Introduction, Press & Machining
Introduction, Press & Machining
MI1
6SULnJ 2013-2014
Manufacturing Technology – I
MI 1
Relative Weightage of Marks
Class Work Sessional (CWS): 00%
Practical Sessional (PRS): 25%
Mid Term Examination (MTE): 25%
End Term Examination (ETE): 50%
Simple
Small
23 feet,
6 tonnes ,
99.72% iron,
No rust since 5th
century AD
Big Complex
Iron pillar
Manufacturing – Need and concept
• Manufacturing - Value addition processes by which raw
materials (low utility and value due to inadequate material
properties and poor or irregular size, shape and finish) are
converted into valued products (high utility due to definite
dimensions and finish)
imparting functional ability.
N
Engineering Manufacturing Processes
Factors affecting the selection of manufacturing processes
• Cost (material, manufacturing, operating and replacement cost)
• Material (specified by design)
• Quantity (determines economics of manufacturing process)
• Machine or equipment availability (Machines and operators)
• Quality Surface finish, Accuracy (geometrical, dimensional)
• Geometry (Cylindrical, conical, threads – Lathe)
(Plane surface, slots – shaping, planning, milling)
(Complex Shapes – Casting, Forging)
Selecting materials for manufacturing
Metals XX XX XX XX XX
Materials
Ceramics XX -- X -- --
Polymers XX X X X --
Composites XX -- X X --
XX - Widely Used
X - Seldom Used
-- - Not Used .
• Deformation processes have been designed to exploit the
plasticity of engineering materials
• Plasticity is the ability of a material to flow as a solid without
deterioration of properties
• Deformation processes require a large amount of force
• Processes include bulk flow, simple shearing, or compound
bending
Classification of Deformation Processes
• Rolling
• Forging
• Extrusion
• Wire, rod, and tube drawing
• Squeezing processes
Sheet-forming Operations
• High SA/V
• Sheet - thickness < 5 (6) mm, above 6 mm - plate
• Sheet metal processes involve plane stress loadings and lower forces than
bulk forming
• Almost all sheet metal forming is considered to be secondary processing
– Capacity required
– Type of power (manual, mechanical, or hydraulic) or drive
– Number of slides or drives
– Type of frame
– Speed of operation
Press drive mechanisms
Classification of Presses – Drive Mechanism
• Inclinable press
– Tilted
– Ejection can be assited by gravity or compressed air jet
• Open-back presses
– Opening in back
– Easy ejection of products/scraps
Inclinable gap-frame press
• Turret press
– Multiple holes/slots with varying shaps/size
– Upper and lower turret (muliple punches and dies)
• Horn press
– Cylindrical shaft (horn) in place of bed
– Curved workpieces
– Seaming, punching, riveting
Horn press
Classification of Presses – Frame
• Straight-sided press
– Accesibility from front and rear (from sides as well)
1. Cutting Operations
2. Bending Operations
3. Drawing
4. Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
Sheet and Plate Metal Products
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• Economical mass production for large
quantities
Sheet Metalworking Terminology
Fineblanked surface
Shearing (Press Operations)
Smooth shearing a rod by putting it into compression during shearing
Shearing operation:
(a) side view of the shearing operation;
(b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper
cutting blade.
Shearing
• Shearing (simple/square)
– Both cutting blades are straight
• Curved blades to produce different shapes
– Blanking
– Punching
– Piercing
– Notching
– Trimming
Blanking and Punching
Blanking Punching
Blanking and Punching
PIERCE
PUNCHES
Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies
• Basic components of a
piercing and blanking die
set are: punch, die, and
stripper plate
• Punches are normally made
from low-distortion or air-
hardenable tool steel so that
they can be hardened after
machining
Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies
•Dies
– single piece
– component sections (that can be assembled)
•simplifies production
•simplifies replacement
•flexibility of design changes
•standard die components
Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies
• More complex
• More breakage
• More expensive
• Precise alignment
Nibbling
• Contour is progressively cut by producing a series of
overlapping notches (removing the material in small
increments)
• Simple tools for complex shapes
• Nibbling is used when the contour is long and a separate
punch is impractical and
uneconomical
• Edge smoothness – determined by
shape of tooling and degree of
overlap in successive cuts
Lancing
• Finishing operation
• Removal of the burrs left on product during the blanking or
punching/piercing operation
• Greater dimensional accuracy
• Close tolerance work
Notching
• Design rules
– Diameters of pierced holes should not be less than the
thickness of the metal (minimum 0.3 mm)
– Minimum distance between holes or the edge of the stock
should be at least equal to the metal thickness
– The width of any projection or slot should be at least 1
times the metal thickness (never less than 2.5 mm)
– Keep tolerances as large as possible
Bending
(a) Bead forming with a single die (b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake
Bending
Springback
Ri/ Rf = 4(RiY/ET)3 - 3(RiY/ET) + 1
Where, Y is yield stress, E is elastic modulus
• Spring back increases with decrease of E and increase of R/T
and Y
• Springback
Q. A 5 mm sheet is bent to a radius of 10 mm. Calculate the
radius of part after it is bent
(Yield stress = 205 MPa, E = 190 Gpa)
Ri / Rf = 4(RiY/ET)3 - 3(RiY/ET) + 1 (overbend or springback allowance)
RiY / Et = (10 x 205 * 106) / (190 x 109 x 5) = 0.00216
Ri / Rf = 4 (0.00216)3 – 3 (0.00216) +1
= .993
Bending
Springback
Springback
Bending
Springback
• High Temprature
Considerations for Bending
• If the punch radius is large and the bend angle is shallow,
large amounts of spring back are often encountered
• The sharper the bend, the more likely the surfaces will be
stressed beyond the yield point
• Parts with multiple bends should be designed with most of
them at same bend radius (less setup time and tooling cost)
• Bends should be made with the bend axis perpendicular to
the rolling direction (fracture in hard material)
Considerations for Bending
?
Limitations of Deep Drawing
• Shallow Drawing – little change in circumference and small
area is confined by blankholder
• Deep Drawing – more change in circumference
• More wrinkle and tear -Thin material
Deep Drawing
1. Conventional spinning
– Conical and curvilinear shapes
– Normally at room temperature
Spinning Types
2. Shear Spinning
• Part diameter is maintained where as thickness is reduced
• Considerable forces
• Considerable heat
• Requires cooling
• Tooling – tool steels
• No wastage of material
• Balancing required
Spinning Types
3. Tube Spinning
• Thickness is reduced by spinning them on cylindrical mandrel
using rollers
• Reduction depends on tensile reduction of area of the material
• Both external or internal
• Both forward or backward
Tool and Die Materials
• Shearing
– Cold D2, A2, A9, S2, S5, S7
– Hot H11, H12, H13
• Press Working Zn alloys, 4140 steel, CI, Comp., A2, D2, O1
• Deep Drawing W1, O1, Ci, A2, D2
• Coining W1, O1, A2, D2, D3, D4, H11, H12, H13
Safety devices
• Barrier guards
– Prevent operators exposure to nip points and pinch points
– Fixed, adjustable or self-adjusting
– Mechanical, electric, hydraulic, and optical interlocks are
provided untill barrier guards are in place
1. Spring-type interlock
shuts off power to machine
when guard door is opened
2. Guard can only be
removed by removing the
Plug
Source : Triodyne , Inc.
Safety devices
External
Internal
Basic Machine Tools
Shaping machine
• Ram: it holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through
reciprocation
• Bed: it holds and imparts feed motions to the job (blank)
• Housing with base: the basic structure and also accommodate the
drive mechanisms
Basic Machine Tools
Shaping machine
• Power drive with speed and feed change mechanisms
• Shaping machines are generally used for producing flat surfaces,
grooving, splitting etc.
Basic Machine Tools
Planing machine
• In planing the job reciprocates for cutting motion and the tool
moves slowly for the feed motions unlike in shaping machine.
• Planing machines are usually very large in size and used for
large jobs and heavy duty work.
Basic Machine Tools
Drilling machine
• Drilling (originating or enlarging cylindrical holes)
• Boring, counter boring, counter sinking etc.
• Cutting internal threads in parts like nuts using suitable
attachment
Basic Machine Tools
Drilling machine
• Column with base: it is the basic structure to hold the other
parts
• Drilling head: this box type structure accommodates the power
drive and the speed and feed gear boxes
• Spindle: holds the drill and transmits rotation and axial
translation to the tool for providing cutting motion and feed
motion – both to the drillD
• Pillar drill, column drill, radial drill, micro-drill etc.
Basic Machine Tools
Milling machine
• Flat surfaces
• Slotting
• Slitting
• Grooving
• Parting
• Forming
Classification of Machine Tools
4. Degree of automation
– Manual – e.g. lathes, drilling machines etc.
– Semi-automatic – e.g. turret lathe
– Automatic – e.g., CNC Drill, CNC Mill, CNC lathe etc.
5. Type of automation
– fixed automation – e.g., single spindle and multispindle
lathes
– flexible automation – e.g., Machining Centers
6. Precision
– Ordinary
– High precision
Classification of Machine Tools
7. Size
– Heavy duty – e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. ≥ 55 kW), boring
mills, etc.
– Medium duty – e.g., lathes (e.g. – 3.7 ~ 11 kW), column
drilling machines etc.
– Small duty – e.g., table top lathes, drilling machines,
milling machines.
– Micro duty – e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.
6. Configuration
– Stand alone type – most of the conventional machine tools.
– Machining system – e.g., machining center, FMS etc.
Cutting Tool
• Removes excess material through direct mechanical contact
• Tool moves along the workpiece at a certain velocity (cutting speed – V)
and a depth of cut (to) to produce a chip just ahead of tool by shearing the
material continuously along the shear plane
Tool material Selection depends on:
• Work material (hardness, chemical and metallurgical state)
• Part features (geometry, accuracy, finish, surface-integrity)
• Machine tool characteristics (rigidity, horsepower, speed, feed , precision)
• Support system (Operator, sensors, controls, method of chip removal,
lubrication, maintenance)
Cutting Tool
• Tool steels
• HSS
• Coated HSS
• Cast Cobalt Alloys
• Carbides / Sintered Carbides
• Coated Carbides
• Ceramics
• Cermets
• Diamonds
• Polycrystalline CBN’s
– and many more…………..
Cutting Tool
Tool steels
• Carbon and low-/medium-alloy steels
• Steel is considered to be carbon steel:
– when no minimum content is specified or required for Cr,
Co, molybdenum, Ni, Ti, W, V or zirconium etc.
– when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed
0.40 percent;
– when the maximum content specified is less than Mn - 1.65,
Si - 0.60, Copper - 0.60.
– steel which is not stainless steel
• 0.9 to 1.3% carbon
• With increase in carbon content, steel become harder and
stronger
Cutting Tool
Tool steels
• With increase in carbon content, steel become lesser ductile
and melting point decrease
• Hardness loss at 200 0C
• Mo and Cr increases hardenability
• Mo and W improves wear resistance
• Applications
– Drills, Taps, Dies etc.
– Low speeds
Cutting Tool
HSS
• Good wear resistance, hardenability and hot hardness
• Good toughness and resistance to fracture
• Good cutting at 400 0C
• Easy fabrication
• Types
– Molybdenum (M series)
• 10% Mo with Cr, V, W, Cr and Co
• High abrasion resistance than t series
• Less Distortion than T series
• Cheaper than T series
– Tungsten (T series)
• 12-18% W, Cr, V and Co (18-4-1 W-Cr-V)
• Used for complex tool geometries
Cutting Tool
TiN coated HSS
• Film thickness 0.00254 - 0.00508 mm
• 10-20% higher cutting speeds than HSS
• Gear cutters, drills, bandsaw, circular saw blades, form tools,
inserts etc.
• Reduced tool wear
• High hardness
• PVD
Cutting Tool
Cast Cobalt Alloys
• Cobalt rich, chromium-tungsten-carbon cast alloys
• Stellite tools (Deloro Stellite Company)
• Non-magnetic and corrosion-resistant cobalt alloy
• W or Mo and a small amount of carbon
• Retain hardness to much greater temperatures
• 25 % higher cutting speeds than HSS
• Cast to shape
• Used only for single point tools or saw blades
Cutting Tool
Carbide or Sintered Carbides
• Types:
– Tungsten carbide (WC bonded together in a cobalt matrix)
• 1-5 µm WC particles are combined with cobalt in a mixer, then presses and
sintered into the desired insert shapes.
• Cemented carbides \ Sintered Carbides
• With increase of Co – toughness increases but there is decrease in strength,
hardness and wear resistance
• Machining steels, CI, nonferrous and nonmetals
– Titanium Carbide (TiC in Ni-Mo alloy matrix)
• Higher wear resistance than WC
• Lesser toughness than WC
• Machining hard materials like steels, CI
• Higher speeds than WC
• Finishing and semifinishing ferrous alloys
• Auto industry using Ni-Mo binder
Cutting Tool
Inserts
• Individual cutting tools with several cutting points
• Sq inserts (8 cutting edges), triangular insert (6 cutting edges)
Cutting Tool
Inserts are clamped on tool shank with various locking
mechanisms
• (a) Clamping
• (b) Wing lock pins
• (c) Thread-less lock pins - secured with side
• (d) Brazed on a tool shank
Cutting Tool
Chip Breaker
• Continuous chips are undesirable as they are a potential safety hazard
• Cutting at low speed may lead to welding of chips to tool face
• Ideal chip – Shape of letter “C” or number “9” and fits within 25 mm
square block
• Procedure used for breaking chips intermittently is with use of chip breaker
Cutting Tool
Chip Breaker
(a) tightly curled chip
(b) chip hits workpiece and breaks
(c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece
(d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off
Cutting Tool
Chip Breaker
• Controlling chip flow
• Eliminating long chips
• Reducing vibration and heat
Cutting Tool
Chip Breaker
• Chip breaking in softer materials like Al include machining at
small increments and then pausing.
• In shaping, milling or other such intermittent operations chip
breakers are not required
Cutting Tool
Ceramics
• Particulates or whiskers
• 2 to 3 times cutting speed than WC
• High hardness and chemical inertness
• Hard and brittle – require rigid tool holders and machine tools
• Less tendency to adhere to metals during machining – good SF
• Used for high speed cutting/finishing of super-alloys and high
strength steels
• Not suitable for Al, Ti as they react with alumina based
ceramics
Cutting Tool
Polycrystalline CBN
• High hardness (Knoop 4700 at 20 oC 4000 at 1000 oC)
• Low chemical reactivity
• 0.5-1 mm layer of PCBN is bonded to a carbide substrate by
sintering under pressure.
• Carbide provides toughness – CBN provides high wear
resistance and cutting edge strength
• Used for automotive industry
Difficult-to-machine materials
• Used for aerospace materials
• Higher cost than ceramics tools or cemented carbides but tool
life is 5-7 times that of a ceramic tool
Cutting Tool
Polycrystalline CBN
PCBN Tips
Solid PCBN
Cutting Tool
Diamond
• High Wear resistance, low tool-chip friction, sharp cutting edges
• Used for fine surface finish and dimensional accuracy
• Brittle - Light and uninterrupted finishing cuts
• High speed machining and fine feeds
• Single-crystal diamond tool – machining optical mirrors
• Polishing is not required after machining
• Polycrystalline diamond tools (compacts or industrial diamonds) – small
synthetic crystals, fused by high pressure and temperature to a thickness of
.5-1 mm and bonded to a carbide substrate
Tool Geometry
Tool Geometry
• Continuous
– Good surface
– Steady cutting force
– Undesirable in automated machining)
– Formed in ductile materials at high cutting speeds and high rake angles
Tool Geometry
Continuous with BUE
• Ductile materials at low-to-medium cutting speeds, friction
between tool and chip tends to cause portions of work material
to adhere to rake face of tool near the cutting edge
• BUE forms and grow, then becomes unstable and breaks off
• Detached BUE sometimes takes away portions of tool rake
face (may lower tool life)
• Detached BUE that are not carried off may imbed in newly
created work surface causing roughness
• Thin stable edge protects tools
Types of Chips
Discontinuous
• Brittle materials (like CI) at low cutting speeds
• Chips forms as separate segments
• Fluctuating cutting forces
• Irregular texture to machined surface
• Desirable for ease of chip disposal
Types of Chips
Type of Chip ?
Orthogonal Cutting
• Headstock
• Spindle
• Live centre
• Gear box
• Feed Gear box
• Tailstock
• Carriage
• Cross slide
• Tool post
Lathe
Lathe Specifications
Lathe
Work Holding Devices
• Suitable locations
• Effective clamping
• Support
• Face plate: for holding irregular shape w/p
• Lathe centers: for holding long jobs
• Chuck:
– 3 jaw chuck for circular or hexagonal section
– 4 jaw chuck for irregular shapes
– Magnetic chuck for holding soft metal
Lathe
Mandrel
– for holding hollow disc shape w/p for machining
of side faces
Lathe
Collet
– for holing small diameter tool and work pieces
Lathe Tool Geometry
α=0 -α
+α
a. 3D views of tool
b. Oblique view of tool from cutting edge
Lathe Tool Geometry
• Back-rake angle: Angle b/w face of tool and base of shank (measured in a
plane through the side cutting edge, and at right angle to base)
• Side-rake angle: Angle b/w face of the tool and the base of shank
(measured in a plane perpendicular to the base, to the side cutting edge)
The side rake and back rake angle combines to form effective rake
angle (true rake or resultant rake)
• End-relief angle: Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the end cutting edge, and a line drawn through this cutting edge
perpendicular to the base (measured in plane perpendicular to the end
flank)
• Side-relief angle: Angle between portions of the end flank immediately
below the side-cutting edge and a line drawn through this cutting edge
perpendicular to the side flank
Relief angles affects tool life and surface quality of workpiece
Lathe Tool Geometry
• Right/Left tool
– Tools have primary cutting edge by means of which the
direction of the movement of tool for removing of metal is
indicated
– Tool is termed as right, right palm is placed on tool, the
direction of thumb indicates the direction of tool motion
(tool towards the headstock)
Lathe
Turning is the process of machining external cylindrical and
conical surfaces.
– Straight turning: for producing cylindrical shapes
– Taper turning: for producing conical shapes
– Facing: making edges square and clear
– Chamfering: slightly tapering and rounding off of edges
– Threading: for producing threads
– Drilling: for creating /producing hole
– Boring: for enlarging hope and correcting shape
– Parting off or necking: separating or making square groove
– Knurling: making impression for firm gripping
– Reaming: finishing purpose
Lathe
Lathe - Turning
Turning Cuts
Roughing
– As heavy as proper chip thickness, tool life, machine power
and work material properties permit
– Slow speeds for hard workpieces
Finishing
– Light, usually less than (0.015 in or 0.38)
– Usually same tool is used for roughing and finishing
Lathe - Turning
Cutting speed – V (fps)
DOC d = (D1-D2)/2
Length of Cut = Distance travelled ‘L’ + Allowance ‘A’
Feed - f
Rpm value of machine tool - N = 12V/πD1
Cutting Time – T = (L+A)/fN
MRR = L(πD12- πD22)/4
(L+A)/fN
Neglecting A and substituting N
Twist Drill
Drilling
Twist Drill
Drilling
Drilling
• Specialty Drills
– Hole cutters: used for holes in sheet stock
– Step drill – used for two or more diameters
– Subland drills: used for multi diameter holes
– Indexable drills: used for high speed shallow holes in solid
stock
– Centre drill bit with internal coolant
– Micro drills (pivot drills): used for holes 0.02 to 0.0001
inch diameter where grain boundaries and inclusion
produce non-uniform material properties
Drilling
Hole Cutters
• When cutting large
holes in sheet stock, a
hole cutter is used
• Hole cutters have a pilot
drill in the center used
to accurately locate the
center
• Also called a hole saw
Step Drill
Drilling
Single set of flutes and is ground to two or more diameters
Subland Drill
Separate set of flutes on a single body for each diameter.
Drilling
Indexable Drills
Drilling
• Microdrills
0.0001 in – 0.125 in
Drilling
Drill Chucks
• Small Drill Press – Chuck is permanantly
attached
• Large Drill Press – Chuck has tapered shank
that fits into the taper on machine spindle
• Chucks use chuck keys/collet-type holders
Drilling
Drill Chucks
Machine Tools for Drilling
MAIN Applications
TYPE
4. GANG Mass Production variety of
purposes such as Holes of
Different Sizes, Reaming,
Counterboring, on a Single Part.
TYPES of DRILLING MACHINES
MAIN Applications, Designation
TYPE
5. MULTI- Mass Production Machines with as many
SPINDLE as 50 Spindles Driven by a Single
Power head and Fed Simultaneously
into Work.
6. DEEP- For Drilling Long (Deep) Holes in
HOLE Rifle Barrels, Connecting Rods, and
Long Spindles.
Reaming
• Used to accurately size and finish hole previously
formed by drilling
• Improve hole surface finish
• Rotary cutting tool with several straight or helical
cutting edges along body
• Two classifications
• Hand
• Machine
Reaming
• Hand Reamers
– few thousandths of an inch
– Straight or tapered shank
– Square tang
– Straight or spiral flutes
• Machine Reamers (Chucking)
– Chamfers on front end – seat firmly and
concentrically
– Straight or tapered shank
– Straight or spiral flutes
Reamer Parts and Body
• Shank
– Straight or tapered and used to drive reamer
– Hand reamers have square on end to accommodate tap
wrench
• Angle of Chamfer
– Part of reamer that actually does cutting
– Ground on end of each tooth
– Clearance behind each chamfered cutting edge
• Rake angle: angle formed by face of tooth when
line drawn from point on front marginal edge
through center of reamer
Ream Geometry
• Finishing tools
• Holes drilled to .003-.005 inch undersize
• Square on shank for wrench
• Teeth on end tapered so can enter hole easily
Roughing
• Feed used for reaming usually two to three times greater than
drilling
• Rate varies with material reamed
• Generally .001 to .004 in. per flute per revolution
• Feed too low: excessive reamer wear, chatter
• Feed too fast: reduce hole accuracy, poor surface finish
Tapping
• Tap is a chip producing threading tool with multiple cutting
teeth
• Carbon steels for light duty operations
• HSS for production work (M1, M2, M7 and M10)
• Tapered – reduce torque required
• Bottoming – blind holes
• Collapsible – taps are collapsed
after tapping operation
Tapping
Essential requirements:
• Cutting Fluid
• Periodic reversal and removal (intermittent cutting)
Tapping
• Hand Operation
• Machines
– Drilling
– Lathes
– Vertical Milling Machines
– Special Tapping Maachines
Broaching
0O to 20O
1O to 4O
Pitch = k(l)1/2 ,
where k is constant (1.76), l is length of cut surface
Broaching
• Shape - similar to a saw, except the teeth height increases over
the length of the tool
• Broach contains three distinct sections:
– Roughing
– Semi-finishing
– Finishing
Broaching
Two categories:
– Peripheral milling: the surface is generated by teeth
located on the periphery of the cutter body. The
surface is parallel with the axis of rotation of the
cutter.
– End milling: also called facing milling, the surface
is generated is at a right angle to the cutter axis.
Material is removed by the peripheral teeth and the
face portion providing finishing action.
Peripheral Mills
Face Mills
Vertical and Horizontal Cutters
Face milling viewed from above Slab or side milling being done
with vertical spindle-machine as a down milling process with
horizontal spindle-machine
Up Versus Down Milling
• There are a variety of mills used, the most common being face
mills and end mills
• Face mills have indexable inserts along the periphery
• Face Mills come in a variety of geometry
– Center hole for arbor mounting
– Side mill
– Staggered-tooth
– Straddle milling
– Slitting cutters
• End mills are either HSS or have indexable inserts
• End Mills come in a variety of geometries
Staggered Tooth
TYPES of PERIPHERAL or TYPES of FACE MILLING
PLAIN MILLING
(a) slab milling: basic form of (a) conventional face milling:
peripheral milling in which the cutter the diameter of the cutter is
width extends beyond the work- greater than the work-part
piece on both sides. width, so that the cutter
overhangs the work on both
sides.
(b) slot milling (slotting): the (b) partial face milling: the
width of the cutter is less than the cutter overhangs the work on
work-piece width. very thin cutter only one side.
can be used to mill narrow slots or to
cut a work-part in two, called saw
milling.
TYPES of PERIPHERAL MILLING TYPES of FACE MILLING
(c) side milling: cutter machines (c) end milling: the cutter
the side of the workpiece. diameter is less than the work
width, so a slot is cut into the
part.
(d) straddle milling: the same as (d) profile milling: this is a form
side milling, only cutting takes of end milling in which the outside
place on both sides of the work. periphery of a flat part is cut.
Machines for Milling