Chapter 5: Noise 83
Chapter 5: Noise
5.1 Noise – Representation, Types and Sources
Electrical noise is defined as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the
passband of the signal.
Figure 5.1 shows the effect that noise has on the electrical signal:
Figure 5.1: Effects of noise on a signal: (a) without noise; (b) with noise
Noise can be divided into two general categories: correlated and uncorrelated.
Correlation implies a relationship between the signal and the noise. Therefore, correlated
noise exists only when a signal is present. Uncorrelated noise is present all the time
whether there is a signal or not
5.1.1 Uncorrelated Noise
Uncorrelated noise can be further subdivided into two general categories: external and
internal
External noise (generated outside the device or circuit)
a. Atmospheric noise
• Naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within Earth’s
atmosphere such as lightning
• Also known as static electricity
b. Extraterrestrial noise
• Consists of electrical signals that originate from outside Earth’s atmosphere and
therefore also known as deep-space noise
• Subdivided into two categories
o Solar noise that is generated directly from the sun’s heat
o Cosmic noise/black-body noise that is distributed throughout the galaxies
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Chapter 5: Noise 84
c. Man-made noise
• Noise that is produced by mankind
• The predominant sources of this noise are spark-producing mechanism, such as
commutators in electric motors, automobile ignition systems, ac power-generating
and switching equipment and fluorescent lights
• Sometimes known as industrial noise
Internal noise (generated within a device or circuit)
a. Shot noise
• Caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes and electrons) at the output
element of an electronic device
• Shot noise is randomly varying and is superimposed onto any signal present
b. Transit-time noise
• Irregular, random variation due to any modification to a stream of carriers as they
pass from the input to the output of a device
• This noise become noticeable when the time delay takes for a carrier to propagate
through a device is excessive
c. Thermal/random noise
• Associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor
due to thermal agitation
• Also known as Brownian noise, Johnson noise and white noise
• Uniformly distributed across the entire electromagnetic spectrum
• A form of additive noise, meaning that it cannot be eliminated, and it increases in
intensity with the number of devices and with circuit length
• The most significant of all noise sources
• Thermal noise power
N = KTB (5.1)
N = noise power (watts), B = bandwidth (hertz), T = absolute temperature (kelvin)
K = Boltzmann’s constant ( 1.38 10 −23 joules/kelvin)
Note: T = 0 C + 273 0
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit for a thermal noise source when the
internal resistance of the source R I is in series with the rms noise voltage VN
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Chapter 5: Noise 85
Figure 5.2: Noise source equivalent circuit
For worst-case condition and maximum transfer of noise power, the load resistance R is
made equal to internal resistance. Thus the noise power developed across the load
resistor:
(VN / 2) 2 VN2
N = KTB = =
R 4R
Thus VN = 4 RKTB (5.2)
5.1.2 Correlated Noise
Correlated noise is a form of internal noise that is correlated to the signal and cannot be
present in a circuit unless there is a signal. It is produced by nonlinear amplification
resulting in nonlinear distortion. There are two types of nonlinear distortion that create
unwanted frequencies that interfere with the signal and degrade performance:
a. Harmonic distortion
• Occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear
amplification
• Harmonics are integer multiples of the original signal. The original signal is the
first harmonic (fundamental frequency). A frequency two times the fundamental
frequency is the second harmonic, three times is the third harmonic, and so on
• Distortion measurements
o Nth harmonic distortion = ratio of the rms amplitude of Nth harmonic to
the rms amplitude of the fundamental
o Total harmonic distortion (THD)
v higher
% THD = 100 (5.3)
v fundamental
Notes: vhigher = v22 + v32 + v42 + ..... + vn2 and all in rms values
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Chapter 5: Noise 86
b. Intermodulation distortion
• Intermodulation distortion is the generation of unwanted sum and difference
frequencies produced when two or more signal mix in a nonlinear device (called
cross products)
• The emphasis here is on the word unwanted because in communication circuits it
is often desirable to produce harmonics or to mix two or more signals to produce
sum and difference frequencies
Figure 5.3 shows both forms of correlated noise
Figure 5.3: Correlated noise: (a) Harmonic distortion; (b) Intermodulation distortion
5.1.3 Other Noise Types
a. Impulse noise
• Characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration (sudden burst of
irregularly shaped pulses) in the total noise spectrum
• Common sources of impulse noise: transients produced from electromechanical
switches (relays and solenoids), electric motors, appliances, electric lights, power
lines, poor-quality solder joints and lightning
b. Interference
• Electrical interference occurs when information signals from one source produce
frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere with
information signals from another source
• Most occurs in the radio-frequency spectrum
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