6 Applications of Solar Energy

KEY

PUMP

VALVE

ELECTRICALLY CONTROLLED—
VALVE 113"min

CHECK VALVE iv-

MIXING VALVE

C.W.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE —

H.W.
VENT 4

TEMPERATURE SENSOR

DIFFERENTIAL THERMOSTAT — AUXILIARY

TANK

AUXILIARY HEAT SOURCE —

( ELECTR IC )

AUXILIARY HEAT SOURCE

( GAS OR OIL)

MANUAL DRAINCOCKS

Figure 27.1 A thermosiphon solar water heater. * Denotes that either auxiliary energy
source is acceptable. (From NBSIR 77-1272.)

Figure 27.2 Direct heating with a single tank.

(From NBSIR 77-1272, July 1977.)
Domestic Water Heating 7

There are advantages and disadvantages to thermosiphon systems. The greatest

advantage is that the system is totally automatic requiring no electricity to run pumps or
controls. This had led to the widespread use of thermosiphon systems in the early days
of U.S. solar industry, and even today many solar water heaters in other countries are of
this type. The disadvantages are also noteworthy. First, the installation is difficult and
costly, since the heavy preheat tank must be located above the collectors. Since collec-
tors are usually mounted on the roof, this necessitates that the storage tank be placed
inside the attic or mounted on the roof with a false chimney jacket to improve its appear-
ance. The water tank can damage the roof of the house interior if it leaks. Second, it is
difficult to freezeproof and retrofit. For these reasons not many thermosiphon water
heaters are installed today in the United States, although they perform as well as or
better than pumped systems.

B. Pumped Systems

The remainder of this subsection discusses pumped solar DHW systems. Some general re-
marks on pumped systems are made before proceeding to individual system descriptions.
All pumped systems have at least four basic solar components, the collector(s), the
storage tank(s), the control system, and the circulation pump(s). See Fig. 27.2 for an
example. In pumped systems the absorbed energy in the collector is transferred to the
storage tank by forced circulation of the collector fluid by a pump. The pump is con-
trolled (turned on and off) by an electronic differential controller. The controller has
two sensors, one mounted at the collector outlet and the other near the bottom of the
tank. In the morning, as the sun heats up the stagnant collector fluid to a temperature
about 6 to 10°C above the storage tank bottom temperature, the controller turns the
pump on. This 6 to 10°C differential temperature needed to activate the pump is called
the turn-on AT. As the circulation is established, AT between collector and storage drops
to about 3 to 5°C. If the sunshine is insufficient to maintain a AT of 0.5 to 1.5°C (the
turn-off AT), the controller stops the pump. The turn-on and turn-off AT's can be
adjusted on some controllers. So far the above discussion assumes fixed flow-rate pumps,
which are the most widely used pumps for solar DHW systems. Recently some have
started using proportional flow controls which vary the pump speed to collect a greater
amount of energy. See Ref. 6 for a discussion of proportional flow controllers.
Another control scheme uses thermostatic snap switches. The pump is turned on
whenever the collector switch senses a temperature of 55 to 60°C and turned off when
the temperature drops below 45°C. To prevent hot tank water from circulating through
the collector, another snap switch mounted near the tank bottom prevents circulation if
the tank bottom temperature is greater than 45°C. Although less efficient, snap switch
controllers may be more reliable.
In order to maximize collector efficiency, one needs to supply the collectors with
the lowest possible fluid temperature. This is the reason for taking the collector supply
from the bottom of the tank in a direct water system as shown in Fig. 27.2. In order to
promote stratification, the collector return is connected to the top of the solar storage
tank if it does not contain an electric backup element. If it does, as in Fig. 27.2, the
collector return should be connected below the element. This small detail can improve
system performance by up to 40% by preventing backup electric use during mornings.
8 Applications of Solar Energy

It is also a good idea to have the backup element operated by a timer so that it never
comes on during the day. This will be even more important when time-of-day pricing
is introduced by the utilities.
The various pumped systems will now be discussed. The basic energy-collection
mechanism is similar to all as discussed above. The differences arise in the various ways
the collected heat is transferred to the hot water tap and in the different freeze-protection
methods. There are two principal types, the direct heating systems (Figs. 27.2 through
27.4), in which the tap water is circulated through the collectors via a storage tank, and
the indirect heating systems, in which a different fluid is employed in the collectors
(Figs. 27.5 through 27.8). Direct systems are more efficient and more suitable for milder
climates with, say, less than 45 freezing nights per year. Indirect systems, although about
10 to 15 percent less efficient, are better protected against freezing and thus more suit-
able for colder climates.

C. Direct Solar Water Heaters

Figure 27.2 shows the simplest direct solar water heater with a single tank. The entire
system is under city pressure. The single tank serves as both the solar storage and
auxiliary tank. This type of a system must have an electric backup. Fossil fuel backup
will keep the entire tank water at least at the water set-point temperature. This will
greatly reduce collector efficiency. The electric elements heat water above the element
and therefore the water at the tank bottom gets a chance to cool off. Freeze protection
in this system is achieved by automatic recirculation of hot tank water during cold nights.
As the ambient night temperature drops below about 1.5°C (35°F), a separate freezestat
sensor in the collector (or in some designs the same collector sensor can serve a dual

cN"

AUXILIARY TANK Figure 27.3 Direct heating with preheat

tank and separate auxiliary tank. * Denotes
that either auxiliary energy source is accept-
PREHEAT TANK able. (From NBSIR 77-1272.)
Domestic Water Heating 9

Figure 27.4 Direct heating with preheat tank

AUXILIARY TANK and automatic draindown. * Denotes that
either auxiliary energy source is acceptable.
(From NBSIR 77-1272.)
PREHEAT TANK

purpose with another lead) turns on the pump. A check valve located in the collector
return line prevents thermosiphon of the hot tank water through the cold collectors at
night. Check valves in solar systems are known to fail frequently. Therefore many
systems today use a solenoid-operated ball valve which opens only when the pump is on.
Figure 27.3 shows a two-tank design based on the same principles. Note that the
solar preheat tank does not contain any auxiliary, and this increases solar collection
efficiency. The auxiliary tank can be the existing house hot water tank for retrofit
situations. The preheat tank should be sized for the entire solar system. In other words,
the auxiliary tank storage volume should not be counted as partly meeting the storage
size requirements. This is because the auxiliary tank does not normally store any solar
heat. The solar-heated water goes to the auxiliary tank only when there is a draw from
the house hot water faucets. As before, hot water is recirculated on cold nights for freeze
protection. Two-tank systems are a necessity if conventional oil or gas water heaters are
to be used as a backup. For systems with electrical backup a one-tank system is prefer-
able due to its superior performance and reduced cost. The substantial tank heat losses
from two-tank systems decrease their performance when compared with one-tank systems.
Figure 27.4 shows an automatic draindown system very similar to that sketched in
Fig. 27.3 except that the collectors are automatically drained during cold nights by
thermostatically controlled electric solenoid valves. During cold nights or during power
failure, solenoid valve S1 shuts off, and S2 and S3 open to drain the collectors. In
solenoid valve terminology, S, is a "normally closed" and S2 S3 are "normally open"
valves. The word "normal" in solenoid valve terminology refers to the unenergized state
of the valve (e.g. when it is in a packing box). Further information on direct systems,
including installation procedures, may be found in Ref. 7.
10 Applications of Solar Energy

Figure 27.5 Indirect heating with vented

AUXILIARY TANK
or low-pressure automatic draindown
HEAT EXCHANGE COIL
system. * Denotes that either auxiliary
energy source is acceptable. (From NBSIR
PREHEAT TANK 77-1272.)

D. Indirect Solar Water Heaters

Indirect heaters employ a heat exchanger between the collector loop and the storage-
demand loop. They are freezeproof in all climates. Because of low pressure requirements
the collectors can be built more cheaply and copper tubes need not be used. (In direct
systems 1-cm or 1.25-cm I.D. copper lines are essential for corrosion resistance.) On the
other hand, the system performance is slightly poorer due to the heat exchanger perform-
ance penalty.

FILL

DOUBLE
WALL HEAT
EXCHANGER

Figure 27.6 Indirect heating with

antifreeze loop and external heat
exchanger. (From NBSIR 77-1272.)
 Domestic Water Heating 11

Figure 27.7 Indirect heating with anti-

freeze loop and integral heat exchanger
wrapped around the tank. (From NBSIR
77-1272.)

Figure 27.5 shows a particularly interesting system in which the collector fluid is
still water but the water drains down into the tank whenever the pump stops. This
requires the collector return lines to be larger than the supply lines and vacuum breakers
for assured draining. A heat exchanger immersed in the preheat tank transfers heat into
the DHW loop. A variation that would reduce tank corrosion, etc., due to atmospheric
venting (in Fig. 27.5) would entail filling up the collector solar tank with an inert gas
(e.g., nitrogen) and making it a closed system.

Figure 27.8 Indirect heating with air

AIR/WATER HEAT
EXCHANGER B collector and air/water heat exchanger.
BLOWER
* Denotes that either auxiliary energy
AUXILIARY TANK
source is acceptable. (From NBSIR
77-1272.)
PREHEAT TANK
12 Applications of Solar Energy

Figure 27.6 shows a two-pump system with an external double-walled heat

exchanger. The collector fluid is either a glycol-water antifreeze mixture or a silicone oil
type of liquid. Both pumps are turned on when solar heat can be collected. The
expansion tank is necessary to accommodate volume changes in a closed system with
temperature. It is very important to pressurize closed loop systems to about 10 psig to
prevent pump cavitation and burnout. Also inline air separators aid in initial filling and
startup of the system.
Figure 27.7 eliminates one of the pumps of Fig. 27.6 by using a wraparound heat
exchanger around the storage tank. The heat transfer is through conduction through the
tank wall, which sets up a natural convection circular flow inside the storage tank.
Figure 27.8 shows another approach to freezeproofing by using air collectors and
an air-to-water heat exchanger. This system, however, may consume a significant amount
of electric power to run the blower and the pump. In addition, air-to-liquid heat transfer
is inherently a more difficult problem than liquid-to-liquid heat transfer.

27.3 SYSTEM COMPONENT TYPES,

PERFORMANCE, AND COSTS

A. Component Types

The hot water delivery temperatures required of solar DHW systems are moderate and
usually below 60°C (140°F). Therefore, flat-plate collectors are universally used, with
more than 95 percent of the systems using liquid collectors. Single-cover collectors are
used in moderate climates and either double-glazed or single-glazed with selectively
coated collectors are used in colder climates. Direct systems usually require copper
absorber tubing and plumbing. Indirect systems using nonpotable collector fluids can
use steel, aluminum, or other material with suitable corrosion inhibitors.
The storage tanks should be well insulated (R-9 or more)* to minimize standby
losses. It is convenient to have storage tanks with four plumbing ports, one each for
collector supply, collector return, cold water in, and hot water out. The tanks should
be corrosion resistant, with glass lining and sacrificial anode rods.
The circulation pumps should be magnetically coupled or have a stainless steel
casing or otherwise be corrosion resistant. They are normally of 1/20th or 1/12th HP
rating for domestic applications. Note that the pump merely needs to overcome the
fluid friction head for most applications.
The controls are usually of the on-off variety, with a high-temperature cutoff.
The relief valves on the tank and collectors prevent excessive pressure/temperature
buildup.

B. System Performance and Sizing

Solar system sizing and performance prediction is an involved process, usually requiring
the use of computers. The first step is to calculate the average daily hot water use.

*See Appendix C for definition of R value and values for common insulating materials.
Domestic Water Heating 13

Generally the demand in residences is more or less uniform throughout the year and
ranges between 50 and 100-1 (15 to 25 gal) per person per day. The higher figure is for
a household with an automatic clothes washer and dishwasher. The storage tank should
be sized to hold between one and two times the daily demand.
Usually solar DHW system annual efficiencies range between 30 and 50 percent for
a well-designed system, with smaller-area collector systems being more efficient because
of the increased storage-to-collector area ratio, which results in a cooler collector inlet
temperature.
The collector area should be optimized based on a combination of system perform-
ance and economic analysis. Based on the F-chart method, solar DHW system perform-
ance graphs for 11 eastern states is given in Ref. 4. Balcomb and co-workers provide
similar graphs for residences in the Pacific West region in Ref. 8 and for commercial
applications in Ref. 9. To give an estimate of system performance, consider an average
demand of 265-1(70 gal) per day of hot water at 60°C. A 6-m2 system will supply about
55 percent of the energy requirement in Boston and about 85 percent in Miami.

C. Costs
At the present time, system costs vary widely depending on system type. System hard-
ware costs range from between $700 and $800 for a small direct system to about $2000
for a larger indirect system. Installation costs range between $350 and $750 depending
on system type, local labor rates, and on whether it is a retrofit or new application.
Putting it differently, the current cost varies between $200 and $400/m2 of installed
collector area. Since the solar hardware is material intensive, it is unlikely that the
hardware costs will decrease more than about 15 percent in the future. However, as
system packaging improves and installation procedures are standardized, the installation
costs may be reduced by a factor of 2 or more.
Currently, solar DHW systems are economic in many areas of the country when
compared against electricity on a 20-year life-cycle basis. See the paper by Schulze et al.
[10] for an economic feasibility analysis of solar DHW heaters in every state of the
United States.

REFERENCES

1, K. Butti and J. Perlin, "Solar Water Heaters in California 1890-1930," The Co-
Evolution Quarterly, 4-13, (Fall 1977), published by the Whole Earth Catalog.
2. J. E. Scott, "The Solar Water Heater Industry in South Florida: History and
Projections," Journal of Solar Energy 18, no. 5 (1976).
3. R. Talwar et al., "New and Retrofit Solar Hot Water Installations in Florida,
Jan.-June, 1977," Florida Solar Energy Center Report No. EA-77-3, December
1977.
4. McCabe et al. Intermediate Standards for Solar Domestic Hot Water Systems/HUD
Initiative, NBSIR 77-1272, July 1977.
5. Solar Heating Systems Design Manual, Bulletin TESE-576, 1976, ITT, Fluid
Handling Division, Morton Grove, Ill., $2.50.
6. R. J. Schlesinger, "Preliminary Comparison of Proportional and Full On-Off
14 Applications of Solar Energy

Control Systems for Solar Energy Applications," pp. 9-15 to 9-18, Proceedings
ISES 1977 Annual Meeting, Orlando, Florida, June 1977.
7. S. Chandra et al., "Solar Water and Pool Heating Installation and Operation,"
FSEC, Cape Canaveral, Florida, 1979.
8. ERDA 's Pacific Regional Solar Heating Handbook, November 1976, San Francisco
Operations Office in conjunction with Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (available
from Superintendent of Documents).
9. ERDA Facilities Solar Design Handbook, August 1977, ERDA Division of Con-
struction Planning and Support and Division of Solar Energy. Prepared by Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory, ERDA 77-65 (available from NTIS, Springfield,
Va., $7.50).
10. W. D. Schulze, S. Ben David, and J. D. Balcomb, "The Economics of Solar Home
Heating," paper prepared for the Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress,
January 1977 (available from Superintendent of Documents, $1.35).
 chapter 28

SWIMMING POOL HEATING

RAJ TALWAR
Mid-American Solar Energy Complex
Minneapolis, Minnesota

28.1 Introduction 15
28.2 Technical Considerations in Solar Pool Heating 16
A. Heat Gains 17
B. Heat Losses 17
C. Overall Energy Balance 18
28.3 System Considerations for a Solar Pool Heater 19
A. How It Works 19
28.4 Sizing Considerations 24
A. Example 24
B. Effect of Pool Covers 25
C. Sizing for Plastic Pipes 29
28.5 General Information 30
A. Costs of Solar Pool Heaters 30
B. Installation Angles 30
C. Orientation 30
References 31

28.1 INTRODUCTION

Federal government programs and funds have been directed toward promoting the use of
solar energy for heating and cooling of buildings and providing domestic hot water.
Surprisingly, however, industry activity in terms of the manufacture and sale of solar
collectors has been largely in swimming pool heating. Thus, according to U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy (DOE) estimates of national solar industry activity during the first
6 months of 1977, approximately 320,000 m2 of collectors were used for pool heating
as compared with 65,000 m2 for domestic hot water and 75,000 m2 for space heating
and domestic hot water.
Despite this major industry activity in pool heating, there is little available informa-
tion on this application of solar energy. This chapter is designed to provide that assist-
ance, and it is oriented specifically toward commercially available systems. Since pool

15
16 Applications of Solar Energy

heating is a low-temperature application, most commercially available systems are made

of plastics. However, ordinarily available plastics are expected to last only 2 to 4 years
upon exposure to combinations of heat, pool water chemicals, and the ultraviolet rays of
the sun. Therefore, plastics used for pool heating are made of ABS (acrylonitrile-
butadiene styrene), and ultraviolet inhibitors such as carbon black are combined with
the ABS. These panels generally are expected to last 12 to 15 years [1].
Many factors affecting the design, sizing, and performance of swimming pool
heating panels are discussed in this chapter. Whereas most of these factors relate to
engineering or natural phenomena, there are at least two that have to be specified before
an engineer can design or size a system. The first is the desired pool temperature, which
varies from a minimum acceptable level of 22.2°C (72° F) to 40.5°C (105°F) for thera-
peutic use. For the average person, temperatures between 25.5°C (78°F) and 26.7°C
(80°F) for spring and fall, and 24.4°C (76°F) for winter are usually considered comfort-
able. Second, depending on an individual's preference, his or her unheated pool tempera-
ture will be at or above the selected level a certain number of days during the summer—
this number of days defines his or her normal swimming season. Once this is fixed, the
equations presented subsequently give an estimate of collector panel area required to
provide the desired extension. Of course, a compromise may have to be made between
the investment cost and one's temperature preference and desired extension of the
normal swimming season.

28.2 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

IN SOLAR POOL HEATING

Solar heating of swimming pools involves several unique aspects:

1. The desire to swim normally is phased with a warmer trend in the weather.
2. The preferred water temperature usually is only a few degrees above ambient
(surrounding) temperature.
3. The amount of water that must be heated and circulated through the solar
energy collector panels is relatively large, the recommended flow rate being
a circulation of the entire pool water through the filter about once every 8 to
12 h. This means a flow rate in excess of 110-1(30 gal) per minute for an
average 57,000-1(15,000-gal) residential pool, compared with an average flow
rate of 1.9-1(0.5 gal) per minute for domestic water heating.
4. The pool itself, if exposed to the sun, acts as a collector, since water absorbs
about 75 percent of the solar energy striking its surface.
5. The volume of water in the pool being relatively large, its temperature is
affected only slightly by transient changes in atmospheric weather conditions.
6. The need for a storage tank is eliminated, since the pool itself serves as the
storage.

The goal of any performance analysis of swimming pool solar heating is an estimate
of the pool's bulk temperature. Because of its large mass, the pool's water temperature
Swimming Pool Heating 17

usually changes little during a daily 24-h period (through a range of 2.5°C). Therefore,
the pool temperature can be estimated by calculating an energy balance for a typical day
for each month of the year. This may be done by equating the heat gains to the heat
losses from the pool surface at the equilibrium pool temperature. The reader is referred
to Ref. 2 for a more detailed discussion on pool heat gains and heat losses.

A. Heat Gains
Direct absorption of solar energy striking the pool surface may be expressed as aw Ap Fl,
where
aw = average absorptivity of water, 0.75
F1 = monthly averaged daily insolation values on a horizontal surface,
MJ/m2 • d (Btu/ft 2 • d)
A P = surface area of pool, m2
Heat supplied by the collector panel may be expressed as

Ae [F R (a)Ht - NeR - N UL (Tw - Tav)]

where

Ae = area of collector panels, m 2

F R (a) = product of geometric efficiency and absorptivity of panels; a reasonable
estimate for well-designed pool heating panels (due to their relatively high
flow rates) is 0.9
Ht = monthly averaged daily insolation values on a surface tilted from the
horizontal at a certain angle, MJ/m2 • d (Btu/ft 2 • d); the recommended
angle of tilt is about equal to the latitude
N = number of hours of sunshine
e = average emissivity of panel, typically 0.9 for black ABS plastic panels
R = long-wave infrared radiation (see below)
UL = overall bare-panel heat loss coefficient, estimated to be hr + he (see
below)
Tw = average pool water temperature assumed to be average temperature of
panel, °C
Tav = average ambient temperature during sunshine hours, °C

B. Heat Losses
1. Long-wave infrared radiation exchange between the pool and the sky, R,
Wm-2 (Btu/ft2 • h). This exchange depends on the emissivity of water as well
as ambient weather conditions such as relative humidity, dew point, cloud
cover, and temperature. Based on a 0.9 value for emissivity of water and
national daily averaged weather conditions, Bliss [3] estimates this exchange
value to range from 69 Wm-2 (22 Btu/ft2 • h) in the summer to 88 Wm-2
(28 Btu/ft2 • h) in the winter.
18 Applications of Solar Energy

2. Radiation loss to surroundings, which depends on the difference between pool

temperature and ambient temperature and also on the radiative heat transfer
coefficient (hr). When the radiating and absorbing surfaces approach ambient
temperature, and the radiating surface has a high emissivity (as in pool heating),
the value of the radiative heat transfer coefficient is estimated by Kreith [4] to
be 5.68 Wm-2 K-1 (1 Btu/ft' • h • °F).
3. Convection exchange with the surroundings, which depends on the difference
between pool temperature and ambient temperature and also on the convective
heat transfer coefficient (he), estimated to be 5.68 + 3.78V Wm-2 K-1 , where
V is the wind speed in meters per second across the pool surface.
4. Heat loss due to evaporation from the pool surface, which is dependent on
ambient humidity conditions, the convective heat transfer coefficient, and
ambient temperature. It is estimated to be 0.229 he(Pw - Pa) Wm-2 where
Pw = water vapor pressure in equilibrium with pool temperature Nm-2 . It can
be related to design pool temperature by ASHRAE charts through the
equation

Pw = 4.148 Tw2 - 11.358 Tw + 878.49

Pa = ambient water vapor pressure, read from ASHRAE charts, Nm-2

C. Overall Energy Balance

Equating the heat losses to the heat gains, we get

24A [eR + hr (Tw - Ta) + he (Tw - Ta) + 0.0229 he (Pw - Pa)]

= aw ApH + Ae [F R (a)Hr - NeR- NU L (Tw - Tav)] (28.1)

where Ta is the daily averaged ambient temperature in °C.

The unknowns in the above equation are the pool temperature Tw and the collector
area. Given one as the design condition, the other can be estimated.
Since swimming is normally done during daylight hours, it is also of interest to
compute the average pool temperature during daylight hours (Twd). After obtaining Tw
from Eq. (28.1), Eq. (28.2) is used to estimate the daylight hours temperature. The
method is to equate the daily heat gains to heat loss during daylight hours, which is a
function of Li d plus the increase in internal energy of the pool. Thus,

NAp [eR + hr (Twd - Tav) + he(Twd - Tav) + 0.0229 (Pw - Pa)] + vol. X pc
)] (28.2)
X (Twd - Tav) = aw Ap FI + Ae [FR - NeR - NUL (Tw - Tay

where vol. = volume of water, m3 ; p = density of water, 1000 kg/m3 ; c = specific heat
capacity, 4.184 J/kg °K. Equations (28.1) and (28.2) are programmed easily on an HP
or TI programmable calculator. Some results of the program are shown in Sec. 28.4,
and a step-by-step hand calculation showing the procedure has also been performed.
Swimming Pool Heating 19

28.3 SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS FOR

A SOLAR POOL HEATER

A diagram of a typical solar pool heater is presented in Fig. 28.1. As shown, it is con-
nected by means of tees to the water line between the filter and the pool.

A. How It Works
When adequate sunshine is available, the filtered pool water is circulated through the
tubes in the collectors, where it is heated by the available solar radiation and then
returned to the pool.
Two collector designs, both commercially available, are in general use for pool
heating.

1. Metal tubes soldered to metal plates, both painted black, covered with plastic
or glass, insulated and housed in a box. This design is widely employed for

Bank of Collectors

House

Warm Water
Collector Bypass To Pool
• =ZS,..
Pump F,Iter •G,,, -..
.':,
Cool Water
From Pool 0 —.',,— - .-.—
_.-,-4,---<----
- ---7
.;,& •,,'''''.-

___.------. ..:;--
----_
_ ._,,, ....._,__ ,...''
.=,... ----- —"`"-
- ,,,=,,-• _ .—.,-=. .1----
_.--, .....- '''-...,--,.
-,— .--- ,...

Figure 28.1 Typical arrangement of a solar pool heater.

20 Applications of Solar Energy

medium-temperature collectors (MTCs) used for space heating and domestic

water heating, but is not optimum for pool heating applications. Figure 28.2
shows the construction details of a typical medium-temperature collector.
2. Black plastic panels with headers supplying water through (a) a large number of
small channels so that in effect the entire panel area is wetted, or (b) larger-
diameter black plastic pipes connected in series through PVC couplings and
U-bends. These designs are often called low-temperature collectors (LTCs),
and their typical construction details are shown in Fig. 28.3.

As mentioned previously, pool heating is usually characterized by large flow rates

and by collector exit water temperatures only a few degrees above ambient temperatures.
For such applications, LTCs outperform MTCs from a thermal performance standpoint
and are also about half as costly [5] . Figure 28.4 compares the performance of these
two types of collectors. The figure illustrates that when seeking an economical system
for pool heating, we should be aware that LTCs are designed to operate at a maximum of

Sunshine
Transparent Cover

Wale( In

Water Out

Tubing

Absorber

Header System

Insulation

Box

Drain Hole

Figure 28.2 Typical construction of medium-temperature collectors.

Swimming Pool Heating 21

Sunshine
Plastic Pipe

PVC /
Coupling

Continuous Plate

(a)

Water Out

Viatei In
(b)

Figure 28.3 Typical construction of low-temperature plastic collectors.

10 to 11°C above ambient temperature and therefore, depending on the local climate
data, they may not be suitable for all-year heating of swimming pools. In all-year heating
applications, one might wish to choose an MTC. However, since the area of collector
panel required for winter heating is relatively large, the investment becomes prohibitively
high. An alternate solution, which combines LTCs with pool covers, is probably the
optimum method of providing all-year swimming (see Sec. 28.4).
Besides the bank of collectors, there are several other important components that
should be installed to assure proper functioning of the pool heater. These components
are shown in the schematic diagram of Fig. 28.5, and a brief discussion of each follows.
Check valve. When the pump is shut off, water may flow backwards through the
skimmer and/or filter drain. A check valve is recommended to prevent such backflow.
Gate valves. Gate valves 1 and 2 provide manual control over the pool heater.
When sunshine is available, gate valve 2 is closed and gate valves 1 and 3 are opened, thus
diverting the pool water through the collectors. At night or during cloudy days, when
the pump is on, gate valve 2 should be opened. Simultaneously, gate valve 1 should be
closed for ground-mounted panels and may be left open for roof installations. In
 22 Applications of Solar Energy

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
EFFIC IENCY

0.5 TYPICAL MTC -

0.4 TYPICAL LTC

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 10 20 30 70

(POOL TEMPERATURE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE) ”F

Figure 28.4 Typical performance curves for low-temperature and medium-temperature

collectors. Efficiency is defined as the solar energy collected by the panel divided by the
solar energy striking the panel averaged over sunshine hours.

addition, gate valves 1 and 3 also serve to isolate the collectors from the piping loop con-
necting the pool, filter, and pump. Isolation of the collectors may be necessary for
regular inspection and/or maintenance.
Vacuum breaker and drain cock. When the drain cock is opened, the air vent
vacuum breaker allows air to enter the solar panels, allowing them to be drained. Drain-
ing may be necessary to free the system of air bubbles or to prevent freezing during cold
weather. The vacuum breaker is typically installed at the highest point in the return
piping from the collector.
Pressure-relief valve. This valve protects the solar panels against excessive pressure
buildup, which might occur under conditions of water stagnation, blockages from equip-
ment malfunction, or improper maintenance procedures.
Piping. The recommended piping is PVC Schedule 40, 1.5-in. to 2-in. nominal
diameter, depending on existing pool plumbing.
Optional pump. The decision to install an additional pump depends entirely on the
added friction loss created by introducing the collector panel loop into an existing system.
Swimming Pool Heating 23

Usually, the average pool installation of 57,000-1(15,000 gal) is equipped with a 3/4-hp
pump motor. This pump supplies the pressure that is required to overcome the total
pressure loss in the system at the recommended flow rate of the entire pool volume to
be recirculated once every 8 to 12 h. The principal pressure loss in the system is 70,000
to 100,000 Nm-2 (10 to 15 psi) drop through the filter, depending on the filter's condi-
tion, and a recommended practice is that the pressure drop through the collector panel
be small (30,000 to 35,000 Nm-2 or 4 to 5 psi) compared to the loss through the filter.
Pool owners are advised to consult with the manufacturer regarding the pressure loss
through the collector panel and whether the added loss may be large enough to warrant
installation of an additional pump.
Optional automatic control. As explained previously, gate valves 1 and 2 provide
manual control of the pool heating system. An optional automatic control is available
with most commercial systems. A typical arrangement is shown in schematic form in
Fig. 28.5. When adequate sunshine is available as determined by the temperature sensed
at sensor 2, exceeding that sensed at sensor 1 by a predetermined amount (usually 2 to
3°C), the normally open electric valve 1 is closed, and the pool water flows through the
collectors. When sunshine is not available the control box switches off and the electric
valve is opened, allowing the collectors to be bypassed, which is also the normal mode
of operation.

Bank of Collectors
Bank of Collectors

Vacuum
Sensor 2
Vacuum Breaker Breaker Pressure
Pressure Relief Relief
Valve Valve

Io Control Box
Drain Cock Gate Valve 3 Drain Cock
Pool
Gate Valve 3
From Pool To Pool
& Filter Gate Valve 1
From
Pool
Check
& Filter /
Valve Gate Valve 2
Sensor 1

Electric Valve

(a)
(b)

Figure 28.5 Schematic arrangement of a solar pool heater. (a) Manual control. (b)
Optional automatic control.
24 Applications of Solar Energy

The above discussion on components is with reference to Fig. 28.5, which shows
their arrangement in the schematic diagram of a solar pool heater. Many manufacturers
offer alternative arrangements and different designs. Details on both MTC and LTC
systems that are commercially available throughout the country may be obtained from
the National Solar Heating and Cooling Information Center, P.O. Box 1607, Rockville,
Maryland 20850.

28.4 SIZING CONSIDERATIONS

Equations (28.1) and (28.2) are programmable relatively easily. Before they can be used
for sizing, several weather data parameters have to be determined. The numerical example
below will illustrate the step-by-step sizing procedure.

A. Example

For a 37-m2 , 60,000-1 pool located in Pensacola, Florida, determine the square meters of
bare collector panel required to assure a 24-h minimum of 24.5°C pool water temperature
during March through November.

Estimation of Weather Parameters for Pool Location [6, 7]

Mo. Av. Daily Mo. Av. Daily
Insolation on Insolation on No. of Av. Water
Horizontal Surface Tilted Sunshine Wind Ambient Daylight Vapor
Surface, at Latitude Hours, Speed Temp., Temp., Pressure,
Month MJ/m 2 • d MJ/m 2 • d h ms- °C °C Nm -2

March 16.95 18.96 11.04 3.15 15 19.5 1379

Nov. 11.64 16.07 10.08 2.7 15 22.2 1448

Daily calculations for March are as follows:

1. Heat losses
(a) Long-wave infrared radiation
24A eR = 24 X 37 X 0.9 X 25 X 3.152 X 3600 = 226.7 MJ
(b) Radiation with surroundings
24Aphr (Tw - Ta) = 24 X 37 X 5.68 X 3600 (24.5 - 15) = 172.5 MJ
(c) Convection with surroundings
he = 5.68 + 3.78V = 5.68 + 3.78 3.415

where it is estimated that the wind speed on a pool's surface is one-

fourth the weather bureau value. This is because neighboring trees,
buildings, etc., effectively act as wind breakers.
he = 8.65 Wm-2 K-1
Convection loss = 24Aphc (Tw - Ta) = 24 X 37 X 8.65 X 3600
X (24.5 - 15) = 262.7 MJ
Swimming Pool Heating 25

(d) Evaporation
P„, = 4.148T,,2 - 11.358T,, + 878.49 = 3090.1 Nm -2
Evaporation loss = 24Ap X 0.0229 hc (Pw - Pa) = 24 X 37 X 0.0229
X 8.65 X 3600 X (3090.1 - 1379) = 1084 MJ
Total heat loss = 1747.6 MJ
2, Heat gains
(a) Direct pool absorption
cxw FlAp = 0.75 X 16.95 X 37 = 470.37 MJ
(b) Panel gain
Ac [FR (ce)fit — NeR - N UL (T„, - Tav)] = A,(0.9 X 18.96 X 106
- 11.04 X 0.9 X 25 X 3.152 X 3600 - 11.04 X 14.33 X 3600 X 5)
= 11.4Ac MJ
3. Energy balance
11.4Ac + 470.4 = 1747.6
Ac = 112.0 m2

Similar calculations must now be performed for November to determine the

amount of square meters of panel area required.
The computer results for three other cities in Florida are shown in Figs. 28.6, 28.7,
and 28.8.
At this stage, it must be mentioned that solar pool heating by itself requires a large
amount of collector area for a reasonable extension of the swimming season. Thus, not
only does it become prohibitively expensive, but it also brings up associated problems of
space and installation. A very effective way of reducing expense is to tie in pool covers
with a solar system.

B. Effect of Pool Covers

From the example worked out previously, it is seen that of the total heat loss, the follow-
ing percentages are attributed to the different mechanisms of heat loss:

Infrared radiation: 13%

Radiation with surroundings: 9.9%
Convection: 15%
Evaporation: 62.1%
The biggest loss component is the evaporation loss. The effect of pool covers is
effectively to reduce the loss to zero. However, covers also reduce the direct absorption
of solar energy by the pool water by about 15 to 20 percent, and, depending on the
design of the cover, some convection and infrared radiation losses are also reduced to
the extent of 10 percent.
The previous example is now reworked to show the effect of pool covers, assuming
that the pool is covered for an average of 20 h a day.

1. Heat losses
(a) Infrared radiation
4 20
226.7 X — + 0.9 X — X 226.7 = 207.8 MJ
2424