Chapter 2: Linear Modulation 8

Chapter 2: Linear Modulation

2.1 Introduction

Information signals are transported between a transmitter and receiver over some form of
transmission medium. However, original signals are seldom in a form that is suitable for
transmission. Therefore, they must be transformed into a form that is more suitable for
transmission. The process of impressing low-frequency information signals onto a high-
frequency carrier signal is called modulation. Demodulation is the reverse process where
the received signals are transformed back to their original form. In this chapter, the
student is first introduced to the fundamental concepts of amplitude modulation (AM)
before looking at the practical modulator and demodulator circuits used for AM
modulation.

2.2 Principles of AM

Amplitude modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high

frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal (information signal)

• There are 2 inputs to the modulation device (often called modulator):

1. A single, high-frequency RF carrier signal of constant amplitude

2. Low-frequency information signals that maybe a single frequency or a
complex waveform made up of many frequencies

• In the modulator, the information modulates the RF carrier producing a modulated

waveform, often called an AM envelope

2.2.1 The AM Envelope

There are several types of amplitude modulation and the most commonly used is AM
double-sideband full carrier (DSBFC) scheme. It is also called conventional AM. The
following figure illustrates the relationship among the carrier, the modulating signal and
the modulated signal for conventional AM.

• Signal representation:
Carrier signal = Vc sin[ 2πf c t ]
Modulating signal = Vm sin[ 2πf m t ]
Modulated wave = Vam [t ]
• When a modulating signal is applied to the carrier signal, the amplitude of the
output wave varies in accordance with the modulating signal

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Figure 2.1: AM Generation

2.2.2 AM Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth

The output envelope is a complex wave made up of a DC voltage, the carrier frequency,
and the sum ( f c + f m ) and difference ( f c − f m ) frequencies. These sum and difference
frequencies are displaced from carrier frequency by an amount equal to modulating
frequency. I.e., an AM signal spectrum contains frequency components spaced f m Hz on
either side of the carrier as shown in Figure 2.2:

Figure 2.2: Frequency spectrum of an AM DSBFC wave

• The AM spectrum ranges from f c − f m (max) to f c + f m (max)

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Chapter 2: Linear Modulation 10

• Parameters:
Lower sideband (LSB) = band of frequencies between f c − f m (max) and f c
Lower side frequency (LSF) = any frequency within LSB
Upper sideband (USB) = band of frequencies between f c and f c + f m (max)
Upper side frequency (USF) = any frequency within USB
• Bandwidth = twice the highest modulating signal frequency

β = 2 f m (max)

2.2.3 Coefficient of Modulation and Percent Modulation

Coefficient of modulation is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change

present in an AM waveform
Percent modulation is the coefficient of modulation stated as a percentage

• Mathematical representation:
Em
m= (2.1)
Ec
E
M = m × 100 (2.2)
Ec

where m = modulation coefficient where usually m ≤ 1

M = percent modulation
E m = peak change in the amplitude of the output waveform
E c = peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier
• Graphical representation of the relationship among m, E m and E c :

Figure 2.3: Modulation coefficient, E m and E c

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Chapter 2: Linear Modulation 11

Based from Figure 2.3:

1
Em = (Vmax − Vmin ) (2.3)
2
1
Ec = (Vmax + Vmin ) (2.4)
2
(Vmax − Vmin )
Thus M = × 100 (2.5)
(Vmax + Vmin )

• E m is also defined as the sum of the voltages from upper and lower side
frequencies
E m = Eusf + Elsf
Also, Eusf = Elsf
E m 1 / 2(Vmax − Vmin ) 1
Therefore E usf = E lsf = = = (V max − Vmin ) (2.6)
2 2 4

2.2.4 AM Voltage Distribution and Analysis

From previous section, we know that amplitude of the AM wave varies proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal and the maximum amplitude of the AM wave
is Ec + E m . Given an unmodulated carrier and a modulating signal as,

vc (t ) = Ec sin( 2πf c t ) (2.7)

v m (t ) = E m sin( 2πf m t ) (2.8)

The modulated wave can be expressed as:

v am (t ) = [ Ec + E m sin( 2πf m t )][sin( 2πf c t )] (2.9)

where E c = peak carrier amplitude

f c = carrier frequency, f m = modulating frequency,
E m = peak modulating amplitude / peak change in the amplitude of the envelope

• Substituting Equation (2.1) into Equation (2.9), we get

v am (t ) = [ Ec + mEc sin( 2πf m t )][sin( 2πf c t )] (2.10)

• Rearranging Equation (2.10) v am (t ) = [1 + m sin( 2πf m t )][E c sin( 2πf c t )] (2.11)

I.e. it can seen that the modulating signal contains a constant component and a
sinusoidal component at the modulating signal frequency

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• Next, expanding Equation (2.11) yields

v am (t ) = Ec sin( 2πf c t ) + [mEc sin( 2πf m t )][sin( 2πf c t )]

Using trigonometric function, above equation can be represented as:

mE c mE c
v am (t ) = E c sin( 2πf c t ) + cos[2π ( f c − f m )t ] − cos[2π ( f c + f m )t ] (2.12)
2 2

• Voltage spectrum for representing AM DSBFC wave (Equation (2.12)) :

Figure 2.4: Voltage spectrum for AM DSBFC wave

From Equation (2.12), there are few characteristics of AM DSBFC can be deduced:

1. The amplitude of carrier is unaffected by the modulation process

2. The amplitude of USF and LSF depends on both the carrier amplitude and the
coefficient of modulation
3. For 100 % modulation (m = 1) and from previous section

Ec Ec
V(max) = E c + E m = E c + E usf + E lsf = E c + + = 2 Ec
2 2

Ec Ec
V(min) = E c − E m = E c − E usf − E lsf = E c − − =0
2 2

I.e. the maximum peak amplitude of an AM envelope is V(max) = 2 E c and the

minimum peak amplitude of the envelope is V(min) = 0 .

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2.2.5 AM Power Distribution

• The average power dissipated in a load by an unmodulated carrier is equal to the

rms carrier voltage divided by the load resistance

(0.707 Ec ) 2 ( E c ) 2
Pc = = (2.13)
R 2R

• Besides that, the upper and lower sideband powers, Pusb and Plsb respectively, are
given as
(mE c / 2) 2
Pusb = Plsb =
2R
Rearranging this equation
m 2  E c2 
Pusb = Plsb =   (2.14)
4  2R 

Substituting Equation (2.13) into Equation (2.14) gives

m 2 Pc
Pusb = Plsb = (2.15)
4

• Total power in an amplitude-modulated wave is equal to the sum of the powers

of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband. I.e. the total power in an
AM DSBFC wave:
Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb
m 2 Pc
Pt = Pc + (2.16)
2

Note that the total power in an AM envelope increases with modulation

Figure 2.5: Power spectrum for an AM DSBFC wave

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2.2.6 Modulation by a Complex Information Signal

In previous section, coefficient of modulation, voltage and power distribution for AM

DSBFC wave were analyzed for a single frequency modulating signal. In practice, the
modulating signal is often a complex waveform made up of many sine waves with
different amplitudes and frequencies.

• Consider a modulating signal containing two frequencies, f m1 and f m 2 . The

modulated wave obtained will contain the carrier and two sets of side frequencies
spaced symmetrically about the carrier

1 1
v am (t ) = sin( 2πf c t ) + cos[2π ( f c − f m1 )t ] − cos[2π ( f c + f m1 )t ]
2 2
1 1
+ cos[2π ( f c − f m 2 )t ] − cos[2π ( f c + f m 2 )t ] (2.17)
2 2
• For coefficient of modulation for a case involving several modulating frequencies:

mt = m12 + m22 + m32 + .... + mn2 (2.18)

• Consequently, the combined coefficient of modulation, mt , can be used to

determine the total sideband and total transmitted powers

2
mt Pc P m2
Pusbt = Plsbt = ⇒ Psbt = c t (2.19)
4 2

Pc mt2
Thus Pt = Pc + (2.20)
2

Where Pusbt = total upper sideband power

Plsbt = total lower sideband power
Psbt = total sideband power
Pt = total transmitted power

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