CHEMISTRY OF

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Engineering materials refers to the group of 
materials that are used in the construction of 
manmade structures and components. 
The primary function of an engineering 
material is to withstand applied loading without 
breaking and without exhibiting excessive 
deflection. The major classifications of 
engineering materials include metals, polymers, 
ceramics, and composites.
Why Material Science & Engineering is important
to technologists?
•Mechanical engineers search for high temp
material so that gas turbines, jet engines etc can
operate more efficiently and wear resistance
materials to manufacture bearing materials
•Electrical engineers search for materials by
which electrical devices or machines can be
operated at a faster rate with minimum power
losses
Why Material Science & Engineering is important to technologists?

•Aerospace & automobile engineers search for

materials having high strength-to weight ratio
•Electronic engineers search for material that
are useful in the fabrication & miniaturization
of electronic devices
•Chemical engineers search for highly
corrosion-resistant materials
Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes
The best material is one which serve the
desired objective at the minimum cost. The
following factors should be considered while
selecting the material :
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working
conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials
STRUCTURE OF METALS
Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of matter
that retains all of the chemical properties
of an element. Atoms combine to form
molecules, which then interact to form
solids, gases, or liquids.
Atomic Particles
Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons,
electrons, and neutrons. The nucleus (center) of the
atom contains the protons (positively charged) and
the neutrons (no charge). The outermost regions of
the atom are called electron shells and contain the
electrons (negatively charged). Atoms have
different properties based on the arrangement and
number of their basic particles.
Structure of an Ato
Atomic number, chemi
Atomic Number and Mass Number
The atomic number is the number of protons in
an element, while the mass number is the
number of protons plus the number of neutrons.
No. of protons = atomic number
No. of electrons (neutral atom) = no. of protons
Mass number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
No. of Neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Example

No. of Neutrons = mass number – atomic number

No. of Neutrons = 52 – 24
No. of Neutrons = 28
atomic number = no. of protons = no. of electrons
no. of protons = no. of electrons = 24
Example

No. of Neutrons = mass number – atomic number

No. of Neutrons = 201 – 80
No. of Neutrons = 121
atomic number = no. of protons = no. of electrons
no. of protons = no. of electrons = 80
 Quantum Numbers
and
Electron Configurations
Quantum Numbers
- Is used describe the distribution of electrons in
the atom.
The three coordinates that come from
Schrodinger's wave equations are the principal (n),
angular (l), and magnetic (m) quantum numbers.
These quantum numbers describe the size, shape,
and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom.
The principal quantum number, n, designates the
principal electron shell. Because n describes the most
probable distance of the electrons from the nucleus, the
larger the number n is, the farther the electron is from
the nucleus, the larger the size of the orbital, and the
larger the atom is. n can be any positive integer starting
at 1, as n=1 designates the first principal shell (the
innermost shell). The first principal shell is also called the
ground state, or lowest energy state. This explains
why n can not be 0 or any negative integer, because
there exists no atoms with zero or a negative amount of
energy levels/principal shells
The angular quantum number (l) describes the shape
of the orbital. Orbitals have shapes that are best
described as spherical (l = 0), polar (l = 1), or cloverleaf
(l = 2). They can even take on more complex shapes as
the value of the angular quantum number becomes
larger.
 The magnetic quantum number ml determines the
number of orbitals and their orientation within a
subshell. Consequently, its value depends on the orbital
a ng ul a r m o ment u m q u a ntu m n u mb e r l . G i ve n a
certain l, ml is an interval ranging from –l to +l, so it can
be zero, a negative integer, or a positive integer.

ml = -l, (-l + 1), (-l + 2), …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,…, (l -1), (l -2), +l
EXAMPLE
If n=3, and l =2, then what are the possible values of
ml ?

Since ml must range from –l to +l, then

ml can be: -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2.
Electron Configurations
The electron configuration of an atom describes the
orbitals occupied by electrons on the atom. One
rule governing electron configurations is
the Aufbau Principle, which states that each
successive electron occupies the lowest energy
orbital available.
Example:
Boron - 5
The order of increasing
energy of the orbitals is then
read off by following these
arrows, starting at the top of
the first line and then
proceeding on to the second,
third, fourth lines, and so on.
This diagram predicts the
following order of
increasing energy for atomic
orbitals.
Pauli Exclusion Principle - Each orbital can hold TWO 
electrons with opposite spins

Hund’s Rule - Within a sublevel, place one e- per

orbital before pairing them. “Empty Bus Seat Rule”
Example:
Write the configuration of the following

1. Ca - 20

2. Se - 34
Chemical Bonding
Chemical compounds are formed by the joining
of two or more atoms.
A chemical bond is the physical phenomenon of
chemical substances being held together by
attraction of atoms to each other through
sharing, as well as exchanging, of electrons -or
electrostatic forces.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent chemical bonds involve the
sharing of a pair of valence electrons by
two atoms. Such bonds lead to stable
molecules if they share electrons in such a
way as to create a noble gas configuration
for each atom.
Ionic Bonds
For atoms with the largest electronegativity
differences (such as metals bonding with nonmetals),
the bonding interaction is called ionic, and the
valence electrons are typically represented as being
transferred from the metal atom to the nonmetal.
Once the electrons have been transferred to the non-
metal, both the metal and the non-metal are
considered to be ions. The two oppositely charged
ions attract each other to form an ionic compound.
Forming an Ionic Bond
Metallic bond
A metallic bond is the sharing of many
detached electrons between many positive ions, where
the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a
definite structure. Metals have low ionization energy.
Therefore, the valence electrons can be delocalized
throughout the metals. Delocalized electrons are not
associated with a particular nucleus of a metal, instead,
they are free to move throughout the whole crystalline
structure forming a "sea" of electrons.
Metallic bond
Metallic bonds are the chemical bonds that hold
atoms together in metals. They differ from covalent
and ionic bonds because the electrons in metallic
bonding are delocalized, that is, they are not shared
between only two atoms. Instead, the electrons in
metallic bonds float freely through the lattice of metal
nuclei. This type of bonding gives metals many unique
material properties, including excellent thermal and
electrical conductivity, high melting points, and
malleability.
Metallic bond
 These are formed when the valence electrons of
metal atoms are shared by more than one neighbouring
atom. The metal atoms are held together by a “sea” of
electrons floating around. Metals consist of a lattice of
positive ions through which a cloud of electrons moves.
The positive ions will tend to repel one another, but are
held together by the negatively charged electron cloud.
The mobile electrons, known as conduction electrons,
can transfer thermal vibration from one part of the
structure to another i.e., metals can conduct heat. They
are good conductors of electricity also.
Metallic bond in Silver
Conductivity of metals
Metals conduct heat well because of the sea of
delocalized electrons. When you heat the metal,
the atoms vibrate. Because the electrons are not
bound to a certain atom, they can vibrate more
freely, cause more repercussions, and travel,
more quickly through the metal. The vibrations
are passed from one atom to another very
rapidly.
 The electrons drift slowly through the structure as
the metal is heated. As the metal heats up, the
electrons move faster; they travel colliding with both
atoms and other electrons. Thus, the heat is passed
quickly through the metal.
Electrical conductivity of metals
Electricity is energy created by the free or
controlled movement of charged particles such as
electrons. In other words, electricity is energy created
by electrons in motion. Because the valence electrons
in metals are relatively free to move about, when you
apply a negative charge to the end of a piece of metal
and a positive charge to the other end, the free
(delocalized) electrons move away from the negative
charge and toward the positive charge.
When you apply a negative charge to the end of a
piece of metal and a positive charge to the other end,
the free (delocalized) electrons move away from the
negative charge and toward the positive charge.
Malleability and Ductility
Ductility is a solid material's ability to change shape
under tensile stress. Tensile stress is the stress on an
object that results from pulling or stretching (think of
the word “tension”). This property is often
characterized by the ability of the material to be
stretched into a wire. Malleability is the material's
capacity to change shapes under compressive stress.
Malleability is often characterized by the capacity of
the material to form a thin sheet when it is hammered
or rolled.
The delocalized electrons of the metallic bond in the
'sea' of electrons allow the metal atoms to roll over
each other when a stress is applied. Because of this
ability, the metal can be hammered into
sheets (malleable) or pulled
into wires (ductility),
depending on the type of stress.
Physical Properties of Metals
The physical properties of the metals include
appearance, luster, colour,
size and shape, weight,
density, melting point,
boiling point and freezing
point, glass transition
temperature and
permeability.
Mechanical Properties of Metals
The mechanical properties of the metals are
those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load.
These mechanical properties of the metal include
strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility,
brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience,
creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these
properties as follows:
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to
resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance
offered by a part to an externally applied
force is called stress.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to
resist deformation under stress. The modulus
of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to
regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed. This property is
desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
It may be noted that steel is more elastic than
rubber.
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which
retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is
necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be
drawn into wire with the application of a tensile force. A
ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The
ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage
elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile
material commonly used in engineering practice (in order
of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium,
nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to
ductility. It is the property of breaking of a material with
little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when
subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any
sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility
which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material
should be plastic but it is not essential to be so
strong. The malleable materials commonly used
in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron,
copper and aluminium.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to
resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material
decreases when it is heated. It is measured by
the amount of energy that a unit volume of the
material has absorbed after being stressed up to
the point of fracture. This property is desirable
in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
9. Machinability. It is the property of a material
which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a
material can be measured in a number of ways
such as comparing the tool life for cutting
different materials or thrust required to remove
the material at some given rate or the energy
required to remove a unit volume of the
material. It may be noted that brass can be
easily machined than steel
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to
absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy
absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit. This
property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant
stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent
deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion
engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to
repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a
material is known as fatigue. The failure is
caused by means of a progressive crack
formation which are usually fine and of
microscopic size. This property is considered
in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs,
gears, etc.
13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals
and has a wide variety of meanings. It embraces many
different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability
of a metal to cut another metal. The hardness is usually
expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of
making the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined
by the following tests :
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(d) Shore scleroscope.
Thermal Properties of Metals
The thermal properties includes thermal conductivity,
expansion coefficient, resistivity, thermal shock resistance,
thermal diffusivity.
Electrical Properties of Metals
The electrical properties includes conductivity, resistivity,
dielectric strength, thermoelectricity, superconductivity,
electric hysteresis
Magnetic Properties of Metals
The magnetic properties includes ferromagnetism,
paramagnetism, diamagnetism, magnetic permeability,
coercive force, curie temperature, magnetic hysteresis
Chemical Properties of Metals
The chemical properties includes reactivity,
corrosion resistance, polymerization, composition,
acidity, alkalinity
Optical Properties of Metals
The optical properties includes reflectivity,
refractivity, absorptivity, transparency, opaqueness,
color, luster
Metallurgical Properties of Metals
The metallurgical properties includes grain size, heat
treatment done / required, anisotropy, hardenability
CLASSIFICATION OF
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Engineering materials are classified into the
following broad groups:
Classification
It is the systematic arrangement or division of
materials into groups on the basis of some
common characteristic
1. According to General Properties
2. According to Nature of Materials
3. According to Applications
1. Metals
Metals are the most commonly
used class of engineering material.
Metal alloys are especially common,
and they are formed by combining a
metal with one or more other
metallic and/or non-metallic
materials.
 The combination usually occurs through a
process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The
goal of alloying is to improve the properties
of the base material in some desirable way.
Metal alloy compositions are described in
terms of the percentages of the various
elements in the alloy, where the percentages
are measured by weight.
1.1 Ferrous metals
•These are metals and alloys containing a high
proportion of the element iron.
•They are the strongest materials available and are
used for applications where high strength is required
at relatively low cost and where weight is not of
primary importance.
•As an example of ferrous metals such as : bridge
building, the structure of large buildings, railway lines,
locomotives and rolling stock and the bodies and
highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.
 The ferrous metals themselves can also be
classified into "families', and these are shown in
figure
Ferrous Alloys
•Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element.
These alloys and include steels and cast
irons. Ferrous alloys are the most common
metal alloys in use due to the abundance of
iron, ease of production, and high versatility
of the material. The biggest disadvantage of
many ferrous alloys is low corrosion
resistance.
Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous
alloys. In general, higher levels of carbon increase
strength and hardness, and decrease ductility and
weldability.
Carbon Steel
Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron
and carbon. They may contain small amounts of
other elements, but carbon is the primary
alloying ingredient. The effect of adding carbon is
an increase in strength and hardness.
 Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of
which there are several types.
Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It
is characterized by low strength but high ductility.
Some strengthening can be achieved through cold
working, but it does not respond well to heat
treatment. Low-carbon steel is very weldable and is
inexpensive to produce. Common uses for low-carbon
steel include wire, structural shapes, machine parts,
and sheet metal.
Low carbon steel wire Low carbon sheet steel

Low carbon steel hex nut

Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel contains between
about 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat
treated to increase strength, especially with the
higher carbon contents. Medium-carbon steel is
frequently used for axles, gears, shafts, and
machine parts.
medium carbon steel gears medium carbon steel shafts

medium carbon steel nail clipper

High-Carbon Steel
High-carbon steel contains between about
0.70% to 1.40% carbon. It has high strength but
low ductility. Common uses include drills,
cutting tools, knives, and springs.
 High carbon steel drills

High carbon steel cutting tools

High carbon steel knives
High carbon steel
fishing hooks

High carbon steel wires

High carbon steel springs
Low-Alloy Steel
Low-alloy steels, also commonly called
alloy steels, contain less than about 8% total
alloying ingredients. Low-alloy steels are
typically stronger than carbon steels and have
better corrosion resistance.
Tool Steel
Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling
for use in manufacturing, for example cutting
tools, drill bits, punches, dies, and chisels.
Alloying elements are
typically chosen to
optimize hardness,
wear resistance, and
toughness.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steels have good corrosion
resistance, mostly due to the addition of
chromium as an alloying ingredient. Stainless
steels have a chromium composition of at least
11%. Passivation occurs with chromium content
at or above 12%, in which case a protective inert
film of chromic oxide forms over the material and
prevents oxidation. The corrosion resistance of
stainless steel is a result of this passivation.
 stainless steel screws
stainless steel pipes and bars stainless steel cookwares

stainless steel wires

stainless steel utensils

Cast Iron
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing
high levels of carbon, generally greater than
2%. The carbon present in the cast iron can
take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast
irons have a low melting temperature which
makes them well suited to casting.
Gray Cast Iron
Gray cast iron is the most common type. The
carbon is in the form of graphite flakes. Gray cast iron is
a brittle material and its compressive strength is much
higher than its tensile strength. The fracture surface of
gray cast iron has a gray color, which is how it got its
name. It has a low tensile strength, high compressive
strength and no ductility. A very good property of grey
cast iron is that the free graphite in its structure acts as
a lubricant. Due to this reason, it is very suitable for
those parts where sliding action is desired.
Gray cast iron castings Gray cast iron round bars

Gray cast iron valve

Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)
The addition of magnesium to gray cast iron
improves the ductility of the material. The
resulting material is called nodular cast iron
because the magnesium causes the graphite
flakes to form into spherical nodules. It is also
called ductile cast iron. Nodular cast iron has
good strength, ductility, and machinability.
Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump
bodies, valves, and machine parts.
 Ductile cast iron ranger
Ductile cast iron pipes
Ductile cast iron
casting
White Cast Iron
White cast iron has carbon in the form of
carbide (known as cementite), which is the
hardest constituent of iron. It has a high tensile
strength and low compressive strength. Since it is
hard, therefore, it cannot be machined with
ordinary cutting tools but requires grinding as
shaping process. White cast iron is primarily used
for wear-resisting components as well as for the
production of malleable cast iron. 
white cast iron white cast iron chairs
Malleable Cast Iron
Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating
white cast iron. The heat treatment improves the
ductility of the material while maintaining its high
strength. It is used for machine parts for which the
steel forgings would be too expensive and in which
the metal should have a fair degree of accuracy, e.g.
hubs of wagon wheels, small fittings for railway
rolling stock, brake supports, parts of agricultural
machinery, pipe fittings, door hinges, locks etc.
malleable cast iron fitting
malleable cast iron floor
flange
Wrought iron
It is the purest iron which contains at least
99.5% iron but may contain up to 99.9% iron. The
wrought iron is a tough, malleable and ductile
material. It cannot stand sudden and excessive
shocks. It can be easily forged or welded. It is
used for chains, crane hooks, railway couplings,
water and steam pipes.
 wrought iron tracks
wrought iron railings
1.2 Non – ferrous metals
•These materials refer to the remaining
metals known to mankind.
•The pure metals are rarely used as
structural materials as they lack
mechanical strength.
•They are mainly used with other metals
to improve their strength.
1.2 Non – ferrous metals
• They are used where their special properties such as
corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity and
thermal conductivity are required.
The non-ferrous metals are usually employed in
industry due to the following characteristics :
1. Ease of fabrication (casting, rolling, forging, welding
and machining),
2. Resistance to corrosion,
3. Electrical and thermal conductivity, and
4. Weight.
Classification of non-ferrous
metals and alloys
Aluminium
It is white metal produced by electrical
processes from its oxide (alumina), which is
prepared from a clayey mineral called bauxite. It
is a light metal having specific gravity 2.7 and
melting point 658°C. The tensile strength of the
metal varies from 90 MPa to 150 MPa.
In its pure state, the metal would be weak
and soft for most purposes, but when mixed with
small amounts of other alloys, it becomes hard
and rigid.
 So, it may be blanked, formed, drawn, turned,
cast, forged and die cast. Its good electrical
conductivity is an important property and is
widely used for overhead cables. The high
resistance to corrosion and its non-toxicity makes
it a useful metal for cooking utensils under
ordinary condition and thin foils are used for
wrapping food items. It is extensively used in
aircraft and automobile components where
saving of weight is an advantage.
Aluminum foils Aluminum cans

Aluminum aerospace parts

Aluminum Alloys
The aluminium may be alloyed with one or
more other elements like copper, magnesium,
manganese, silicon and nickel. The addition of
small quantities of alloying elements converts
the soft and weak metal into hard and strong
metal, while still retaining its light weight.
Aluminum alloy aerospace parts
The main aluminium alloys are :
1. Duralumin. It is an important and interesting
wrought alloy. This alloy possesses maximum tensile
strength (up to 400 MPa) after heat treatment and age
hardening. After working, if the metal is allowed to age
for 3 or 4 days, it will be hardened. This phenomenon is
known as age hardening.
2. Y-alloy. It is also called copper-aluminium alloy. The
addition of copper to pure aluminium increases its
strength and machinability. It is mainly used for cast
purposes and used in aircraft engines for cylinder
heads and pistons.
3. Magnalium. It is made by melting the aluminium with 2
to 10% magnesium in a vacuum and then cooling it in a
vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres. It
also contains about 1.75% copper. Due to its light weight
and good mechanical properties, it is mainly used for
aircraft and automobile components.
4. Hindalium. It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium
with a small quantity of chromium. It is the trade name of
aluminium alloy produced by Hindustan Aluminium
Corporation Ltd, Renukoot (U.P.). It is produced as a rolled
product in 16 gauge, mainly for anodized utensil
manufacture.
Nickel Alloys
Nickel alloys have high temperature and
corrosion resistance. Common alloying
ingredients include copper, chromium, and
iron.
Common nickel alloys include Monel, K-
Monel, Inconel, and Hastelloy.
Nickel alloy parts and fittings
Nickel alloy fasteners
Monel is a group of nickel alloys, primarily composed
of nickel (from 52 to 67%) and copper, with small
amounts of iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon.
Inconel is a nickel-chromium alloy that is classified as a
superalloy because of its high-performance qualities
and resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
Hastelloy is a nickel-molybdenum-
chromium superalloy with an addition of tungsten
designed to have excellent corrosion resistance in a
wide range of severe environments.
Copper
It is one of the most widely used non-ferrous
metals in industry. It is a soft, malleable and ductile
material with a reddish-brown appearance. Its specific
gravity is 8.9 and melting point is 1083°C. The tensile
strength varies from 150 MPa to 400 MPa under
different conditions. It is a good conductor of electricity.
It is largely used in making electric cables and wires for
electric machinery and appliances, in electrotyping and
electroplating, in making coins and household utensils.
 It may be cast, forged, rolled and drawn
into wires. It is non-corrosive under ordinary
conditions and resists weather very
effectively. Copper in the form of tubes is
used widely in mechanical engineering. It is
also used for making ammunitions. It is used
for making useful alloys with tin, zinc, nickel
and aluminium.
Copper
Copper Alloys
The copper alloys are broadly classified into the following two
groups :
1. Copper-zinc alloys (Brass). The most widely used copper-
zinc alloy is brass. There are various types of brasses,
depending upon the proportions of copper and zinc. This is
fundamentally a binary alloy of copper with zinc each 50%.
Brasses are very resistant to atmospheric
corrosion and can be easily soldered. They can be easily
fabricated by processes like spinning and can also be
electroplated with metals like nickel and chromium
Copper zinc alloy strip roll

brass utensils
Solid brass wire

Copper zinc alloy door hinge

2. Copper-tin alloys (Bronze). The alloys of
copper and tin are usually termed as bronzes.
The useful range of composition is 75 to 95%
copper and 5 to 25% tin. The metal is
comparatively hard, resists surface wear and
can be shaped or rolled into wires, rods and
sheets very easily. In corrosion resistant
properties, bronzes are superior to brasses.
 bronze medal

Copper tin alloy

bronze bust

Copper tin alloy bracelet

Gun Metal
It is an alloy of copper, tin and zinc. It usually
contains 88% copper, 10% tin and 2% zinc. This metal
is also known as Admiralty gun metal. The zinc is
added to clean the metal and to increase its fluidity.
The metal is very strong and resistant to
corrosion by water and atmosphere. Originally, it
was made for casting guns. It is extensively used for
casting boiler fittings, bushes, bearings, glands, etc.
Gun metal finished revolver

Gun metal alloy wheels

Gun metal acrylic sheet

Lead
It is a bluish grey metal having specific
gravity 11.36 and melting point 326°C. It is so
soft that it can be cut with a knife. It has no
tenacity. It is extensively used for making solders,
as a lining for acid tanks, cisterns, water pipes,
and as coating for electrical cables.
The lead base alloys are employed where a
cheap and corrosion resistant material is
required.
Tin
It is brightly shining white metal. It is soft,
malleable and ductile. It can be rolled into
very thin sheets. It is used for making
important alloys, fine solder, as a protective
coating for iron and steel sheets and for
making tin foil used as moisture proof
packing.
 Tin metal
Tin cans
Zinc Base Alloys
The most of the die castings are produced from
zinc base alloys. These alloys can be casted easily with
a good finish at fairly low temperatures. They have
also considerable strength and are low in cost. The
usual alloying elements for zinc are aluminium, copper
and magnesium and they are all held in close limits.
These alloys are widely used in the automotive
industry and for other high production markets such as
washing machines, oil burners, refrigerators, radios,
photographs, television, business machines, etc.
Zinc aluminum alloy coated sheet

Zinc copper incense burner

Zinc aluminum alloy

Nickel Base Alloys
The nickel base alloys are widely used in engineering
industry on account of their high mechanical strength
properties, corrosion resistance, etc.
1. Monel metal. It is an important alloy of nickel and copper.
It has a tensile strength from 390 MPa to 460 MPa. It
resembles nickel in appearance and is strong, ductile and
tough. It is superior to brass and bronze in corrosion resisting
properties. It is used for making propellers, pump fittings,
condenser tubes, steam turbine blades, sea water exposed
parts, tanks and chemical and food handling plants.
2. Inconel. It consists of 80% nickel, 14%
chromium, and 6% iron. Its specific gravity is 8.55
and melting point 1395°C. This alloy has excellent
mechanical properties at ordinary and elevated
temperatures. It can be cast, rolled and cold
drawn. It is used for making springs which have to
withstand high temperatures and are exposed to
corrosive action. It is also used for exhaust
manifolds of aircraft engines.
3. Nichrome. It consists of 65% nickel, 15%
chromium and 20% iron. It has high heat and
oxidation resistance. It is used in making
electrical resistance wire for electric furnaces and
heating elements.
4. Nimonic. It consists of 80% nickel and 20%
chromium. It has high strength and ability to
operate under intermittent heating and cooling
conditions. It is widely used in gas turbine
engines.
 Nickel alloy welding parts

Nickel alloy turbojet parts

Nickel alloy tubes and fittings

2. Non – metallic materials
2.1 Synthetic materials
These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in
nature, although they are manufactured from natural
substances such as oil, coal and clay.
ØThey combine good corrosion resistance with ease of
manufacture by moulding to shape and relatively low
cost.
Ø Synthetic adhesives are also being used for the
joining of metallic components even in highly stressed
applications.
2.2 Natural materials
Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be
listed here to give a basic introduction to some typical
applications.
ØWood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite
material used for the manufacture of casting patterns.
ØRubber :This is used for hydraulic and compressed air
hoses and oil seals. Naturally occurring latex is too
soft for most engineering uses but it is used widely for
vehicle tyres when it is compounded with carbon
black.
ØGlass : This is a hardwearing, abrasion-resistant
material with excellent weathering properties. It is
used for electrical insulators, laboratory equipment,
optical components in measuring instruments etc and,
in the form of fibers, is used to reinforce plastics. It is
made by melting together the naturally occurring
materials : silica (sand), limestone (calcium carbonate )
and soda (sodium carbonate)
ØEmery : This is a widely used abrasive and is a
naturally occurring aluminum oxide. Nowadays it is
produced synthetically to maintain uniform quality
and performance.
ØCeramic: These are produced by baking naturally
occurring clays at high temperatures after
moulding to shape. They are used for high –
voltage insulators and high – temperature –
resistant cutting tool tips.
ØDiamonds: These can be used for cutting tools
for operation at high speeds for metal finishing
where surface finish is greater importance. For
example, internal combustion engine pistons and
bearings. They are also used for dressing grinding
wheels.
ØOils : Used as bearing
lubricants, cutting fluids
and fuels.
ØSilicon : This is used as
an alloying element and
also for the manufacture
of semiconductor
devices.
Ceramics
Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of
metallic or nonmetallic elements. The primary
classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay
products, refractories, and abrasives.
Characteristic of ceramics:
• Brittleness
• High thermal and electrical resistance
• High resistance to corrosion
• Opaque
• High temperature stability
Ceramic cups

Ceramics in aerospace industry

Ball inside the writing tip

Glass
Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications
including windows, lenses, and containers. Glasses are amorphous,
whereas the other ceramics are mainly crystalline. Primary
advantages of glasses include transparency and ease of fabrication.
The base element of most glasses is silica, and other components
can be added to modify its properties. Common processes used to
form glass include:
• heating until melting, then pouring into molds to cast into useful
shapes
• heating until soft, then rolling
• heating until soft, then blowing into desired shapes
Glass
Cements
Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a
paste that then hardens. Because of this characteristic, cements can
be formed into useful shapes while in paste form before they harden
into rigid structures. Plaster of paris is one common cement. The
most common cement is called Portland cement, which is made by
mixing clay and limestone and then firing at high temperature.
Portland cement is used to form concrete, which is made by mixing
it with sand, gravel, and water. It can also be mixed with sand and
water to form mortar. Like other ceramics, cements are weak in
tension but strong in compression. Cement is very inexpensive to
produce, and it used widely in the construction of buildings, bridges,
and other large structures.
Cement
Clay Products
Clay is a very common ceramic material. It
can be mixed with water, shaped, and then
hardened through firing at high temperature.
The two primary classifications of clay products
include structural clay products and whitewares.
Structural clay products see applications
including bricks, tiles, and piping. Whitewares
see applications including pottery and plumbing
fixtures.
Refractories
Refractory ceramics can withstand high
temperatures and extreme environments. They
can also provide thermal insulation. Brick is the
most common refractory ceramic.
Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used
to cut, grind, and wear away other softer materials.
Typical properties of abrasives include high hardness,
wear resistance, and temperature resistance.
Abrasives can either be bonded to a surface (e.g.
grinding wheels and sand paper), or can be used as
loose grains (e.g. sand blasting). Common abrasives
include cemented carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten
carbide, aluminum oxide, and silica sand. Diamond is
also an excellent abrasive, but it is expensive.
Abrasive ceramics
Factors affecting materials properties: 
1. Heat treatment
This is the controlled heating and cooling of
metals to change their properties to improve their
performance or to facilitate processing.
2. Processing
Metal is hot worked or cold worked depending upon
the temperature at which it is flow formed to shape . These
temperatures are not easy to define - for instance , lead hot
works at room temperature and can be beaten into complex
shapes without cracking
Factors affecting materials properties: 
3. Environmental reactions
The properties of materials can also be effected by
reaction with
environment in which they are used. For example
Resting of steel
Unless steel structures are regularly maintained by
rest
neutralization and painting process, resting will occur.
The rest will eat into the steel, reduce its thickness and,
therefore, its strength. In extreme cases an entire
structure made from steel may be eaten away.
Factors affecting materials properties: 
Dezincification of brass
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and when brass is
exposed to a marine environment for along time, the salt in
the sea water pray react with the zinc content of the brass so
as remove it and leave it behind on spongy, porous mass of
copper. This obviously weakness the material which fails
under normal working conditions.
Degradation of plastic
Many plastic degrade and become weak and brittle when
exposed to the ultraviolet content of sunlight. Special
dyestuffs have to be incorporated into the plastic to filter out
these harmful rays.
Polymers
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules
formed by long chains of repeating units. They may
be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering
materials are polymers, such as plastics, rubbers,
fibers, adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are
classified as thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting
polymers (thermosets), and elastomers.
Thermoplastic Polymers
The classification of thermoplastics and 
thermosets is based on their response to heat. If heat 
is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. 
Once it is cooled, it will return to solid form. 
Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical 
change through repeated heating and cooling (unless 
the temperature is high enough to break the 
molecular bonds). They are therefore very well suited 
to injection molding.
Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing,
after which they become permanently hard. Thermosets will
not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat becomes
extreme however, the thermoset will degrade due to breaking
of the molecular bonds. Thermosets typically have greater
hardness and strength than thermoplastics. They also
typically have better dimensional stability than
thermoplastics, meaning that they are better at maintaining
their original dimensions when subjected to temperature and
moisture changes.
Elastomers
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with
mechanical properties similar to rubber. Elastomers
are commonly used for seals, adhesives, hoses, belts,
and other flexible parts. The strength and stiffness of
rubber can be increased through a process
called vulcanization, which involves adding sulfur and
subjecting the material to high temperature and
pressure. This process causes cross-links to form
between the polymer chains.