FOREWORD

Amid the spread of the Covid – 19 pandemic, the faculty of Royal British College Inc. deemed
it necessary that the health and safety of its students are kept safe, while administering the suitable
methods of maintaining quality education to produce globally competitive individuals. It was through this
sole idea that the learning modules were created to enrich its students’ academic needs while being
safe in the comfort of their own homes.
Royal British College, Inc.
Brgy. Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas
This learning module contains all the lessons, complete with activities and exercises, which
Email: rbccollege07@yahoo.com/royalbctesda@gmail.com
will help the learner to gain understanding of the concepts of each subject matter efficiently. The
content of this module is divided into weeks and quarters, with one or two lessons contained weekly. COLLEGE DEPARTMENT
This is to ensure that the learner, through self – paced learning, along with the possible assistance of
his/her parents, takes time in learning the topics thoroughly and effectively.
The Royal British College Inc. wishes you, dear learner, to be honest with your heart and take
time and continue studying at home in the midst of the Pandemic. Your teachers will also be there to
TRANSPORTATION
give guidance and assistance any time you need it so.
Keep safe, and happy learning Royals!
MANAGEMENT
God bless! (Learning Module)

-Royal British College Inc.

Student Name : __________________________________
Course & Year : __________________________________

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 MODULE CONTENT
LESSON DAY/WEEK TASK/ACTIVITY or
Schedule REQUIREMENT to FINISH
Lesson 1: Travel and Tourism: Aug. 24-Aug 31 EXERCISE 1.1
TOPIC PAGE An Introduction 1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 1 : Travel and Tourism: An Introduction 3 Lesson 2: Transport and Sept. 1- Sept 15 EXERCISE 2.1
Lesson 2: Transport and Tourism 5 Tourism 1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 3: Introduction to Air Transportation 9 Lesson 3: Introduction to Air Sept. 16- Sept. 30 EXERCISE 3.1
Lesson 4: Airport 18 Transportation 1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 5: Airport Operations 24 Lesson 4: Airport Oct. 1- Oct. 15 EXERCISE 4.1
Lesson 6: Airline Management 31 1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 7: Land Transport and Tourism 38 Lesson 5: Airport Operations Oct. 16- Oct. 31 EXERCISE 5.1
Lesson 8: Cruise Tourism 41 1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 9: Impacts of Travel and Tourism 47 Lesson 6: Airline Management Nov. 1- Nov. 15 EXERCISE 6.1
1:00pm-2pm MTW
Reference: Tourism, Transport and Travel Management 49
Lesson 7: Land Transport and Nov. 16- Nov. 30 EXERCISE 7.1
Tourism 1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 8: Cruise Tourism Dec. 1- Dec. 15 EXERCISE 8.1
1:00pm-2pm MTW
Lesson 9: Impacts of Travel Dec. 16- Dec. 20 EXERCISE 9.1
and Tourism 1:00pm-2pm MTW

Note: All task, activity or requirement must be done in a set day or week scheduled.
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 TRAVELLER, VISITOR, EXCURSIONIST AND TOURIST
TRAVEL AND TOURISM: AN INTRODUCTION A tourist is a basically a traveler and is the most crucial element in the process of tourism.
Visitors include tourists, who are distinguished by staying for a minimum period of 24hrs in the
Learning Outcomes: place visited, and others who stay for less than 24 hrs can be called same-day tourists, day
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to: visitors or excursionists.
 Understand the concept of tourism from various perspectives.
 Distinguish tourists from other travelers.
 Classify tourism TRAVELLERS
 Narrate the evolution of tourism to the modern form.
 Understand why people travel for tourism purposes. VISITORS (travel for the purpose of NON-VISITORS
leisure, business, etc
Tourism has inevitably grown from a rather limited aristocratic activity to a
common phenomenon in modern society. While domestic tourism contributes greatly
to wider redistribution of income, international tourism is more important to the EXCURSIONISTS DAY VISITOR (Visit TOURISTS (Short-term visit, stay in the
industry as it generates foreign currency through transaction of ‘invisibles’ with less than 24 hrs) destination for at least one night)
consumers abroad.

DOMESTIC TOURISTS (Visiting places INTERNATIONAL TOURISTS (Visit to a

TRAVEL: THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENT OF TOURISM within the country of residence/work foreign country)
Movement is one prime reason for the transportation of human beings from
the early days of secluded, animal like beings to the modern social lifestyle. L TOURISTS (Visit to a foreign country)
Lesson
Movement turns into travel when it is across a certain distance. Travel is also INBOUND TOURIST (Visit by a OUTBOUND TOURIST (Visit
referred to as a journey from one place to another. It means travel can be for various foreigner to a country) from the country of residence
purposes, which include visiting too. to a foreign country

1 TOURISM: THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS

Tourism is obviously a multidisciplinary subject and should be perceived
and learned from a wide range of perspectives. The following is definition of tourism
according to these authors:
We can identify a range of factors that can be used to distinguish tourists from other types of travelers:
 A tourist is a traveler as well as a visitor.
 The travel has to be to a place away from the usual place of residence and work.
 Davidson (1989)- people being away from their homes, on short term,  The minimum period of time spent in destination visited has to 24hrs.
temporary visits, for particular purposes.  The stay in a destination visited should not exceed one year.
 Bull (1991)- it’s a human activity that encompasses human behavior, use of  The purpose of travel ranges widely, but it has to be among the international classification,
resources, and interaction with other people, economies and environment. such as leisure, recreation, rest and relaxation.
 Cooper et. al- it is both the demand side and the supply side perspectives.  The main purpose of travelling should not be for exercising an activity remunerated from the
Thus tourism is a social process that involves short-term movement of people from a destination visited.
place of usual environment to a distant one.  Along with staying at the tourist destination, the tourist will engage in a variety of activities
which may differ from what he/she engages in while in their usual place of residence and work.
 From the commencement of the travel, until the return, the tourist will spend money so as to
consume various services and products as per his/her requirements.

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  The tourist ultimately gets a kind of experience from the entire process, usually referred to as
the tourist experience. TOURISM INDUSTRY: THE STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS
 Principals/Direct Providers- include the producers and suppliers of various services and
products which can cater to the requirements of tourists.
 Intermediaries- include a whole range of wholesalers, distributors, retailers and other players
BASIC CASSIFICATION OF TOURISM who are present between the final consumer and the principal or suppliers.
 International Tourism- both origin and destination are two different countries; the destination is  Ancillary Services- contribute to tourist experience whereas in most of the cases, their role is
a foreign country to the tourist and the travel involves crossing the borders of countries. rather facilitative and catalytic.
Inbound and outbound tourism can be considered two forms of international tourism:  Attractions- the chief reason for the visit by a tourist, forms the core of the “pull” of a
- Inbound Tourism- visits by foreigners to a country destination
-Outbound Tourism- residents of a country visiting other countries.  Activities- include a variety of items based on the nature of the destination
 Domestic Tourism- tourism activities that take place in the tourist’s own country.  Developmental organizations- undertaken by public and private sector agencies
 Support providers- business or services that support, aid and give directions to those agencies
directly involved in tourism.
TRAVEL MOTIVATORS
Knowledge of travel motivation is required in all marketing activities; also it influences the
nature of tourism development. Tourist motivation has many dimensions, mainly deriving from the
tourist’s personal traits, involving physical and psychological factor, the tourists’ socio-cultural and
environmental factors, as well as the factors associated with industry and destination. EXERCISE 1.1: WHAT TO DO:
ESSAY:
Some typologies of travel motivations 1) Define tourism at your own words.
 Allocentric motivators- people who have this category of motivators prefer variety and go for 2) Give the reasons why a person would travel to one place into another.
adventurous activities, and their self-confidence is very high. 3) Why transportation is important in tourism industry?
 Psychocentric motivators- self-centered people prefer familiar and safe destinations. 4) What type of travel motivator are you?
 Mid-centric motivators- the majority of travelers fall in between allocentric and psychocentric,
i.e. neither too allocentric nor too psychocentric. Some may have near-allocentric motivators Note: a) Create a gmail or a yahoo.mail. Better if you have existing one.
whereas some others may have near-psychocentric motivators. b) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
 Physical motivators- this constitutes physical and mental reasons such as rest, relaxation, c) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transportation Exercise 1.1
refreshment, pleasure and health. for example:
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
 Cultural motivators- these are mainly related to a curiosity- a “desire to see and know” more To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
about other cultures, their art, and cultural varieties and features. Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 1.1
 Interpersonal motivators- this constitutes escape from the routine relationships and interest in (attached files)
meeting new people, visiting friends and relatives.
 Status and prestige motivators- this constitutes a desire for ego enhancement, social
recognition, grabbing attention from others and personal development.
 Wanderlust- this motivation relates to curiosity, “to experience the change and unfamiliar”
 Sunlust- search for a better set of amenities than are available at home.

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 TRANSPORT AND TOURISM
AIR TRANSPORT: linkages with other modes of transport
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
Air transport
 Identify the elements and types of tourism transport.
 Understand the relationship between transport and tourism. Airside Departure and Arrival
 Describe the diverse roles of transport in tourism.
 Explore the geographical perspective of tourism transport
 Explain the significance of transport in accessibility of a destination
 Present the characteristics and types of tourism transport.
Terminal Mode of transport
changes from land
Transportation, the act of transporting, enables the movement of to air
people or goods from one location to another. Transportation is key enabler of
tourism and plays a vital role in moving tourist from their place of residence to Vehicular system linking
Landside airport to city
their final destination and on to various attractions. Transport connects the
markets in tourism generating regions to destinations and facilitates the internal
movement of visitors between components of the tourist experience.
Lesson Road, Rail Rail, Road
TRANSPORT: ELEMENTS, TYPES AND LINKAGES
Transport represents not just the means of reaching places; it is a

2
combination of different elements. Cooper et al. (2000) identified four basic Surface transport
physical elements:
1. The way- the medium of transport, can be both natural and artificial. Roads Rail Road Water
and railways are examples of artificial media on which transport is undertaken.
2. The terminal- provides the access for the passengers. Terminals are places City
where the mode of transport can also be changed.
3. The carrying unit- is seen in all above elements and its presence is inevitable
for the function of all those elements.
4. The motive power- enables the carrying units to move and it is fundamental
to ensuring the speed, range and capacity of vehicles. TOURISM AND TRANSPORT: THE INTERRELATIONSHIP
Various mode of transport are interlinked and interconnected. This Thinking of tourism without transport is irrelevant and irrational. Certainly, transport is an
interrelationship that exists among different transport forms makes inevitable element of tourism. Yet, it is given less significance in tourism. Tourism and transport are
transportation more accessible and more convenient. The absence of it will inseparable, i.e. they have a symbiotic relationship and are also complementary.
generate difficulty for a passenger while he/she travels. Air transport certainly
requires the assistance of other forms of transport, e.g road. Usually airports will be located some
distance from the city, so accessing air transport itself would require another form of transport.

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 are unique and attractive. They play a key role in attracting tourists.
ROLE OF TRANSPORT IN TOURISM Pleasure boats and dhows are also part of tourism parlance. Different
 Facilitator of tourism growth vehicles are used for recreational safaris as well.
Transport thus turned into a prerequisite for tourism’s growth and development. The  Acting as primary attraction
developments in transport certainly stimulated the growth in tourism. Improved transport In certain cases, transport is the primary attraction for
facilities have stimulated tourism and the expansion of tourism has stimulated transport. visitors. Transport can be the main feature of a tourist trip when the
 Linking the destination with the tourism markets form of transport itself is the one main reason for taking the trip.
One of the primary features of tourism is that the destinations are away from the The experience of travel has much more Significance than the
markets and the consumers have to travel distances to access the products and consume movement of tourist from the origin to the destination. The vehicle
them. Transport provides the means of travel to the destination from the tourist’s place of involved in the travel must be unique, with facilities and services for
origin and back again. recreation. Cruise voyages and the recreation onboard during the
 Providing mobility and access within a destination course of the journey constitute the primary attraction for cruise
Transport provides the means of travelling in and around the destination after tourists. Here, the role of transport increases and holds the role of
arriving. Once a tourist lands in a destination, he/she has to move within the destination for travel facilitation as attraction. Cruise tourism is becoming more
various reasons. From the airport where a tourist may arrive, transfer is needed to reach the popular, with significant growth recorded. Modern cruise operators
accommodation centre. Sightseeing and visiting various attractions are the most are competing with one another on a wide range of onboard services
important activities of a tourist when he/she is in the destination. Different attractions and facilities In the hyper competitive cruise tourism market.
may be situated in different locations. Also, for consuming other products, the tourist  Linking host destination
needs to travel. The mobility of a tourist within a destination is thus crucial, as the In addition to linking the origin and destination, transport is
primary purpose of the tourist in engaging in tourism is to visit attractions and required to link different destinations as well when a tourist is on a
experience them. It’s crucial to ensure suitable infrastructure and adequate multi-centric tour. In package tours, this is very common (when the
means of transportation to facilitate the mobility of tourists. package consists of more than one destination). This phenomenon of visiting more than a sin
 Providing mobility within tourist attractions gle destination gained momentum when long haul tours began to evolve. The distance a
Some of the attractions require travel options within them. For tourist has to cover to reach a faraway destination may tempt them to visit neighboring
instance, an industrial tourist destination usually requires travel within it so that destination(s) as well. The mode of travel between destinations may vary, unlike the transport
tourists can visit different parts of the site. In wildlife tourism, exclusive between origin and destination which is dominated by air travel. Road and rail travel also have
transport is provided in many cases to go into the forest and to see wild significant roles to play in inter-destination travel.
animals in their habitat. The type of transport in an attraction may vary  Determinant in tourist satisfaction
based on the type of attraction. Fragile tourist attractions need transport Transport, being an integral element in the tourism system, provides an experience
forms suitable for them, e.g. more eco-friendly. Industrial sites that is also a determinant in the overall tourist experience. Certainly, transport experience is an
may have different types of transport. important element of the tourist experience.
 Providing recreational travel options The nature of tourism transport experience is defined either by a single mode or a
Recreational transport is offered in destinations combination of transport modes, it still involves movement from one location to another and a
to enhance the tourism experience. At times, unique degree of attraction or more precisely satisfaction of wants associated with actual process of
transport options are provided along tourist circuits. traveling. The key distinction in transport for tourism tends to offer low intrinsic value within the
There are recreational rail services linking a overall experience and the tourism transport experience a higher intrinsic value.
destination with nearby cities. Hop-on, hop-off city Tourists’ experience with transport may vary from time to time. Yet, a pleasurable
tours are common in established destinations around experience adds to the sweet memories of the tour later on. Quality transport makes tourists
the world. Bicycle tourism and bike tourism are centred on recreational trips using simple comfortable and ensures that they return at some point in the future. A bad experience during
transport forms to rural destinations. The Grand Canyon railways in Arizona, the Royal transport can lead to dissatisfaction and consequently affect the overall tourist experience.
Scotsman, Scotland, Place on Wheels, India, etc. are some examples of rail services which  Contributor in tourist attractiveness
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 A destination with good accessibility and high-quality transport infrastructure can  Component of tourist attractions
attract tourists. Even if a destination has attractive tourism resources, transport is necessary to  Value proposition for destination marketing
draw tourists. However, lack of quality transport can deter the growth of tourism. Moreover,  Determinant in tourist experience and satisfaction
many transport forms themselves can lure tourists. Availability of recreational transport forms,  Recreational option
accessibility, etc. certainly contribute in the attractiveness of a destination.  Special interest tourism option (e.g. for safaris and adventure trips)
 Determinant in destination success  Business and economic opportunities
Certainly, quality of transport is a crucial element in the success of a destination. The
evolution of the destination is influenced by the growth of transport as well. The accessibility, The transport sector has grown tremendously. But the external environment has forced transport
quality of the transport services, diversity of transport provisions, etc. are factors that operators to offer more enjoyable and satisfying transport products to tourists. Hence, transport
determine the success of a destination. services are particularly relevant and important in the context of tourism experience. And the efficiency
 Major contributor in tourism’s socio-economic activities of tourism transport services is important in the success of destinations. A wide range of parameters is
Transport enables the tourists in spatial interaction, facilitates cultural exchange, applied while considering the efficiency of tourism transport. The parameters may include mode of
paves the way for developing understanding between different cultures and societies, and has services, efficient intermodal transport system, number of schedules, frequency of services, network,
other social benefits. Moreover, transport is the major tourism employer and generates other ease of booking, availability of information, speed, punctuality, reliability, customer service, customer
economic and social benefits as well. care, comfort, facilities, ride comfort, safety records and security. In order to optimize the transport
potential, destinations have to ensure the following:
 Quality vehicles
 Provision of an integrated, efficient multimodal transport system
TRANSPORT: FROM A GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE  Safety and security
Transport primarily deals with time and distance. Travel distance is a factor in the accessibility
 Good connectivity
of a destination. Transport facilitates the movement with respect to place and location and provides the
 Quality transport infrastructure
essential link. The flow of people from generating region to destination is almost impossible without
transport. From a geographic perspective, travel occurs to satisfy human desire for spatial movement  Proficient travel and
and transport facilitates the process of movement that has economic and budgetary cost. Traditionally, tourism information
distance has been a bottleneck in the evolution of tourism in many destinations. The proximity of services
tourists generating countries with high travel propensity has been an advantage for destinations in  Proper signboards and
attracting international tourists. guidance
 Efficient and quality
taxi system
 Efficient
ACCESSIBILITY AND TOURISM TRANSPORT drivers/couriers
The role of transportation is basically related to accessibility. Transportation renders a tourist  Fair rate system
destination accessible to their markets in the tourist generating regions. Good accessibility is an integral  Provision of
characteristic of the overall competitiveness of destinations. Distance to reach the destination is an experiential and
important element of a destination’s accessibility. recreational transport
In addition to the accessibility aspect of transport of a destination, there are other aspects to consider..  Provision of efficient
The major roles of transport for a destination include the following: online services and GPS systems
 Use of professional vehicle tracking and management systems
 Basic requirement
 Catalyst in the growth of tourism
 Determinant in destination success
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MULTIMODAL transport for Tourism
Many city destinations offer multimodal transport services for visitors. Different types of multimodal
tourist transport services are provided in developed countries to enable hassle-free visits for inbound EXERCISE 2.1: WHAT TO DO:
tourists. In many cases, this type of multimodal transport service is provided around a hub airport or 1) Define transportation
city. Efficient transport services are provided at hub cities and rail and road networks are effectively 2) Explain the relationship between transport and tourism.
linked to provide better travel experiences. Hub-based integrated network connectivity is seen more in 3) Pick one role of transport in tourism and discuss it in your own words.
popular tourist destinations. Efficient integration of rail services with air transport is also more beneficial, 4) Give 4 factors that influence the transport choice of a tourist and explain why.
as they can be complementary. In this modern era of transport, high-speed train services are warranted Note:
for such integration. Rail and coach services are also linked together to provide smoother journeys. Air a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
travel and automobile (car) integration is common, particularly in business tourism. b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 2.1
for example:
TOURISM TRANSPORT: NATURE AND TYPES From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
Seasonality is one factor that influences tourism transport, particularly in respect of variation in To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 2.1
transport demand. Tourism transport in general possesses t he common service characteristics, (attached files)
including intangibility, perishability and inseparability. With regard to tourism, the following types of
transport can be identified:
 General passenger transport
 Dedicated tourist transport
 Experimental tourist transport
 Luxury tourist transport
 Recreational transport
 Multipurpose tourist transport

FACTORS INFLUENCING TOURIST TRANSPORT SELECTION

1 Distance 8 Availability
2 Schedule 9 Frequency
3 Route 10 Convenience
4 Speed 11 Price
5 Reliability 12 Safety and Security
6 Quality of Service 13 Type of Tour
7 Unique experience/recreation

TOURISM DEMAND AND TRANSPORT

Defining tourism demand is a difficult task as there are different approaches pertaining to it.
Along the increase in tourist arrivals, the demand for tourism transport is also steadily increasing, which
necessitates an increase in transport s upply. Indeed, transport supply in tourism has expanded and
now destinations are competing on the basis of transport options to enhance travel experience for
tourists and make tourism transport more attractive.
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 AIR TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT
A device used for travelling through the air, helps in connecting people and places along with
Learning Outcomes: the transporting things like cargo. Four different forces act in the flight of an aircraft: gravity, lift, drag
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to: and thrust.
1) Understand the categorization of aviation Gravity is the natural pulling force of earth (pulling things towards it) and lift pushes the aircraft
2) Identify the elements of the air transportation system upward. Drag is a force that opposes the forward movement of an aircraft. When speed increases,
3) Understand the evolution of air transport into the modern form drag also increases. Thrust, created by engines, helps to oppose drag and moves the plane forward.
Wings generate the lift due to their shape. Lift is created only when an aircraft moves in air. Wings are
designed to provide an appropriate amount of lift. The movable parts of wings like flaps come into play
Aviation is a broad term depicting all of the aspects associated with in speed variations and in landing and take-off. A pilot increases the lift by raising the nose of the
flying using and aeroplane. To be more precise it consists of a range of plane slightly. To minimize drag created by extra lift, the engine power will also be increased. To
businesses and activities involved in building and flying aircraft for various descend, engine power will be decreased to reduce thrust. Then the lift will also come down. So the
purposes. The term evolved from the Latin word avis, which means “bird”. plane will move downward due to increasing gravity. Drag will also come into play and the plane will
slow down. To turn a plane, the lift on either of the wing has to be increased.

TYPES OF AVIATION
1 Civil Aviation- represents all non-military flying including both general AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES
aviation and commercial air transport. It consists of all commercial, business. Air travel needs a fine-tuned support system for safe and smooth operation. A range of
Lesson
Personal transportation using aircrafts and flights. complexities are involved in air transportation. While flying, an aircraft cannot stop and wait for
 Commercial Air Transportation- it is all about the transport of information. It flies very fast and a sudden change in direction or altitude is very difficult. Air navigation
passengers, cargo or mail in a professional manner. services make air transportation a smooth and safe affair.

3  General Aviation- the flights included are aerial application

planes, land survey flights, air ambulances, holiday vacation flights,
services and special mission flights.
Hi air taxi

2 Military Aviation- denotes the use of air craft and other flying machines
exclusively for military purposes.
HISTORY OF AIR TRANSPORTATION
Air transportation didn’t occur all of a sudden; rather, the experimental flight of the Wright
brothers which took place in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina was the end result of many attempts
and developments
over several years
AIR TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM by a number of
The elements of air transportation system can be classified under four headings: people. Many
 Airports Airlines dreamt of flying
 Aircraft Air navigation services freely in the sky and
to travel to distant
AIRPORT places. Many
The airport is the hub of air transportation where passengers can board and mythological stories
disembark flights, airlines can process passengers for travel, aircraft can be mention flying and
controlled or smooth flight, and freight forwarders can process vehicles used for
cargo/consignments or shipments. Airlines, which provide various types of air- flying specifically.
based transportation services, are the businesses that run regular/occasional However, real flight
services for carrying passengers and goods by aircraft. Airlines also make use of in a controlled way with the help of an engine became possible only in the twentieth century. In fact,
the services and facilities provided by the airports. even in the eighteenth century people could fly, but it was using hot air balloons. In 1783, the flight

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 became possible in the hot air balloon, which was designed first by the Montgolfier brothers. It had the U S, and it authorized the postmaster general
practical difficulties, as the balloon could only travel downwind. In the following year, a steerable to enter into contracts with private persons or
balloon was invented by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and that was the first human-powered dirigible air companies for air mail transportation. The Kelly
vehicle. In the following year (1785) he crossed the English Channel. Later, in 1799, Sir George Airmail Act of 1925 provided private airlines with
Cayley came up with the concept of an aeroplane, a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems the opportunity to function as mail carriers. They
for lift, propulsion and control. A number of similar developments were made prior to the historic event expanded further to transport other forms of cargo;
of the experimental flight of the Wright brothers. It was on 17 December 1903, using the “Flyer I”, that
passenger transportation gained importance in US soon after
Orville Wright, with the help of Wilbur Wright, flew a distance of 37 metres (120 ft) for 12 seconds.
Soon, smaller planes were developed with single engines and capacity for 1 or 2 people. and the US government passed the Air Commerce Act in 1926,
Gabriel and Charles Voisin started the world’s first aircraft manufacturing company in 1905 in France. which established aids to air navigation, granted authority for
Louis Blériot crossed the English Channel in a monoplane in 1909. Pioneering aircraft began traffic rules, created mandatory registration of aircraft, and provided
transporting items as early as 1910. Earlier military aeroplanes were not all that usable for civil certification for airmen. During the 19205, scheduled commercial air
aviation. Experimentation continued and metaI-framed aeroplanes were introduced later. During the services started in Africa, Australia, Japan, Mexico, and some South
First World War, the US built 67 airports for military purposes, with only some basic facilities to base, American countries In the US, passenger service came later, in 1926.
fuel, and maintain aircraft and to provide landing and take-off facilities. The first airline service, in Safety issues became major concerns particularly between 1929 and 1933.
1914, carried only one passenger; as the plane was a single capacity carrier. The first scheduled In the 1930s, airports began adding concrete runways (400-900 metres). The
passenger air transport, from St Petersburg, Florida in the US, was organized by St Petersburg- first airway traffic control centre was formed 1935 at Newark, New Jersey, to inform by radio all pilots in
Tampa Airboat Line, the first scheduled passenger airline service in the world. The service did not last the vicinity. In 1935, the British installed a top-secret network of radar transceivers along their coast and
long, it was wound up within four months. equipped their military aircraft with an early transponder known as IFF (“identification friend or foe”). As
The first air mail route in the US was established in 1918 between New York City and transport grew, twin engine aircraft entered, e.g. Douglas DC-3 and Boeing 247. The Boeing 247 was
Washington, DC. In the same year, the US Post Office Department took over the entire air mail s developed in 1933, and was revolutionary as a modern passenger aircraft. The first jet engine aircraft
ervice. Experimentation continued in using aircraft for transporting things. A regular schedule of freight was used by Germany in 1939 for military purposes. The Boeing 247, and Douglas DC-2 and DC-3 also
flying was operated from Chicago. During this period, in order to have a common understanding among emerged during this period. In the same decade, American Airlines, Eastern Air Lines, TWA and United
air transportation operators, the International Air Traffic Association (IATA) was formed in 1919 in the Airlines were established and Pan American Airways expanded to overseas operations as well. The
Hague, Netherlands. Night flying also began in 1924 in the US. After the First World War, European experimental flight by Charles Lindberg in 1927 across the Atlantic was revolutionary and soon several
countries such as air transport companies began to set up shop. In 1938, the world’s airlines carried almost 3.5 million
Germany, France and passengers. Military usage of aircraft and further development took place during the Second World War
Britain started almost 20 era. Four-engine monoplanes like the Douglas DC-4 and Lockheed Constellation came into service by
small airlines using military the early 1940s. Range and payload had increased significantly by then.
aircraft from the First World Civil aviation had a landmark period during the mid-194OS. The Chicago Convention (1944)
War. National carriers like became a milestone in global civil aviation. The system of bilaterally negotiated “traffic rights” between
Imperial Airways (1924), nations, which had applied generally before the war, was reaffirmed by the 1944 Chicago Convention,
Lufthansa (1926) and Air and the same gave birth to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as a UN agency in order
France (1933) were born to guide and regulate global civil aviation. The International Air Transport Association, with the objective
over this period. Before of smooth and efficient commercial air transportation, was formed in April 1945. The Chicago
that, in Australia, Qantas Convention was followed by the Bermuda Agreement in 1946, which set the pattern for most other
started operating in 1920. traffic rights agreements. Development of the radar, with its primary version used in the war, was
Towards the end of the another major event in the aviation history. The first radar-equipped control tower was installed at
19305, passenger air transportation in the US became a major mode of transport. Japan began airline Indianapolis in 1945.
operations after 1922. The Contract Air Mail Act (called the Kelly Airmail Act) was enacted in 1925 in
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 Soon, airport runway lengths grew progressively and necessitated more support equipment. DEREGULATION
By the 1950s, airlines had been established as a major mode of transport, particularly for long-haul In the following years, the most remarkable transformation in com mercial aviation took place;
journeys. By 1957, over the North Atlantic, as many passengers were flying as travelled by sea. Further it started in the US. The US air transport system was regulated for a period from 1938 to 1978. The
advancement in aircraft were seen when newer planes came on the scene, such as the DC-7, and Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) became the ultimate authority of air transportation, controlling almost all
runways were extended along with increases in speed up to 300/330 miles per hour. Along with piston aspects of air transportation during that period, including the commercial aspects and fixing of fares.
type engines, turboprop aircraft were also in use those days. Very high frequency omni-directional This created a lack of market dynamism along with delays in processing requests and tasks, and led to
range and finding (VORs and later VORTACs) and the instrument landing system (ILS) were talk of deregulation in air transport. In April 1976, the concept of deregulation was agreed in principle,
established during 1950s. This decade also saw the commencement of classes of service along with which was promulgated as the Airline Deregulation Act on 24 October 1978. It was enacted with the
higher operating standards and efficiency of services. Though Europe and the US remained the objective of allowing the marketplace to determine the airlines’ business decisions, and to ease controls
epicenters of advancement in air transportation, other countries like Japan, Australia and Canada also over airline fares and routes in order to encourage greater competition and better services.
saw much progress in civil aviation. The Soviet Union also had remarkable achievements in this sector Deregulation relied on the principle that the marketplace and free enterprise can better serve the public
during the same period. By then the jet revolution had begun. In 1955, Pan American Airways placed and the carriers. The primary objective was to have competition to improve efficiency and innovation,
orders for Boeing and Douglas jets. The Boeing 707, the pioneer jet engine model, went into service in lower prices, and encourage price and service options. This could instil managerial efficiency, which
1958. In 1956 Russia put into service their Tupolev Tu-104 jet airliner. Soon the medium-range Boeing could attract more capital and bring other advantages.
720 would also enter the scene. After deregulation, competition was a strong factor that determined the structure of the
By the first half of the 1960s air transport had slowly advanced to the jet era. But the traffic industry. Just after deregulation, most airlines offered similar services and facilities. Also, the major
trend saw a decline in the second half and many airlines were facing losses. Supersonic aircraft was an airlines tried their best to keep away new entrants by controlling most of the gates and landing slots at
innovation of the late 19603. In 1968, BAC/Aerospatiale introduced Concorde, with a speed of up to busy airports. Bigger airlines maintained greater market share.
2,400 kilometers per hour and a range of 7,000 kilometers. Passenger air transport had grown As years went by, LCCs entered the scene which led to stiff challenges for the common
considerably in this decade. But, by then, airline hijacking or air piracy became a serious issue. In 1970, carriers. LCCs could easily attract passengers, predominantly due to their low cost. Also, in the US the
hijackers throughout the world seized 49 aircraft. Meanwhile, by introducing jet aircraft, tourist class government agencies like the Department of Transportation pressured airports to provide more space
services were launched for crossing the North Atlantic, and fares reduced by for new entrants. Cargo deregulation was also introduced in 1977. Following the US, ten years later
20-25 percent, which led to an increase of 25 percent in European countries began their own deregulation efforts in a phased manner through three policy
passenger transportation. This aided the growth of “packages” agreed in 1988, 1990 and 1993. Japan’s air transport remained regulated until 1996. By
international tourism, with the help of airlines. But, 1997, full deregulation came into force. Canada introduced deregulation in 1985 and Australia in 1990.
later, in the 1970s, sluggish growth was seen in air By 1997, full deregulation came into force in the European Union. Due to several reasons, the
transportation. Heavy capital investments, deregulation efforts in Europe did not result in revolutionary changes. Countries and states continued to
escalating fuel costs after OPEC’s formation fund state-owned airlines, underwrite losses arid revive balance sheets. Political interference and heavy
(1960) and global inflation became the major unionism prevented many efforts 111 many countries. Also, airports were required to meet the increase
reasons for the sluggishness in air in demand. This was also a slow process. Airport slot allocation was not a smooth and trouble-free
transportation. In fact, in the 19705, restrictions process either. Many airlines, especially new ones, had objections due to the monopoly of major
in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil airlines in getting the slot.
prices. Meanwhile, “Pan Am” became the first Other, later effects of deregulation were as follows:
airline to offer jumbo jet travel (the Boeing 747),  Privatization in air transportation
and France and Britain began passenger services  Rise in competition due to entry of new airlines
with their supersonic - transport the Concorde.  Airfare slump
 Surging air travel demand
 Emerge of loyalty schemes
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  Improvement of airline productivity beyond the country, to a third nation. Directly or indirectly, it resulted in increased travel and trade,
 Increase in air transport employment productivity, economic growth and better employment opportunities.
 Flourishing of “hub and spoke” system
 Financial issues looming large over airline business
 “Open skies” agreements MERGERS, TAKEOVERS AND ALLIANCES
 Mergers, takeovers and alliances The effect of deregulation was so intense and far-reaching that within a decade so many
 LCCs: a new model of airline business model was established changes had already taken place. As stated before, a number of airlines faced bankrupt and losses.
The tremendous effect of deregulation took place during mid 1980s when a number of acquisitions took
place in the US; some of them are listed as follows:
OPEN SKIES AGREEMENT  Delta merged with Western
Open skies refers either to a bilateral or a multilateral transport agreement between countries,  American acquired Air California.
which liberalizes the rules for international aviation markets and minimizes government intervention.  Northwest acquired Republic.
Under open skies agreements, airlines of both countries can fly any route as they wish between the  TWA acquired Ozark Airlines.
countries and can continue those flights into third countries. This was started by the US making  United acquired the Pacific Division of Pan American.
agreements with other countries. Removing the barriers to accessing aviation markets abroad and  USAir acquired Piedmont and Pacific Southwest.
removing barriers to competition were the prime objectives. It provided a free market for aviation Many airlines have been merged, taken over or gone out of business.;the surviving airlines had to look
services and offered more benefits for passengers, shippers and the economy of the country, on a for other strategies to remain competitive. To ensure economic viability, many airlines attempted to be
wide scale. involved in cross-border alliances, partnerships and other cooperative arrangements. Alliances remain
Though the US made the first formal move toward international open skies in 1979, it became a major category among them. Star Alliance, SkyTeam and Oneworld are currently some of the major
a reality in its true sense only in 1992, when the US signed its first true open skies agreement with the airline alliances in the world. In an alliance, companies remain separate entities, but the cooperation
Netherlands, a watershed event enables members to improve efficiency,
in the move to open skies. As of increase customer service, and decrease
writing, the US had entered into the cost through sharing of sales offices,
118 open skies agreements with maintenance facilities, operational
other nations. Due to these facilities, operational staff, investments
agreements, airlines can have and purchases. Alliances enable
foreign partners, access to extended global networks. Customers
international routes to and from benefit from lower prices, access to
their home countries, and round-the-world tickets at better prices,
freedom from many traditional and mileage rewards on a single account
forms of economic regulation. with different carriers. The benefits of
Air transport demand increased. cooperative arrangements range from
This gives the airlines of the improving efficiency, cost reduction and
countries that signed the increasing market share.
agreements the right to operate
air services from any point in
one country to any point in the other, as well as to and from third countries. The granting of rights under
these agreements includes rights on routes, destinations, intermediate points, beyond points, etc. LCCS: NEW MODEL OF AIRLINE BUSINESS
Airlines can fly to and from places they want in another nation, stopping where they want, and flying Soon after deregulation, the LCC business model emerged in the US. The LCC model is a very
cost-effective airline business model with limited services and specific route structure, unlike full-service
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carriers (FSCs). Such airlines are also referred to as “no-frills”. Southwest Airlines was one of the first controlled and demand variations heavily influence the fare. The political and regulatory environment of
LCCs, operating from the late 1960s. This had a ripple effect on other airlines. In Europe, Irish company aviation is shaped by different bodies functioning at national, regional and international levels. The
Ryanair, previously a traditional carrier, transformed itself into an LCC. The UK had its first LCC when regulations existing at the international level, with regard to the freedom of international operations,
easyJet began its service. Several other LCCs commenced operation, and by the end of the 19905 have evolved over a period of time, through a number of exclusive conferences and conventions.
LCCs had captured a significant market share. The dynamism and growth in air transportation after the First World War necessitated
The air transport sector grew further as a result of the effects of deregulation. In the meantime, the commonly acceptable regulations that could provide direction for commercial aviation. Rights and
Gulf War started in 1991, which dealt a severe blow to the aviation industry. Consequently, the industry dunes of shippers and airlines, airline liability in the wake of accidents and loss of baggage, lack of
posted a combined loss of $4.8 billion in 1992. Further developments took place technically and uniformity of commercial laws of different nations, and issues muted nth crossing borders of other
comfort-wise. Meanwhile, terrorism became a major threat for the air transport sector. In early 2003, the countries were the major issues that needed to be resolved through consensus of relevant authorities.
introduction of Airbus A340-500 and Boeing 777-200 ER aircraft allowed airlines to fly routes of more Even before the commencement of the First World War, there were attempts to have mutual
that1 7,000 nautical miles. The September 11th terrorist attacks occurred in the US in 2001 which dealt agreements in air transportation. France took the initiative in 1910 for an International Conference of Air
another major blow to the industry. Prompted by fear, people either cancelled their air travel or Navigation in Paris. Twenty-one European countries participated and the discussions focused on
preferred other modes of transport, at least for a short time. US airspace was closed for three full days various aspects associated with flying across boundaries of other countries. The convention found on
over this period. Many airlines faced significant financial crisis and the industry recorded losses for agreements among them and it made possible the reconciliation of the di vergent views regarding the
three consecutive years. To overcome it, the US government granted a multi-billion-dollar relief question of sovereignty of airspace. In 1916, the first Conference of Pan-American Aeronautics was
package. Many airlines cut capacity by 20 percent and laid off thousands of workers. Also, the Air held in Santiago, Chile, where countries argued for unifying their aerial legislation, in order to formulate
Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB) was set up to help the airlines recover and restructure. an international air code of the American Republics. Though it didn’t see much progress, it became the
However, the Industry has continued to progress. It saw many other milestones. The largest aircraft, the background for the 1919 diplomatic conference that framed the Paris Convention.
A380, which can carry more than 800 passengers, was introduced by the middle of the first decade of
the new millennium. The Airbus 380 made its first test flight on 27 April 2005. The Airbus 380, the  The Paris Convention- (The Paris Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation 1919)
largest commercial aircraft ever built, set a record even when flying empty as the heaviest commercial saw participation by representatives from allied nations and associated nations; ultimately, 38
aircraft to ever fly. States became parties to the accord. It became the first international multilateral convention on
the regulation of aerial navigation. This convention recognized the principle of airspace
sovereignty by stating that the member states have complete and aim sovereignty over the
INTERNATIONAL airspace above their territory. Apart from the reservation of the sovereignty of airspace by the
REGULATIONS contracting nations, the convention resulted in the issuance of certificates of airworthiness, each
Air transport operation nation’s registry of aircraft, the flight of aircraft over the other countries’ territories, international air
is the only modes of transports navigation rules, and prohibition of carriage of arms and ammunition. Moreover, the convention
that have follow rules and also produced the International Commission on Air Navigation (ICAN), a permanent Paris-based
regulations existing at organization with a full-time secretariat. This commission was vested with the responsibility of
international as well as national execution, administration and updating of the
levels, and do so with utmost Paris Convention.
care. Besides technical rules and
regulations, operating services at  The Havana Convention- the Paris
the international level also have Convention wasn’t that effective, as many other
to adhere to certain rules and states did not ratify, and that were alternatives.
regulations. Governments The Fifth Pan American Conference was also
engage in a system of bilateral or held In Santiago, Chile in 1923, and it resolved
multilateral agreements, which enables the airlines of those countries to operate services to the other that an Inter-American Commission on
respective countries. At the national level also, necessary approvals from the authorities must be Commercial Aviation be established, consisting of
obtained for operating domestic routes. However, the tariffs and fares charged by airlines are less not more than three delegates of each state of
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 the Pan American Union. It was mooted to formulate a code of laws and regulation. This dealt  Loss resulting from delay in
with commercial aviation, the determination of air routes, the establishment of special customs transportation of
procedures fur aviation, the determination of adequate landing policies, and recommendations passengers, baggage or
with respect to the places at which landing facilities should be established (Went 1988). In the merchandise
meantime, an attempt was made at Madrid, Spain in 1926 to create an Ibero-American
Convention on Air Navigation, also known as the Madrid Convention, but the name did not enter It also offered standards for air
into effect. The Inter-American Communion met for the first time in Washington, DC in May of tickets, airway bills for cargo and
1927 and prepared a draft code which was revised by the Director General of the Union. The other air travel documents. This was
same was submitted to the Sixth Pan-American Conference, held in Havana, Cuba, in 1928 and amended in a diplomatic conference
was ratified by the participating states. held in The Hague in 1955. Called
The Hague Protocol, it finalized the
 The Warsaw Convention- Later, the government of France made an attempt in 1923 to adopt compensation limit by doubling the
national laws relating to liability in the carriage by air, but soon realized the need for a unified law amount. Further revision took place in
at an international level to prevent the unforeseeable conflicts of law and conflicts of jurisdiction. a diplomatic conference in 1961 at
The 1923 event adopted a resolution calling the public’s attention to the need for the Guadalajara, Mexico
establishment of a uniform code. The French government took the initiative to have further
discussions on the above and representatives of 43 nations met in Paris in 1925. Further  Chicago Convention- Some other multilateral commissions were also held afterwards: the
Buenos Aires Convention of 1935, the Bucharest Convention of 1936 and the Zemun Agreement
amendments and discussions took place on the draft prepared. The conference also established
of 1937. By the time the Second World War commenced focus had moved away from air transport
the International Committee of Technical Exports of Air jurisprudence (Comité International
regulations. However, technically, aviation did advance greatly in the war era. Soon after the war,
Technique d’Experts Juridiques Aériens - CITEJA) with headquarters in Paris. The draft prepared the aviation sector faced a vast array of issues. The majority of issues were either technical or
by the Committee was submitted for consideration at the Second International Conference on political. The commercial rights of carriers to fly across the territories of other countries were a
Private Air Law major issue. Until the end of the Second World War, the negotiation of international routes was
held in the Royal left to the individual carriers. It was in 1944 that the US government issued invitations to various
Castle at Warsaw, nations for an international conference on civil aviation, focused on tackling flying rights over
Poland in 1929. territories of various countries. Representatives of 52 nations assembled in Chicago in November
Thus the Warsaw 1944. It was organized with the intention to foster development of international civil aviation in a
Convention, safe and orderly manner and to promote international air transport services on the basis of
formally entitled equality of opportunity and sound and economical operation.
Convention for the The Convention has been sometimes referred to as the “Magna Charta for the postwar
Unification of development of international civil aviation”. The Chicago Convention could establish the rules for
international aviation operations. The Conference also produced the International Air Services
Certain Rules
Transit Agreement, the International Air Transport Agreement, drafts of 12 technical annexes to
Relating to the Chicago Convention and a standard form of bilateral agreement. In addition to the
International agreements, the Chicago Convention provided recommendations to foster smooth flow of
Carriage by Air international air transport through inter governmental agreements. The standard form, the major
came into effect. document of the Convention, has been adopted by many countries as a basis for arrangements.
According to the The Chicago Convention affirmed the principle of air space sovereignty and raised for the first
Warsaw Convention, an airline would be liable for damages in the event of: time the issues concerning exchange of commercial rights in international civil aviation. The
 Death or injury to the passengers Convention decided to simply create a framework within which the rules regarding international air
 Destruction, loss or damage to baggage or goods transportation could be established for regularity of air transport services between pairs of
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 countries. The Bilateral Air Service Agreements (ASAs) thus emerged as the Instrument for to be known as the Five Freedoms Agreement. This included five freedoms of the air for
initiating or modifying international transportation and for regularity of those services. The scheduled international air services. Though this was proclaimed in it, they didn’t get much
Convention made it mandatory to follow the international standards and practices to the highest attention then. Moreover, there existed some differences regarding the fixing of airfare, routes and
degree of uniformity by all contracting states in terms of the following: tariffs.
 Characteristics of airports and landing areas
 Communication systems and air navigation aids, including ground markings  The Bermuda Agreement - In 1946, representatives from the US and Bntain met in Bermuda
 Aircraft flying rules and air traffic control (ATC) practices to negotiate a bliateral understanding, which came to be known as the Bermuda Agreement. It
 Airworthiness of aircraft helped to incorporate Chicago standard clauses and stipulated that disputes that could not be
 Licensing of operational and mechanical personnel settled through bilateral consultations had to be put before the ICAO for advisory opinion. The
 Registration and identification of aircraft Bermuda Agreement gave a satisfactory reconciliation of the differences that existed a
 Aeronautical maps and charts international air policy between the US and the UK after the Chicago conference. After the
 Gathering and exchange of meteorological information discussion, a compromise emerged regarding tariffs and routes. Routes were specified and
 Customs and immigration procedures tariffs were agreed to be established by the airlines through the International Air Transport
 Aircraft in distress and investigation of accidents of all types Association (IATA), subject to the approval of both parties. It was decided that capacity would
 Matters concerning the safety, regularity and efficiency of air navigation be determined by airlines based on agreed terms and conditions. This, known as the Bermuda
 Logbooks Agreement, became the most successful bilateral agreement aim the Chicago Convention,
The Convention was particular in ensuring the international commonality in airport and ATC and its success became an inspiration for other countries, what the Bermuda Agreement itself
facilities, equipment and procedures to ensure the safety and operability of am craft across other became a model. Indeed, many agreements were signed in other countries.
countries. This led to the establishment of a permanent international body charged with
coordinating the rules, guiding air traffic operation across the world, developing international  Bilateral agreements and freedoms of the air- A bilateral air transport agreement takes place
standards for air transport facilities and equipment, and overseeing adherence to these rules. The between two nations, who sign to allow international commercial air transport services
International Civil Aviation Organization ([CAO came into being on 4 April 1947, and in October of between their territories. The accesses to other markets become possible through the
the same year, it became a specialized agency of the United Nations linked to the Economic and establishment of traffic rights. The Chicago Convention specified the basic traffic rights
Social Council (ECOSOC). ICAO was established with the objective to foster the planning and required for operation in other markets, including foreign countries. A traffic right:
development of international air transport in accordance with certain enumerated principles. The is a market access right which is expressed as an agreed physical or
Chicago Convention superseded the Havana and Paris Conventions and stipulated that all the geographic specification, or combination of specifications, of who or what may be
aeronautical agreements and those subsequently contracted had to be registered with ICAO, and transported over an authorized route or parts thereof in the aircraft (or substitute
those not consistent would be abrogated. conveyance) authorized. (ICAO, 2004)
One of the outcomes of the Chicago Convention, the International Air Services Transit It denotes the right to transport passengers, cargo and mail, separately or in any combination, and
Agreement, was also referred to as the Two is expressed as a freedom of the air.
Freedoms Agreement. This provided the
multilateral exchange of rights flying across
the border of another country and non-traffic SAFETY AND SECURITY
stops for scheduled air services among its Among the transport forms, air transport has the highest safety and security threat. As aviation
contracting states. This provided two sets of progressed, safety and security threats were compounded and posed critical challenges. The Airport is
freedoms for those states signing the the hub of air transportation and is the most vulnerable element of air transport in terms of safety and
contract. These freedoms consisted of security. Modern airports have multilayered checks and measures which make up a comprehensive
privileges to fly across the territory of other system for mitigating threats. Let’s look at the safety and security aspects separately. There can be a
countries without landing, and to land for number of factors that can affect the safety of the airside. Airports take utmost care to avoid safety
non-traffic purposes. Another outcome, the issues due to such factors. Possible safety issues are discussed below.
International Air Transport Agreement, came

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  Ground and runway safety: this is a very common type of safety issue in air transport. Runway mechanical errors occur because of a flaw in the plane’s design that may result in metal
incursion (vehicles, persons or aircraft fatigue cracks and wing failure.
present in the runway), runway  Poor weather conditions: this is another common cause of safety issues. Some large scale air
excursion (due to inappropriate exit crashes were due to poor weather conditions. For instance, the Flydubai flight crashed (in
from the runway) and runway confusion March 2016) near the runway in a Russian airport due to poor weather conditions and poor
(use of either wrong runway or taxiway visibility, with 62 people dying in the crash. Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 was travelling from
unintentionally) ate the most common Surabaya, Indonesia to Singapore on 28 December 2014 when it crashed due to poor weather
ca uses of runway-related accidents. conditions, killing 162 people.
Incursion can happen due to human  Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) and Approach and Landing (ALA): controlled flight into
factors, improper instructions from ATC, terrain is a major cause of aviation accidents worldwide. Most of the CFIT accidents occur
climatic reasons, like rain and poor during the approach and landing phase. Although new developments in aircraft technology
visibility, inadequate markings and/or increase a pilot’s awareness of terrain, it does not guarantee protection from a CFIT or an
lightings, etc. approach and landing accident. A range of strategies are being undertaken around the world
 Loss of control: loss of control in flight (LOC-I), of late, is a major cause of fatal accidents. It to prevent this kind of accident.
does not take place when a pilot is in a situation in which he/she cannot control anything to  Human factors: a poor decision, lack of care, confusion, negligence, etc. can be fatal. Human
avoid an accident. According to IATA (2015), loss of control in flight refers to: error is a major cause of air safety issues. Human errors are of different kinds: decision errors
accidents in which the flight crew was unable to maintain control of the aircraft in involving procedural errors, poor chances and problem-solving errors; errors associated with
flight, resulting in an unrecoverable deviation from the intended flight path. LOC-I can skill like the inadvertent activation of controls, and the misordering of steps in procedures;
result from engine failures, icing, stalls or other circumstances that interfere with the perceptual errors; and violations of rules and guidelines of different kinds (F'AA, 2005). Pilot
ability of the flight crew to control the flight path of the aircraft. error alone is the most prominent reason in air accidents. One of the most Important in this
IATA further reveals that during 2010-2014, there were 415 accidents of which 38 were area is situational awareness and control. Use of other electronic equipment while flying can
classified as LOL 1. Of the total 415 accidents, 88 were fatal and 43 percent of those took also threaten the flight.
place due to the reason loss of control (LOL I), which eventually resulted in 1,242 fatalities  Other causes: there are some other causes of fatal accidents. These include issues
(deaths of passengers and crew, in total). associated with the safety management system, midair collision due to lack of separation,
 Bird strike: this represents the collision between a flying bird and a flying aircraft, which can be issues in air navigation services and air-ground communication, inadequate maintenance and
very dangerous. This usually happens near airports at landing or during take-off. Most airports design, and automation-related
now undertake land management practices to avoid birds near airports. issues.
 Lightning: usually, aircrafts are built to withstand lighting, but m rare cases it can damage It is mandatory for the players
aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers usually take adequate measures. involved in air-transport, including
 Ice and snow: ice/snow on runway can be dangerous; it can cause a pilot to lose control of the airport and airlines, to ensure the
aircraft while landing or taking off. Large quantities of ice on wings can result in the decrease safety of flight. International rules
of lift of aircraft. and guidelines must be followed.
 Sand and dust: the engines have the ability to suck in sand/dust in huge quantities and this is Extreme care is taken to avoid any
an issue, especially in areas where sand/dust storms occur. Volcanic dust is particularly kind of safety issues.
dangerous for flights. Flights can be disrupted by volume dust, with the ash causing significant
damage to engines.
 Mechanical errors: a range of mechanical errors due to failure of aircraft parts can lead to
dangerous situations. Metal fatigue, the effect of cyclical pressure and stress on metal parts,
can happen either in the engine or the fuselage. Delamination of composite material is also an
air safety concern, especially in the tail sections of aeroplanes. Engine failure has been a
safety issue, but nowadays this issue is minimized by the use of multiple engines. Some
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SECURITY EXERCISE 3.1: WHAT TO DO:
There are a variety of security issues, such as: incidents and accidents that occur as part of 1) Distinguish between civil aviation and general aviation.
aircraft operations; bomb blasts; structural fires; natural calamities that affect aviation; national 2) What do we mean by “open skies” policy?
disasters; radiological incidents; sabotage; hijacking; and other unlawful acts. Aviation security has to 3) What is the importance of international regulations?
be ensured with utmost care. The major components of it, in general, are: intelligence gathering; 4) How can an airline protect the passengers?
controlling access to secure air operation areas; screening of passengers and carry-on luggage; Note:
screening of checked baggage and cargo; and aircraft protection (including cockpit protection) a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 3.1
(Seidenstat, 2004). The airport is the nerve centre of all the safety and security measures. A wide
for example:
variety of measures are taken in airports to avoid safety and security issues. According to Barnett From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
(2009), security measures are generally classified into three different kinds. They are: the measures to To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
protect the passenger cabin and cockpit; measures to prevent explosions in the baggage compartment; Subject: Von De La Cruz- Transportation Exercise 2.1
(attached files)
and measures to prevent threats external to the aircraft. Airports, together with airlines, have a
significant role in ensuring all of these categories. For baggage compartments, a variety of activities are
undertaken to ensure safety and security. Explosion detection equipment and canine teams can be
used to ensure that there are no dangerous materials loaded along with the cargo or checked in bags in
the baggage compartment. This exercise is done when the cargo and baggage are still in the airport.
Consignments will be verified, and if need be additional security measures will be undertaken, i.e.
verified manually, or using sniffer dogs, metal detectors, explosive vapour detectors, etc. The luggage
is also screened using x-ray machinery prior to collecting or loading into the aircraft. For carry-on/hand
luggage screening, the airline counter will first issue a tag for hand luggage. Hand luggage will be
screened using radioscopic (x-ray) equipment. Also, explosive vapour detectors may be used to check
carry-on items. For checked baggage screening, all such items have to pass through an automated
screening device (usually x-ray machine). It is basically done to check for unauthorized carriage of
weapons, explosives or dangerous goods. A manual search is also done. Positive passenger bag
matching (PPBM) is a recent measure which refers to a process by which the airline ensures that all
checked bags on an aircraft have their respective “owners” onboard as well. Checked luggage is cross-
matched with passenger manifests to ensure that no baggage is there unless its owner is on board.
Nowadays, known shipper programmes or trusted shipper programmes are also in place in many
airports. In order to avoid external security threats, a range of measures are in place in and around an
airport.

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 AIRPORT infrastructure element encompassing a wide range of facilities and services (technical and
commercial) which enables and contributes to smooth, safe and comfortable travel, and to the
Learning Outcomes: movement of cargo. Airports are categorized in different ways
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to: :
1) Define airport.  Civil Aviation Airports- these consists of general aviation airports and commercial service
2) Understand the function and roles of airports.
airports.
3) Narrate the evolution of modern airports
 Commercial Airports- these consists of international and domestic airports
Airports had become simple buildings that provided a waiting area along  Hub Airports- these are commercial airports that are considered hubs for air services to many
with facilities for landing and takeoff. During this period, planes were very light, other cities.
with low engine power and a tail wheel, and hence a meadow with proper water  Regional Airports- these are airports with commercial services in a smaller area.
drainage was sufficient. Technological advancements, enhancement of socio-  Military Airports- these are built for military/defense purposes.
economic circumstances of societies, the necessity for improved safety and
security measures, policy changes such as deregulation and privatization, etc.
provided much impact in the evolution of airports into a modern form. FUNCTION AND ROLES OF AN AIRPORT
An airport is an integral part of a nation’s overall transport system. There is at least one airport
in each sovereign country in the world, which form part of the overall transport network. A commercial
CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF AIRPORT airport wont function in isolation due to the multiple roles it has. The following are the major functional
An airport has many dimensions and plays a significant role in the socio- roles of air transport:
Lesson economic life of a country. Some of the dimensions of an airport, as suggested  Basic infrastructure needed for air transport
by Graham (2003), are as follows:  The location where airlines can undertake flight series
 It brings together a wide range of facilities and services in order to be  Interface between land mode and air mode of transport

4 able to fulfil its role within the air transport industry.

 It offers a wide variety of commercial facilities ranging from shops and
restaurants to conference facilities.
 It provides importance in the region by integrating with the overall
transport system and establishing links to key rail and road networks.
 It can bring a greater economic development, provide substantial
 A point of national and international connectivity
 A transport hub
 A facilitator for economic development
 A basic infrastructure for international trade
 A facilitator for regional and local development
 An employment provider (direct and indirect)
employment opportunities and be a lifetime to isolated communities.  A location for cargo handling and its loading and unloading
 Entry and exit
From the above discussion, we can conclude that an airport is a complex point with
emigration
set of facilities, services and infrastructure which enables air transport service
services for
providers to transport passengers and cargo from one place to another. The
travelers
essential facilities and infrastructure may include standard runways, taxiways,
 Space for safety
aprons, safety and security facilities and services, air navigation services, and security
aircraft maintenance facilities, passenger terminals with necessary facilities for measures in air
passenger handling and travel baggage handling facilities, etc. Commercial transportation
services, like duty-free shops and refreshment centres, vary according to the  Commercial
size and nature of the airport. Hence, a commercial airport is a multifaceted air transport space

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 refreshments, duty-free businesses connected to the airport. Associated businesses offer a diverse range of employment in and
shopping, currency conversion, around the city in which airport is located. The passengers who are coming into the region also spend
etc. on a wide variety of items which will have a multiplier effect in the economy.
Proximity or connectivity of airports is a determinant in investment decisions of many sectors.
From a tourism point of view, It directly helps to have more investments in the economy. Movement of cargo by air is an advantage
an airport has much more significance. for businesses. Moreover, export industries are benefited directly as well indirectly. Airports enhance
A tourist enjoys a range of services from business efficiency. As travel duration and logistics time are curtailed, it may result in increased
an airport. Some of the major services productivity, both directly and indirectly. An airport is also a matter of pride too for the local community.
are follows: The aviation network identifies the airport and will be shown on the air network map. Airports play a vital
 A port of entry for a tourist role in connecting communities, people and markets, and that enhances the mobility of the population.
visiting a country Moreover, it helps in having a strengthened link between different countries and cultures. Eventually, it
 A place for getting a visa also helps to increase international understanding and multicultural cooperation. Increased mobility and
wherever visa on arrival (VOA) access to places is something the community can enjoy through the establishment of an airport.
services are available Apart from these benefits, an airport also plays a key role in/is a catalyst for tourism
 Centre for refreshment options development and growth. For both inbound and outbound tourism, air connectivity has tremendous
 Place for booking tourist services such as accommodation, car rental, etc. significance. For a destination, it helps to increase the flow of tourists into it. Subsequently, tourism
 Concierge services and tourism information services benefits the community in a number of ways.
 Shopping location
 Safe transport of luggage
 Place of destination reception, “meet and greet” and tour briefing while arrival
AIRPORT
 A platform for tour briefing and seeing off departing tourists
PRODUCT AND
 Currency conversion and limited banking services CUSTOMERS
 An attraction for tourists and an element in the composite tourist experience An airport
 A place of rejoining friends and making new friends serves a range of
customers, directly
and indirectly.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE According to Halpren
Apart from the facilities and services offered for transportation of passengers and cargo, and Graham (2013),
airports have many other dimensions of socio-economic significance. Primarily, airports ensure a faster the customers of an
mode of travel for the people travelling into and out of a region. The travel duration is curtailed airport include
remarkably by using air transport, which helps to increase accessibility and inter-regional expansion a airlines, passengers,
boon for community upliftment. Opening up a new airport or increasing existing airport capacities tour operators, travel
facilitates additional accessibility and this investment can have a positive long-term impact on economic agents, freight
growth. An airport is usually an indication of economic progress of a region as well. In order to have forwarders, ground
economic progress in a region, airports become necessary. It provides direct, indirect and induced handlers, retail concessionaires and to some extent the employees working inside the airports. The
economic benefits. The most obvious parameter of its economic significance is the employment categorization of customers is into five categories: airlines, passengers; non-travelers (employee,
opportunities it provides directly and indirectly. In an airport, there is a wide variety of employment visitors and retail customers, meters and greeters, and neighbors); tenants/service providers (retail, car
opportunities, including those associated with aircraft operations and maintenance, passenger and park, ground handling, advertisers); and potential development partners (real estate developers,
freight handling, ATC and safety, transport and logistics, airport management, planning and hospitality, transportation service providers, government). Airlines act as a customer and the final
construction, and various retail and commercial services inside the airport. There are many associated consumers of the services are the passengers or those sending cargo. Airlines need services for

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landing and taking off, space for parking, loading and unloading of flights, baggage handling, check-in,
emigration and security check-in services, and other services necessary for operating their flight STRUCTURE OF AN AIRPORT
services. Ideally an airport can be divided into 3 sections:
 Airside- Airside of an airport is meant for the movement of aircraft around the airport and for
landing and take-off. It’s the most important area in an airport where all the technical aspects
REVENUE SOURCES of flying take place. Aircraft can access only this area. The major facilities include runways,
Airports also generate taxiways, aircraft parking areas, navigational aids, lighting systems, signage and markings, air
revenue for their competitive survival. rescue and firefighting facilities, snow plowing and de-icing facilities, and fuel service centres.
Earlier, when airports were treated Major components of airside are:
just as a transport infrastructure and  Runways
survived in regulated environments, The runway is the airport’s raison d’étre. According to ICAO, a runway is “a
the main source of revenue was the defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of
aeronautical activities, which take aircraft” [CAO Definitions, UVS International, n.d.). Large airports usually have three or
place on the airfield or in the terminal more paved runways of necessary length. A typical runway in an international airport
where airlines operate. As the nature may be about 3,200 metres long, with a width to accommodate the wide-body aircraft.
of airports changed, the focus of
The latest aircraft such as the A380 need longer and wider runways. A runway can be
revenue generation slowly shifted to
composed of grass, dirt, sand, gravel, asphalt or concrete, depending on factors like
non-aeronautical activities as well.
While aeronautical revenue is dependent directly on aircraft operation and processing of freight and location, size and types of aircraft. Nowadays, runways are made up of
passengers, non-aeronautical revenue is generated from the commercial activities that take place cement/concrete, with asphalt shoulders or both are made from asphalt. Runway
inside the terminal as well as from the rent accrued from space allotted for different entities/activities. design and management have to follow strictly the necessary rules and guidelines,
Income in the form of landing fees, passenger charges, cargo charges, and from ground services and especially pertaining to the required length, width, direction configuration, stops,
ground handling activities are all included in the former category. Non-aeronautical revenue sources pavement thickness, lightings, markings and signage. Aircraft characteristics are also
include: rents; direct sales centres such as shops, catering services by airport concessionaires; car taken into account when making runways, such as the maximum gross take-off weight,
parking and other sources such as consultancy services, visitor services, business services, etc. The acceleration rate, aircraft type, distance to fly for take-off and wingspan influence. The
following are potential sources of revenue for airports: determinant in the
 Aeronautical charges width of the runway
 Aircraft landing fee for the use of runways and taxiways is usually the
 Terminal area navigation fee for air traffic management services wingspan of the
 Aircraft parking and hangar fee largest operating
 Airport noise charge
aircraft. It usually
 Passenger service charge
 Cargo service charge varies from 50 to
 Security charges 200 feet. Pavement
 Ground handling charge thickness varies f
 Concession fees for aviation fuel and oil, etc. rom 6 inches to over
 Non-aeronautical charges 4 feet. Concrete
 Commercial concession fee by shops and service providers pavements can
 Rental for airport land, buildings space and equipment remain useful for 20
 Tolls for automobile parking and rentals to 40 years. It is
 Fee for the provision of engineering services and reimbursable utiliies usually better to
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 land into the wind. Atmospheric conditions like elevation above sea level are also aeroplanes, it should provide good ride capability of an aircraft and should provide good
factors considered in the making of runways. In an airport, there can be a primary braking even on a wet surface (Kazda and Caves, 2000). There are different types of
runway, which is the runway that is oriented into the prevailing winds. Runways are also pavements. Non-reinforced grass strips are suitable only for the lightest types of
sometimes built on a “crosswind” direction. In large airports, there are sometimes general aviation flights. There are also reinforced green strips. Hard surface pavements
parallel, additional runways, but there can also be both parallel and crosswind runways. are in common use in commercial aviation; they have regular year-round operation of
Runway strips appear beyond the shoulder. Runway shoulders are provided heavy aircraft. Cement/concrete rigid pavements and asphalt-flexible pavements are
immediately beyond the edge of the pavement and the adjacent space mainly to avoid also common.
running off the pavement, for drainage, and possibly for blast protection. Edge lights are  Taxiways
arranged on the shoulders. A runway strip will surround the runway and ensure the Taxiways are there to ensure safe, smooth and expeditious movement of
safety of in aircraft or when it deviates from the runway centre line. Runway strips are aircraft between the runways and the apron or other areas in the airport. They are
usually made of grass so that in the event of an aircraft running off the runway, the meant in taxiing of aircraft, intended to provide a link between one part of the airport
undercarriage Vwill gradually sink into the runway strip to provide effective deceleration and another. At very busy airports the taxiway can be extensive and complex in
of the plane. Also on the runway, apart from the “take-off run available” (TORA), a geometry. Usually in large airports there will be a multi-taxiway system along With
high-speed exit taxiways.
clearway may be pm vided called “take-off distance available” (TODA), beyond the end
 Aprons/ramp areas
of the hard surface. Often a stop way is provided. A “runway end safety area” (RESA) is The term apron is used to refer to the part of the airport, other than the
also provided at the end of a runway strip to avoid any damage to the aircraft when manoeuvring area, meant for parking of aircraft and undertaking turn-around activities
taking off/landing. One the latest systems is called the engineered material arresting before the next flight. A manoeuvring area is that part of an aerodrome to be used by
system (EMAS), which is a bed of engineered materials used at the end of the runway aircraft for takeoff, landing, and taxiing, excluding aprons and areas designed for
to decelerate the aircraft in the event of an emergency. Also, there shouldn’t be maintenance of an aircraft. The activities include: loading and offloading of
elevated concrete construction sharp embankments for the containment of sewage passengers; baggage and cargo; refueling; servicing; maintenance; and parking of
plants or transport links, etc. in the rounding area, especially under the approach path. aircraft. Apron layout is as important as airport design. A properly designed apron is
Some countries form a Public Safety Zone (PSZ) near the end of busy commercial critical to the safety of aircraft, ground Support equipment operations, employees, and
runways to control constructions/other obstacles so as to ensure safer landing/take-off. passengers on and around aircraft parking areas. This area is usually a very active
Based on runway markings, three types of runways can be seen: visual, area, and at times congested, particularly in busy airports. The layout, marking,
non-precision instrument and precision instrument runways. Under the instrument
runway category, there are two major types: non-precision approach runway and
precision approach rune way. Runway lightings are crucial in night-time operations.
That may include centre line lights, centre line reflectors, edge lights, edge reflectors,
airport beacons and approach lighting. A beacon is meant to indicate the location of an
aerodrome from the air. An aeronautical beacon represents an aeronautical ground light
visible at all azimuths to indicate a particular point on the surface of the earth. These
guide aircraft in properly aligning with the runway while approaching to land. An
approach lighting system (ALS) guides an aircraft in properly aligning with the runway
while attempting to land.
A pavement, the artificially covered surface on the runways, taxiways and
the like, is important as it should have the requisite strength, slope and capacity to
match/withstand geological conditions. It means that the airport pavement should
comply with requirements. For example, its bearing strength must be appropriate for

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 lighting, access for vehicles, fixed or mobile services for aircraft servicing, etc. should have complicated environmentally controlled maintenance facilities.
follow industry quality standards. Different types of apron layouts include the following:  ATC tower
o Linear Air navigation facilities mainly consist of ATC units and associated
o Open telecommunication radio beacons, satellite systems and other aids to landing, weather
o Pier forecasts, airports, computer terminals, etc. Satellites and associated technology have
o Satellite altered the navigation systems, as satellite technology has brought in accuracy and
In linear layouts, individual stands are arranged in a row along the terminal flexibility to navigation along with increasing the range and quality of communication.
building or around it. Stands are seen in rows in front of the terminal building in an open The functioning of an air navigation system is provided in detail in the next chapter.
layout, but they are not connected to it. Depending on the distance from the terminal  Support services and facilities
building, vehicles may be used to transport boarding passengers to the flight. Pier Aircraft maintenance, pilot services, aircraft rental and hangar rental are
layouts refer to the arrangement in which stands are connected to the sides of most often performed by a fixed base operator (FBO). At major airports, particularly
extensions from the terminal, as rows or more complex forms. In the satellite layout, the those used as hubs, airlines may operate their own support facilities. Some airports,
stands are arranged like a satellite model, away from the terminal, and connected with typically military airbases, have long runways used as emergency landing sites. Many
the terminal by underground tunnels or by overhead corridors. A terminal area’s apron airbases have arrest. ing equipment for fast aircraft, known as rotary hydraulic
is meant for the enplaning and deplaning of passengers from an aircraft. This can be arrestor gear a strong cable suspended just above the runway and attached to a
connected directly to the gate via passenger loading bridges. Otherwise, if they are hydraulic reduction gear mechanism. Together with the landing aircraft’s arresting
away from the gates, then air stairs are used for boarding and deplaning passengers. hook, it is used in situations where the brakes would have little or no effect.
De-icing aprons, cargo aprons, maintenance aprons, remote aprons, general aviation  Terminal- The terminal is the most tangible component of the airport. It was once just an
aprons and helipads are other aprons seen in airports. The positions of aircraft parking interface between landside and airside for passengers and visitors, but has now attained a
in stands make different stand types, such as nose-in, angled nose-in, nose-out, angled much more commercial and economic significance. Technically, a terminal is a building that
nose-out, and parallel stands. There may be a holding bay, where an aircraft can be encompasses the provisions for passenger handling and cargo processing prior to the
held or bypassed, to enable efficient surface movement of aircraft. boarding or loading into a flight. The size of the building varies mainly according to the need in
 Ramp Area respect of the demand or the number of passengers being handled. There are centralized and
A ramp area denotes the specific decentralized terminals depending on the location of passenger processing. Multi-terminal
space where aircraft park near to a airports are common nowadays. Moreover, in some cities separate terminals are used for
terminal to load passengers and cargo. domestic and international flights. Shape and the nature of the terminals also vary. E.g.
The term ramp is hardly used, while the simple, linear, satellite, pier and semi-circular terminals. Large airports may be multi-story and
term apron is more common. The activities arrival and departure may be arranged on different levels passengers on commercial flights
on the ramp include aircraft loading and access airside areas through terminaIs, where they can purchase tickets, clear security, check
offloading, baggage sorting, and cargo or claim luggage and board aircraft through gates. A passenger passes through a range of
services, aircraft marshaling, security activities prior to boarding a flight. The following takes place in a terminal:
provisions and cabin cleaning  Airlines can process passengers to board flights
 Hangar  Arriving passengers can enter into a destination
The hangar is an area where  Baggage handling for departing and arriving passengers
aircraft are stored and maintenance work is  Services and facilities for entry and exit of foreigners coming into or leaving a
undertaken. The size, nature and facilities of country Safety and security services
a hangar can vary depending on the sue  Cargo handling
and nature of operations of the airport.  Shopping and refreshments
Moreover, in some airports, there are ample  Preventing the carriage of banned and restricted Items while flying
“shade" structures that protect all or parts of  Landside- landside is meant for the movement of ground-based vehicles, passengers and
the aircraft. Some advanced hangars may cargo from the surrounding area to and out of the airport. Basically, this area is the entry into
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 the airport that provides access to the airport, without restrictions. Along with the safe and are involved in the commercial operation and management of airports. They include administrators,
adequate passenger and cargo drop-off facilities, landside provides parking facilities a: well. finance personnel and public relations employees. Some of the key positions in this category include
Moreover, some commercial firms such as car rental offices and restaurants can be seen in airport director; finance and administration assistant directors and other personnel, human resources
the landside area. Landside access modes are also important in the modern era of airports. At personnel, marketing personnel, etc. The airport director is vested with the responsibility of the overall
busy airports, ground access systems can be complex, involving combs. nations of highway day-to-day operation of the airport, supervising, directing and reviewing aircraft operations, building and
and train stations located under passenger terminals. Major airport; usually depend primarily field maintenance construction plans, community relations, and financial and personnel matters at the
on highways and road networks, and on a combination of private automobiles, rental cars, airport; and directing, coordinating and reviewing through subordinate supervisors. Ground services
taxis, buses, trucks and specialized ground vehicles to transport the bulk of passengers, personnel, another group who perform various activities airside, ensure the smooth functioning of
airport-site employees, freight and various supplies to and from the airport. Parking facilities aircraft landings and take-offs, as well as the essential maintenance of aircraft. Activities include loading
are important as they require a lot of investments and consume valuable, centrally located of supplies, washing, de-icing, cabin cleaning, aircraft marshalling, toilet servicing, cargo handling,
space. baggage and cargo loading/unloading, aircraft pushback and towing, water service, refueling,
There has to be a proper system for car transportation in the landside and for access. maintenance of the aircrafts at the gate, etc. Usually airports offer ground service providers for airlines,
Taxi services are crucial. Taxis are considered reliable and comfortable, with less luggage hut in some cases, airlines themselves may engage personnel far these activities. Ground
handling issues, and they ensure direct transportation between the origin point and the airport transportation personnel are involved in the different transportation activities inside the airport, and to
departure point. Airports have to make sure that the number of taxi cabs is sufficient to meet and from the airport. Airport maintenance personnel are also a key personnel category.
demand, and make sure the quality, price levels and security aspects are right. Minibuses are An airport has to be maintained with utmost care, and personnel at different levels are
used for transfers, particularly by hotels. They can also provide th¢ door-twdoor advantages of involved in this task. The airside has to be kept neat and clean and in top working order. Special care is
a taxi and provide increased security, comfort and speed. Bus services to and from airports needed during bad weather conditions. In addition, the terminal is to be kept neat and in working order
are common. There are scheduled services in long and short distances. Local shuttle services at all times. The key official in this area develops, directs and coordinates policies, programmes,
are also very common. There is also an increased use rail transport. procedures, standards and schedules for the maintenance of building facilities, coordinates work done
by tenants and contractors, inspects maintenance works, foresees future requirements and oversees
maintenance contracts. Safety and security is another crucial area. Security tasks are taken care of by
ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL security personnel of different cadres. A government security system will usually be associated with
Management of an airport is as crucial as the technical operations. Modem airports are this. Ensuring the safety of airport visitors is another task for a variety of personnel. Emergency
typically competitive commercial organizations that need efficient, quality management and an services are part of this. Medical services crews are available to handle emergency situations. In
operational team consisting of suitable personnel. Each and every function and operational activity is addition to these key personnel, there are other groups, such as planning and engineering, certification,
vital for the efficient, rules and regulations, public relation and environmental management.
smooth and comfortable
running of air transport
operations, and the
accomplishment of CHALLENGES
managerial objectives. According to Page (2009), airports face a number of challenges from a visitor experience
Jobs vary significantly point of view. Those include:
and serve a broad range  The need to cope with larger aircraft
of airport customers.  The need to incorporate the latest technological developments
Personnel can be  The need to recognize the changes in consumer behaviors that have begun to reach a mass
classified into the market
following:  The need to expedite passenger movement inside the airport
 The need to address the safety and security issues at airports.
Airport
management personnel

23 | P a g e
 AIRPORT OPERATIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
- Describe the tasks involved in airport ground handling.
- Identify the equipment involved in ground handling operations
- Learn the passenger handling procedures.
EXERCISE 4.1: WHAT TO DO: - Better understand the baggage handling by airlines.
1) Define airport. - Understand air cargo operation.
2) What are services a tourist can avail from an airport?
Managing airport operations is a challenging task. The quality of ground
3) List the customers of an airport
handling services has to meet emerging needs, especially in terms of reliability
4) Describe the facilities and services in an airport terminal.
and resilience, safety and security.
5) Make an organizational chart of airport management and write their responsibilities.
Note:
GROUND HANDLING
a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Ground Handling deals with all the activities that are undertaken in
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 4.1
order to prepare an aircraft for the next flight. The ground handling activities in
for example:
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address) the airside includes various activities such as aircraft marshalling, toilet and
To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com water services, repair faults, refueling, wheel and tyre check, ground power
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 2.1 supply etc.
(attached files) Lesson There are two types of ground handling system. One is self handling, in
which the respective airline chooses to provide services for it. Another one is
outsourcing or contracting with a third party which is a common practice around

5
the world. In this case, the airline will make an agreement with an agency. The
agency that provides the ground handling services to an airline based on a
contract can be another airline or it can be dedicated ground handling company.
 Deplaning and Boarding
Deplaning is all about disembarking passengers from a flight. Delays in
deplaning can cause delays elsewhere, as deplaning and enplaning are also
main factors in contributing to the aircraft turnaround time. A series of other
activities, such as cleaning, have to be done inside the aircraft after deplaning.
Boarding of passengers can be undertaken after these activities have
been performed. Stairs or passenger bridges are used for deplaning and
enplaning/boarding. Passenger bridges or jet bridges are also common for
deplaning/enplaning passengers. The official term is Passenger Boarding
Briidge. (PBB)
As a quick recap, here is the list of ground handling activities:
 Stop aircraft
 Stop engines
 Position passenger bridges
 Supply power
 Air conditioning
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  Deplane passengers baggage has to be loaded in a proper way and care has to be taken secure all the bags
 Unload cargo/baggage inside the compartments so that they don’t move while flying. The moving bag conveyer belt
 Check airplane brings the checked-in luggage from the point of collection/check-in counter to the bag room,
 Service lavatories where it is sorted for different flights. Based on the information on the bag tag, the sorted
 Service galleys items are placed into the proper bag cart, which can be a unit load device or a four-wheeled
 Service cabin trailer.
 Service potable water Handling of loose cargo and baggage is very difficult and time-consuming.
 Fuel aircraft Improper packaging can lead to damage and contamination of other cargo or the
 Load cargo/baggage compartment. The weighing has to be proper as well.
 Board passengers  Gate arrival and push back operations
 Start engines Push-back represents the action of moving an aeroplane from a passenger
 Power supply removal terminal to a runway or taxiway, into a position where it can use its own engines. Extreme
 Remove bridges care has to be taken during push-back and gate arrival procedures in order to ensure the
 Push-back safety of passengers, crew and personnel involved. Once passengers have boarded, the
 Taxi into position aircraft can plan to push back.
During the gate arrival, the necessary ground crew has to assemble in the gate
area. The essential ground crew consists of a marshaller and two wing walkers. During this
time all vehicles in and around the area should be alerted and moved out the way. Once the
aircraft clears the roadway, the ground service personnel wait until the engines are off, and
switch off the anti-collision light.
 Refueling
Refueling of aircraft for the next flight is an activity that should be done with
utmost care and safety considerations. Airports usually have adequate measures for
refueling of the aircraft. The method/system of refueling may be different depending on the
size, frequency and number of operations, geographical conditions, etc.
 Storage- The received fuel needs to be stored with utmost care. There
are “fuel farms” consisting of storage tanks located at airports. Storage
tanks may be underground or overground, the decision being made on
the basis of a special study for each case. Double-jacket storage tanks
are also used; the cost of the technology is higher, but with lower
 Power Supply construction costs. If the storage tanks are single-jacket, then the
While the aircraft is at the ramp, the energy requirements will be fullfiled by construction cost can be higher. The quantity has to be accounted for
supplying the necessary power for the next flight. Aircraft have built-in power generating correctly to ensure there is no overfill 0r spillage, contamination or other
mechanisms involving mainly generators that are linked to auxiliary engines that will be active potentially hazardous situations arising during storage. Airports should
while flying to meet the requirements inside. While aircraft are on the ground, during the have a reserve, which is the quantity of fuel in storage that may not be
turnaround time, they still require electrical energy. This can be for flight systems, lights, used at that time to refuel aircraft.
heating and cooling of the cabin, etc.  Distribution- This is the mechanism of fuel delivery to aircraft from
 Cargo and Baggage Loading storage tanks. The common delivery mechanisms include (ARCP
Cargo and baggage loading is also a crucial activity. In wide-body aircraft Synthesis 63, 2015):
baggage is transported in containers, which reduces the number of bags going astray o Underground hydrant fuelling system
because all the baggage going to one destination stored in one container. After weighing, o Stationary platform
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 o Fueling truck the aircraft is another issue. Ice
The hydrant fuelling system is distribution by fixed systems, whiéh deposited on aircraft parts,
can pump fuel directly from the fuel farm to the aircraft through particularly on the lifting surfaces,
underground pipes. The piping system ends near an aircraft parking can result in variations in
space on the ramp and from it aircraft can be fuelled. There is no need aerodynamic characteristics and
for a mobile dispenser unit. Currently, large airports prefer a hydrant flight performance: the weight of the
fuelling system for a range of reasons including: cost advantages; better aircraft can go up; and iced sensors
safety, particularly from fire safety; operational efficiency; and greener, can send incorrect indications to the
i.e. more environmentally friendly. pilots. The removal of me from an
The fuelling truck is a traditional method; the truck or dispenser aircraft will also delay the flight.
loaded with fuel from a rack or similar loading area will reach the aircraft Ice and snow affecting air
to refuel it. The chassis-mounted tank with an integral pump, filter and transport can be of different types.
meter system will help to fill the petrol in the aircraft tanks. Though Dry snow is one type that affects aviation. Dry snow appears when the atmospheric temperature in all
flexible, this has many limitations. In busy airports, it is not easy to allow layers falls below freezing point. This snow is fluffy and can be blown if loose, or, if compacted by hand,
for the movement of refuelling trucks. The quantity carried in one tank is will fall apart again upon release. Also, it can be moved along with wind. Wet snow appears when the
obviously limited, whereas large flights require huge quantities. Safety is atmospheric temperature is just above freezing point and can be command by hand so that it sticks
also comparatively less. together (because of its greater water content). Compacted snow is another type. This snow is in a
Stationary fuelling platforms are remote stations where aircraft can compressed form, seen as a solid mass. It will hold together or break up into lumps if picked up. Slush
get their fuel. This mechanism is not often seen in modern commercial snow is in a form that is starting to melt and is thus saturated with water.
airports, as aircraft have to travel some distance for refuelling. However, De-icing is an activity performed in winter. This is a precautionary procedure carried out in airports
smaller airports and some general airports do use this system. to remove ice and snow-related contaminants from aircraft surfaces. Usually a liquid mixture is used,
WINTER OPERATIONS which is a combination of heated glycol and water. De-icing is more effective as a snow/ice removal
Winter seasons can be difficult for air traffic, particularly within or near the airport themselves (Kazda mechanism. For further prevention of snow/ice build-up 011 aircraft during flight hours, anti-icing is also
and Caves, 2000). Snow, ice or slush on airfield pavements and drifting snow can lead to aircraft required. This is done with a higher concentration of glycol, which ensures a freezing point well below 0
accidents. This kind of contamination can also cause resistance on an aircraft’s wheels during the take- degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit). This liquid is added so that it can adhere to aircraft surfaces
off run. Moreover, aircraft braking action can be impacted by the ice deposited, which can also increase in order to protect against contamination during active weather events. Polypropylene glycol and
the possibility of aircraft sliding off the pavement. Winter storms can also negatively impact air traffic, ethylene glycol are used to eliminate ice accumulations, depending upon the necessity. A combination
e.g. reductions in traffic volume, and flight delays and cancellations. In extreme situations, airports can of granules of sodium acetate and a solution of potassium acetate is also used for de-icing runway
face closure for days. Foggy surfaces. Snow removal is another crucial activity in airports. An effective and efficient snow and ice
and cloudy skies can also have control programme is crucial in reducing the cost and in efficient execution associated with these
consequences on air traffic. activities. Prompt removal or control of snow and ice is crucial in aircraft operations, particularly in
Flight delays and cancellations winter seasons. Appropriate materials are to be used for snow and ice control so as to minimize engine
are very common in many ingestion. Runways, taxiways, aprons, holding bays and other necessary areas are to be cleared off.
airports due to such adverse Snow and ice need to be removed from other areas as well, such as navigation aid locations and
conditions. It is mandatory for equipment. Application of sand after the complete removal of snow, ice and slush can increase surface
airports to have an effective friction. In respect of snow and ice control, the following information is included in weather forecasts
snow plan. Urgent safety (Wells and Young, 2004):
measures are taken for  Forecasted commencement of any snowfall
clearing the airside of snow  Duration, intensity and accumulation estimate
and ice, particularly the  Wind directions and velocities during the snowfall
runways and taxiways. Ice on  Temperature ranges during and after the snowfall
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  Types of precipitation expected
 Cloud coverage following the snowfall PASSENGER HANDLING
Passenger handling is all about the
There is some mobile equipment in use for snow removal. Mechanical is less expensive and hence processing activities associated with
preferred more often. Mechanically spread sand on a surface may be heated using a flame-thrower departing passengers- for boarding the
type burner unit so as to melt the ice. Snowploughs, snow blowers/snow throwers and snow brushes flight for onward journey and enabling the
are usually used for removing snow and other similar substances from surfaces airside. Other vehicles arriving passengers to leave the airport
and equipment used may include sand] aggregate trucks, chemical Spreaders, tankers and loaders. without delay or hassles.
Chemicals like urea, sodium formate and acetate-based compounds are used for snow removal in  Departure procedures
areas such as airfleld pavements. For a departing passenger,
he/she enters the departure area,
where the check-in concourse is
located. Checked-in baggage can be
GROUND HANDLING EQUIPMENT screened through an x-ray scanning
Tow Bars Sand/Aggregate Trucks Transporters machine. In some airports, the
Push-back tractors Chemical spreaders Tractors baggage screening process takes place later, after the airline collects them. Checked baggage
Forklifts Rapid Intervention Vehicles Plastic foil is the luggage that cannot be carried by the passenger in hand and which is stored in the
Stairs/Steps (RIVs) Net bags/ pouches specific place for luggage (the hold) in the aircraft. Free baggage allowance is given to
Ground Power Units Tankers Dry ice boxes passengers up to a certain weight and size as per the airline’s conditions. There are self-
Chocks Trailers Pot kennels check-in kiosks available in many airports and these can be used by passengers who don’t
Aircraft tripod jacks Unit load devices (ULDs) Pallets have check-in luggage.
Air start units Tie-down rings and straps Containers The passenger has to locate the appropriate check-in counter of their particular airline
Waste water disposal Lashing rope Luggage tow for getting their boarding pass. There will be airport attendants/staff available to help the
Supporting planks Luggage delivery wagon Bus passenger do this. There are also visual displays available to guide the p assenger. There
Portable water vehicles Lavatory water vehicles Belt loaders may be different check-in areas for domestic and international passengers. Different airports
have different structures of arranging check-in counters. Once the check-in counter is
identified, the passenger can approach the counter and the staff will collect the necessary
travelling documents, including ticket and passport. Usually airports have check-in counters for
EXERCISE 5.1: WHAT TO DO: individual flights, but some have common check-in counters. If it is individual check-in, then
1) Pick 3 ground handling equipment and define its functions. there will be two or more dedicated counters for each flight during the specified check-in time
2) What do we mean by turnaround time? of each flight. The counter staff verifies the details and identification and issues the boarding
3) Explain the push back operations. pass. In the meantime, the luggage will be weighed, and checked baggage will be taken in
Note: after proper tagging. Hand luggage is also tagged after weighing. Once the process is
a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com complete, the passenger receives their boarding pass and checked baggage counterfoil. It’s
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 5.1 important to minimize the check-in time in order to be efficient. Long queues for check-in are
for example: unwarranted. Displays containing the flight details need to be placed at each counter so that
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address) the passenger can easily locate it. In some locations, curb check-in is available, where the
To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 5.1
luggage is collected upon arrival of the passenger at the airport, before they proceed to the
(attached files) check-in area. This makes it easier for passengers to be relieved of their heavy luggage early
on.

27 | P a g e
 With the boarding pass, the passenger has to proceed to the emigration centre, also facilities and services. Every passenger will expect to be moved through the respective
called the passport control centre. There will be a number of counters with emigration officials. processes without delay, have space to relax and to refresh in the cleanest environment, with
Passengers hand over their documents and the officer in charge verifies them, including, the good ambience, beautiful interiors and amenities. Each passenger will also expect warmth
visa. After verification, the exit stamp will be endorsed in the passport to show the departure of during checks and emigration clearances. Efficiency in check-in counters and speed of
the passenger from the country to another country. As soon as emigration clearance and exit processing are very important in passenger handling in airports. Long queues are tiring and
stamping is over, the passenger, along with their hand luggage, has to undergo detailed dissatisfying. Moreover, many airports require a lot of walking. Nowadays, internal transport
security screening. Hand luggage, electronic devices and other items passengers are carrying vehicles, including monorail services, are arranged inside airports to move from one area to
are screened and checked separately for anything suspicious. The passenger has to walk another. Elevators, stairs and escalators also need to be in place and functional. Many would
through a metal detector, and security personnel may check their body with the help of the also appreciate good shopping options. Other services like banking, information services, etc.
metal detector. After the security check, the passenger enters into a concourse with a wide are significant, too. A quick check-in process, easy emigration services, shorter distances to
variety of commercial facilities, including duty-free shops, refreshment centers, gift shops, walk to reach the gate area, enough space to rest and relax, easy access to gates, good
bookshops, etc. From there, after finishing their shopping and/or refreshments, passengers refreshment options, eye-catching interiors and furnishings, efficient staff to deliver the
can move to the departure area where the gate is located. necessary services, good shopping facilities and easy boarding mechanisms are key
After waiting in the departure area or gate hold room and hearing the boarding determinants in the success of airports.
announcement, the passenger moves to the gate. Once the verification commences at the
gate, the passenger’s travel documents will be verified by the airline attendant/gate personnel
again and a counterfoil of the boarding pass will be given back to the passenger. The boarding PASSENGER HANDLING: PRIMARY ACTIVITIES AND FACILITIES
pass and identity verification are extremely important prior to boarding. After pre-boarding ACTIVITIES FACILITIES
verification, the passenger is led to the aircraft by walking, in a transfer vehicle or through a Arrival of passengers Information counters
passenger jet bridge. The boarding processing may vary from airline to airline. Some airlines Documents verification and boarding pass Ticket/boarding counters
prefer passengers to issuing
board based on seat Baggage check Baggage screening facilities
numbers. While Passport/immigration check Passenger security stations
entering into the Security check Passport control counters
aircraft the flight crew Departure for boarding Baggage claim areas and conveyor belts
may greet and Baggage claim
welcome the Customs clearance Custom clearance areas
passengers and lead
them to their  Arrival Procedures
particular seats. There are similar situations during arrival as well. The arriving passenger may
Though want to leave the airport as quickly as possible. Some may want to try out shopping
passengers may options or arrange accommodation services and car rentals. Others may require
move ahead banking and currency exchange services. In some busy airports, there are long
themselves through queues at passport control counters. This really irks arriving passengers who are
all the stages as per already tired after their long journey. Let’s now take a look at the major arrival
the information procedures in airports.
displayed and Once the aircraft lands, passengers are often in a hurry to disembark. First class
announced, and business class passengers are permitted to disembark before the rest of the
necessary assistance may also be given when being processed through check-in, security passengers (Le. economy class) on the aircraft. Everyone will be transported to the
screening, passport control and boarding. A good share of the passengers may be in the arrival gate where they will enter the arrival concourse. From the arrival area, they
airport for the first time, but they should nonetheless feel that it is easy to find the necessary move to passport verification and visa counters. Once their documents have been
28 | P a g e
 verified and stamped with entry permits, passengers move further along. For transit baggage, it passes to the
passengers, there is no need to go through the passport control area; there will be central sorting area. Many
separate passage for them. When the boarding announcement is made, transit airports use automated
passengers can move to the departure area (after the security check) once again. sorting of baggage, which is
Arriving passengers have to move to the baggage claim Area for collecting their performed mainly with the
luggage. In large airports there will he a number of conveyor belts and the passenger help of bar codes. After
will have to identify the belt that matches their flight. Necessary assistance can be
sorting according to the
obtained from the attendants available there or from the office for luggage claim,
Passengers can collect their luggage and verify its tags with the counterfoils already flight, they will be moved to
issued. the respective airlines for
Once baggage is collected, passengers can continue on. There are two ways: loading. Baggage
the green channel and the red channel. Usually baggage is screened by scanning reconciliation is undertaken,
machines. If the passenger has nothing to declare, i.e. dutiable goods, he/she can which is done to ensure that
move through the green channel. If there is any item for which duty must he paid, the passengers have boarded
passenger must move through the red channel and pay the fee accordingly. Some the same aircraft into which
countries maintain restrictions on certain items being brought into the country. In such their baggage has been loaded. In the case of arriving flights, the unloaded luggage will also be moved
locations, after baggage screening, officials may physically verify the luggage if they to the central sorting area and from there it will be moved to the assigned conveyer belts. Those bags
see anything suspicious. for transferring flights will be moved separately. Airports, airlines or outsourced agencies may
After the customs area, passengers enter into a concourse with a wide variety of undertake the baggage handling responsibilities depending upon each airport’s policy. Automated
commercial service outlets, such as car rental, banking, hotel counters, restaurants, systems are there to ensure error-free baggage handling. Baggage claim should be in a convenient
paid taxi services and currency exchange centers. Passengers can make use of any
location with necessary space and enough conveyor belts.
service according to their need, and then can continue on out of the airport for further
activities.
AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES
Air travel needs a fine-tuned support system for safe and smooth operation. A range of
BAGGAGE HANDLING complexities are involved in air transportation. An aircraft while flying cannot stop and wait for
This is all about the collection, sorting and distribution of checked baggage. The luggage information. It flies very fast and a sudden change in direction or altitude is very difficult. An air
collected from the navigation service in the system makes air transportation a smooth and safe affair. It involves facilities
passenger during check-in and services that provide a pilot with information to enable him/her to reach the destination smoothly,
has to be moved to the safely and on time. The advent of satellites and associated technology has altered the navigation
aircraft for loading. systems. Satellite technology has brought accuracy and flexibility to navigation and significantly
Similarly, the baggage that increased the range and quality of communication. In the early days, pilots looked out the window and
arrives in a flight needs to identified routes with the help of maps and landmarks (visual reference). Things have now changed: air
be collected and distributed traffic has increased, the altitude of flights has increased and the distance coveted has also increased.
to the baggage claim area ICAO has an important role in introducing and standardizing the technology aspects in air navigation.
via conveyer belts. The Air navigation services have the following components:
whole process should be
smooth and mistake free.  ATC
Once the airline counters  Flight information services
receive the checked  Alerting services
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 ATC has the function of guiding aircraft into and out of airports, providing pilots with continually Airspace is classified us controlled or uncontrolled. If it is controlled airspa ce, air traffic
updated automatic recordings, detailed information on ground conditions, climate details, runways in controllers maintain separation between aircraft and terrain. Commercial air transport usually takes
use and the state of navigation aids. Pilots get information on what height and direction to take from place in controlled airspace. In uncontrolled airspace, as in the case of VFR, pilots are responsible for
ATC. The technical services, which are provided from the ground to assist and control aircraft while in separation. In the case of controlled airspace, airSpace is divided into three areas: airway, terminal
the air and during landing 0r take-off, have a key role in the operation of aviation services. Located in control area and control zone. When flights are in airway, air traffic controllers will help the aircraft to fly
the airport terminal, ATC uses various communication systems, visual signaling and other devices. It is along the predetermined flight path, after it obtains the assigned cruising altitude. The area control
vested with the responsibility to authorize the aircraft to land or take off. The ATC tower may also centre of ATC will be controlling flights in this area.
provide approach control services. Also, visual navigational aids like lighting systems are there to aid
the pilot. The pilot can also use a few instruments inside the cockpit while flying. The primary instrument The navigation systems used while ‘en route’ are often different from those used while on
is the flight display or electronic High: information system (E1715). This provides information on flight ‘approach’ to an airport. The en route systems must be capable of longer range coverage,
situation, position and progress. Another part of the cockpit provides information on aircraft systems while the approach systems must have a higher precision to avoid terrain and obstructions at
conditions and engines performance. There are different sets of rules and regulations for different ways low altitude.
of flying, known as flight rules. The two significant flight rules are: (Hansman and Odoni, 2009)
 Visual flight rules (VFR)
When the flight reaches the terminal control area, which represents the part of the airspace
 Instrument flight rules (IFR) near airports at least 656 feet (200 metres) above the ground, the approach control unit helps it to land.
Under VFR, a pilot is primarily and exclusively responsible for the observation and visual Traffic density will be high in this area. Terminal area controllers (the approach control unit) provide all
reference to the ground for the avoidance of obstacles while flying. In the case of HR, pilots are guided aircraft with control, information and alert services. It is usually located within the control tower building.
by a set of rules and regulations. Pilots have to Computers, radio communication and surveillance radar are used for this. In the control zone,
take flight along well determined air routes, aerodrome control takes over from the approach control unit. The control zone is the part of airspace,
called airways. Commercial air transportation central in the aerodrome, with a radius of 8 kilometers, with very high density. The tower controller
uses mainly IFR. gives instructions to the pilot and gives permission to land. In the aerodrome, visual systems also guide
There are many flights in the sky and the pilot for safe landing. The instrument landing system (ILS) guides the pilot to the runway using two
there exists the possibility for collision. Pilots, electronic beams for verticalaf1d lateral guidance. These are supported with lighting systems such as
flying under IFR, have to take airways, also approach lights.
Flight information services include the provision of regular information that a pilot needs and
called highways in the air. To avoid collision,
other necessary information such as weather conditions, information on changes in the availability of
pilots must keep a vertical/horizontal distance radio navigation services, changes in airport conditions, any collision hazards, and any other
from other flights in the air. Keeping a minimum information likely to affect safety. These services are provided when aircraft are within a flight
distance from other aircraft is referred to as information region (FIR). An alerting service i9 provided when the flight is in trouble, e.g. during a
separation. Normally, horizontal and vertical hijacking. Under this service, it will notify appropriate organizations. In such a situation, flight
separation must be maintained, and under IFR, information centres or area control centres serve as the central point for action.
pilots will get adequate information to maintain
the required separation. (Lateral separation may
also be considered). Vertical separation is AIR CARGO OPERATION
maintained by flying at different levels (attitudes). Air cargo operation is another important function of an airport. Cargo is processed in a
One way to maintain horizontal separation is to separate terminal. It can be transported in passenger aircraft, in its belly space, or in cargo aircraft
ensure longitudinal separation, which (freighters). There are even super transporters which can carry very larger items, such as helicopters
necessitates keeping a minimum distance and large machinery. Mail and speed/courier services are also included in air cargo services. Freighter
aircraft have access to cargo terminals and loading of cargo will be done there. Palletzation, stacking of
between the estimated positions of the aircraft.
shipments 0r consignments/ cargo pallets, which can be moved in airports and transported in aircraft
30 | P a g e
easily, is an important task. Usually, small consignments are stacked on pallets. Large ones go into
containers and containers can be loaded into aircraft according to the convenience and shape of the AIRLINE MANAGEMENT
aircraft. Containers are shaped to fit the hold of the aircraft and to protect the contents from damage
and theft. ULD is the common term for these loading boxes. Various government agencies, like Learning Outcomes:
customs, health and agriculture, will be involved in the screening of the freight received or transported. 1) Understand different types of airlines.
Various activities are involved prior to loading of cargo, like cargo load planning, determining weights, 2) Understand the organization structure in airline.
etc. Cargo transportation is an important revenue source for airlines.
Airlines do play a major role in the growth of tourism worldwide. Large
scale tour operators make extensive use of charter services, particularly leisure
tourism.
EXERCISE 5.2: WHAT TO DO:
1) Essay: describe the passenger handling process in airport terminals. CHARACTHERISTICS
Note: The following are the major characteristics of the airline industry in general:
a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com  Service industry
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 5.2  High barriers to entry and exit
for example: Lesson  Capital-intensive
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
 High cash flow
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 5.2  Dynamic pricing

6
(attached files)  Oligopolistic
 Highly regulated
 Non-price competition
 Labour-intensive
 High labour and fuel expenses
 Highly competitive
 Capacity versus demand
 Thin profit margins
 Close government regulations
 Seasonality

Service industry characteristics have been explained elsewhere in this book.

Airlines possess all the service industry characteristics, such as intangibility,
inseparability and perishability. Akin to many other tourism sectors, airlines are
also highly capital intensive. The start-up cost is extremely high, as purchase of a single aircraft can be
very expensive. Even getting licenses to commence operations as an airline is not easy. Airline
operations require high technology infrastructure as well as technical experts like pilots, technicians,
etc. In short, starting out in the airline industry is not easy barriers of entry are high. Apart from the huge
capital required, plenty of governmental regulations have to be adhered to. A range of licenses are
required. The requirements of technological infrastructure are also very high. High cash flow is another
feature of airline business. Everyday operations necessitate large sums of money. Dynamic pricing is

31 | P a g e
also practiced by airlines. Indeed, in same flights, different passengers may have purchased tickets for airline consumer includes those people who actually travel as well as those who require the service of
different prices. According to demand fluctuations, prices need to be altered quickly. . transporting cargo from one place to another as per his/her need. So the airline customer can be the
consumer herself, or the decision-maker. A customer encounters many difficulties in making decisions,
Oligopoly denotes that a market is controlled by a small group of firms. The airline industry is especially since this decision is a high-involvement exercise, and is complicated by varied factors,
characterized by oligopoly. In most of the markets just a few airlines survive in the long run. The main particularly the cost factor. There are other modes of transport which are much cheaper and more
reason for oligopoly is the high level of entry barriers with limits the entry of new competitors. Also, convenient. Moreover, the influence of external and internal factors is also relevant, which makes the
because the airline industry is highly capital intensive, with the need to acquire a range of certificates purchase decision more difficult.
and licenses, it is not easy for a new airline to enter the market. Similar to other tourism industries like Tourists constitute the major market of airlines. There are also other travelers with a significant
hotels, airlines are also highly labour-intensive. A wide range of human resources with extremely varied share in the airline demand. Among tourists, leisure tourists constitute an important group of
qualifications and skills are required to operate the business. As many of the job position necessitate consumers. Usually leisure tourists make the travel decisions by themselves. Yet there can be
high qualifications and skills, the salaries/wages uttered are also high. Labour expense is thus influencers in it. For instance, in a family holiday, children or a spouse can influence the decision of
significant in the industry. Moreover, fuel expenses are also high. For flying, large quantities of fuel are purchasing the travel product. In the case Of package tours, the tour operator or wholesaler who makes
required. the travel arrangements may make the purchase of the product as well, which are finally consumed by
Being in a highly competitive sector, airlines have to deploy the latest strategies and tactics to the tourists. For group inclusive tours (GIT) and fully independent travelers (FIT), tour operators have a
remain successful in the market Due to the issue of “capacity versus demand”. It is difficult for airlines significant role to play in the selection of airlines. Frequency of travel by leisure travelers is less
to match capacity to demand consistently. Sometimes demand may be less but the operation of the compared to the frequency of travel by business travelers.
flight still has to take place. At other times, the demand may be high, yet airlines could be helpless to In the parlance of business travel, though there is a right to choose a product according to the
meet this extra demand. Thin profit margins are another concern in the airline sector. Due to extreme traveler’s needs, the decision-making may be done by the decider, not the user. In business travel, the
competition, airlines usually pursue a competitive pricing strategy and offer products with lesser customers are often different from the consumers. Owner-managers of SMEs have the freedom to
choose, whereas a personal secretary of a busy businessman or businesswoman takes on the role of
margins. Usually, the profit level is maintained in high season by hiking the price. Spending on air travel
buyer and purchases with due consideration for his/her boss’s needs and interests. The decision-
is discretionary. The air travel making with regard to travel can involve different participants in addition to the consumer. For instance,
sector is slow in recovering after a Shah (2007) suggests that there are five types of participants who have roles as decision-making units
recession. Both pleasure and (DMUS) during the process of air travel decision-making and purchase. Some corporate companies
business travels are curtailed have dedicated travel departments that undertake purchasing on behalf of employees. Also, some
during periods of sharp and corporate firms have commas with travel agents to handle the travel requirements of executives of the
sustained downturn. Travel is one respective firms. Airlines, therefore, have to deal not only with the consumer of the product, but other
of the expenses a business or a players, including buyers, deciders and influencers. Corporate travel agents, retail travel agents, tour
person can cut immediately operators, online agents, event managers, etc. are also the customers of airlines, who have their role to
during tough economic times. play in the decision-making of purchasing of airline seats on behalf of consumers. Another group of
Close government regulations customers are freight forwarders. Consumers in this category include those who send the
make it hard for airlines to consignments from one place to another using air transport. People can send cargo directly with airlines
as well, without using the service of freight forwarders. When using freight forwarders, consumers
operate easily. Safety and
usually have little choice of airline, as freight forwarders decide which airline to use. Moreover, freight
security is the most important
forwarders consolidate small cargo items of different consumers and send them as a single cargo item.
factor in governments’ strict Here also freight forwarders act as the customer, with different roles played by personnel working with
regulations. them.

AIRLINE CONSUMERS AND TOURISTS

In the airline sector, the difference between the consumer and the customer is more evil dent.
The actual user of the service and the decision-maker may be different. (It can also be the same.) The
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AIRLINE PRODUCT Major Airlines- they operate services between major cities inside and outside the
Airlines country.
certainly provide an  Regional Airlines- they provide regular services for scheduled passengers or cargo.
intangible product.  Commuter Airlines- smaller versions of regional airlines.
Moreover, it is  National Airlines- usually operate within the boundaries of a country, though they may fly
“inseparable” in nature on international routes as well.
and highly “perishable”.  Flag Carrier- airlines owned by the government.
According to Barnes  Full-service carriers- they offer a full basket of services to passengers.
(2012), an “airline sells  Low-cost carriers- they operate point to point services, and usually on short-haul routes.
air transportation  Non-scheduled air services- these are also commercial services, but do not follow
service between two or published schedules for flights. They are permitted to operate services on air routes, but
more cities at a certain are not on regular schedule. Demand is the criterion for operation instead of regularity.
price with specified
purchase requirements
and restrictions”. MAJOR AIRLINE FUNCTIONS
Scheduled flights fly from one place to another and transport passengers and cargo as per a published An airline is a large business organization that has a number of interrelated and complex
timetable. Its core product is transportation, either of passengers or cargo, from one place to another. operations. Most of the functions are time-bound and the success of the business depends to a great
This service aspect begins from the moment of ticket purchase and continues until the completion of extent on the effective and efficient functioning of the operations and various tasks involved. A brief
the service, when the passenger/cargo reaches the final destination. It means a range of services are discussion of the major functions follows.
expected in between. This expectation can include diverse services (in-flight services), arriving on time,
and similar. Services can be augmented/enhanced with, for example, the provision of personalized food
 Fleet planning
and a large variety of in-flight entertainment options. Furthermore, there can be added services to
Fleet planning is a long-term strategic activity. Fleet denotes the total number of aircraft along with their
delight customers. Once again, the airline product is a set of services. Indeed, modern air transport
types that an airline has for air transport operations. Aircraft vary, and consequently their capacity,
consists of increased complementary services and product differentiation. The products of low-cost
range, size, load factor, etc. also vary. Fleet planning is considered to be one of the most complex and
carriers (LCCs) may have some differences with those of full-service carriers (FSCs). It is mainly the in-
critical planning activities of an airline:
flight services that are very different from LCCs.
Quality of in-flight cabin services and ground handling services is an important aspect of airline
An airline’s fleet plan therefore reflects a strategy for multiple periods into
products. Punctuality in operations, frequency of services, departing and arrival airports and their
the future, including the number of aircraft required by aircraft type, the
accessibility, services and features of those airports, etc. also form part of the airline product. Aircraft
timing of future deliveries, and retirement of existing fleet, as well as
type and even the carrier’s image are components of the airline product. Passenger airline product
contingency plans to allow for flexibility in the fleet plan given the
benefits can include comfortable seats, more legroom, handy baggage compartments etc. An efficient
tremendous uncertainty about future market conditions. (Belobaha, 2009)
ticket reservation system, variety of in-flight entertainment options and speedy baggage delivery are
also benefits passengers like to have. Apart from the accessibility of airports, other aspects, such as
Fleet planning is a crucial decision-making process for an airline, as the core revenue/ profit of an
convenient car parking facilities, good waiting lounges, adequate duty-free shops, quick and efficient
airline is accounted through the efficiency of the operating aircraft‘s fleet. It’s indeed an arduous task to
checking of luggage and baggage delivery, efficient service at reservation counters, efficiency in issuing
decide on purchasing a new aircraft, especially since it is highly capital-intensive. Based on the future
hoarding passes, ease and speed of emigration clearance and security checks, compliment an airline‘s
demand factor, an airline plans to select, buy or lease the right type of aircraft at the right time.
product. Safety is also an important aspect associated with the airline product.
Many factors need to be considered in the process of fleet expansion. The factors include an airline’s
future plans, market expansion potentials, financial position and forecasts, external environmental
TYPES OF AIRLINES
factors and the abilities of aircraft being considered. Detailed, systematic and in-depth knowledge and
 Scheduled airlines- are bound to fly on specific routes at pre-set times on a regular basis. understanding of aircraft performance as well as aircraft economics is essential for fleet planning
33 | P a g e
decisions. Analysis and evaluation of market conditions is important for fleet planning. The most With regard to schedule planning and development, there have been several new methods introduced
important factors that determine fleet planning are right aircraft type and right time of acquisition. to improve the schedule efficiency and profitability. Jacobs et al. (2012) describes a few such
Aircraft economics, performance levels of aircraft from different perspectives and comfort are also techniques;
factors of influence in the selection of aircraft type. The airline will also take into consideration the
demand for travel, the age of the aircraft, the cost of its current fleet and the availability of new aircraft Integration of crew and scheduling processes to develop more efficient flying schedule; the
as well as its efficiency which will further determine the right time to expand the fleet. implementation of demand driven dispatch where fleet assignment changes are made
between crew compatible aircraft close to the day of departure to better match passenger
 Schedule demand; and the addition of probabilistic evaluation techniques to better evaluate the likely
planning and performance of specific markets.
development
The process of airline scheduling occurs over time and passes through a number of phases, which
Route planning, also need more detailed data requirements at each phase. Abstract and generic forecasts are needed at the
called network planning phase, and later, specific, very detailed real-time inputs are integrated at the execution
planning, is the basic (operational) phase. According to Mathaisel (1997), though every airline has a different way of handling
activity in schedule the process of scheduling, the following common phases can be identified:
planning, defining an o Planning a schedule of services
airline’s products and o Generation of an operationally feasible schedule
network to be sold. o Assignment of specific resources
“The goal of network o Execution of rescheduling (operations control)
planning is to explore
potential markets and The first phase is all about future scheduling, focusing on constructing a basic daily or weekly
forecast market schedule of services to be flown in air travel markets for a future period. This stage provides a generic
demands for certain service plan, without specific aircraft or crew assignments and with tentative service times of departure
services, e.g. leisure demand or business demand.” (Wu, 2010). This is a long-term process, and “can and arrival. The second phase, current scheduling, focuses on creating a feasible monthly schedule of
be viewed as a series of overlapping sequential steps that include scheduling, marketing and operations for the gift line, provided the expected resources are available. The outputs of this stage
distribution” (Jacobs et al, 2012). Schedule planning is the majo r function that determines the include; a detailed operational schedule suitable for publishing and the airline’s reservations system;
schedules of flying by an airline, and those schedules are central to the planning of entire operations in optimal rotations for the aircraft and crew; airport gate assignments; station personnel requirements;
an airline. According to Wensveen (2016), it is “the art of designing system wide flight patterns that and others. The next stage, resource assignment, aims to generate optimal work assignments for the
provide optimum public service, in both quantity and quality, consistent with the financial health of the airline’s specific resources. This stage mainly provides: the aircraft routings with maintenance
carrier”. Schedule is the most fundamental determinant and element of airlines’ successful operations schedules; crew bid lines and assignments; gate schedules; and station personnel assignments. In the
and it is planned in order to maximize the long-term profitability of the airline. The common elements of final phase, the focus is on executing the operational schedule at the lowest extra cost, which may
an airline schedule include the following (Grosche, 2009): happen due to unplanned operational deviations, such as delays, diversions or cancellations. The
o Flights of the airline outputs of this stage include: a modified execution schedule; cancellations, delays, etc; and
o Departure and arrival airports and times of flights reassignment of resources.
o Days of operation Certainly, flight scheduling is the base for all other airline planning and operations. The flight
o Assigned fleet types schedule of an airline can reveal its competitive position as well.
o Assignment of specific aircraft
o Maintenance schedule
o Assignment of cockpit and cabin crew

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  Fleet assignment  Crew scheduling

Fleet assignment is another crucial task in airline operations. It is basically concerned with assigning Crew scheduling involves
the right type of aircraft to each flight in the schedule, especially in terms of capacity of aircraft. Different crew pairing and crew
aircraft have different capacity, range and speed. The number of seats in economy class, and other rostering. Here, crew
classes may also vary. The forecasted demand needs to match with the type of aircraft. Also, the represents both cockpit and
distance to cover and the time needed are important determinants. Moreover, the required type of cabin crew. Cockpit crews are
aircraft needs to be available or operation without delay. Airlines have to identify the type of aircraft also called flight crew, which
needed for each leg/sector considering both the technical aspects of the aircraft and their availability. denotes the technical aspect
The capacity of the available fleet in terms of demand is also crucial in fleet assignment. Moreover, the of conducting flight operation.
fleet assignment should not result in reduction in profits; rather, it should help in maximizing revenue Usually a flight will have a
while minimizing cost. “An airline’s fleeting decision highly impacts its revenues, and thus, constitutes captain in command as pilot
an essential component of its overall scheduling process.” (Sherali et al., 2006) The focus of fleet and a first officer as co-pilot.
assignment is to “solve the minimum cost assignment problem in order to assign the most suitable type Cabin crews are for providing
of aircraft for individual flights in the timetable while meeting the maintenance requirements of aircraft” services on-board, mainly for
(Wu, 2010). This is done approximately three to four months before the scheduled time. Based on the facilitating safety and
previous initial schedule, the best possible way to execute the timetable is explored by identifying the emergency procedures.
available fleets with the lowest operating costs. Ultimately it is done to
determine the sequences of
 Aircraft routing flight legs and assigning both
the cockpit and cabin crew to these sequences. One of the major objectives of this stage is to minimize
Aircraft routing is the next process, which is done to allocate a limited number of aircraft of the same the total cost of crewing along with allocating suitable crew as per the requirements.
fleet type to conduct those flights assigned earlier by fleet assignment. It is “the process of assigning
each individual aircraft (referred to as tail number) within each fleet to flight legs. The aircraft routing is Crew pairing is all about creating a number of crew pairings at the lowest cost. “The objective of crew
also" referred to as aircraft rotation, aircraft assignment or tail assignment” (Bazargan, 2010). Aircraft pairing is to find a set of pairings that covers all flights and minimizes the total crew cost. The final crew
routing involves routing or rotations for each aircraft in a fleet. Routing is all about the sequence of flight pairing includes dates and times for each day.” (Bazargan, 2010). Crew pairing is basically the
covered by a single aircraft and rotation denotes the routing that starts and ends at the same location generation of mini schedules, called pairings and crew fostering, which involves pairings that are
(Parmentier, 2013). Each aircraft has to visit a maintenance station at regular intervals. Based on fleet assembled into longer crew schedules, in the form of “rosters” 0r “bidlines”. The roster is basically a
assignment, in this stage the objective is to utilize available aircraft in each fleet to operate flights at the work schedule generated for each crew member according to his/her preferences, capabilities and
right time and between the right airports. In this way, the same aircraft is operated continuously on a requirements. “Bidline” is a generic schedule assigned to each crew member. Crew rostering
particular route, for onward as well as return journeys. This process usually starts one or two months represents the process of building up detailed rosters for individual crew within a particular period.
before. Flight continuity is an important factor here, which ensures that the same aircraft can operate Individual crew members are assigned to crew pairings, usually on a monthly basis. The working hours
those assigned flights in the right order. In continuing, the turnaround time has to match with scheduled of flight crew are also regulated as part of safety consideration and fatigue management. In addition,
arrival and departure times. Flight coverage and maintenance factors in airports also have to be location of crew base is also a factor that is considered. Tour of duty (TOD) is the term used for the
considered in aircraft routings. It mainly includes chronological arrangement of flights on different routes working hours of flight crew. According to Wu (2010):
in a profitable manner, along with maintenance schedules.
A TOD may last from 1 to 2 days for a domestic crew, to a number of days for an
international crew, depending on flight timetables and airlines networks. If a T0
involves overnights at ports other than the base of a crew, airlines will incur other
crewing expenses such as accommodation, grand transport and meal allowance.

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In fact, crew constitutes the second highest operating cost after fuel for an airline and hence crew All the activities are time-bound. The turnaround time of an aircraft is crucial in ensuring
scheduling is an important task, and its effectiveness and efficiency translates into savings. punctuality in operations. Delays in an activity can lead to delays of operation and it can affect the
passenger satisfaction as well as further operation of flights. Operations en route consist of aircraft
operations on the ground (at airports) and the subsequent operations which are handled by the crew
(on the aircraft). Crew has to sign in one hour prior to departure of the first leg. In the case of
PASSENGER PROCESSING AND FLIGHT OPERATION international operation, crew usually arrives more than one hour before. The flight plan will be prepared,
Passengers usually arrive all airports early enough. By this stage, airlines will have the details which will have details of various aspects of the flight, such as routing, weather, alternate airport
of passengers and the required number of check-in counters, etc. Large aircraft necessitate more options, fuel requirements, engine numbers, emergency needs, take-off performance and loads.
counters to avoid delays and long queuing. In the beginning, the number of passengers in the queue Takeoff planning is another task during the preparation of a flight plan, which may be done by a
will be less and hence all counters won’t be opened. Later, as passenger arrivals increase, more dispatcher or load manager, and if any adjustments to take-off plans are required, those will be done
counters will be opened. Efficiency is needed at this stage as more counters will mean increased cost. based on the latest conditions.
There are online check-in options, which many passengers prefer as it allows them to avoid queuing for The crew has to determine the airworthiness of the aircraft. It mainly includes interior and
a long time. For such passengers, airlines offer special arrangements for baggage collection. Airlines exterior inspection of aircraft. Pre-flight inspection points are usually given in the checklist for the crew.
should try to reduce dwell time, which is the time between a passenger’s arrival at check in and the An exterior walk around the flight includes a visual inspection to determine any obvious damage to the
scheduled departure time of the flight. If check-in takes place early, passengers will be able to complete fuselage, engines, wings and flight control surfaces. It also includes checking tyre wear and tear,
the security check and immigration clearance at ease. It is important to ensure passenger boarding at pressure, brake wear indicators, antenna conditions, etc. Interior checks are also done to ensure
the right time. Delays in check-in can result in delays in boarding and consequently delays in flight electric power and air are available on the aircraft. Cabin crew has to check the status of catering and
operation. The passenger boarding process takes more time in larger aircraft. First-class passengers cabin emergency equipment, along with the general cabin condition. Cockpit crew also verifies the
will be boarded first, followed by business class, and then economy class passengers. Airlines execute system conditions and check required documents. The pilot now has to finalize flight parameters by
a range of activities in an airport. Passengers have to be ready for boarding at the right time. Baggage obtaining an update on weather conditions and runway utilization. Flight routing confirmation has to be
also needs to be processed simultaneously. Other activities of ground handling may be done directly by obtained from ATC.
airlines, or by an agency on behalf of airlines on the basis of a contract. Once the flight is ready for boarding, passengers are boarded along with the loading of
baggage and cargo. Once all doors have been closed, the ground crew does push-back. After the
push-back request by the captain, ground staff organizes the aircraft from gate to taxiway, and from
there the aircraft taxis on the taxiway, waiting in the departure queue, and then taking off. After push-
back, communication to ATC/ramp control will be sent for push-back clearance. Once the aircraft has
left the gate area, the engines are started. On receipt of permission, the aircraft can taxi into position
and hold on the departure runway. Soon, the pilot will receive take-off clearance, and by this time the
aircraft will be positioned and necessary measures will be taken. ATC provides all necessary
instructions including climb flight profile. The crew will check the necessary flight details as per the
given information, such as altitude, etc. Once the aircraft reaches a certain altitude, in-flight services will
begin. While the aircraft is at cruising altitude, the crew per form monitoring of aircraft flight path and
system maintaining lateral fuel balance within time, cabin temperature and control, etc. As it nears the
destination, the aircraft descent must be performed. ATC gives instructions. All information about
destination, such as weather, will be provided to the pilot. They take measures to descend. They
prepare the cockpit and cabin for landing. They conform to ATC restrictions and plan the approach to
landing. In the case of arrival, after landing, the aircraft will undertake taxiing on the taxiway to reach
the parking area at the arrival gate.

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AIRLINE PERSONNEL AND ORGANIZATION
 Flight operations: employees responsible for the safe and efficient operation of
an airline’s fleet. Training Staff, flight crew, scheduling and monitoring staff are
also part of this.
 Ground operations: this group of staff includes people responsible for operation
on land for passenger processing, baggage handling, aircraft handling and the
support functions necessary for those operations.
 Commercial operations: staff in this category mainly includes administrative,
human resource, and marketing and sales staff.

Flight operations staff can be classified into two categories:

 Flight crew- also called the cockpit crew, are responsible for the operation and the safety of
the aircraft and passengers while flying.
 Cabin crew- are primarily responsible for safety in the cabin while flying.

CLASSES OF SERVICE
 First class- seating in this class features maximum leg room. This class is the most
comfortable, with heavier padding in each seat.
 Business class- seats are wider than economy.
 Economy class- the variety offered is less than economy and first class.

EXERCISE 6.1: WHAT TO DO:

1) Explain the role of the airline industry in tourism.
2) Write an essay on duties and responsibilities of airline personnel
3) What is the difference between first class and business class?
4) What is the difference between business class and economy?
5) What are the airline functions?
Note:
a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 6.1
for example:
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 6.1
(attached files)

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 LAND TRANSPORT AND TOURISM
 Bus services- “coach” and “bus” are used interchangeably in tourism literature to
Learning Outcomes present large road vehicles that can carry number of people from around 20 to 50 or
1) Analyze the intricate relationship between tourism and transport. more.
2) Identify various road transport forms prevalent in tourism.  Intercity- a bus services consist of regularly scheduled coach services within cities.
3) Understand car rental services/ The services/facilities are free wifi, standard power outlets, reclining leather seats,
4) Comprehend rail tourism. extra legroom, only aisle and window seats, adequate overhead storage and on-
board bathroom.
While rapid evolution of air transport lessend the importance of water  Regular/general/scheduled bus services- includes diverse categories of bus services,
transportation, land transport has maintained its prevalence as an essential mode including urban/city services, inter-urban services, local services and express
of transport, a trend that continues in the new millenium. services.
 Commuter bus services- characterized by service predominantly in one direction
ROAD TRANSPORTATION AND TOURISM during peak periods, limited stops, use of multi-ride tickets, and routes of extended
Road transportation is one of the most important forms of tourism length.
transportation, 1n the last century it has grown tremendously. The road system is  Airport Transportation- one of the most cost-effective forms of transport, has been
still the most important in intermodal transport anywhere, with countries having increasing as more airports have been built and air travel demand continues to grow.
extensive road transport networks. For instance, according to the US Bureau of
Transportation Statistics, public roads in the US, including interstate highways,
Lesson other major arterials and local routes totaled 4.1 million miles in 2013 (BOTS/US MOTOR COACH TOURISM
DOT, 2015). Road transport plays a key role in national economies and is the As stated before, coaches are comfortable buses and they are used for regional, cross country
only mode of transport found in almost every corner of every nation. The quality journeys and for tours of various kinds. The coaches are graded on the basis of different aspects, e.g.

7
and extensiveness of road infrastructure are considered a determinant in the legroom, on-board amenities like kitchens, toilets, air conditioning, cloak rooms, etc. Some coaches
development of a country. Highways were built once road transport had gained in have sleeping facilities as well. Coach travel offers a wide range of tourist services, including express
popularity. The autobahn, a multilane highway built in 19305 in Germany, is one coach routes (both domestic and international), private line services, tour and excursion operation,
of the earliest highways. Pan American Highway, the longest highway in the charter services and transfer services.
world, is 47,958 kilometres (29,800 miles) long. Highway 1, a network of high Motor coach tourism is a term used in tourism literature. Put simply, it represents the hiring of
ways that stretches around Australia joining all mainland state capitals, is the coaches by tour services for a specific period of time. In the US, motor coach tours are becoming more
second longest highway in the world. The Trans-Siberian Highway has a length popular and tour operators are offering more package tours that utilize motor coaches (Goeldner and
of 1 1,000 kilometres. Road transportation involves a wide variety of modes of Ritchie, 20] 1). In package coach tours, motor coach transportation is an important component. Coach
transportation. Buses (including coaches), cars, rental cars, taxi services, etc. are tours are of various types; some are full-Hedged package tours whereas others are part of general
the major road transportation modes. Millions of road transport vehicles are on package tours. Couch tours also vary according to the number of holiday days -from day trips to a
the road for different transportation needs. According to the US Bureau of certain number of tour days. Also, some sightseeing tours can last just a few hours. This complexity of
Transportation Statistics, in the US, government, businesses, private individuals coach tourism is illustrated by O’Regan (2018):
and non-governmental organizations owned and Operated about 256 million
motor vehicles in 2013 (BOTS/US DOT, 2015). Cities are well connected by road Even with the development of airborne package tours, coach travel has continued 10 be an
networks. There are adequate links to other regions and places. In m0St important component of package tourism and has developed strong links [0 tourism-related
countries, millions of passengers depend on road transport annually. For companies and destinations. From pairing with airlines to organic transfers and acting with
instance, there were an estimated 5 .04 billion bus passenger journeys in Great attractions to build access areas to working with destination marketing organizations,
Britain in the 2015-2016, financial year, and in England alone it was 4.53 billion journeys, of which more accommodation providers, food service organizations, shopping malls, cultural sites, and t0ur
than hall were in London Bus services- “coach” and “bus” are used interchangeably in tourism literature guides, motor coach tourism retains maneuverability and flexibility by taking people where they
to present large road vehicles that can carry number of people from around 20 to 50 or more. want to go at a relatively low cost.
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 tours remain the preferred option for many tourists. Some of the reasons for choosing coach tours
include:
Coach tours thus vary widely. Some leading brands also offer various kinds of coach (ours. For o Courier/guide services
instance, Eurolines provides city tours, city breaks, Europe4U, wellness and vacation trips (ride and o Cheaper and better value for money
accommodation) along with coach tours to Paris, London, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Istria, Tuscany, o Easy access
Lake Garda, Costa Brava, etc. In the US, both railways and Greyhound operate charter tours as well as o Comfortable group size
package holidays using coaches. There are coach tours available for more than a month as well. The o Total experience with a group
following are the most common types of coach tours: o Continuous sightseeing
o Domestic tours o Better social environment and interpersonal relationships
o Short breaks o On-board recreation activities
o Sightseeing/scenic tours o Door-to-door travel
o City tours o Easy and quick to organize
o Sports tours o Convenient stops
o Attraction visits o Ease of baggage handling
o Religious tours o No transfer hassles
o Inbound tours o Pace of travel as per the need
o Study/industrial tours
o Overseas touts The term charter coach tour is also used in the context of tourism. Charter coach tours are
o Niche tours escorted, hosted or even independent tours arranged for groups by hiring motor Coaches for a period
o Affinity group tours ranging from hours to multiple days for the purpose of visiting. Bus operators offer more services in
o Shopping tours response to increasing competition. Wider seats, better outside views, the latest audiovisual equipment,
free Wi-Fi services, hot beverage services or even a full galley with a microwave oven are some
In previous years, coach tourism was considered the domain of older tourists. According to the additional services offered by coach.
latest theories, coach tourism encompasses all segments of tourists. Families and youngsters (e.g.
study tours) are now an integral part of coach tours. Even in the era of widespread air travel, coach Coaches are comfortable buses and they are used for regional, cross-country journeys and for tours of
various kinds.
Domestic Tours Short Breaks Sightseeing/scenic tours
City tours Sports Tours Attraction Visits
Religious tours Inbound tours Study/Industrial Tours
Overseas Tours Niche Tours Affinity Group Tours
Shopping Tours

AUTOMOBILES AND TOURISM

In tourism industry, automobiles are important mode of transportation. The advent of cars
provided families in particular with a new freedom of movement, providing a huge increase in
opportunities to take a day excursions as well as longer trips.
Tourists favor the car for holidays for a number of reasons:
 Control of the route and the stops en route
 Control of departure times
 Ability to carry baggage and equipment easily
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  Low out-of-pocket expenses of traveling with three or more persons
 Freedom to use the vehicle once the destination has been reached
 Driving itself is a recreational activity, which many are fond of
 Better sightseeing while travelling RAIL TRANSPORT
Rail transport is the transport of passengers and goods by means of vehicles designed to run
Many tourism destinations in the world still depend on private motor vehicles. Tour operators along railroads or railways. The following are the reasons why many people prefer train services to
offer self-drive car packages. Automobile owners can leave from their doorstep at any hour of the day other modes of transport:
or night and travel to a chosen destination. When two or three people travel together, the cost of travel  Affordable
comes down.  High safety standards
Taxi and limousine services are also crucial in tourism. When a tourist arrives at a destination,  The ability to move around the coach
they may use a taxi service, which could be their first service encounter after landing, causing a first  Passengers do not lose time “checking in”
impression of the destination. Quality taxi service is{ determinant in the success of a tourist destination.  Personal comfort
Taxi services are basically intra-city in nature and subject to licensing and rate regulation by authorities.  The ability to look out of the train and enjoy the scenery en route
Limousines are very expensive luxury cars driven by chauffeurs. The appeal of such a car is that it has  Arriving at the destination rested and relaxed
a driver compartment and a separate, rear passenger compartment, with a sliding glass in between so  Environmentally friendly form of transport
that the conversation of passengers can be private.  Centrally located terminals
 Decongested routes
 More interaction with fellow passengers
 Better bathroom and other facilities
 Freedom to engage in simple recreational activities while travelling
CAR RENTAL
Car rental is the service of supplying automobiles to customers, including leisure tourists and  Food and beverage services
business travelers, for their use for a specific period of time on a daily/weekly rental basis.  More luxury for higher payment
Car rental companies  Speedier than many other forms of transport
distribute products through
multiple channels. Major RAIL TOURISM
channels of distribution Using high-speed trains and luxury train services along with tour packages in collaboration
include the following: with other suppliers like hotels, rail tourism is being promoted in many countries. Though tourists have
 Own desk arrival been using rail services for many decades, the promotion of rail tourism began only a couple of
points, like airports decades ago. Generally, railways appeal to tourists using two specific Strategies: providing classic
 Tourism suppliers trains and encouraging travel along classic routes (Holloway and Humphreys, 2012). Rail tourism is a
like hotels and comprehensive concept which consists of rail travel for visiting places and the experience gained
airlines through special services in unique trains and routes and by visiting rail-related heritage sites. The
concept of rail tourism encompasses:
 Global distribution
the experience, and/or symbolic consumption, related to traveling by train (including the
systems of
experience of railway architecture such as Stations, tunnels, and viaducts) and visiting railway
intermediaries
museums. Studies on rail tourism acknowledge the heritage value a5 well as the sociocultural
 Own office or ally’s
and human geographical dimensions related to train travel, together with cheap or high-end
outlets
luxury travel.
 Intermediaries
 Online sources, through own websites and other online platforms  High-speed trains

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  Luxury Trains
 Car carrying trains CRUISE TOURISM
 Tourism services of Amtrak
 Eurail Pass Learning Outcomes
 BritRail Pass 1) Understand the role of water transportation in tourism
 Swiss Rail Pass 2) Explain cruise tourism and its trends
 German Rail Pass
Water transportation, one of the earliest forms of transport, still has an important
role in the travel and tourism sector. Cruise tourism is now one of the fastest
EXERCISE 7.1: WHAT TO DO: growing segments in global tourism.
1) Explain the significance of road transport in tourism. Be sure to cite suitable examples.
WATER TRANSPORTATION
Note: Water transportation, the movement of passengers and goods using
a) E-mail your answer at bstmcollege2007@gmail.com various means/vessels through or across water bodies of different kinds, is part of
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 7.1 transport networks in most countries around the world.
for example: Travel by water still offers many unique advantages. In general, it has
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address) Lesson advantage of lower price and remains the most cost-effective compared to other
To: bstmcollege2007@gmail.com modes of transport.
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 7.1
(attached files)

8
WATER TRANSPORT AND TOURISM
Many tourists still use water transport to travel from their place of
residence to the destination and back. Ships, ferries, boats, etc. are used to
connect the markets in tourism generating regions to destination and back. Both
domestic and international tourists use various water transport means for onward
and return travel. .

CRUISE TOURISM
Cruise tourism, though a buzzword in modern tourism, began several
centuries ago. Even before the advent of steamships, many people had
undertaken voyages to quench their thirst for new knowledge, to discover new
places, and to enhance their understanding of other societies.
Cruise tourism has diversified with more market segments. Once cruise
tourism was known for wealthy older people who preferred to undertake long-
term leisure trips. The cruise market has been expanding and registering
significant changes in its nature and characteristics. Lately the cruise sector
attracts markets of all age groups, with varying needs and purchasing abilities.
During the voyage, cruise ship visit ports of call and tourists disembark for a number of hours,
even a few days, to visit attractions in the region. These places are usually referred to as cruise
destinations. Cruise tours can be defined as an inclusive holiday trip based on preset itinerary for a
specific number of days on a luxury ship having necessary hospitality and recreational services and
facilities on board, and visiting destination as the part of voyage.
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TRENDS IN CRUISE TOURISM 3. On-board entertainment and facilities- for example, sky ride, waterpark, IMAX Theater, spa,
Range of trends: pub, sports facilities, etc
 Younger generations- including millennial and generation x- 4. Deck plans (major inclusions on different decks of the ship)- Deck 1- Staterooms, Deck 2-
will embrace cruise travel more than ever before. Staterooms and Family Harbor Lounge, Deck 3- lobby with restaurants and staterooms, Deck 4-
 Travel agents will continue to be mezzanine (atrium), Deck 5- Restaurants, Deck 6- Theater, Deck 7, 8 & 9- Staterooms, Deck 10- pool,
matchmakers between travelers and cruise bar, restaurants and staterooms, Deck 11- restaurants & staterooms, Deck 12- sports facilities, spas,
lines in 2017. water park, etc, Deck 14- Skyride, spa and staterooms, Deck 15- serenity adult-only retreat.
 River cruise demand continues to
increase. A summary of on-board services a cruise tourists can enjoy, as suggested by Gibson (2006), is
 There will be more private islands in provided below:
itineraries. Embarkation Welcome aboard Orientation and Induction
 Cruise demand will continue to increase Safety and lifeboat drills Accommodation Services Food and Drink Services
remarkably. Butler Services Leisure Services Sport and Recreation
 The number of celebrity chefs will increase Entertainments Casino Nightclub and Disco
Beauty and health treatments Shops and Boutiques Medical Services
WHY CRUISE TOURISM? Shore Excursions Port lectures and information Disembarkation Services
 A cruise offers a very relaxing opportunity on board for
tourists while sailing. TYPES OF CRUISES
 A cruise tour is indeed an ideal all-inclusive holiday one  Very small (under 10,000 gross register tonnage- GRT- and capacity of less than 200
can have with various special touches. passengers
 Variety is a feature of tourism. A tourist can enjoy a  Small (10,000-20,000 GRT and between 200-500 passengers)
variety of entertainments, sports, activities and services  Medium (20,000-50,000 GRT and between 500 and 1,200 passengers)
on board  Large (50,000- 70,000 GRT and between 1,200 and 2000 passengers)
 All travel arrangements are done, and hence there are  Megaship (70,000 GRT or more and 2,000 passengers or above)
no hassles and no uncertainty.
 Most services are offered by the cruise operator itself, The features of each category of cruise:
and hence it is easy to ensure the quality. Resort Cruises
 Cruise also has the necessary health facilities.  Large vessels, which can accommodate 1,000-2,000 passengers (or more)
The major revenue sources for destinations due to cruise ships shore excursions include the following:  Food and beverage are plentiful
 Business options for local people for selling goods and services to cruise tourists  Warm climates are usual destinations
 Government earnings through direct and indirect taxes  Markets are highly segmented
 Income generating opportunities through tour guiding services, ground handling services etc.  There are shipboard activities available such as entertainment, aerobics, bingo, etc.
 Direct, indirect and induced economic benefits due to tourist spending in the local economy.  Short itineraries- between 3-7 days.

ON-BOARD FACILITIES Deluxe and luxury cruises

1. Accommodation – the example of accommodation in cruise are staterooms which has four  Capacities vary from 125 to 950 passengers
types; balcony, interior, ocean view and suites.  There is high level of personal service offered
2. F&B Services- services consist of a variety of options and facilities; restaurant and room  Cabins are usually suites
service.  Dining facilities are elegant and stylish
 Itineraries are 14 days or longer (with some as long as a month)

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  Entertainment consists of classical music, shows and educational lectures. of choosing one, we’ve created a guide to what these categories mean. Bear in mind, cruise lines can
fall into more than one category, Luxury Expedition, for example, but these descriptions should help to
Adventure or exotic cruises steer you in.
 These are likely to explore narrow inlets and allow passengers to wade ashore.
 There is on-board interpretation about the place, how to do the adventurous activities, etc  CONTEMPORARY CRUISE LINES
 Usually older and smaller ships are used The contemporary cruise lines offer a variety of cruise schedules and itineraries that are perfect for
 Ports of call are unusual younger adults and family cruises. These are the lines with the largest ships, the most onboard
 There are basic dining services with substantial fare entertainment options, and the widest variety of amenities. This great array of options allows you to
 Tourist-type shopping and sightseeing are less important than discovering new places and choose the type of vacation experience you want once you are on board the ship.
experiences
Lines that fall into this category are:
 Passengers are older and well educated; many are professionals.
 Aida Cruises
 Carnival Cruise Line
CRUISE DESTINATIONS
 Costa Cruise Lines
A cruise destination refers to a location included in the cruise tour itinerary for shore
 Celestyal Cruises etc
excursions after calling in at the respective port of call. Season and climate are two major determinants
of destination selection by cruise lines. That’s the reason why the Caribbean and Mediterranean are
These lines are well suited for:
getting maximum number of bookings. These regions are sunny during the northern hemisphere’s
 Families with young children
winter and therefore offer a suitable substitute. The vast majority of destinations in cruise tourism are in
 Families with teenagers
the hotspots: The Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Panama Canal Zone and South Pacific.
 Family reunions and multi-generational families
 20- and 30-somethings looking for light adventure and various sports activities
CRUISE ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL
 40- and 50-somethings looking for a couple’s vacation
 Hotel Department- handles both accommodation/ hospitality services and food and beverage
 Travelers looking for a wide array of activities
(F&B) Services
 Seniors looking for new friends
 Deck Department- responsible for navigation, safety and security as well as the integrity of the
 Solo travelers
vessel.
 Couples looking for romantic getaways
 Engine Department- responsible for the safe and smooth operation of the ship’s propulsion
 Destination weddings
systems, power plant, safety and security systems, mechanical equipment, etc.
 Honeymoons
 Administration and Personnel Department / Information Technology Department- staff include
 Adventure travelers looking for high thrills
managers at different levels, pursers, and front office staff.
 Entertainment Department- led by cruise director, deals with entertainment-related activities.
 UPSCALE CONTEMPORARY CRUISE LINES
 Spas
These lines offer all the benefits of the contemporary cruise lines, but take things a step futher, with
 Casino staff
finer amenities and a more upscale environment.
 Childcare and youth staff- handles emergency cases and common diseases
 MSC Cruises
 Sales staff/ Cashiers/ Managers
 Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL)
 Sports Department
 Royal Caribbean International (RCI)
 Photographers/ Videographers
 Viking Ocean Cruises
CRUISELINE TYPES
These lines are well suited for:
 Families with young children
One of the key elements of a happy cruise is finding the line that’s right for your particular
 Families with teenagers
needs. The cruise lines fall into various categories, and to help you navigate the waters (so to speak)
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  Family reunions and multi-generational families The ultra-premium cruise lines tend to have smaller ships and offer voyages to popular ports, and
 20- and 30-somethings looking for light adventure and various sports activities unique itineraries featuring smaller, less-traveled destinations. They primarily cater to discerning
 40- and 50-somethings looking for a couple’s vacation passengers who are seeking a sophisticated level of service, ship amenities, and accommodations at
 Travelers looking for a wide array of activities upscale prices. Some lines may offer numerous included amenities. These lines are generally priced
 Seniors looking for new friends higher than the premium cruise lines.
 Solo travelers
 Couples looking for romantic getaways Lines that fall into this category are:
 Destination weddings  Azamara Club Cruises
 Honeymoons  Cunard Line
 Adventure travelers looking for high thrills  Oceania Cruises
 Windstar Cruises
 PREMIUM CRUISE LINES
Premium cruise lines tend to be large, but not mega-type ships, though they offer similar voyages, plus These lines are well suited for:
voyages to exotic locales. Due to the size of these ships, they do not dock in the heart of the town or  Seasoned travelers
village like the ultra-premium lines. These lines cater to travelers seeking luxurious accommodations,  Adults who are destination-oriented and enjoy the finer things in life
enhanced dining, excellent service, extensive activities, and enrichment opportunities. The onboard  Travelers looking for a boutique experience with a destination immersion.
experience is sophisticated and the service above average. These lines will have enhanced spa and  Travelers who find the small touches make all the difference—from the service to the food to
wine options. They tend to cater to more mature and discerning passengers who are seeking a the ships themselves.
sophisticated level of service, ship amenities, and accommodations at somewhat higher prices. These  Adults seeking a “country club casual” experience with very upscale surroundings and
lines also offer children’s programs for all ages. amenities
 Celebrity Cruises
 Disney Cruise Line  ULTRA-LUXURY CRUISE LINES
 Holland America Line These are high end cruises, both in price and in amenities. They are designed for those who desire the
 Princess Cruises finer things in life and have the budget for luxury. These cruise lines specialize in service and will cater
to the traveler’s every desire.
These lines are well suited for: Lines that fall into this category are:
 Those seeking both classic and modern luxury, contemporary and conservative design, and  Crystal Cruises
dining experiences in which the atmosphere is as important as the food and wine.  Hapag Lloyd Cruises
 Families wishing to travel with young children where the environment is a little more subdued.  Paul Gauguin Cruises
 Families with teenagers  Regent Seven Seas
 Families who are looking for an educational experience for the family  Seabourn
 Family reunions and multi-generational families
 40- and 50-somethings looking for a couple’s vacation These lines are well suited for:
 Seniors looking for new friends  Seasoned travelers
 Solo travelers  Adults who are destination-oriented and enjoy the finer things in life
 Couples looking for romantic getaways  Adults looking for a small ship and boutique type of experience
 40- and 50-somethings looking for a couple’s vacation  Cruisers seeking a destination immersion
 Destination weddings  Travelers seeking an over-the-top experience with ultra-luxury everything
 Honeymoons  Cruises seeking an international atmosphere
 Travelers seeking a large ship with high-end amenities
 ULTRA-PREMIUM CRUISE LINES

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  Cruisers with a great deal of knowledge about the fine arts and cuisine, and are experts in  Adults looking for a sophisticated, intimate small ship experience
matters of taste  Travelers seeking an educational experience and a vacation filled with history, and culture
 Travelers looking for exceptional service and a level of comfort and style rare in today’s world  Seasoned travelers and, adults who are destination-oriented
 Those seeking to meet experts in their field who have a vast knowledge of the cities visited
 SMALL SHIP CRUISES  Those who enjoy traveling and enjoying the company of conversation with noteworthy
Small ships fill a niche for cruisers that are looking for more in-depth exploration of the regions they academic experts
visit. They can visit ports that are inaccessible to larger ships, and exotic itineraries are the standard.  Those seeking an immersion experience of the regions they visit, in wine, food, and culture.
Most river cruise ships and almost all of the luxury lines have ships that fall into this category.
Lines that fall into this category are:
 Blount Small Ship Adventures  LUXURY HOTEL BARGES
 Blue Lagoon Cruises The hotel barge became popular in the 1960s, and has now grown into a very large network of
 Captain Cook Cruises hundreds operating on the rivers and canals of France, Belgium, Germany, Scotland, and the UK.
 Great Lakes Cruise Company These luxury hotel barges vary greatly in size, configuration, scale and quality of accommodations, and
 Hebridean Island Cruises standard and amount of catering. The largest barges take twenty-four guests, the smallest just four. All
hotel barges have a high staff-to-guest ratio, but the smaller barges typically provide more personal
These lines are well suited for: attention and perhaps comfort. You can expect to get to know the other travelers well due to the
 Adults looking for a sophisticated, intimate small ship experience intimate environment. These luxury hotel barges are wonderful for chartering and having your own
 Travelers seeking an educational experience and a vacation filled with history, and culture private vacation.
 Seasoned travelers and, adults who are destination-oriented Lines that fall into this category are:
 Those seeking to meet experts in their field who have a vast knowledge of the cities visited  Abercrombie and Kent
 Those who enjoy traveling and enjoying the company of conversation with noteworthy  Afloat in France
academic experts  European Waterways
 France Cruises
 RIVER CRUISES  French Country Waterways
Unlike ocean cruises, rivers provide easy access to city centers. Passengers sail directly into the heart  The Barge Company
of every destination and dock in the middle of town, then walk right off the ship and move easily into
whatever city or town you are visiting. You spend less time getting there and more time being there. A These lines are well suited for:
river cruise allows for a more intimate experience as well. Because most of these ships accommodate  Seasoned travelers
only 30 to 200 guests, it is easier to meet your traveling companions. You can share a drink with the  Destination-oriented travelers
couple you met on the day’s tour or dine with interesting passengers in an open-seating restaurant.  Travelers who enjoy the finer things in life and are looking for a small ship or boutique type of
Another benefit: you can also forget about waiting in long lines to embark, debark, or have a meal. experience.
These river cruises are immensely popular and keep growing. Many lines have begun adding amenities  Travelers seeking an immersion in small towns and villages
previously restricted to ocean cruise lines, such as French balconies attached to the rooms.
Luxury River Cruise Lines  EXPEDITION CRUISE LINES
 AmaWaterways Expedition cruise lines typically attract adventure and unusual thrills seekers. These lines have very
 A-ROSA Cruises unique and exotic destinations such as the Galapagos Islands, Antarctica, and Greenland. Expedition
 Crystal River Cruises cruises tend to focus on very isolated scenery or wildlife up- close and personal. On an expedition line,
 Scenic you will experience undergo a multitude of new experiences: new cultures, new foods, and new smells,
 Uniworld Boutique River Cruise Collection as all of your senses are awakened as and you commune with nature. The amenities range from simple
accommodations to ultra-luxury environments.
These lines are well suited for:

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Lines that fall into this category are: OTHER WATER TRANSPORT SERVICES IN TOURISM
 Adventure Smith Explorations Ferries- it is a short-distance waterborne transport form and includes different types;
 Alaskan Dream Cruises passenger-only ferry services; passenger/vehicle ferry services; passenger train/ ferry services
 Ecoventura (for train wagons and a limited number of foot passengers); cargo/ passenger ferry services;
 Fantasy Cruises and cruise ferries (large luxury ferries).
 Un-Cruise Adventures

These lines are well suited for:

 Travelers seeking eco- friendly expeditions
 Those seeking remote scenery and wildlife viewing
 Those who may be willing to forego luxurious amenities in exchange for remote locations with
exotic birds and animals.
 Travelers seeking a small ship experience with high impact adventure EXERCISE 8.1: WHAT TO DO:
 Travelers looking for a small ship experience 1) Pick 5 cruise ships. Give its category and amenities.
 Those looking for expedition and unique cruises off the beaten track 2) Write an essay about the organizational structure of cruises.
3) Draw labeled parts of a cruise ship diagram.
 LINES WITH SAILING VESSELS AND YACHTS Note:
This segment of the cruise industry is unusual, offering a different type of experience and ship. a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Seasoned travelers as well as budget- conscious travelers will have an interest in these lines. These b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 8.1
typically smaller cruise lines offer immersion experiences in at various destinations. Some are yachts, for example:
sail-assisted ships, and dual-purpose cargo/passenger ships. All generally are regarded as the From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
“”specialty lines.” To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 8.1
Lines that fall into this category are: (attached files)
 Bora Bora Cruises
 Festiva Sailing Vacations
 Island Windjammers
 North Star Cruises Australia
 Ponant
 Star Clippers
These lines are well suited for:
 Adults looking for a sophisticated, intimate small ship experience
 Travelers seeking an educational experience and a vacation filled with history and culture
 Seasoned travelers and, adults who are destination-oriented
 Highly educated travelers looking for an historically rich vacation
 Those seeking to meet experts in their field who have a vast knowledge of the cities visited
 Those who enjoy an educational type of vacation
 Those who enjoy traveling and enjoying the company of conversation with noteworthy
academic experts

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 IMPACTS OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM
Learning Outcomes
1) Growth of travel and tourism and its challenges
2) Crisis Management

Tourism is growing at remarkable pace. Although it is often faced with

challenges, it shows extreme resilience to bounce back.

TERRORISM
Terrorism is a very serious issue for tourism. Tourism is a highly
sensitive sector. A terrorist attack or just the fear of a possible attack can keep
tourists from visiting destinations. Terrorism has the potential to curb tourism
remarkable growth significantly. Indeed, recurring terrorist attacks can ruin a
tourist destination. A single bomb blast can hamper tourism in a place temporarily
Lesson or even permanently.
The tourism industry is susceptible to both natural and man-made
disasters. However, people tend to get over natural disasters whereas incidents of
terrorisms have long-term effects and lead to cancellation of travel and vacation

9 plans (Sönmez et al., 1999). The perception of tourists about a certain travel
destination also gets affected when terrorists target a location having the least
chance of terrorist activities (Wolff and Larsen, 2017).
The image people associate with a certain country plays a great role in
helping them decide whether they should or should not travel there. Tourists are
pretty sensitive in this matter, as they would never want any terrorist activity to
happen in their evoked destination (Kozak et al., 2007). As different brands have
different images and consumer perceptions about them, likewise, countries too
come with their own unique images and perceptions. America is known as the
land of dreams (Brown, 2011). Paris is known as the city of love (Turnbull,
2004). Switzerland is known as heaven on earth (Landes and Landes,
2011). Malaysia is advertised as “Truly Asia” (Morais, 2013). Similarly, countries
can and should effectively manage their image so that the mention of its name
can evoke a positive image in an individual’s mind. It means they can trust the
place, that they will be safe there and they can travel without any fear or doubt
(Yoon and Uysal, 2005).

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 directly linked to economic progress. So as economic downturns occur, the tourism sector experiences
similar setbacks.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
The spread of communicable diseases is a major issue in tourism. The threat of such CLIMATE CHANGE
diseases, which occur at regular intervals, has impended the progress of tourism in many parts of the Climate change can be a major challenge for tourism in the future. Increasing temperatures,
world. rising sea levels and unpredictable climatic conditions can harm tourism at any point. Changes in
The spread of communicable diseases in tourist areas may be one consequence that affects seasonality, threats to winter tourism and beach tourism, further increases in temperature in warmer
both the traveler and his destination. Travelers are frequently exposed to communicable diseases, destinations, etc. are major challenges tourism is expected to face in the future.
especially when they are unaware of the risks that an unknown environment can pose. Furthermore, Apart from its contribution towards climate change, tourism may face a number of
some types of tourism, such as ecotourism and sexual tourism, foster contact with infectious agents. consequences as a result to climate change. Increasing temperature is going to create many issues for
Among the most common problems are: tourism. Due to this phenomenon, the seasons can be extended in some destinations; while they may
- Diarrheal diseases associated with the quality of water and the environment; the preservation, be shortened in others. Due to temperature variations, some communicable diseases can be more
processing, and handling of food; and the hygiene of the local populace. These form a complex easily spread. As consequence, more water will flow into the sea and sea levels will rise.
ecosystem where gastrointestinal infections, such as salmonellosis, shigellosis, hepatitis, cholera, Many types of tourism are weather dependent and by extension, climate dependent. It is therefore very
cysticercosis, ciguatoxicosis, paralytic shellfish poisoning, and botulism, are shared with visitors. likely that climate change will affect your business area sooner or later. Climate change can reduce
- Zoonoses such as rabies, leptospirosis, and plague have been a cause for concern in diverse snow cover, increase and prolong heat waves or change the patterns of annual rainfall for example.
localities and could become constraints to the development of tourism. Exposure to leptospirosis is Climate change is a relatively slow process, so perhaps in your region, the changes are not so obvious
frequent among travelers interested in aquatic activities. in the short run; yet, in that case, the effects may be strong in neighboring or competing areas and
- The unnecessary use of immunogens due to ignorance about the epidemiological situation in the thereby still influence your business area.
countries and regions visited. Vaccines are often administered when conditions do not warrant it. In The effects of climate change on your business area can be manifold, and be both negative and
Canada, for example, travelers receive prophylactic treatment against rabies every year when they visit positive. If you are unprepared your organization may suffer from the negative effects, while being
the eastern Caribbean, an area considered rabies-free. unable to benefit from possible positive effects. Next to climate change also climate variability (e.g.
- Sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS are spreading rapidly in tourist areas, especially in places variably cold and tepid winters) is important for many types of tourism, while climate change can make
where sexual tourism is being promoted. It should be noted that roughly 50% of the world’s AIDS cases the variability more extreme.
have been reported in the Americas and that there are some 2.0 to 2.5 million people infected by the For many countries and regions in Europe studies have already been conducted, e.g. regarding heat
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). While the surveillance and prevention of other sexually waves, reduction of snow cover, extreme rainfall, drought, etc. You can inquire with your municipality,
transmitted diseases has improved, the prevalence of hepatitis B, syphilis, and chlamydiosis in some region, or sector organization what kind of information is already available.
countries is troubling.

CRISIS MANAGEMENT
POLITICAL INSTABILITIES Recurring crises trouble tourism often. Natural calamities are more frequent nowadays. Man-
The intervention of political issues has stalled tourism progress on many occasions in history. made issues also occur quite often. The tourism sector at all levels, from the national level to the local
After the First and Second world wars, political instabilities occurred at different junctures at different level and industry levels, has to be ready to tackle the issues as and when they occur.
locations in the world. Notwithstanding the varying nature and depth, any issue can pose a threat to Crisis management is all about the prevention of a crisis or the efficient management after the
tourism. events of crisis, with the objective of minimizing the impacts and recovering from the situation without
delay in order to restore the normal conditions. Crisis management should put in place a preparatory
ECONOMIC DOWNTURNS action plan as and when a crisis occurs. Effective communication and coordination are key in the
In the years following 2008, the world suffered through an economic depression, which success of crisis management.
impacted tourism directly. The number of tourist arrivals decreased considerably over this period.
Similar events in history have caused tourism levels to fall. This is because tourism’s progress is

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 REFERENCE
Adopted from:

Dileep M. R. (2019), Tourism, Transport and Travel Management, by Routledege 52

Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
EXERCISE 9.1: WHAT TO DO:
1) ESSAY TYPE: What are the challenges faced by tourism currently? What did the tourism
industry do to cope on those challenges?
Note:
a) E-mail your answer at dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
b) Send your answer with your full name and TITLE/SUBJECT as Transport Exercise 9.1
for example:
From: vonjham112001@gmail.com(your email address)
To: dealva.tourismfiles@gmail.com
Subject: Von De La Cruz - Transportation Exercise 9.1
(attached files)

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