 30
a sample (x̄)
mph.
Easy lang talaga yung topics kung hindi iso-solve yung mga data Total round-trip distance is 120 mi. Time spent traveling
analysis kaya mej awkward gumawa ng reviewer sorry hmff pero to destination was 1h, for return trip was 2 h. Total time for round
lagyan ko na lang din ng examples / problem solving lahat hahaha trip was 3 h.
Lagay ko na din yung mga problems sa book.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 120
Average rate:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Average rate:
3
= 40 mph
Measurement of Central Tendency:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A. MEAN:
Formula ∑(x.w)
A.1 Problem: The mean score of a Weighted mean -
∑𝑤
group of 20 students is 65. Two other
students whose scores are 89 and 85 ∑(x. w): the sum of the products by multiplying
were added to the group. What is the each number in its assigned weight
new mean of the group of students?
∑w: sum of all weights
total score
Formula: Mean = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
rewritten as:
T score = Mean × Number of students - Used when some data values are more important than
T score original group = 65 × 20 = 1,300 others
T score new group= Total score of the original group + scores - Hal. Sa grades, lahat ng quizzes ay may “weight” na 1,
of the 2 new students = 1,300 + 89 + 85 = 1,474 tapos ang finals ay may “weight” na 2.
No of students in the new group
= No of students in the original group + No. of new data Para ma-solve ang final grade mo w/ quiz test scores
= 20 + 2 = 22 65,70,75, tapos 90 for finals, compute:
1,474
Mean new group: = 67 (65 X 1)+(70 𝑋 1)+(75 𝑋 1)+(90 𝑋 2)
22
= 78
5
A.2. Problem: The mean of a list of 6 numbers is 20. If we remove Kaya divided by 5 kasi ia-add lahat ng weights (1+1+1+2)
one of the numbers, the mean of the remaining numbers is 15.
What is the number that was removed? • GPA is calculated as a weighted mean, student’s grade in
Sum of original 6 numbers = 20 × 6 = 120 each course is given a “weight” equal to units.
Sum of remaining 5 numbers = 15 × 5 = 75
EXAMPLE: Calculate GPA:
Let x be the removed number in the mean formula (yellow box
sa taas) Course Grade Units
English 3 4
The removed number is 45 History 4 3
Chemistry 1 3
Algebra 2 4
(3 𝑋 4)+(4 𝑋 3)+( 1 𝑋 3)+(2 𝑋 4)
B. MEDIAN (from a ranked list; numbers arranged in numerical Weighted mean =
14
order, dat magkakasunod)
• Middle number if n is odd = 2.5
• Mean of two middle numbers if even

C. MODE – numbers occurring MOST frequently, di laging meron

 Raw data – data that have not been organized/manipulated EXAMPLE: okay uhm, sagot ko lang to kasi di ko ma-search
asdfqwtx so di ko sure kung tama
Frequency distribution – table that lists observed events and
frequency of occurrence of each observed event At the present time, a football player weighs 325 lb. There are
90 days until the player needs to report to spring training at a
• The formula for a weighted mean can be used to find the
∑(x.w) weight of 290 lb. The player wants to lose weight at a constant
mean of the data in a frequency distribution →
∑𝑤 rate (same amount of weight each day of the 90 days). What
weigh, to the nearest tenth of a pound, should the player attain
EXAMPLE: Observed event Frequency
in 25 days?
No of laptop No of households, f, with x
computers, x laptop
0 5 STEP A. 325– 290 = 35 -> difference
1 12 To get yung hinahanap na distance from 325 to 290, divide 25 by 90 days.
2 14 25/90 = 0.28, thus find the number 0.28 of the way from 325 lb to 290 lb
.
3 2
STEP B. 0.28 X (35) = 9.8 -> 0.28 of above difference
4 2
STEP C 325 + 9.8 = 334. 8 -> Interpolated result, 0.2 of the way
5 3
between the two given numbers
6 0
7 1
Total 40 • If exactly one number in a set of data is changed, will this
necessarily change the mean of the set? Yes
• If exactly one number in a set of data is changed, will this
necessarily change the median of the set? No
• If a set of data has a mode, then must the mode be one of the
numbers in the set? Yes
• Mean best describes central tendency despite outliers, or
values that are highly dissimilar to the rest of the set. With the
mean, the value will poorly indicate the average if one value is
too high or too low.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ • Midrange: value halfway between the minimum data value
and the maximum data value
LINEAR INTERPOLATION AND ANIMATION – method used to 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒+𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
find a particular number between two given numbers • Midrange:
2
• After 6 biology tests, Ruben has a mean score of 78. What
Kung may dalawa kang nos.: 0.3156 at 0.8248,
score does he need on the next test to raise his average to
Kapag sinabing halfway: mean nung dalawa 80?
• x is the total score y is the score needed on the
To find number 0.2 of the way from 0.3156 at 0. 8248, find on the first six tests.
difference bet the two nos. and multiply to 0.2. Since smaller 468+y = 560
yung value nung 0.3156, add result to smaller number y = 560-468
x = 468
(0.3156 at 0.8248). y = 92 on next test
next test
STEP A. 0.8248 – 0.3156 = 0.50902 -> difference
STEP B. 0.2 X (0.5903) = 0.10184 -> 0.2 of above difference
STEP C 0.3516 + 0.10184 = 0.41744 -> Interpolated result, 0.2 of • Simpson’s paradox – when a trend appears in several different
the way between the two given numbers groups of data but disappears or reverses when these groups
are combined – ex. Average ng no. of hw na natapos ko for 2
• If from bigger to smaller no., subtract Step B from separate days, mababa compared sa average ng natapos ni
bigger (Step C) person B for 2 separate days, pero pag pinagsama yung 2
• If smaller to bigger no., add Step B to smaller (Step C) average of each person, mas mataas yung result ng akin kesa
kay person B.
Measures of Dispersion EXAMPLE: Raul scored w/ z-score 0.0875 for first test and w/ z-
score 1.25 on second test. Means he scored better on second
• Mean/Average does NOT reflect spread/dispersion of data test than first test kasi above 1 yung 2nd z-score, below yung 1st.
Range- diff. between greatest data value and least data SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Standard Deviation - sum of all deviations for all sets of data is In recent years, the mean age of all college students in city X has
0. been 23. A random sample of 42 students revealed a mean age of
23.8. Suppose their ages are normally distributed w/ a population
standard dev 2. 4. Can we infer at alpha= 0.02 that population
mean of age has changed?

H0: µ = 2.3 H1: µ ≠ 23

Α: 0.02

• z-score for a data value x is positive if x is greater than the

mean, it is 0 if x is equal to the mean, is negative if x is less
Variance – square of the standard deviation of data than the mean.
• one-tailed kung yung hypothesis ay may < or >.
• Two-tailed kung equals or not equal ang hypothesis
• Kung two-tailed, dini-divide yung alpha (level of
significance) sa two (2).
• Titignan sa z table yng equivalent nung alpha. (kung two-
tailed, yung kalahting value nung alpha, yun yung
hahanapan ng katumbas na z score sa table. (1st z-score)
• Iso-solve yung test statistic using formula ng z score (2nd z
• Lowest variance/standard deviation = most consistent score)
(dahil mas closely dispersed yung data)

• Reject HO if test statistic (2nd z score ) < - z score or if test

statistic (2nd z score) > z score .
• Basically, kung wala sa shaded region, accept HO.
• Kung nasa shaded region, reject HO.
Side-length ng bawat tile = standard deviation
Kung gagamitin yung data analysis sa excel, ganito lalabas na result
Area ng bawat square = variation (one sample).

Mas malaking square = mas malayo yung dispersion ng data from

mean, mas mataas din yung stdev/variance
• Yung z critical two tail yung
_____________________________________________________ rejection region mo, yung z na row
yung test statistic mo, same
Measures of Relative Position
interpretation sa taas.
z-scores = number of standard • Also, of p value > alpha : do not
deviations bet. a data value and reject HO
the mean • P value < alpha : reject HO

= no. of standard
deviation that x is above or below
mean

• A z-score of 3 for a data value

means that x is 3 standard
deviations above mean
• z-score of -1 for a data value
means x is 1 stdev below mean
Percentiles – value x is called pth percentile of a data set provided SAMPLE:
p% of the data values are LESS than x.

SAMPLE:

According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual

salary in 2003 for a police dispatcher was $28,288. If the 30th
percentile for the annual salary of a police dispatcher was
$25,640, find the percent of police dispatchers whose annual
salary was a. less than $28,288. b. more than $25,640. c. between
$25,640 and $28,288.

a. By definition, the median is the 50th percentile.

Therefore, 50% of the police dispatchers earned less
than $28,288 per year.
b. b. Because $25,640 is the 30th percentile, of all police
dispatchers made more than $25,640.
c. c. From parts a and b, of the police dispatchers earned
between $25,640 and $28,288

SAMPLE:

On a reading examination given to 900 students, Elaine’s score of

602 was higher than the scores of 576 of the students who took
the examination. What is the percentile for Elaine’s score?

Elaine’s score of 602 places her at the 64th percentile.

Quartiles -
Normal Distributions – is a symmetric distribution. Bale yung
The Median Procedure for Finding Quartiles mean, median, at mode are all the same. Symmetry in the center;
1. Rank the data. 50% is left to the mean, 50% is the right of the mean.

2. Find the median of the data. This is the second quartile, Correlation - statistic representing how closely two variables co-
vary. (association, connection, relationship within variables)
3. The first quartile, is the median of the data values smaller than
q2. The third quartile, is the median of the data values larger than Pearson’s r/ correlation coefficient: -
q2. • positive values indicate direct relationship. (High values
in one variable are associated with high values in second
variable)
• negative values have inverse relationships (high values in
one variable is associated w/ low values in second
variable)
• absolute value of r indicates strength of linear
relationship (closer to 1 is stronger, farther to 1 is weaker
 A. 6396 STUDENTS
0.00 No correlation, no relationship 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐚 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐧 𝐱
Percentile of x = X 100
± 0.01 - ±0.20 Slight correlation, almost negligible relationship 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐚 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬·
±0.21 - ± 0.40 Slight correlation. Definite but small relationship
±0.41 - ± 0.70 Moderate correlation, substantial relationship
3. In 2004, the median family income in the United States was
± 0.71 - ±0.90 High correlation, marked relationship $57,500. (Source: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
±0.91 – ±0.99 Very high correlation, very dependable relationship Development) If the 88th percentile for the 2004 median
± 1.00 Perfect correlation ,perfect relationship four-person family income was $70,400, find the percentage
* Si-nearch ko sa google pero iba yung values, galling to kay of families whose 2004 income was
ma’am.
a. more than $57,500. b. more than $70,400.
Regression – we use the independent variable (X) to estimate
dependent variable (Y). c. between $57,500 and $70,400.
SAMPLE: The success of a shopping center can be represented A. 50% B. 12% C. 38%
as a function of the distance (in miles) from the center of the
population and the number of clients (in hundreds of people) 4. l A survey was given to 18 students. One question asked
who will visit. (no. of customer (y), distance (x)). about the one-way distance the student had to travel to
attend college. The results, in miles, are shown in the
following table. Use the median procedure for finding
quartiles to find the first, second, and third quartiles for the
data.

ANSWER: Q1=5, Q2 =10, Q3=26

TRUE OR FALSE

5. The standard normal distribution has a mean of 0. TRUE

6. In a normal distribution, the mean, the median, and the mode
of the distribution are all located at the center of the distribution
• The linear correlation coefficient indicates the strength TRUE
of a linear relationship between two variables; however, it does 7. The mean of a normal distribution is always larger than the
not indicate the presence of a cause-and effect relationship standard deviation of the distribution. FALSE

SAMPLE QUESTIONS (FOR STATISTICS) 8. If a data value from a normal distribution is positive, then its z-
score must also be positive FALSE.
1. Which of the following three test scores is the highest relative 9. Let be the number of people who attended a baseball game
score? today. The variable is a discrete variable. TRUE
10. Which of the scatter
a. A score of 65 on a test with a mean of 72 and a standard diagrams below suggests
deviation of 8.2 the
a. strongest positive linear
b. A score of 102 on a test with a mean of 130 and a standard
correlation between the
deviation of 18.5 and variables? LETTER B
c. A score of 605 on a test with a mean of 720 and a standard b.strongest negative
deviation of 116.4 linear correlation between
the and variables? LETTER
ANSWER: LETTER A. C

2. Kevin scored at the 65th percentile on a test given to 9840

students. How many students scored lower than Kevin?
11. State whether the mean, the median, or the mode is being COMPOUND STATEMENTS – two or more
used.
Statement Connective Symbolic Type of statement
a. In 2002, there were as many people aged 25 and younger Form
in the world as there were people aged 25 and older. Not p Not ~p Negation
P and q And P∧q Conjunction
MEDIAN
But
b. The majority of full-time students carry a load of 15 credit However,
P or q Or P∨q Disjunction
hours per semester. MODE
Either…or ⊕⊻ Exclusive disjunction
c. The average annual return on an investment is 6.5% MEAN If p, then q If…then P →. q Conditional
Implies
12. The following histogram shows the distribution of the test Only if
scores for a history test. P if and If and only P⇔q Biconditional
only if q if
a. How many students scored at least 84 Just in case
on the test? 8 • In exclusive disjunction, it is true when either A or B, but not
b. How many students took the test? both. So, when true + true, it is false.
• In inclusive disjunction, only false + false = false.
40

c. What is the uniform class width? 8 Negation of a Statement

(HIGHEST VALUE – LOWEST VALUE DIVIDED BY a. 1001 is divisible by 7. 1001 IS NOT DIVISIBLE BY 7
NO. OF CLASSES >IN THIS CASE, YUNG TEST b. b. 5 is an even number. 5 IS NOT AN EVEN NUMBER.
SCORES<) c. The fire engine is not red THAT FIRE ENGINE IS RED.

13. A professor gave a final examination to 110 students. Eighteen Compound statements in symbolic form
students had examination scores that were more than one standard
deviation above the mean. With this information, can you conclude
p: Today is Friday. q: It is raining. r: I am going to a movie. s: I
that 18 of the students had examination scores that were less than am not going to the basketball game.
one standard deviation below the mean? Explain.
a. Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.
NO. NO INFORMATION IS GIVEN ABOUT HOW THE SCORES ARE
b. I am going to the basketball game and I am
DISTRIBUTED BELOW THE MEAN]
not going to a movie.
14. The 2003 median income for family practice physicians was
$130,000. (Source: American Academy of Family Physicians, © c. I am going to the movie if and only if it is
2004). The distribution of the physicians’ incomes is skewed to the raining.
right. Is the mean of these incomes greater or less than $130,000?
d. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie
GREATER.
TRUE OR FALSE.
a. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number. TRUE
b. 4 ≤ 9 TRUE
>LOGIC (CHAP 5) c. -7 ≥ 3 FALSE
LOGIC STATEMENTS – declarative sentence either true or false, never
NEGATION OF QUANTIFIERS
both; it is a statement not whether it is true or false, but when it can
be EITHER true or false.

S for statement, NS for not

• Florida is a state in the U.S = S

• How are you? = NS
• 9^9 + 2 is a prime number = S
• X+1+5=S A. All bears are brown. SOME BEARS ARE NOT BROWN
• Give me a cafe mocha! = NS B. No math class is fun. SOME MATH CLASSES ARE FUN
• 1 + 1 = NS C. Some vegetables are not green. ALL VEGETABLES ARE
GREEN
• Paradoxes are not statements

SIMPLE STATEMENTS - single idea

 LET D REPRESENT “I AM GOING TO THE DANCE.” LET G REPRESENT “I
AM GOING TO THE GAME.”

AN EQUIVALENT FORM OF “IT IS NOT TRUE THAT I AM GOING TO THE

DANCE AND I AM GOING TO THE GAME” IS “I AM NOT GOING TO THE
DANCE OR I AM NOT GOING TO THE GAME.

Tautology - statement that is always true

Self-contradiction - may instances na false

Figure 3.2, use P ˄ Q. Figure 3.3, P ˅ Q. SAMPLE QUESTIONS.

TRUE OR FALSE
SAMPLE: 1. 7 < 5 or 3 >1. TRUE
2. (-1) ^50 = 1 and (-1) ^99 = -1 TRUE
3. -5 ≥ -11 TRUE
4. 2 is an odd number or 2 is an even number TRUE
5. 5 is a natural number and 5 is a rational number. TRUE
6. Some real numbers are irrational. TRUE
a. Given that p is a false statement, what can be said
about p ^ (qVr)
IF P IS FALSE, THEN IT MUST BE A FALSE STATEMENT
FOR TRUTH TABLE, 1 FOR CLOSED CIRCUIT, 0 FOR OPEN CIRCUIT
b. Explain why it is not necessary to know the truth values
COMPONENTS OF A COMPOUND STATEMENT of q and r to determine the truth value of p ^ (qVr) in
1. The principal will attend the class on Tuesday or Wednesday.
part a above
- “THE PRINCIPAL WILL ATTEND THE CLASS ON TUESDAY” and FOR A CONJUNCTIVE STATEMENT TO BE TRUE, IT IS NECESSARY
“THE PRINCIPAL WILL ATTEND THE CLASS ON WEDNESDAY.” THAT ALL COMPONENTS OF THE STATEMENT BE TRUE.
2. A triangle is an acute triangle if and only if it has three acute BECAUSE IT IS GIVEN THAT ONE OF THE COMPONENTS IS FALSE,
angles - “A TRIANGLE IS AN ACUTE TRIANGLE” and “IT HAS MUST BE A FALSE STATEMENT
THREE ACUTE ANGLES.
3. I ordered a salad and a cola - “I ORDERED A SALAD” and “I Transforming into a Conditional Statement
ORDERED A COLA.” 1. We will be in good shape for the ski trip provided we take
the aerobics class. IF WE TAKE THE AEROBICS CLASS, THEN
TRUTH TABLES
WE WILL BE IN GOOD SHAPE FOR THE SKI TRIP
In conditional, only T →. F is false. In biconditional, dapat 2. Every odd prime number is greater than 2. IF THE
parehong true or parehong false to be true. NUMBER IS AN ODD PRIME NUMBER, THEN IT IS GREATER
THAN 2.
CONJUNCTI VE DISJUNCTIVE EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTIVE 3. He can join the band, if he has the talent to play a
keyboard. IF HE HAS THE TALENT TO PLAY A KEYBOARD,
THEN HE CAN JOIN THE BAND
4. I will be able to prepare for the test only if I have the
textbook. IF I WAS ABLE TO PREPARE FOR THE TEST, THEN
I HAD THE TEXTBOOK
5. Being in excellent shape is a necessary condition for
running the Boston marathon. IF YOU RAN THE BOSTON
Equivalent Form MARATHON, THEN YOU ARE IN EXCELLENT SHAPE
For any statements p and q Antecedent and Consequent of a Conditional
~ (pVq) = ~p ˄ ~q ~ (p˄ q) = ~p V ~q a. If I study for at least 6 hours, then I will get an A on the test.
SAMPLE: ANTECEDENT: I STUDY FOR AT LEAST 6 HOURS
It is not true that I am going to the dance and I am going to the CONSEQUENT: I WILL GET AN A ON THE TEST
game
b. If I get the job, I will buy a new car.
 ANTECEDENT: I GET THE JOB Equivalent Forms of Conditional

CONSEQUENT: I WILL BUY A NEW CAR

c. If you can dream it, you can do it.

ANTECEDENT: YOU CAN DREAM IT

CONSEQUENT: YOU CAN DO IT

Truth Value of a Conditional

a. If 4 ≥ 3, then 2 + 5 = 6
P whenever q = q →. p
BECAUSE THE ANTECEDENT IS TRUE AND THE
CONSEQUENT IS FALSE, THE STATEMENT IS A FALSE
STATEMENT
b. If 5> 9, then 4>9
BECAUSE THE ANTECEDENT IS FALSE, THE STATEMENT IS A
TRUE STATEMENT.
c. If Tuesday follows Monday, then April follows March
BECAUSE THE CONSEQUENT IS TRUE, THE STATEMENT IS A
TRUE STATEMENT
SAMPLE
Equivalent Forms
a. Every square is a rectangle. IF A GEOMETRIC FIGURE IS A
P→q=~pVq ~( P → q )= p ^ ~q SQUARE, THEN IT IS A RECTANGLE.
b. Being older than 30 is sufficient to show I am at least 21. IF
Equivalent Disjunctive Form of Conditional I AM OLDER THAN 30, THEN I AM AT LEAST 21.
a. If I don’t move to Georgia, I will live in Houston. a. If we have a quiz today, then we will not have a quiz
I WILL MOVE TO GEORGIA OR I WILL LIVE IN HOUSTON. tomorrow.
b. If the number is divisible by 2, then the number is even CONVERSE: IF WE ARE NOT GOING TO HAVE A QUIZ
THE NUMBER IS NOT DIVISIBLE BY 2 OR THE NUMBER IS TOMORROW, THEN WE WILL HAVE A QUIZ TODAY.
EVEN
INVERSE: IF WE DON’T HAVE A QUIZ TODAY, THEN WE WILL
Negation of Conditional Statement HAVE A QUIZ TOMORROW.
a. If I finish the report, I will go to the concert.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: IF WE HAVE A QUIZ TOMORROW, THEN
I FINISHED THE REPORT AND I DID NOT GO TO THE CONCERT WE WILL NOT HAVE A QUIZ TODAY

b. If the square of n is 25, then n is 5 or -5.

• any conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive, and
THE SQUARE OF N IS 25 AND N IS NOT 5 OR 5. that the converse of a conditional statement is equivalent to the
inverse of the conditional statement.
a. If a = b, then a * c = b * c
If a ≠ b, then a * c ≠ b * c
Truth Value of Biconditional

a. X > 7 if and only if x>6. THE SECOND STATEMENT IS THE INVERSE OF THE FIRST
LET X = 6.5. THEN THE FIRST COMPONENT OF THE BICONDITIONAL IS STATEMENT. THUS, THE STATEMENTS ARE NOT
FALSE AND THE SECOND COMPONENT OF THE BICONDITIONAL IS EQUIVALENT. THIS CAN ALSO BE DEMONSTRATED BY THE
TRUE. THUS, STATEMENT IS FALSE. FACT THAT THE FIRST STATEMENT IS TRUE FOR C = O AND
THE SECOND STATEMENT IS FALSE FOR C = 0
b. X + 5 > 7 if and only of x > 2.
b. If I live in Nashville, then I live in Tennessee
Both components of the biconditional are true for, and both If I do not live in Tennessee, the I do not live in Nashville
components are false for Because both components have the same
truth value for any real number x, the given biconditional is true THE SECOND STATEMENT IS THE CONTRAPOSITIVE OF THE
FIRST STATEMENT. THUS, THE STATEMENTS ARE
EQUIVALENT
 c. If two triangles are not similar triangles, then they are not
congruent triangles. Note: Similar triangles have the same
shape. Congruent triangles have the same size and shape.

CONTRAPOSITIVE: IF TWO TRIANGLES ARE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES,

THEN THE TWO TRIANGLES ARE SIMILAR TRIANGLES. THE
CONTRAPOSITIVE IS TRUE AND SO THE ORIGINAL STATEMENT IS ALSO
TRUE.

d. If 3 + X is an odd integer, then x is an even integer. (Assume

x is an integer.)
CONTRAPOSITIVE: IF X IS AN ODD INTEGER, THEN IS AN EVEN
INTEGER. THE CONTRAPOSITIVE IS TRUE AND SO THE ORIGINAL
STATEMENT IS ALSO TRUE

e. If today is not Wednesday, then tomorrow is not Thursday

CONTRAPOSITIVE: IF TOMORROW IS THURSDAY, THEN TODAY IS

WEDNESDAY. THE CONTRAPOSITIVE IS TRUE AND SO THE ORIGINAL
STATEMENT IS ALSO TRUE. SAMPLES:

Arguments

Writing an Argument

1. If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will regret it. She does
not regret it. Therefore, she got on the plane. LET F REPRESENT “I GO TO FLORIDA FOR
Let p represent the statement “She got on the SPRING BREAK.”
plane.” Let r represent the statement “She will LET ~S REPRESENT “I WILL NOT STUDY.”
regret it.” Then the symbolic form of the argument
is SAMPLE 2

Arguments and Truth Tables I start to fall asleep if I read a math book. I drink soda whenever I
start to fall asleep. If I drink a soda, then I must eat a candy bar.
1. Write the argument in symbolic form. Therefore, I eat a candy bar whenever I read a math book.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise LET R REPRESENT “I READ A MATH BOOK.” LET F REPRESENT “I START
and the truth value of the conclusion for all combinations of truth TO FALL ASLEEP.” LET D REPRESENT “I DRINK A SODA.”
values of the component statements. LET E REPRESENT “I EAT A CANDY BAR.” VALID.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all
the premises are true, the argument is valid. If the conclusion is false
in any row in which all of the premises are true, the argument is SAMPLE 3
invalid.

THE FIRST PREMISE CAN BE WRITTEN AS M → T,

Determining Validity of Argument THE THIRD PREMISE CAN BE WRITTEN AS ~ E → G
AND THE FOURTH PREMISE CAN BE WRITTEN AS
~D → ~E.

IF WE SWITCH THE ORDER OF THE THIRD AND

LET R REPRESENT “THE STOCK MARKET RISES” FOURTH PREMISES, THEN WE HAVE THE
FOLLOWING EQUIVALENT FORM.
LET F REPRESENT “THE BOND MARKET WILL FALL”
THEREFORE: M → G
Euler Diagrams ANSWER:

SAMPLE 1:

SAMPLE 4

Answer: USING THIS EULER DIAGRAM, IT

IS CONCLUDED THAT THE ARGUMENT IS
VALID.

SAMPLE 2

SAMPLE 5

ALHOUGH FIGURE 3.18 SUPPORTS THE ARGUMENT, FIGURE 3.19

SHOWS THAT THE CONCLUSION DOES NOT NECESSARILY FOLLOW
ANSWER:
FROM THE PREMISES, AND THUS THE ARGUMENT IS INVALID.

SAMPLE 3

FOR MORE PRACTICE EXRCISES. REFER TO PDF PAGES, NOT BOOK PAGES

FOR EXERCISES NG TRUTH TABLES, EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS (ODD NOS. ONLY), SEE PAGE
160, ANSWER KEY P.1027

FOR EXERCISES NG BICONDITIONAL AT CONDIONAL, (ODD NOS ONLY), SEE PAGE 169.
ANSWER KEY P. 1027

FOR EXERCISES NG PROVING ARGUMENTS USING STANDARD FORM, (ODD NOS ONLY), SEE PAGE
187 - 189. ANSWER KEY P. 1028 – 1029